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Understand
the Fundamentals of
Wastewater Treatment
Mukesh Doble Wastewater treatment technologies range from
Venkatachalam Geetha
Indian Institute of Technology Madras membrane filtration to UV radiation to
activated sludge. Compare their advantages
and disadvantages to select the appropriate
methods for your application.
W
astewater generated by industrial, commercial, most commonly by membrane filtration or adsorption.
agricultural, and domestic sources requires treat- Aeration or mechanical flocculation with chemical addi-
ment before the water can be put back into the tives, disinfection, dechlorination, and oxidation can also
environment or reused. These wastewater streams could be used to enhance primary treatment. Primary treatment
contain such contaminants as solids, organic matter, patho- acts as a precursor for secondary treatment, and is aimed
gens, nutrients, chemicals, etc., which must be removed mainly at producing an effluent suitable for downstream
by a combination of physical, chemical, and biological biological treatment.
technologies. Wastewater typically undergoes several levels Secondary treatment is generally done by chemical and
of treatment primary, secondary, and tertiary (Table 1). biological processes. The latter include activated-sludge
Primary treatment involves the partial removal of systems, fixed-film reactors, and lagoons. The chemical
suspended solids and organic matter by physical methods, secondary treatment methods are similar to those used for
36 www.aiche.org/cep October 2011 CEP Copyright 2011 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
primary treatment. Tertiary treatment employs physical,
chemical, and biological methods. Characterize Wastewater Quality
P
This article compares some of the wastewater treatment rofiling the wastewater stream in terms of its physical,
technologies commonly used in the chemical industry. chemical, and biological characteristics is an important
first step in determining the right treatment technologies.
Primary physical treatment Physical properties. A key physical property is the
solids content of the water. Solids may include floating
Primary treatment technologies are less expensive than
debris, grease, oil slicks, and so on, and can be categorized
secondary and tertiary processes and are designed to handle as dissolved or suspended, volatile or nonvolatile, and
large volumes of dilute effluent. This category includes organic or inorganic. Color and odor are other important
physical and chemical treatments. physical properties.
Primary physical treatments (Table 2) typically involve Chemical properties. Chemical characteristics include
either membranes or adsorption on activated carbon. the concentrations of organics, inorganics (e.g., chloride and
Carbon adsorption is often used to remove organic hydrogen ions, nitrogen, and phosphorus), and gases (NH3,
CO, CO2, H2S, and CH4) in the wastewater stream. Biological
materials, chlorine, and hydrogen sulfide from water.
oxygen demand (BOD) indicates the amount of organic mate-
Granular activated carbon (GAC) can be manufactured rial of biological origin (such as proteins, carbohydrates, and
from a wide range of raw materials, including coal, wood, fats and oils) and biodegradable synthetic organic chemicals
peat, coconut shells, and coke. Because of its high porosity, that can be broken down by biological means; chemical
GAC provides a large surface area to which contaminants oxygen demand (COD) is a measure of the nonbiodegradable
can adsorb. GAC contains solid carbon blocks blends of organics, which require chemical treatment. The ratio of BOD5
carbon and polymer molded into various shapes under high (i.e., oxygen demand determined by a 5-day test) to COD
indicates whether biological processes will be adequate.
pressure which are very effective at removing a wide
Biological properties. Bacteriological contaminants
variety of organic compounds. include coliforms, fecal coliforms, specific pathogens,
Microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, and and viruses.
reverse osmosis are membrane-based technologies. Micro- Source: (1).
filtration is used to remove Cryptosporidium and Giardia
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cysts, oocysts parasites, and turbidity. Ultrafiltration from 0.1 nm to 5,000 nm, making them effective at remov-
membranes will remove high molecular-weight substances, ing bacteria. Reverse osmosis cannot be used upstream of
colloidal materials, and organic and inorganic polymeric other primary treatment methods because suspended solids
molecules. Nanofilters are used to remove water hardness may foul and damage the membrane.
and multivalent ions, while reverse osmosis will remove Another type of filter is the ceramic membrane, which
dissolved and suspended materials including monovalent is made of such materials as aluminia, zirconia, titania
salts. Table 3 provides details on these membrane-based and silicon carbide. Ceramic membranes have a pore size
technologies. range of 0.0051 m and have higher fluxes than organic
Ultrafiltration membranes are commonly made of poly- membranes due to their higher porosity and larger hydro-
meric and other hydrophobic materials and have pore sizes philic surface area. These membranes are more resistant
in the range of 0.0010.1 m (1.0100 nm), making them to mechanical, chemical, and thermal stresses than poly-
effective at removing bacteria and most viruses, colloids, meric membranes.
and silt. The smaller the nominal pore size, the higher the
removal capability of the membrane. These systems require Primary and secondary chemical treatment
routine backwashing to remove foulants from the membrane Chemical processes used for wastewater treatment
surfaces. Backwash frequency and duration depend on the (Table 4) include precipitation to remove metals, and dis-
quality of the feedwater, operating conditions, and the design infection by various chlorine compounds, ultraviolet (UV)
of the membrane system. radiation, and ozone.
Microfiltration membranes can remove particles and Metals are precipitated from contaminated water by
microorganisms in the size range of 0.110 m. A nanofilter, converting soluble heavy metal salts into insoluble ones a
which has a pore size of 0.510 nm, removes most organic process that typically involves adjusting the pH and adding a
molecules, nearly all viruses, most of the natural organic precipitant. Physical methods such as clarification (settling)
matter, and a range of salts. In some cases, such as for and filtration can then be used to remove the metals from the
desalination or the removal of monovalent ions and viruses, treated water. Coagulation and flocculation can also be used
nanofiltration can be used instead of reverse osmosis, which to remove metals, although the safe disposal of the metal
is a more expensive process. sludge could be problematic.
Reverse osmosis (RO) membranes are typically used to Another way to remove metals is by the addition of
remove total dissolved solids (TDS) and monovalent ions chlorine dioxide. Chlorine dioxide is effective at remov-
that are smaller than 0.5 m (500 nm), such as salt, fluoride, ing such metals as iron, manganese, and arsenic, as well
manganese, and iron. RO filters have pores ranging in size as compounds that affect taste and odor. The maximum
38 www.aiche.org/cep October 2011 CEP Copyright 2011 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
total concentration of chlorine dioxide and its breakdown carbon (AOC). This increase in AOC may cause problematic
products chlorite (ClO2-) and chlorate (ClO3-) should not biological regrowth in the distribution systems unless it is
exceed 1.0 mg/L. removed (typically by carbon adsorption).
UV radiation is typically used to inactivate microor-
ganisms such as bacteria, protozoa, viruses, and chlorine- Secondary biological treatment
resistant pathogens (e.g., Cryptosporidium). It is commonly The purpose of secondary treatment is to remove soluble
combined with hydrogen peroxide. Turbidity (i.e., cloudi- and colloidal organics, as well as suspended solids that
ness caused by suspended solids) and some organics and have survived the primary treatment process. The chemical
inorganics (e.g., iron, calcium) can reduce the effectiveness methods discussed in the previous section (Table 4) as well as
of this technique by lowering the waters UV transmittance. biological methods (Table 5) are used in secondary treatment.
Ozone is widely used in drinking water treatment plants The activated-sludge process is an aerobic, continuous-
to inactivate Giardia and Cryptosporidium, and to oxidize flow system that mixes the wastewater with activated
many inorganic and organic compounds. Ozone oxidation microorganisms, mainly bacteria and protozoa, to stabilize
can also break down many natural organic compounds into the organic matter. This process, which is typically done in
smaller molecules, thus increasing the assimilable organic an aeration tank, degrades the organic matter into carbon
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dioxide, water, new microorganisms, and other materials (7). based treatment, floating aquatic plants, and constructed
Another type of secondary biological treatment takes wetlands. The wastewater typically goes through a physical
advantage of the natural physical, chemical, and biological pretreatment step to remove gross solids before it enters
processes that occur in the environment when water, soil, the NTS. Where sufficient land is available, NTSs are
plants, microorganisms, and the atmosphere interact. Exam- often a cost-effective option in terms of both construction
ples of such natural treatment systems (NTSs) include land- and operation.
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The rapid infiltration NTS process uses the soil matrix efficiencies, this technique is well-suited to tropical and
for physical, chemical, and biological treatment. Physical subtropical environments.
straining and filtering occur at the soil surface and within
the soil matrix. Chemical precipitation, ion exchange, and Future focus
adsorption occur as the water percolates through the soil. Wastewater treatment and management methods must
Biological oxidation and reduction of BOD occur within the change in response to urban development, population
top few feet of the soil. growth, and diminishing natural resources. Three aspects
Other NTSs include the overland flow system, in which of wastewater management will become important in the
wastewater flows down a network of vegetated sloping future, namely decentralized wastewater management,
terraces to remove nutrients, and stabilization ponds, wastewater reclamation and reuse, and wet-weather flow
which are shallow bodies of wastewater contained in (i.e., water from rain, floods, and snowmelt) management.
earthen basins. A stabilization pond system can consist of Addressing the challenges associated with these trends
one pond, or several, with aneorobic (primary treatment), will require a combination of traditional wastewater treat-
facultative (secondary treatment), and maturation (tertiary ment technologies as discussed in this article and new and
treatment) ponds in series. In facultative ponds, algae innovative approaches. Some of the advances that might be
and heterotrophic bacteria remove the BOD5 that was not expected over the next decade or so include:
removed in the aneorobic pond. Photons and engineered nanostructures. A futuristic
Wetlands are land areas with water depths of less than disinfection method might combine photons (from UV or
2 ft that support the growth of emergent plants such as visible light) and nanostructures (such as titanium dioxide).
cattail, bulrush, reeds, and sedges. The vegetation provides UV light, for instance, is capable of activating photocatalytic
surfaces to which bacterial films can attach. Wetlands aid materials such as TiO2, which in turn can inactivate viruses.
in the filtration and adsorption of wastewater constituents, TiO2 doped with nitrogen, or co-doped with nitrogen and a
transfer oxygen into the water column, and control the metal such as palladium, can be activated with visible light
growth of algae by restricting the penetration of sunlight. or with sunlight.
Development of this disinfection method will require
Tertiary treatment a better understanding of the mechanisms that control the
Tertiary treatment is carried out after secondary interaction of pathogens with excited photocatalyst surfaces
treatment to remove significant amounts of nitrogen, and active moieties, such as hydroxyl radicals and super-
phosphorus, heavy metals, biodegradable organics, oxides. In addition, the physicochemical characteristics of
bacteria, and viruses. The most commonly used tertiary such surfaces need to be optimized for maximum selective
treatment methods are reverse osmosis, membrane filtra- affinity of target viruses.
tion, chemical coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation, Antiviral photocatalysts could be immobilized on fibers
activated carbon adsorption, ion exchange, and natural and foams of various materials (8, 9) or incorporated into
treatment systems. membranes (10). Optical fibers could be used to transport
The physical tertiary treatment systems include low- photons into compact configurations such as monolithic
pressure microfiltration and ultrafiltration. The membranes reactors (11). Reactors incorporating visible-light photo-
used in this method act as physical barriers to prevent catalysts could be designed using sunlight as the source of
contaminants from passing through. photons (12, 13).
Tertiary filtration is sometimes preceeded by adding Improved membrane technologies. The major challenges
such chemicals as aluminum- or iron-based coagulants, in seawater desalination are the quality and life of the reverse
which together can reduce the phosphorus concentration to osmosis membranes, membrane fouling, relatively low
0.01 mg/L. recovery of freshwater from seawater (which results in large
Activated carbon removes two pollutants, namely volumes of concentrated brine), and inefficient removal of
phosphorous and nitrogen, in tertiary treatment. When used low-molecular-weight contaminants (primarily boron).
in tertiary treatment, activated carbon achieves a 90% effi- Future membranes should ideally have high water flux,
ciency of COD removal. Phosphorus can also be removed complete rejection of dissolved solids, low fouling ten-
through precipitation. dency, and tolerance to oxidants used for biofouling control.
The main function of a tertiary-treatment stabiliza- Conventional polyamide membranes and low-fouling com-
tion (or maturation) pond is the removal of pathogens posite membranes have been shown to have stable flux and
and nutrients (e.g., nitrogen) through natural disinfec- rejection over long periods of time.
tion mechanisms. Because the intensity of the sunlight Membrane bioreactor (MBR) process. The MBR
and high temperatures are key factors in achieving high process combines microporous membranes for solid-liquid
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