Electric Power Systems. Vol. I. Electric Networks

Electric Power Systems
Volume I
Electric Networks
Sisteme Electroenergetice
Volumul I
Reele Electrice
This book was financially supported by:

S.C. ROMELECTRO S.A., Romania
Richard Bergner Elektroarmaturen & Co. KG RIBE, Germany
Washington Group International, U.S.A.
Power & Lighting Tehnorob S.A., Romania
C.N. Transelectrica S.A., Romania
S.C. ELECON PLUS S.R.L., Romania
Mircea Eremia (Editor)
Yong Hua Song Nikos Hatziargyriou

Adrian Buta Gheorghe Crin Mircea Neme
Virgil Alexandrescu Ion Stratan Bucur Lutrea
Hermina Albert George Florea Georgel Gheorghi
Ctlin Dumitriu Maria Tudose Constantin Bulac Sorin Ptrcoiu
Ion Tritiu Lucian Toma Laureniu Nicolae
ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS

Volume I
ELECTRIC NETWORKS
EDITURA ACADEMIEI ROMNE
Bucureti, 2005
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Mircea Eremia Yong-Hua Song

University Politehnica of Bucharest Brunel University
313, Spl. Independenei Uxbridge, Middlesex, UB8 3PH
060032 Bucharest, Romania London, United Kingdom
Nikos Hatziargyriou Adrian Buta
National Technical University of Athens University Politehnica of Timioara
9, Heroon Polytechniou 2, Vasile Prvan Blv.
15773 Zografou, Athens, Greece 300223 Timioara, Romania
Gheorghe Crin Mircea Neme
Technical University Gh. Asachi of Iai University Politehnica of Timioara
22, Copou Str. 2, Vasile Prvan Blv.
700497 Iai, Romania 300223 Timioara, Romania
Virgil Alexandrescu Ion Stratan
Technical University Gh. Asachi of Iai Technical University of Moldova
22, Copou Str. 168, tefan cel Mare Blv.
700497 Iai, Romania MD2004 Chiinu, Republic of Moldova
Bucur Lutrea Hermina Albert
University Politehnica of Timioara Institute for Energy Studies and Design
2, Vasile Prvan Blv. 1-3, Lacul Tei Blv.
300223 Timioara, Romania 020371 Bucharest, Romania
George Florea Georgel Gheorghi, Laureniu Nicolae
Power & Lighting Tehnorob S.A. Fichtner Romelectro Engineering
355-357, Griviei Av. 1-3, Lacul Tei Blv.
010717, Bucharest, Romania 020371, Bucharest, Romania
Ctlin Dumitriu Maria Tudose
University Politehnica of Bucharest University Politehnica of Bucharest
313, Spl. Independenei 313, Spl. Independenei
060032 Bucharest, Romania 060032 Bucharest, Romania
Constantin Bulac Sorin Ptrcoiu
University Politehnica of Bucharest TRAPEC S.A.
313, Spl. Independenei 53, Plevnei Av.
Ion Tritiu Lucian Toma
University Politehnica of Bucharest University Politehnica of Bucharest
313, Spl. Independenei 313, Spl. Independenei
CONTENTS
Volume I: ELECTRIC NETWORKS
Foreword ............................................................................................................................ XV
Preface............................................................................................................................. XVII
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ XX
Part one: BASIC COMPUTATION
1. ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS CONFIGURATION AND PARAMETERS

(Adrian Buta, Maria Tudose, Lucian Toma)..................................................................3
1.1. Classification and architecture of electric networks ..............................................3
1.1.1. Types of electric networks..........................................................................3
1.1.2. Architecture of electric networks ...............................................................5
1.2. Electric power systems components modelling under steady-state conditions ...23
1.2.1. Loads (consumers) modelling ..................................................................24
1.2.2. Electric lines modelling ...........................................................................28
1.2.3. Transformers modelling ...........................................................................62
1.2.4. Electric generators modelling ..................................................................76
Chapter references .......................................................................................................80
2. RADIAL AND MESHED NETWORKS (Mircea Eremia, Ion Tritiu) .....................83

2.1. General considerations ........................................................................................83
2.2. Radial and simple meshed electric networks.......................................................85
2.2.1. Current flows and voltage drops calculation
under symmetric regime...........................................................................85
2.2.2. Radial electric line with unbalanced loads on phases ..............................91
2.2.3. Simple meshed electric networks.............................................................94
2.2.4. Load flow calculation of radial electric networks ....................................97
2.3. Complex meshed electric networks...................................................................110
2.3.1. Transfiguration methods ........................................................................110
2.3.2. Load flow calculation of meshed networks............................................121
2.4. Reconfiguration of the distribution electric networks .......................................139
2.4.1. Operating issues .....................................................................................139
2.4.2. Mathematical model of the reconfiguration process ..............................141
2.4.3. Reconfiguration heuristic methods ........................................................146
Appendix 2.1. Existence and uniqueness of the forward/backward sweep solution..156
Appendix 2.2. The active power losses variation as a result of a load variation in a
radial network ........................................................................................160
Chapter references .....................................................................................................162
3. AC TRANSMISSION LINES (Mircea Eremia, Ion Stratan, Ctlin Dumitriu) .....165

3.1. Operating equations under steady state .............................................................165
3.2. Propagation of voltage and current waves on a transmission line .....................169
3.2.1. Physical interpretation............................................................................169
VIII
3.2.2. Apparent characteristic power. Natural power

(SIL surge impedance loading) ...........................................................173
3.3. Coefficients of transmission lines equations .....................................................176
3.3.1. Numerical determination of propagation coefficient .............................176
3.3.2. Numerical determination of characteristic impedance ...........................179
3.3.3. Numerical calculation of A, B, C and D coefficients.............................181
3.3.4. Kennellys correction coefficients .........................................................182
3.4. Transmitted power on the lossless line..............................................................185
3.5. Transmission lines operating regimes ...............................................................187
3.5.1. Transmission lines equations expressed in per unit ...............................187
3.5.2. Loading only with active power ( pB 0 , qB = 0 ) ...............................188
3.5.3. Loading with active and reactive power ( pB 0 , qB 0 )...................195
3.5.4. Operating regime with equal voltages at both ends ...............................199
3.6. Series and shunt compensation of transmission lines........................................201
3.6.1. Influence of power system lumped reactance ........................................202
3.6.2. Series compensation with capacitors......................................................205
3.6.3. Natural power control by capacitors ......................................................209
3.6.4. Shunt compensation with reactors .........................................................213
3.6.5. Mixed compensation of transmission lines ............................................219
3.7. Transmitted power on the line with losses ........................................................221
3.7.1. Power formulae ......................................................................................221
3.7.2. Performance chart (Circle diagram).......................................................224
3.7.3. Power losses...........................................................................................225
3.8. Application on AC long line ...............................................................................226
4. HVDC TRANSMISSION (Mircea Eremia, Constantin Bulac) ...............................239

4.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................239
4.2. Structure and configurations .............................................................................242
4.2.1. Structure of HVDC links........................................................................242
4.2.2. HVDC configurations ............................................................................247
4.3. Analysis of the three-phase bridge converter ....................................................256
4.3.1. Rectifier equations .................................................................................256
4.3.2. Inverter equations...................................................................................266
4.4. Control of direct current link ..............................................................................270
4.4.1. Equivalent circuit and control characteristics ........................................270
4.4.2. Control strategies of HVDC systems .....................................................275
4.4.3. Control implementation .........................................................................277
4.5. Reactive power and harmonics..........................................................................280
4.5.1. Reactive power requirements and sources .............................................280
4.5.2. Sources of reactive power ......................................................................283
4.5.3. Harmonics and filters .............................................................................285
4.6. Load flow in mixed AC-DC systems ................................................................293
4.7. Interaction between AC and DC systems ..........................................................297
4.7.1. AC systems stabilization........................................................................297
4.7.2. Influence of AC system short-circuit ratio.............................................299
4.7.3. Effective inertia constant .......................................................................301
4.7.4. Reactive power and the strength of the AC system................................301
IX
4.8. Comparison between DC and AC transmission ................................................302

4.9. Application on HVDC link................................................................................309
Appendix 4.1. HVDC systems in the world .............................................................319
5. NEUTRAL GROUNDING OF ELECTRIC NETWORKS (Adrian Buta) ..............325

5.1. General considerations ......................................................................................325
5.2. Basic electric phenomena in grounded neutral networks ..................................327
5.2.1. Network neutral potential relative to ground .........................................327
5.2.2. Single-phase-to-ground fault current .....................................................329
5.3. Isolated neutral networks...................................................................................334
5.4. Grounded neutral networks ...............................................................................338
5.4.1. Solidly grounded neutral networks ........................................................338
5.4.2. Resistor grounded neutral networks.......................................................338
5.4.3. Arc-suppression coil grounded networks (resonant grounding).............346
5.5. Neutral point situation in electric networks.......................................................358
5.5.1. Neutral grounding abroad ......................................................................359
5.5.2. Neutral grounding in Romania...............................................................361
6. ELECTRICAL POWER QUALITY (Adrian Buta, Lucian Toma) ...........................367

6.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................367
6.2. Short-duration voltage variations. Voltage dips and interruptions ....................374
6.2.1. Origins of dips and interruptions............................................................374
6.2.2. Voltage dips characterization and classification ....................................375
6.2.3. Voltage dips calculation.........................................................................379
6.2.4. Mitigation solutions ...............................................................................380
6.3. Transients and overvoltages ..............................................................................392
6.3.1. Sources...................................................................................................383
6.3.2. Mitigation methods ................................................................................385
6.4. Long-duration voltage variations .....................................................................386
6.4.1. Origin and effects...................................................................................386
6.4.2. Voltage level assessment .......................................................................388
6.4.3. Mitigation solutions for the voltage regulation ......................................390
6.5. Harmonics in power systems.............................................................................395
6.5.1. Sources...................................................................................................395
6.5.2. Fundamental concepts............................................................................396
6.5.3. Effects of harmonic distortion................................................................411
6.5.4. Modelling and analysis ..........................................................................419
6.5.5. Mitigation solutions to controlling harmonics .......................................437
6.6. Voltage unbalances ...........................................................................................446
6.6.1. Unbalance indices ..................................................................................447
6.6.2. Origin and effects...................................................................................449
6.6.3. Voltage unbalance and power flow under non-symmetrical conditions 450
6.6.4. Practical definitions of powers in system with non-sinusoidal
waveforms and unbalanced loads...........................................................452
6.6.5. Mitigation solutions to the unbalanced operation ..................................456
X
7. POWER AND ENERGY LOSSES IN ELECTRIC NETWORKS

(Hermina Albert) ......................................................................................................471
7.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................471
7.1.1. Background ............................................................................................471
7.1.2. Evolution and structure of the losses in the Romanian
electric networks ....................................................................................474
7.1.3. Comparison between losses in the Romanian electric networks
and other countries .................................................................................476
7.2. Own technologic power consumption ...............................................................477
7.3. Own electric energy technologic consumption .................................................481
7.3.1. Basic notions and data............................................................................481
7.3.2. Diagram integration method ..................................................................483
7.3.3. Root-mean-square current method .........................................................486
7.3.4. Losses time method................................................................................488
7.3.5. Technologic consumption in transmission installations.........................494
7.4. Economic efficiency of the electric network losses reducing............................496
7.5. Measures to reduce the own technologic consumption and the active energy
and power losses................................................................................................502
7.5.1. Measures to cut the technical losses requiring no investments ..............502
7.5.2. Measures to cut the own technologic consumption requiring
investments ............................................................................................504
Part two: LOAD FLOW AND POWER SYSTEM SECURITY
8. PERFORMANCE METHODS FOR POWER FLOW STUDIES

(Virgil Alexandrescu, Sorin Ptrcoiu) ...................................................................509
8.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................509
8.2. Mathematical models ........................................................................................510
8.2.1. The balance of the nodal currents ..........................................................511
8.2.2. The balance of the nodal powers............................................................511
8.2.3. Power flow per unit computation...........................................................512
8.3. Newton-Raphson (N-R) method .......................................................................514
8.3.1. Theoretical aspects.................................................................................514
8.3.2. Computational algorithm for power flow study by N-R method ...........516
8.4. Decoupled Newton method ...............................................................................531
8.5. Fast decoupled method......................................................................................532
8.6. Direct current (DC) method ..............................................................................541
8.7. Improvements of power flow analysis methods ................................................543
8.8. Static equivalents of the power systems ............................................................545
8.8.1. Introduction............................................................................................545
8.8.2. Ward equivalent .....................................................................................546
8.8.3. REI Dimo equivalent ..........................................................................548
8.8.4. Equivalent with ideal transformers (EIT)...............................................554
8.8.5. Updating possibilities of the static equivalents ......................................556
Appendix 8.1. Specific aspects of the power flow computation of large electric
networks ...........................................................................................................558
Appendix 8.2. Structure and steady state data of the network test.............................563
XI
9. STATE ESTIMATION OF ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS (Mircea Neme) ......567

9.1. Some general aspects ........................................................................................567
9.2. Simple application.............................................................................................569
9.3. The estimator.....................................................................................................572
9.4. Two-node system ..............................................................................................574
9.5. Detection and identification of bad data. The procedure of performance index.577
9.6. The procedure of standard deviation multiple b ...........................................580
9.7. The correction of large errors............................................................................580
9.8. The procedure of test identification...................................................................582
9.9. Application with HTI method ...........................................................................585
9.10. Power system observability .............................................................................586
9.10.1. Test of observability P ~ ..................................................................587
9.10.2. The structure of the gain matrix Q, E ~ U ..........................................590
9.10.3. Test of observability Q, E ~ U ............................................................591
10. STEADY STATE OPTIMIZATION (Gheorghe Crin, Yong Hua Song).............597

10.1. Horizon of the power system optimization problems ......................................597
10.1.1. Minimization of the total generation cost (MTGC) ...........................599
10.1.2. Minimization of the active power losses (MAPL) .............................600
10.1.3. Optimization of the voltage-reactive power control (VQ) ................601
10.1.4. Optimal unit commitment (OUC) .....................................................602
10.1.5. Optimization of the strategies in deregulated market (OSDM)..........603
10.2. Optimization techniques in power systems......................................................604
10.2.1. Nonlinear programming (NLP)..........................................................604
10.2.2. Lagrange relaxation techniques (LRT) ..............................................607
10.2.3. Multiobjective optimization techniques .............................................612
10.2.4. Modern optimization techniques in operating planning.....................619
10.3. Optimal power flow (OPF) .............................................................................623
10.3.1. Optimization model............................................................................623
10.3.2. Minimization of the active power losses (MAPL) ............................626
10.3.3. Newton Lagrange method (NL) .....................................................632
10.3.4. Interiorpoint methods (IPMs)...........................................................635
10.4. Optimal unit commitment (OUC) ...................................................................643
10.4.1. Introduction........................................................................................643
10.4.2. Lagrangian relaxation genetic algorithms method (LRGA) ...........644
10.5. Optimal unit commitment in deregulated market ............................................653
10.5.1. Dynamic optimal power flow by interior-point methods ...................653
10.5.2. Power market oriented optimal power flow .......................................658
10.6. Optimization strategies in deregulated market..................................................660
10.6.1. Bidding problem formulation.............................................................660
10.6.2. Ordinal optimization method .............................................................662
10.6.3. Numerical results and discussions......................................................663
11. LOAD FORECAST (Bucur Lutrea) .......................................................................671

11.1. Background......................................................................................................671
11.2. Factors that influence the energy consumption ...............................................672
XII
11.3. Stages of a forecast study ................................................................................673

11.3.1. Initial database selection, correlation and processing ........................673
11.3.2. Mathematical model of the load.........................................................673
11.3.3. Analysis of results and determining the final forecast .......................679
11.4. Error sources and difficulties met at load forecast...........................................680
11.5. Classical methods for load forecast .................................................................681
11.5.1. General aspects ..................................................................................681
11.5.2. Cyclical and seasonal components analysis .......................................682
11.5.3. Trend forecast ....................................................................................685
11.5.4. Load random component analysis......................................................697
11.6. Time series methods for load forecast .............................................................699
11.6.1. General aspects ..................................................................................699
11.6.2. Principles of methodology of the time series modelling ....................700
11.6.3. Time series adopted pattern. Components separation ........................701
11.6.4. Establishing of the time series model using
the Box Jenkins method..................................................................704
11.6.5. Time series model validation .............................................................707
11.6.6. Time series forecast ...........................................................................710
11.7. Short term load forecast using artificial neural networks ................................712
11.7.1. General aspects ..................................................................................712
11.7.2. ANN architecture ...............................................................................714
11.7.3. Case study ..........................................................................................716
Part three: TECHNICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL COMPUTATION
12. ELECTRIC NETWORKS IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT

(George Florea) ........................................................................................................723
12.1. Introduction .....................................................................................................723
12.2. Constructive impact.........................................................................................723
12.2.1. Visual impact ...................................................................................723
12.2.2. Impact on land use ...........................................................................724
12.2.3. Impact during erection and maintenance works...............................725
12.2.4. Direct impact on ecological systems................................................726
12.2.5. Final considerations .........................................................................727
12.3. Electric field impact.........................................................................................727
12.3.1. General considerations.....................................................................727
12.3.2. Induced currents in conductive objects............................................729
12.3.3. Voltages induced in not connected to ground objects......................730
12.3.4. Direct perception in humans ............................................................730
12.3.5. Direct biological effects on humans and animals ............................730
12.3.6. Effects on vegetation .......................................................................732
12.3.7. Audible noise ...................................................................................733
12.3.8. Interference on AM reception..........................................................735
12.3.9. Interference on FM reception...........................................................736
12.3.10. Ions and ozone generating ...............................................................737
12.3.11. Final considerations and recommendations .....................................739
12.3.12. Mitigation techniques ......................................................................742
12.4. Magnetic field impact ......................................................................................742
XIII
12.4.1.General considerations.....................................................................742
12.4.2.Induced voltages on long metallic structures parallel
to inducting currents ........................................................................745
12.4.3. Direct biological effects on humans and animals ..............................745
12.4.4. Indirect biological effects ..................................................................748
12.4.5. Direct perception on humans .............................................................748
12.4.6. Effects on vegetation .........................................................................748
12.4.7. Final considerations and recommendations.......................................749
12.4.8. Mitigation techniques ........................................................................752
12.5. Conclusions......................................................................................................763
13. OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION LINES TECHNICAL DESIGN

(Georgel Gheorghi, Laureniu Niculae) .................................................................767
13.1. Introduction .....................................................................................................767
13.1.1. Changes of the operational environment ...........................................767
13.1.2. Environmental changes......................................................................768
13.1.3. Changing business environment ........................................................768
13.1.4. New technological possibilities .........................................................769
13.2. Opportunities and threats.................................................................................769
13.3. Objectives and strategy....................................................................................770
13.3.1. Ambitions and objectives ..................................................................770
13.3.2. Strategic technical directions.............................................................770
13.4. The future of overhead transmission lines (OTL)............................................771
13.4.1. Overhead transmission lines today ....................................................771
13.4.2. Overhead transmission lines medium and long terms forecasting.
New overhead transmission lines ......................................................799
14. DISTRIBUTED GENERATION (Nikos Hatziargyriou) .........................................805

14.1. General issues ..................................................................................................805
14.2. Technical issues of the integration of DG in distribution networks ................808
14.2.1. Introduction........................................................................................808
14.2.2. Network voltage changes ...................................................................809
14.2.3. Increase in network fault levels..........................................................812
14.2.4. Effects on power quality ....................................................................813
14.2.5. Protection issues.................................................................................815
14.2.6. Effects on stability .............................................................................816
14.2.7. Effects of DG connection to isolated systems....................................817
14.3. Commercial issues in distribution systems containing DG .............................818
14.3.1. Introduction........................................................................................818
14.3.2. Present network pricing arrangements ...............................................819
14.4. Conclusions .....................................................................................................827
XIV
Volume II: POWER SYSTEMS STABILITY AND ELECTRICITY MARKETS
Part one: POWER SYSTEM STABILITY AND CONTROL
Part two: ELECTRICITY MARKETS. DEREGULATION
Volume III: ADVANCED TECHNIQUES AND TECHNOLOGIES
Part one: FACTS TECHNOLOGIES
Part two: ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE TECHNIQUES
Part three: INFORMATION AND COMPUTING TECHNOLOGIES

FOREWORD
Electric power systems are an integral part of the way of life in modern
society. The electricity supplied by these systems has proved to be a very
convenient, safe, and relatively clean form of energy. It runs our factories, warms
and lights our homes, cooks our food and powers our computers. It is indeed one of
the important factors contributing to the relatively high standard of living enjoyed
by modern society. Electricity is an energy carrier; energy is neither naturally
available in the electrical form nor is it consumed directly in that form. The
advantage of the electrical form of energy is that it can be transported and
controlled with relative ease and high degree of efficiency and reliability.
Modern electric power systems are large complex systems with many
processes whose operations need to be optimized and with millions of devices
requiring harmonious interplay. Efficient and secure operation of such systems
presents many challenges in todays competitive, disaggregated business
environment. This is increasingly evident from the many major power grid
blackouts experienced in recent years, including the 14 August 2003 blackout of
power network in the north-east of the American continent and the 28 September
2003 blackout of the Italian power network.
The technical problems that the power engineers have to address today
appear to be very complex and demanding for the students of the subject. They will
need both the experience of the past generations and a new enlightened approach to
the theory and practice of power generation, transmission, distribution and
utilization taking into account the techniques that have evolved in other fields.
The present book includes a comprehensive account of both theoretical and
practical aspects of the performance of the individual elements as well as the
integrated power system. The contributing authors are all recognized experts in
power system engineering, either working for the electric power industry or for
universities in Romania and abroad. Together they have had a total of many
decades of experience in the technologies related to electric power systems.
Upon invitation from Professor Mircea Eremia, I had the pleasure of visiting
the Electrical Power Engineering Department at University Politehnica of
Bucharest in May 2003. I found there a powerful school of Electric Power Systems
from which about 50 students graduate yearly. During my visit, I also had the
opportunity to review and discuss the proposal for preparing this book. I am very
impressed with the outcome. I am truly honoured to write the foreword of this
book, which I believe will be an invaluable source of reference for students of
power engineering as well as practicing engineers.
Prabha Kundur, Ph.D., FIEEE, FCAE

President & CEO, Powertech Labs Inc.
Surrey, British Columbia, Canada

August 2005
PREFACE
Modern power systems are the result of continuous development and

improvement which, over the years, have led to highly sophisticated and complex
technologies. Their reliable operation is a tribute to the work of dedicated
scientists, innovative engineers and experienced business leaders.
The relatively fast development of the electrical systems and networks has
given rise to ceaseless discussions regarding safe operation and provision of power
quality at the customer. Moreover, the energy policy concerning the promotion of
renewable energy sources as well as the electricity market creation to stimulate the
competition among generation companies have caused new problems in the
transmission and distribution networks. It is clear that the initial destination of
electrical networks to ensure the unidirectional transmission of power from the
power plants towards consumers has changed, since by the installation of dispersed
generation sources into the distribution network the power flow became
bidirectional, with the possibility of injecting power into the transmission network.
In the present work the authors tried to cover in the best way possible the
basic knowledge that the experienced engineer as well as the young graduate
student in electrical power systems should be able to handle. The work Electric
Networks is the first volume of the treatise Electric Power Systems. It consists
of 14 chapters grouped in 3 parts.
The first part entitled Basic Computation introduces the basic topics related
to electrical energy transmission to the reader. In chapter 1, the architecture of
electrical networks and the steady state mathematical modelling of the network
elements are described in detail. The student should be aware that the network
modelling represents the starting point for any application.
The electrical networks are designed for transmission, repartition and
distribution of electrical energy, so that they present various structures. The
transmission and repartition networks operate in complex meshed structure while
distribution networks operate in simple meshed but mostly in radial configuration.
In chapter 2, issues related to radial networks are presented, such as voltage drop or
currents flow calculation. Also this chapter deals with issues related to meshed
networks, such as nodal admittance matrix construction and steady state
formulation and calculation by using the Seidel-Gauss method as well as the
forward/backward sweep adapted for distributed generation.
To use the energetic potential of the Earth, especially the might of water, as
efficiently as possible, but also because of the continuous increase of the inhabited
or industrialized areas, we are forced to transmit the electrical energy for longer
and longer distances. However, the alternating current transmission for long
distances presents special concerns related to voltage. With the exception of the
ideal case when the reactive power consumed in the series inductive component of
the lines is compensated by the reactive power generated by the shunt component,
formed between the line conductors and earth, while the natural power is
transmitted on the line, the voltage can vary in a wide range with respect to the
XVIII
nominal value. Chapter 3 presents the theory of alternating current long

transmission lines, together with the problems related to their operation and,
correspondingly, their solution by means of series or shunt compensation with
capacitor banks or reactors.
The advanced technology in power electronics proves to be the necessary
support for power transmission at long distances, but at direct current. Although the
direct current discovered by Edison, which constituted the revolution of the
electricity industry, has lost the race to electrify the world over the alternating
current discovered by Tesla, however, the direct current transmission and power
electronics based devices, respectively, is the only solution to make undersea links
or to interconnect two systems operating at different frequencies. Chapter 4 reveals
the technical and economical secrets of the direct current transmission.
The modern power systems are probably the most complex systems man has
ever built. Secure operation of the power systems is a very important issue since
unwanted interruptions of power delivery have a large economical impact on
customers and utilities. Chapters 5 and 6 deal with issues related to electrical
network security and also to the quality of the power supplied to the consumers.
The electrical network undergoes permanently disturbances, having different
causes and consequences. Chapter 5 presents the efficient measures, which must be
taken so that the network could cope with the faults, that is, the neutral grounding
of the electric networks. It is disagreeable to find that the intensity of the light
provided by the incandescent lamp flickers, or that our refrigerator is out of order
due to an overvoltage, or even worse, to get stuck in the elevator due to an
interruption in electricity. Chapter 6 deals with problems related to power quality
and electromagnetic compatibility issues giving at the same time mitigation
solutions.
The power systems engineer must be a very good technician but also an
economist. The calculation of power losses, presented in Chapter 7, as well as their
reducing methodologies, supplements the knowledge of the engineer in designing
and optimising of the system operation.
To ensure a proper operation of power systems and the continuity in
supplying the consumer, the engineer is challenged and at the same time stimulated
to develop efficient concepts and technologies. This is the reason why magnificent
ideas of some great engineers, as is the case of the famous Paul Dimos suggestion
to interconnect the power systems at a large scale, where the partners are based on
Trust, Solidarity and Common Interest, are nowadays put into practice.
But, the power networks have become more meshed, and the specialists
activities in the analysis of power system operation more complicated. Therefore,
there is a need for analytical and simulation tools in the power systems operation
and planning. In the second section of the book entitled Load flow and power
system security, performance methods for off-line assessment of a power system
operating state, by using Newton-Raphson type methods and network static
equivalents, are presented Chapter 8. Due to the fast speed at which the electric
phenomena are evolving, the system operator needs powerful tools that can
XIX
respond in real time; state estimation, provided in Chapter 9, is an efficient

approach useful in this respect.
The electric utility industry is undergoing unprecedented change in its
structure worldwide. With the open market environment and competition in the
electrical industry, after the restructuring of the system into separate generation,
transmission and distribution entities, new issues in power system operation and
planning are inevitable. One of the questions the engineer ponders over is: How to
minimize the production and transmission costs to obtain the lowest price possible
for the final consumer?. The answer is tentatively given in Chapter 10 that offers
proposals for optimisation of power system operation in the conditions imposed by
the competitive environment present in the electricity market.
The maintenance of system frequency at a certain value is performed by a
permanent balance between generation and consumption. System operator
performs the power balancing by appropriate auxiliary services. That is the system
operator must know a priori the load consumption from the system so that to
appropriately contract with the qualified producers. Distribution companies are
faced with the same situation since they function as intermediates between
generators and captive consumers. Chapter 11 comes up in help with load
forecasting methods.
The power increase has led to the expansion of networks, including the high
voltage and medium voltage powered transmission and distribution systems.
However, for reasons concerning the conservation of the environment, the
protection against electromagnetic fields or for aesthetic reasons, the installation of
new electrical lines or supplementary capacities in mammoth power plants is, as
much as possible, avoided. The third part of the book, entitled Technical and
environmental computation comes up with ideas of how to solve the possible
problems concerning the environment, presented in Chapter 12, by efficient and
ecological solutions for overhead lines designing, given in Chapter 13.
The negative impact on the environment along with the limited resources of
the Earth, such as coal, oil, natural gas and nuclear fuel, have forced the man to
think of tireless resources, such as wind and the sunlight. The evolution of
technology facilitated the manufacturing of small size high efficiency sources of
power, which can be installed into the distribution network, and in the majority of
cases are even found at the consumers disposal. Chapter 14 presents issues
concerning the impact of distributed generation on the electrical network.
The work is addressed to the undergraduate and graduate students in the
electrical engineering fields but also to specialists from design, research and
services companies.
Hoping that exploring this book will be an exciting endeavour, the authors
apologize to the reader and native English speaker for the language and printing
inaccuracies that inevitably exist.
Mircea Eremia, Professor

University Politehnica of Bucharest
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to take this opportunity to acknowledge all persons that
contributed directly or indirectly to carrying out this book, either by technical or
editorial support.
For some chapters the authors benefited from the kindness of some
institutions or companies, which permitted the reprinting or adapting of some
figures, equations or text excerpts. In this regard, special thanks are addressed to
IEEE, CIGRE particularly to the General Secretary Jean Kowal, EPRI
particularly to Dr. Aty Edris who facilitated the cooperation with EPRI, as well as
to Copper Development Association. Reprinting permission was allowed by Dr.
Roger Dugan, from EPRI, also with the kind acceptance from McGraw-Hill
Companies, for some excerpts in Chapter 6, and Ing. Daniel Griffel, from EdF, for
some excerpts in Chapter 5, to whom the authors address their deepest gratitude.
The authors are deeply grateful to Acad. Gleb Drgan for the constant
support and encouragements during writing the book and cooperation with the
Publishing House of the Romanian Academy.
Special thanks are addressed to some persons who contributed to the content
of the final manuscript. The authors wish to express warm thanks to Dr. Mohamed
Rashwan (President of TransGrid Solutions Inc.), who provided valuable
contributions in Chapter 4, to Prof. Petru Postolache (from University Politehnica
of Bucharest), for constructive comments in Chapter 1 and Chapter 11, and
Dr. Fnic Vatr (from Institute for Energy Studies and Design ISPE S.A.) for
valuable suggestions to Chapter 5. Special thanks are addressed to Prof. Nicolae
Golovanov (from University Politehnica of Bucharest) who reviewed the
Chapter 6 and provided many valuable contributions.
The printing of this book was made possible by the financial support of some
companies. The authors wish to express their gratitude to Ing. Viorel Gafia
(Manager of Romelectro S.A.) and Dr. Dan Gheorghiu (General Manager of ISPE
S.A.). Special thanks are also addressed to Washington Group International Inc. for
the financial support granted for printing the book, and to RIBE Group (Germany)
as well as its subsidiary in Romania, which provided valuable technical materials
and financial support for printing the book.
For contributions concerning the translation into English or the electronic
editing of some chapters, the authors wish to extend their gratitude to Dr. Andrei
Fgranu, Dr. Monica Fgranu, Dr. Cristina Popescu, Ing. Silviu Vergoti, Ing.
Ioan Giosan, Ing. Mircea Bivol and Ing. Laureniu Lipan.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the good cooperation with the Publishing
House of the Romanian Academy, and address many thanks to Dr. Ioan Ganea,
Ing. Cristina Chiriac, Mihaela Marian and Monica Stanciu, for their patience and
professionalism in carrying out the printed book.
The authors
Chapter 1
ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS
CONFIGURATION AND PARAMETERS
1.1. Classification and architecture of electric networks
1.1.1. Types of electric networks

The power flow from power plants to consumption areas and customers is
ensured by transmission and distribution networks.
The criteria that determine the types of electric networks are:
destination: transmission, interconnection, distribution and utility
networks;
nominal voltage *): extra high voltage (400 kV, 750 kV), high voltage (35
to 220 kV), medium voltage (1 to 35 kV) and low voltage (< 1 kV);
covered area: national, regional, urban and rural networks;
configuration: radial, looped and complex looped (meshed) networks;
the situation of the neutral point: networks with earth insulated neutral,
networks with solidly earthed neutral and networks with treated neutral;
the presence of the neutral wire: networks with available/not available
neutral;
current frequency: alternative current networks and direct current
networks.
a. The destination criterion networks takes into account the functional role of
the electric networks. Thus, transmission networks provide systematic power
transfer from the production areas to the consumption areas. The power transferred
in time corresponds to the determinist component of the forecasting values. The
*)
Several Standards [EN50160, IEEE P1564, HD 637 S1] give definitions of the voltage
either as reference quantity or for equipment designing. The term nominal voltage of the
system Un, as a whole, is defined as a suitable value of voltage used to designate or identify
a system and to which certain operating characteristics are referred. The term rated value
represents a quantity value assigned, generally by the manufacturer, for a specified
operating condition of a component, device or equipment. Because the nominal voltage is a
reference value it is further used in definitions and formulae from theories to identify the
voltage level of the network to which equipments or installations are connected.
4 Basic computation
interconnection networks provide the compensation transfer (Fig. 1.1). This

transfer is realized in different direction and sense as compared to the systematic
transfer and it corresponds to the random component of the forecasting powers, as
well as to some fault situations of the generator groups or of the elements of
systematic transmission networks. The Repartition networks supply the distribution
networks or big customers (which have their own distribution networks). The
distribution networks provide power to the loads and their components power
customers. The distribution networks belonging to the customers are called utility
networks (industrial, domestic).
b. The networks configuration (topology). The radial networks consist of
elements (lines, substations, transformer points) beginning in a power injection
node and ending in a consumption node. As a result, the loads cannot be supplied
on more than a single path (Fig. 1.2).
The looped networks are composed from many loops. The consumption
nodes of these networks are supplied from two sides. Thus, the network in Figure
1.3 becomes a looped network when the circuit breaker CB is closed and both lines
L1 and L2 are supplied.
In this case, the supply continuity of the loads is provided even during the
disconnection of a source or the failure of some network sections. If the network is
supplied by two sources placed at the networks ends then the network is called
supplied from two ends (Fig. 1.4) and it may be regarded as a particular case of the
looped network.
A B Systematic
Systematic Systematic transport
transport Compensation transport
~ ~ ~
PP IS PP
A, B consumption areas
PP power plants
IS interference station
HV / MV transformer substation
MV / LV transformer substation
Fig. 1.1. Definition of systematic and Fig. 1.2. Radial networks.

compensation power transfer.
The main feature of the complex looped networks is that the loads are
supplied from more than two sides (Fig. 1.5), therefore on several paths and from
Electric power systems configuration and parameters 5
several sources. These networks present great supply reliability and economical
operation, but they require more equipment and they are more expensive.
The topology of a network can be modified by the position of the circuit
breakers placed on the lines (Fig. 1.3) or on the substations busbars (Fig. 1.6).
Therefore, the opening of the circuit breaker CB from Figure 1.3 transforms the
looped network into a radial one; the same situation is also possible for the network
from Figure 1.6.
Source 2 Source 1
~ ~
CB
Fig. 1.3. Looped network. Fig. 1.4. Network supplied from two ends.
~ ~
~ ~
a. b.
Fig. 1.5. Complex looped Fig. 1.6. Open ring network topology altering in transformer
network. substations: a. without open ring; b. with open ring.
1.1.2. Architecture of electric networks

The architecture of electric networks includes the electric networks
configuration and structure, the voltage levels, as well as the calculated loads, the
specific consumptions and the safety degree, all in tight relation to the functional
role of the network elements, the design features, but also with the other elements
of the power system. It is useful to emphasize some architecture features of whole
power system before presenting the electric networks configuration [1.1], [1.2].
a. Architecture of power system features. The main element that can be taken
into consideration at power system configuration analysis is the voltage level.
Within the limits of a system, several voltage levels emerge from this point of view
(Fig. 1.7), each of these having a well-determined role.
6 Basic computation
Voltage level [kV]

750
400
220
Transformer
substation
110
Block
transformer
Local Rural
~ power area
~ plant
20
System ~ Urban
power plant area
Industrial Urban
networks networks
(6) 10
Transformer
points
0.4 Low voltage

distribution networks
Fig. 1.7. The architecture of the national power system.

The analysis of the planes sequence emphasizes the following features of the
power system configuration:
the system elements (generators, transformers, lines, loads etc.) are placed
in different parallel planes, according to their nature and functional role;
the distance between planes is determined by the difference between the
neighbouring voltage levels;
the connection between planes is achieved through the magnetic couplings
of the transformers (in the case of different voltage levels, or in the case of
not successive planes at the same voltage level) or autotransformers (in the
case of successive planes belonging to the same voltage level);
a plane includes the longitudinal elements of the networks; the transversal
elements are connected between these planes and the neutral point;
the networks from the upper planes serve for power transmission, while
those from the lower planes serve for power distribution;
the generators of the central power plants inject the power in the system
through block-transformers and transmission networks at medium voltage
(Fig. 1.8); if the generators power is higher, the injection is carried out at
higher voltage level;
the lower level buses and networks connected to these buses constitute a
load for the higher level networks (excepting the generator buses);
the power consumption takes place at high, medium and low voltage level
through the network coupling transformers;
moving to higher levels, the networks cover larger areas and the powers
transfer rises, while the density of the networks decreases;
the networks at the lower levels are denser, they transfer less power on
shorter distances;
the power system customers are in transversal connection between the
buses of the distribution networks (the medium voltages planes) and the
plane 0 kV; the power absorbed by the customer and the bus voltage are
smaller.
750 kV, 400 kV

Power
220 kV transmission
Generator Power
repartition
110 kV
~ 20 kV
10 kV Power
distribution
Local consumption
0.4 kV
0 kV
Fig. 1.8. Main power transmission and distribution chart

of the Romanian power system.
8 Basic computation
b. Transmission networks structure. The reason why transmission networks

are a necessary part of the power system is the big (physical and electrical) distance
between consumption centres and power plants. The transmission network is an
inherent part of the power system because it insures the significant power flow
from power plants to consumption centres and it constitutes the support for the
other electric networks.
The transmission networks structure, components and arrangement varies in
time, evolving from one development stage of the system to another, influenced
mainly by the development of power consumption. Thus, the 110 kV, 220 kV and
400 kV Romanian networks first operating as radial transmission networks, were
later (since 1985) transformed into repartition networks (110 kV) and looped
networks (220 and 400 kV).
The looped network is the optimum solution for transmission networks in
countries with well-determined power flow, considering both the consumption and
the power sources placement.
The loop structure provides several paths of power transfer from one bus to
another and it allows better coordination of power plants. This way, the generators
operating at any given moment are the economical ones, and further more, during
failure of some generators, the required power is still supplied by the big number of
operating generators. The design also insures network operation even with a cut-off
connection between two buses, because theres always a backup path of supply for
those two buses.
c. Distribution networks architecture. The distribution network must ensure
the same requirements as any other electric network (reliability, supply continuity,
power transfer quality, adaptation capability during operation, possibility of future
development, cost-effective operation, minimal impact on the environment), but
the neighbouring customers networks raise special problems concerning the supply
continuity and the power quality.
The electric networks present certain design features depending on the
customer or the consumption area properties: the load and population density, the
urban or rural area, the networks impact on the environment, and so on.
The main features of a distribution network are the nominal voltage, the
transfer capacity and its length. The nominal voltage is adopted according to: the
power quantity requested by the loads, the consumers position relative to the
existing electric networks, the utility type.
The International Electrotechnics Commission recommends the following
levels for the public distribution networks:
low voltage: 400 V (230 V);
medium voltage: 1013 kV; 2025 kV; 3335 kV (the voltage of 6 and
10 kV is mainly used to supply big engines and industrial networks);
high voltage: 110 kV.
The amount of power transferred through distribution networks depends on
the nominal voltage of the network and on the loads it supplies. Thus:
low voltage: under 50 kW, it supplies domestic, residential and tertiary

customers;
medium voltage: up to 2000 kW, it supplies customers from tertiary and
commercial domains;
high voltage: customers with absorbed powers exceeding 5 MW.
As for the length of the distribution networks, it depends on the number and
the arrangement of the distribution stations as well as on the number and the
location of the transformer points. If the number of transformer substations and
points is increased, then the maximum length of the distribution lines is reduced.
On the other hand the length of the distribution networks is in tight relation with
the voltage level. The solution for energy loss reduction is to adopt shorter lengths
for the low and medium voltage networks, bringing the consumer as close as
possible to the high voltage level (deep connection), but this solution isnt always
cost-effective.
Two important elements considered for the design of distribution networks
are the dynamics of the power consumption and the increased concern for the
environment.
Regarding the consumption dynamics, the network structure must be
adaptable, especially for the medium voltage networks, providing extension
possibilities through the addition of new lines and the connection of new injection
points, while maintaining the initial and unitary character of the network. Usually
the solution is not costly, necessary changes are an integrating part of the
configuration development.
The distribution networks must comply with the environment protection. This
raises special problems concerning the aesthetic protection of the landscape and the
elimination of accident hazards determined by the electric current influence
(presence).
The distribution networks architecture can be analyzed from two points of
view: the voltage level and the networks location. The architecture of the
distribution networks is presented in which follows considering the voltage levels
and emphasizing the features of urban and networks.
c1. High voltage distribution networks. They usually include networks with
110 kV voltage, but in some countries higher voltage levels may also appear (for
example 225 kV in France).
These networks serve for: the supply of some urban and rural areas
presenting several customer types, the supply of some concentrated customers with
a power demand that requests a 110 kV/MV substation, the power evacuation from
local power plants generating medium powers (from 50 up to 200 MW). The
transmission networks supply the high voltage networks from the 400 kV/110 kV
or 220 kV/110 kV substations called injection substations/ points. The 110 kV
distribution system consists of lines and transformer substations of 110 kV/20 kV
and 110 kV/10 kV that supply the urban and rural consumption areas. Its features
are determined by the customers power, the surface of the supplied area, and by
the configuration of the adjacent networks (transmission and distribution).
10 Basic computation
The high voltage distribution networks have a basic looped design, but they
operate in open (radial) arrangement. The networks technological consumption
determines the separation point, but other restrictions are also considered. The loop
is supplied from two different injection points or from the sectionalized busbars of
the same injection point.
Figures 1.9 to 1.11 illustrate the above-mentioned aspects.
Figure 1.9 presents the architecture of a supply network requiring at the same
time substations with one transformer unit and substations with two transformer
units, connected in derivation to a mains 110 kV line.
The network from Figure 1.10 uses 110 kV overhead lines (OEL) to supply
rural areas through transformer substations with two transformer units. The A and
C substations are source substations and ensure the supply of the medium voltage
network.
A
110 kV
Fig. 1.9. Architecture of supply

networks in areas where the
substations are equipped with
OEL one or two transformer units
110 kV supplied from the same 110 kV
line.
A
110 kV
20 kV
Fig. 1.10. Network architecture in
rural areas supplied from 110 kV
lines connected to substations
equipped with two transformer
units.
Figure 1.11 presents the architecture of a repartition network of 110 kV that

supplies an urban settlement.
Some concentrated loads are supplied by means of deep joint transformer
substations and lines. The lines have double circuit structure; each of these circuits
is connected to another bus-bar section of the substation (Fig. 1.12).
Rural
110 kV/MV
110 kV/MV
400 kV/110 kV 110 kV/MV

substation
110 kV/MV 6 kV/110 kV
substation
~ ~
Fig. 1.11. Architecture of 110 kV repartition networks supplying urban settlements.
110 kV ring
Transformer
substation
Deep joint
substation
400 kV/110 kV
substation 110 kV
System
Fig. 1.12. Architecture of a 110 kV urban network supplying a settlement with more than
150,000 inhabitants.
Regarding the HV/MV substations structure and the installed power, these
depend on the destination of that substation namely: public distribution, supply of
concentrated customers or both (public distribution and concentrated customers).
The public distribution substations supply domestic and residential customers.
They have a simple structure, and their dimensions depend on the requested power,
the safety level they must provide and the configuration of the 110 kV networks.
Big cities are supplied from one or two rings of 110 kV. The structure of the
110 kV/MV transformer substations is presented in Figure 1.13. The transformer

substation in Figure 1.13,a is equipped with two transformer units of 1025 MVA
rated power, backing up each other. The 110 kV busbars are simple, sectionalized
by bus breakers or by isolators only, depending on the networks operating diagram
and the protection system. Figure 1.13,b presents the situation of a repartition
network with two 110 kV lines. In this case each busbar section is connected to a
different ring.
Ring 1, 110 kV Ring 2, 110 kV
110 kV
110 kV / MV
transformer
substation
a. b.
Fig. 1.13. Architecture of transformer substations supplying big cities: a. equipped
with two transformers; b. supplied from two 110 kV rings.
If the locality has great surface and load density, the supplying of some
concentrated customers can be carried out through a deep joint substation
(Fig. 1.12).
c2. Medium voltage distribution networks. High voltage substations supply
these networks in direct or indirect connection. In the first case medium voltage
lines connect the transformer points directly to the MV busbars of the supply
substations. In the second case, MV lines departing from a HV/MV substation
supply the busbars of a MV connection substation, which in turn supplies the MV
junctions through other MV lines.
The medium voltage levels, varying in the 3 to 60 kV range, are chosen in
tight relation to the networks load density and to the economical and technical
criteria. Romania adopted the 20 kV voltage as optimal.
There are several configurations of distribution systems in use today,
considering the phase number and the situation of the neutral point:
the north-American system (Fig. 1.14,a) employs a distributed and solidly
earthed neutral; the main line is three-phase: three phases and neutral; the
derivations are single-phase or three-phase according to the transmitted
power; the distribution is single-phased, between phase and neutral;
the English system (Fig. 1.14,b), has no distributed neutral, the main line is
three-phase; the derivations have three or two phases;
the Australian system (Fig. 1.14,c), is an economical system; the main line
has only three phases, and no distributed neutral; the derivations have one,
two or three phases; the return path is insured by the ground;
the European system (Fig. 1.14,d) has no distributed neutral; the main line
and the derivations are three-phase.
N
LV
HV/MV
MV/LV
HV/MV
CB N
3
2
1
DS N CB DS
LV 3
2
1
MV/LV LV 1P
MV/LV
N
3 N N
LV 3P
2
3
N
2
LV
LV 1P
MV/LV
1 2 3 N
N
3
1 2 3 N
a. b.
Fig. 1.14. Medium voltage distribution types: a. with distributed neutral; b. without
distributed neutral, mixed with two or three phases.
HV/MV
CB DS
3 HV/MV
2
1
MV/LV LV 1P
CB DS
3
LV 3P N N 2
3 1
1 MV/LV
LV 1P
1 2 3 LV 3P N
IT N
LV 1P
1 2 3 N
c. d.
CB circuit breaker; DS disconnector switch; N neutral; IT insulating transformer
Fig. 1.14. Medium voltage distribution types: c. without distributed neutral, mixed with
one, two, three phases; d. without distributed neutral, three phase.
The medium voltage networks are composed of MV/0.4 kV lines and

transformer points. Urban areas have mainly underground lines, while the suburbs
and rural areas have overhead lines.
The transformer points in urban environment are encased, while in rural
environment they are placed on poles or on the ground.
The medium voltage networks with underground lines and direct distribution
can have backed-up from two substations (Fig. 1.15) or from the same substation
(Fig. 1.16). Under normal operating conditions the networks operate in radial
connection. The sectioning point is imposed by the networks technological
consumption or by the networks automation. The network presents separation
capability in the middle or at its ends, according to the requirements.
MV MV
S1 S2
Fig. 1.15. MV direct distribution through cables, with backup from two transformer
substations.
MV
110 kV / MV
substation
Fig. 1.16. MV direct distribution through cables, with backup from the same transformer
substation.
Urban areas with big load densities of 5 to 10 MVA/km2 use cable networks
in grid type direct distribution arrangement (Fig. 1.17) or in double derivation
(Fig. 1.18).
For both arrangements the backup supply can be made from the same
substation or from different substations. This configuration of electrical drawings
can be developed when the load growing on the consumers sides.
MV
S2
Future
110 kV / MV
substation
S1
Existing
110 kV / MV
substation
Fig. 1.17. MV direct distribution through grid type cables.
MV
Working
cable
Backup
cable
Fig. 1.18. MV direct distribution through underground lines in double derivation.

The French MV underground distribution network uses interrupted artery

arrangements. A transformer substation cable feeder supplies several MV/0.4kV
transformer points and then it connects to another substation, to the same
substation or to a backup cable. The interrupted artery is used for the loop, spindle
and ear arrangements (Fig. 1,19).
The cable from each MV/0.4 kV transformer point is passed through two
circuit breakers (CB1 and CB2) in series connection.
An artery has all its circuit breakers in normal close position, except the one
corresponding to the loops normal opening (interruption) bus, thus avoiding
parallel operation of two supply sources (transformer substations).
In the case of the loops (daisy petals, Fig. 1.19,a), each artery (cable) returns
to the same HV/MV source substation, and there arent any transversal connections
between the loops.
In the case of the spindle structure (Fig. 1.19,b), all cables are supplied from
the same transformer substation source (S) and their ends converge to a common
bus, called reflecting bus (R).
A specialized complex device allows the connection of a backup cable that
brings the source substation to the reflecting node.
In the case of the ear structure (Fig. 1.19,c), the source substation supplies
one end of the working cable while the other end lies on a backup cable. The
networks using degree is good. The development around the same transformer
substation is economic and its performed in time. The length of the cables, their
number and the number of transformer points can be adopted according to the
loads evolution.
Direct distribution arrangements with overhead lines are used in rural areas.
They supply transformer points in derivation (Fig. 1.20,a) or radial tree
arrangement (Fig. 1.20,b).
In the first case different transformer substations back up the supply and there
is the possibility of separation at the middle of network. In the second case there is
only one supply source; during network faults the number of customers not
supplied is limited with the aid of circuit breakers and isolators mounted along the
main line or on some derivations.
The North American medium voltage network presents special features. They
result from the existence of single-phased MV/LV transformer points and from the
presence of the neutral wire and its ground connection. The medium voltage
network tree begins with a three-phase structure (3P+N), continues through three-
phase or double-phase ramifications (antennas), which in turn develop into single-
phase lines (1P+N). The MV and LV network, the public lighting and the
telephony network use the same poles.
The MV/0.4 kV transformer points can be of network type, which supply
domestic consumers or the low voltage public network, and of customer type,
which supply a single consumer: industrial, commercial, public utility or mixed.
Figure 1.21 presents the diagrams of some customers or mixed type transformer
points.
Power supply
TP Head of petal
transformer point
CB1 CB2
Supply
feeder
CB
F
MV/0.4 kV
CB1 , CB2 , CB - circuit breaker
F - fuse
TP - MV/0.4 kV transformer point
a.
Working feeder
Working feeder
TP
S R
S R
R R R
Backup feeder TP
S - power supply (source) Backup feeder

R - reflection point
TP - transformer points
b. c.
Fig. 1.19. MV underground networks in interrupted artery arrangement (EdF).
MV MV
S1 S2
110 kV / MV 110 kV / MV
substation substation
a.
Fig. 1.20. Direct distribution through medium voltage overhead lines: a. with backup from
two substation and derivation supply of the transformer points.
HV/MV source
(circuit breaker bay)
Main line
Secondary line
ACB
DS
ACB
DS
DS
ACB - Automatic circuit breaker
DS - Disconnector switch
b.
Fig. 1.20. Direct distribution through medium voltage overhead lines: b. radial-tree diagram.
MV MV
MV cable
MV cable
1x 400 kVA 2 x 400 kVA
or or
1x 1600 kVA 2 x1600 kVA
ABT ABT
0.4 kV 0.4 kV
a. b.
MV
ABT Automatic Bus Transfer
MV cable MV cable
Fig. 1.21. Diagram of customer and mixed

ABT type transformer point: a. one transformer;
0.4 kV b. two transformers and common low
voltage busbars; c. two transformers and
c. sectionalised low voltage busbars.
c3. Low voltage distribution networks. The low voltage networks structure is
imposed by the loads density, by the medium voltage network configuration, by
the number of MV/LV transformer points and by the consumers requirements
(allowed outages number and duration).
The rural and urban low voltage networks from the suburbs operate in normal
conditions in radial arrangement (Fig. 1.22,a) with overhead and underground
lines. A more recent solution uses aerial mounted insulated twisted wires. The
solution is very economical in rural areas, suburbs or small cities.
Central areas of the cities and some significant loads are supplied from
looped networks (Fig. 1.22,b). The diagram from Figure 1.22,b1 has the main
disadvantage that a line fault causes the outage of the entire LV line. Figure 1.22,b2
avoids this inconvenient with the help of fuse (F). If a fault occurs, the fuse
separates the network in two parts, and by melting at the faulted end, insures the
faults isolation. The diagram in Figure 1.22,b3 insures better safety. The network
operates in radial arrangement and if a fault occurs in the transformer point, the
corresponding fuse is removed and the circuit breaker is closed.
The way the transformers medium voltage side is supplied divides the
looped networks into three types: longitudinal looped (Fig. 1.23,a), transversal
looped (Fig. 1.23,b) and mixed (Fig. 1.23,c). Big cities, with big load densities (10-
15 MVA/km2) have mesh type looped networks. In mesh networks the low voltage
lines are connected to all possible buses and the network is supplied through
medium voltage distribution cables departing from the busbars of the same
substation. The special technical and economical advantages of the complex looped
networks are:
high degree of supply continuity;
high quality of delivered power, since the consumers voltages are
levelled on the entire area;
proper balancing of the network, due to the loads even repartition;
adaptability to load development, because the looped networks are
designed from beginning to meet future rises in power consumption.
TP1
TP1 TP2 TP1 TP2 TP1 TP2
TP2
a. b1. b2. b3.

Fig. 1.22. Low voltage networks: radial (a); looped (b1, b2, b3).
MV
0.4 kV
a.
MV
0.4 kV
0.4 kV
MV
b.
Fig. 1.23. Looped low voltage networks: a. longitudinal; b. transversal.
c.
Fig. 1.23. Looped low voltage networks: c. mixed.
Substation busbars
s
ble
ca
V
CB
M
Transformer
points
Distribution box
Branch
Fig. 1.24. Complex looped network of mesh type.

1.2. Electric power systems components modelling

under steady-state conditions
Generally, the components of an electric circuit are resistors, reactors,
capacitors and conductors to which correspond the following parameters:
resistance R, inductance L, capacitance C and conductance G. The same elements
can be found in various combinations in electric receivers, electric lines,
transformers and generator units.
The property of a circuit element to absorb electromagnetic energy and
transform it into thermal energy is called resistance. When an electric current is
passed through a conductor, this is getting heated and in the same time along it a
voltage drop occurs. In the case of an iron core coil (i.e., transformers,
autotransformers, generators, electric motors, etc.), this is getting heated also due to
the iron losses through hysteresis phenomenon and eddy current. Heat losses also
occur in the dielectric of capacitors pertaining of a circuit element when an
alternating current is passed through it.
Any circuit section is linked by a magnetic flux when an electric current
passes the circuit. In alternating-current circuits, the magnetic flux varies in time
and therefore in every circuit section appears a self-induced or mutual e.m.f. and
consequently, this circuit section is characterised by self and/or mutual inductance.
In any dielectric insulation surrounding one of the electric circuit elements
operating at alternating voltage there is always an alternating potential difference,
which generates an electric field of density D, which varies in time, and therefore a
displacement current = D t appears. Likewise, in the case of an electric line
powered at alternating voltage, the alternating current value along the conductors is
not constant because the current is split in every line section as displacement
currents.
Similarly with what happened into electric capacitors we can say that, in the
case of an electric line, there are electric phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground
capacitances. The same situation can be observed at the winding wires of
transformers and autotransformers. Between windings there is an alternating
potential difference and therefore there is an electric field variable in time and thus
a displacement currents also appear. This situation is similar to the loads
characterised by pure resistance where, due to the voltage drop across their
conductors generates an electric field around the conductors and thus displacement
currents.
Because the resistance of the dielectric insulation is not infinite and also due
to corona discharge, other active power losses occur, different from the losses in
resistance R, and thus another parameter is defined. This is called conductance,
noted by G, having inverse dimension of the electric resistance. This parameter is
due to the leakage currents in the insulators of the overhead electric lines, between
phases or between phases and ground, and in the insulation of underground cables.
The intensity of these leakage currents is highly dependent on the state of
conductors, atmosphere condition or operating conditions. When these currents are

negligible, the conductance G is also negligible.
The parameters of an electric circuit are dependent on the characteristics of
materials from which the circuit is made: resistivity , magnetic permeability and
electric permittivity . These material quantities are not constant and depend on
other values such as temperature, the current passing through the circuit or the
terminal voltage (especially, in the case of iron core saturation of electric
equipment). In some cases this dependence is small and can be negligible, so it can
be assumed that the electric circuit parameters are irrespective of the current or
voltage. Under these considerations the circuits are called linear circuits; otherwise
the circuits are nonlinear. In this chapter we will consider only the case of linear
circuits.
1.2.1. Loads (consumers) modelling

An electric consumer consists of a set of electric receivers. In an electric
receiver the electromagnetic energy is transformed into other forms of energy.
The load modelling is a difficult issue due to some objective factors such as:
huge number of electric receivers from complex consumer structure;
lack of accurate information related to the consumer components;
fluctuation of consumer structure in terms of day time, climatic conditions,
evolution of technology, etc.;
uncertain characteristics of the consumer components, respectively of
electric receivers in terms of voltage and frequency variation.
In terms of the goal of the proposed analysis, the load modelling has distinct
forms and specific approaches. In power systems practice three classes of issues
are identified, every one necessitating an adequate modelling of the load: steady
states calculation, emergency conditions calculation and the power systems
planning and design, respectively.
In this chapter the load modelling under steady state conditions is considered,
being symmetrical and balanced regime. Nowadays, in most of the cases the load
modelling for the steady state calculation is based on deterministic approach,
neglecting the random character of the power consumption. Instead, there are also
studies based on probabilistic approaches.
The power receivers of a complex consumer have variations of demanded
power, more or less time pronounced, by the hours of the day (hourly variations) or
by the days of the year (seasonal variations). These variations in time of the power
demand by a consumer are illustrated in daily load curves, respectively in yearly
load curves.
Based on these curves and using specific analysis, it can be determined the
calculation load of a certain consumer. It should be mentioned that it is about a
constant calculation load value determined for a balanced consumer, at a certain
instant of time and under nominal voltage and frequency conditions as well.
Basically, the deterministic model of the load assumes providing information

related to the power demand by the consumer at a certain instant of time. Although
the determination procedure uses static analysis and admits the randomness of the
nodal consumer, the calculation load obtained in this way is specific only for a
certain instant of time, decreasing the accuracy of the model.
Because in most cases the voltage at the consumer terminals is different from
the nominal voltage, and also the frequency is different from the nominal one, the
load modelling through static load characteristics is performed. In terms of the
dependence of the power on the terminal voltage and frequency, two load models
are defined:
Static load model, which expresses active and reactive powers at any
instant of time, in terms of voltage and frequency at that instant of time,
either as polynomial form or exponential form. The static model is
currently used for normal steady state calculation;
Dynamic load model, which expresses active and reactive powers at any
instant of time, in terms of voltage and frequency at that instant of time as
well as at the foregoing times, by using differential equations. The
dynamic models are used for emergency operating conditions.
The static characteristics have the following general form:
P = P ( f , U ) , Q = Q( f , U ) (1.1)
The most used expressions of the active and reactive powers have one of the
following forms, called polynomial model (1.2):
( )
P( f ,U ) = P0 a U 2 + b U + c (1 + g f )
(1.2)
Q( f ,U ) = Q (d U
0
2
)
+ e U + q (1 + h f )
respectively exponential model (1.3) and (1.4):

U f
U f
P( f , U ) = A
U nom f nom
(1.3)
U f
U f
Q( f , U ) = B
U nom f nom
or
u
U
P = P0 (1 + g f )
U nom
(1.4)
u
U
Q = Q0 (1 + h f )
U nom
where: a, d are constants deriving from the load modelling through constant
impedance;
b, e constants deriving from the load modelling through constant
current;
c, q constants deriving from the load modelling through constant
power;
g, h constants indicating the variation of P and Q with frequency;
A, B quantities calculated with the expressions (1.3), in terms of the
steady state results when U = Un, f = fn;
u, u coefficients that take into account the variation of the active and
reactive powers with the voltage;
f, f coefficients that take into account the variation of the active and
reactive powers with the frequency.
In literature, complex studies for the determination of a, b, , h and f, u,
f, u coefficients are given. The values of these coefficients depend upon:
consumer type: complex, residential, commercial, industrial, agricultural,
fluorescent lamps, arc bulbs, air-conditioned installations, domestic
consumption, asynchronous motors, synchronous motors, inductive loads,
electric heating, electrochemistry factories, arc furnace, static converters,
and so on;
period of the year: summer or winter;
geographical area: north, south, east, west;
load power factor.
If information about the electric consumer is not available, average value of
the coefficients might be used (Table 1.1).
Table 1.1
coefficient f f
u u
consumer
Complex 0.7 ... 1.2 0.6 ... 1.5 1 ... 2 0.6 ... 0
Residential 1 ... 1.5 0.5 1 ... 1.4 0.7
Commercial 1.2 0.185 1.17 0.488
Industrial 0.7 ... 1.5 1 ... 2
Generally, active power consumption modelling is a compromise between the

consumption by resistive loads type and by electric motors type (closer to constant
power modelling). In terms of the complex consumer structure (preponderance of
resistance consumption or of motors) impedance or constant power modelling
might be used.
From the general model (1.2) the following particular static models results:
constant impedance model, where the power vary direct-proportional with
the voltage magnitude square;
P ~U2; Q ~U2 (1.5)
the model where the power varies direct-proportional with the voltage
magnitude;
P ~U ; Q ~U (1.6)
constant power model, where power demanded by the consumer is
independent by the voltage;
P ~ const. ; Q ~ const. (1.7)
Usually, the loads are modelled through its active and reactive powers, as
shown in Figure 1.25,a. It is possible to consider the same load through series or
parallel combinations of resistance and reactance of constant values (Fig. 1.25,b,c).
U U U
RS
IS Xp IXp IRp Rp
XS
P+jQ
a. b. c.
Fig. 1.25. Load modelling: a. constant powers; b. series impedance; c. parallel
impedance.
In the case of complex apparent power S s = P + jQ modelling through

series impedance Z s = R s + jX s , the values of resistance Rs and of reactance Xs
can be inferred from the expressions of the current:
U
Is =
R s + jX s
and of the complex power:
U2 U2
*
S s = P + jQ = U I s = = 2 (Rs + jX s )
R s jX s R s + X s2
Equating the real and imaginary parts it results:

U 2 Rs U 2Xs
P= ; Q=
R s2 + X s2 R s2 + X s2
then:
P2 + Q2 =
(
U 4 Rs2 + X s2 ) =U 2 P
=U 2
Q
( Rs2 + X s2)2
Rs Xs
In consequence:
U 2P
Rs = (1.8)
P2 + Q2
U 2Q
Xs = (1.9)
P2 + Q2
where: Rs is resistance of the load series connected, [] ;

Xs reactance of the load series connected, [] ;
Zs impedance of the load series connected, [] ;
U phase-to-phase (line-to-line) voltage, [V];
P single-phase active power of the load, [W];
Q single-phase reactive power of the load, [VAr].
If the load is modelled through a resistance in parallel with an inductive
reactance:
U U2 U2
I Rp = ; P = UI Rp = ; Rp = (1.10)
Rp Rp P
U U2 U2
IXp = ; Q = UI Xp = ; Xp = (1.11)
Xp Xp Q
where: Rp is load resistance parallel connected, [] ;

Xp load reactance parallel connected, [] .
1.2.2. Electric lines modelling

An electric line is characterised by four parameters, having different physical
causes: resistance R, caused by electric resistivity of currents paths, inductance L,
which is the effect of the magnetic field, capacitance C, which is the effect of the
electric field, conductance G, caused by defective insulation and corona discharge
losses.
The resistance and inductance are included in the series impedance
z = R + jL , and the conductance and capacitance are included in the shunt
admittance y = G + jC . The presence of the impedance consisting of resistance
and inductive reactance leads to voltage variations along the line so the impedances
are so called series parameters, while the presence the admittance consisting of
conductance and capacitive susceptance C, modifies the currents flowing through
the lines conductors, through leakage currents appearance, and therefore they are
also called shunt parameters.
In Figure 1.26 are illustrated the series and shunt elements of a single-circuit
three-phase overhead line, operating under normal steady state conditions, for
which the following expression can be written:
V a = z aa I a + z ab I b + z ac I c = (Raa + jLaa )I a + jLab I b + jLac I c
V b = z ba I a + z bb I b + z bc I c = jLba I a + (Rbb + jLbb )I b + jLbc I c (1.12)
V c = z ca I a + z cb I b + z cc I c = jLca I a + jLcb I b + (Rcc + jLcc )I c
Va Ia
Ia zaa yab
Ib
Lab Vb
Ib zbb yca
Lbc Lca Ic ybc
Vc Va Vb
zcc
yag ybg
Ic
ycg Vc
Fig. 1.26. Series and shunt parameters of a single-circuit

overhead line without shield wire.
I a = y aa V a + y ab (V a V b ) + y ac (V a V c ) = Y aa V a + Y ab V b + Y ac V c
I b = y ba (V b V a ) + y bb V b + y bc (V b V c ) = Y ba V a + Y bb V b + Y bc V c (1.13)
I c = y ca (V c V a ) + y cb (V c V b ) + y cc V c = Y ca V a + Y cb V b + Y cc V c
Due to unbalance of some loads the mutual inductance has different values,
and then asymmetrical voltages appear. By manufacturing and operation (phase
transposition) means, the equality of self-impedances and self-admittances
respectively, and the equality of phase-to-phase mutual impedances and phase-to-
phase mutual admittances, are achieved:
z aa = z bb = z cc = z = R + jLself
(1.14,a)
z ab = z bc = z ca = jLm
and
Y ab = Y bc = Y ca = Y m = y ab = y bc = y ca
Y aa = y aa + y ab + y ac
(1.14,b)
Y bb = y ba + y bb + y bc
Y cc = y ca + y cb + y cc
Note that, also, under normal steady state conditions, electric generators
generate an e.m.f. of a, b, c sequence also called positive or direct sequence. The
voltages, currents, impedances and admittances of this operating regime are
considerate of positive/direct sequence.
The normal steady state is considered as perfect symmetrical and balanced;
therefore, the following equalities can be defined:
V a +V b +V c = 0
(1.15)
Ia + Ib + Ic = 0
Taking into account (1.14) and (1.15), expressions (1.12) and (1.13) become:
( )
V a = ( z z m ) I a = z I a = R + j ( Lself Lm ) I a = R + jL+ I a
+
( )
V b = ( z z m ) I b = z I b = R + j ( Lself Lm ) I b = R + jL+ I b (1.16)
+
( )
V c = ( z z m ) I c = z I c = R + j ( Lself Lm ) I c = R + jL+ I c
+
I a = (Y Y m ) V a = Y V a
+
I b = (Y Y m ) V b = Y V b
+
(1.17,a)
I c = (Y Y m ) V c = Y V c
+
If the conductance is neglected, the admittance y becomes of jC form, and

thus the expressions (1.17,a) become:
I a = j ( Cself + 3Cm ) V a = jC + V a
I b = j ( Cself + 3Cm ) V b = jC + V b (1.17,b)
I c = j ( Cself + 3Cm ) V c = jC + V c
Equations (1.16) and (1.17) shows that under perfect symmetrical conditions,
by design, the scheme from Figure 1.26 can be replaced by a three-phase network,
where the phases are electrically and magnetically decoupled. Under these
considerations, the series and shunt elements from Figure 1.26 are replaced as
shown in Figure 1.27, where positive/direct sequence impedances and admittances
are considered.
Ia
Ib
Ic
z
Ia
z
Ib
z y y y
Ic
a. b.
Fig. 1.27. Three-phase line of direct/positive sequence: a. series elements; b. shunt
elements.
Therefore, under steady state conditions, the three-phase line can be replaced
by three independent single-phase lines, with no electric or magnetic coupling, and
with currents and voltages shifted only by 120 and 240 degrees. In consequence,
steady state analysis can be performed only for a single-phase line, whose
parameters are called service line parameters.
The service inductance of a three-phase electric line represents the ratio of the
total magnetic field flux, generated by the currents on the three phases linking the
conductor of one phase, to the current flowing through it. The service inductance is
the positive/direct sequence inductance and is denoted by L+ or more simple by L.
The service capacitance of a three-phase electric line represents the ratio of
electric charge of one phase conductor (to which contributes the electric charges
from all the others conductors) to the potential of respective conductor, measured
with respect to a reference potential (earth or metallic shell of a cable).
In this way, the three-phase system (or in the general case, a multi-phase
system) can be replaced with a single-phase system, which has only one
capacitance with respect to the reference potential, determined in terms of all
capacitances of the real three-phase (multi-phase) system. The service capacitance
represents the direct/positive sequence capacitance and is noted by C + or more
simple by C.
The service parameters or direct/positive sequence parameters are, in general,
given in per unit length, usually 1 km, called per unit length parameters and are
noted by r0 , l0 , c0 , g 0 .
1.2.2.1. Electric resistance

The electric resistance of electric lines conductors is the most important
cause of the active power losses ( P ) in electric lines. The effective resistance of a
conductor is given by formula:
P
R = 2 [ ] (1.18,a)
I
where P is expressed in watts, and I represents the actual value of the current, in
ampere.
The effective resistance is equal to direct-current resistance of the conductor
only if the distribution of current throughout the conductor is uniform.
In direct current, the expression of resistance Rdc is as follows:
l l
Rdc = = [] (1.18,b)
s s
where: is electric resistivity of conductor, [ mm2/m];

conductivity of material, [m/ mm2];
l conductors length, [m];
s cross-sectional area, [mm2].
On the hypothesis of specific resistance varying linear with temperature, its
value at a certain temperature C is determined in terms of electric resistivity
at 20 C:
= 20 [1 + 20 ( 20 )] (1.19)
where 20 is temperature coefficient at 20 C. For usual calculations the following
values are considered: Cu = 0.00393 ; Al = 0.00403 ; Fe = 0.0062 .
The electric resistance R2 of a conductor at the temperature 2 can also be
determined with formula:
R 2 T0 + 2
= (1.19')
R1 T0 + 1
where: R1 is resistance of conductor at temperature 1, in ;

R2 resistance of conductor at temperature 2, in ;
1, 2 conductor temperatures, in C;
T0 constant depending on the material type having the values: 234.5 C
for annealed copper, 241 C for hard-drawn copper, 228 C for
hard-drawn aluminium.
At temperature of 20 C, the electric resistivity of annealed copper is
1/58 mm2/m, and of hard-drawn aluminium is 1/33.44 mm2/m. The electric
resistivity of hard-drawn conductors is different form the above-mentioned
values due to the treatment applied.
In general, the conductors are manufactured in a stranded form (aluminium
conductor, steel reinforced ACSR). A stranded conductor is made from wires
disposed in layers, tight and spiralled in opposite directions. The resistance in
direct current of such conductor is calculated taking into account that the average
length of wire is 2 4% greater than the real length of conductor, for overhead
lines, and 2 5% greater for underground cables, and the cross-sectional area used
in equation (1.18,b) is determined by multiplying the cross-sectional area of one

wire with the number of wires.
The alternating current resistance is the different from direct current
resistance due to the following issues [1.16], [1.17]:
Skin effect consisting in non-uniformity distribution of current in the
cross-section of an electric conductor mostly when this is made from one or more
concentric circular elements. When a current is passed through a conductor this
generates a magnetic field that is stronger inside the conductor and its intensity
decrease towards the surface. In consequence, the self-induced e.m.f. in conductor
is higher towards centre of cross-section. Accordingly to Lenzs law the magnetic
field push the current to flow near the outer surface of conductor, thus total density
of current is smaller in interior and higher towards the surface. As the frequency of
alternating current increases so does the effect becomes more pronounced. Thus,
skin effect increases the effective resistance of conductor by reducing the effective
cross-section of conductor from which flow the current. Skin effect depends upon
the cross-sectional area, material type of conductor, frequency and magnetic
permeability. In literature, the influence of skin effect on the electric resistance is
given by Rac Rdc ratio, in curves or tables, in terms of the above-mentioned
parameters. For instance, for steel-reinforced conductor (ACSR) of 400 mm2 area,
Rac Rdc is equal to 1.0055.
Proximity effect leads also to a non-uniformity distribution of current, in
cross-sectional area of an electric conductor. For instance, in a single-phase electric
line consisting of two conductors (go and return conductors), the nearest parts of
the conductors are sweep by a stronger magnetic field than in the farthest parts.
Therefore, the parts of the conductor nearest each other have a lower inductance
value compared with the farthest ones. The result is an increased current density in
the parts of the conductor nearest each other, and a lower one in farthest ones. This
non-uniformity density of current increases the effective resistance. For usual
distances of the overhead lines operating at frequency of 50 Hz, this effect is
negligible.
The resistance of the conductor made from magnetic materials varies with
current magnitude because in the steel-core of the Al-Ol rope conductor the power
losses increase, especially when the number of layers is odd. Magnetic conductor
tables, such as ACSR conductors, contain values of electric resistance for two
values of the carried current, emphasizing this effect.
As regards the underground cables with high cross-sectional area, the above-
mentioned causes have a more pronounced character. Therefore, in alternating
current, power losses in conductors can be calculated with expression:
Pac = Pdc + Ps + Pp + Psc + Psh + Pt (1.20)
Expression (1.20) can be rewritten as:

(
Pac = 3Rac I 2 = 3I 2 Rdc + Rs + R p + Rsc + Rsh + Rt ) (1.21)
where: Rac is effective alternating current resistance;

Rdc direct current resistance;
I effective value of current flowing through conductor;
Rs , R p , Rsc , Rsh , Rt are incremental resistances due to skin effect,
proximity effect, screen wire losses, outer sheath losses and
protection tube losses.
In practice, for the calculation of Rs and Rp quantities, having a prevailing
effect, semiempiric formulae are used. When the cables are disposed in steel tubes,
due to the increase in magnetic flux, skin effect and proximity effect become more
pronounced.
1.2.2.2. Inductive reactance

For determination of inductive reactance, the following simplifying
hypotheses are considered:
(i) the distances between phase conductors are bigger compared with their
radius;
(ii) the current is uniformly distributed within the cross-sectional area of
each conductor;
(iii) there is no ferromagnetic material inside or outside the conductor;
(iv) the current in every conductor is constant along its length;
(v) the sum of instantaneous currents flowing through the n conductors is
zero, that is:
i a + ib + ic + .... + i n = 0
Under these assumptions, we may apply superposition for the magnetic
circuit of a solenoid with N turns.
The inductive reactance of a single phase from a multiphase electric line is
given by formula:
X = L = 2fL (1.22)
where: f is frequency, [Hz];
L inductance of a single phase, [H].
We next consider a multiphase electric line as a set of turns passed by
reciprocal influenced currents; first, the basic formula necessary for calculation of
the inductance of a solenoid with N turns (Fig. 1.28) [1.18] is determined, then the
general case of a multiphase system is treated.
2
3
Fig. 1.28. Flux linkage into a solenoid.
Starting from the magnetic circuit law we express the magneto-motive force:

mmf = H dl = i (1.23)
where: H is magnetic field intensity, [ampere-turns/m];

dl length element, [m];
i instantaneous current linking the solenoid.
According to Biot-Savarts law, the magnetic field intensity in any spatial
point is a linear function of all the currents that generates the respective field and
therefore it can be calculated by using superposition. The relationship law between
the magnetic flux density and magnetic field intensity (material law), in magnetic
medium with linear characteristic, is:
B = H (1.24)
where: B is magnetic flux density, [Wb/m2];
r relative magnetic permeability, [H/m];
0 magnetic permeability of vacuum, [H/m];
= r 0 absolute magnetic permeability of medium, [H/m].
The total flux through a surface of area A is the surface integral of the
magnetic field B, that is:

= B d a = B cos B, d a da ( ) (1.25)
A A
where d a is a vector perpendicular to the area element da.
When the vector B is perpendicular to the surface of area A, the relationship

(1.25) becomes:
= BA (1.26)
Due to the solenoid shape several magnetic fluxes appear, some of theme
linking only some parts of the solenoid, called leakage fluxes, as it can be seen in
Figure 1.28. The total leakage flux is determined by considering the contribution of
each turn:
N
t =
k =1
k (1.27)
where k is the sum of all fluxes linking the turn k of the solenoid. As illustrated in
Figure 1.28 this could have the expression k = 1 + 2 + 3 . The inductance of
the overhead lines can be calculated starting from the fundamental relationship
representing the ratio of the total magnetic flux, linking the surface bounded by the
contour of a circuit, to the current passing through the respective circuit, having a
linear dependency:
t
L= (1.28)
i
When there exist more circuits, in the same medium, that influence each
other, under the condition of linearity mentioned earlier, self- and mutual
inductances are defined.
Specific inductance calculation for an infinite straight conductor
In order to obtain an accurate value of the inductance of an electric
transmission line, the flux linkage inside as well as outside of each conductor must
be taken into consideration.
a. Flux linkage inside the conductor
In Figure 1.29 the cross-section of a cylindrical conductor in shown.
ds
x dx
Fig. 1.29. Cross-section of the conductor.
Let the magnetic field lines at a distance x meters from the centre of the
conductor and concentric distributed relative to the axis of the conductor. The
magnetic field intensity Hx is constant along these field lines and tangent to it. In
consequence, the equation (1.23) becomes:
H ds = H
x x ( 2x ) = ix (1.29)
where ix is the current flowing through inside the area x 2 .
On the basis of assumption of uniformly distribution of current, the current ix

is obtained by multiplying the total current i from the conductor with the ratio of
the cross-sectional area, passed by the current ix, to the total cross-sectional area of
the conductor:
x 2
ix = i (1.30)
r 2
from where it results the expression of the magnetic field intensity:
x
Hx = i (1.31)
2r 2
The value of internal flux is a percent of the linkage flux due to the total
current from conductor and is calculated with formula:
r
x x 2 i
int =
0
2
i 2 dx = 0 r
2r r 8
(1.32)
Results thus the internal inductance of a conductor:

int 0 r
Lint = = (1.33)
i 8
b. Flux linkage outside the conductor
Consider a cylinder of radius R , made from magnetic flux lines surrounding
an infinite length conductor of radius r. The flux linkage outside the conductor is
determined as volume integral inside the cylinder considered from radius r to
distance R where the magnetic field intensity has no longer influence.
1m
r
x dx R
Fig. 1.30. Flux crossing surface element da = dx 1.
If we denote by Hx the magnetic field intensity of the tubular element which

is x meters from the centre of the conductor, the magneto-motive force becomes:
2x H x = i (1.34)
where i is the current passed through the conductor.
Knowing that the relative magnetic permeability of air is r 1 and taking
into consideration equations (1.24), (1.25) and (1.34), the flux linkage outside the
conductor is:
R
i 0i R Wb

ext = B d a = 0
A
2x dx = 2 ln
r
r m
(1.35)
where: R is the distance meters from the axis of the conductor to the point
where H = 0 ;
r radius of the conductor.
The inductance corresponding to the flux outside the conductor is calculated

with expression:
R H
Lext = ext = 0 ln (1.36)
i 2 r m
Therefore, the generalised self-inductance of a massive conductor is:
0 R 1
L = Lext + Lint = ln + r (1.37)
2 r 4
Consider a system of two conductors of radii equal to r situated at the
distance D from each other, where one conductor is the return path of current for
the other. The two-conductors system forms a contour that bounds a surface linked
by the magnetic flux.
h
i i
r r
ground
Fig. 1.31. Two-conductors system.
Assuming that D is much greater than r, the inductance can be calculated

with formula:
D 1
L = 0 ln + r (1.38)
2 r 4
Relation (1.38) can also be written as:
0 D 4 D
L= ln + ln e r = 0 ln r (1.39)
2 r 2 r e
4
The expression of inductivity can be put in a more simple form noting by

re = r e r 4 the equivalent radius of conductor. Therefore:
0 D
L= ln (1.40)
2 re
For r = 1 (non-magnetic material) and massive conductor, it results
re = 0.7788 r . For stranded conductor, made from non-magnetic material, the
following ratios are obtained:
conductors with 7 wires re r = 0.725 ;

and for aluminium-steel conductors:
conductors with 30 wires re r = 0.826 .
Using the international system of units SI, where 0 = 410 7 H/m, r = 1

for dry air, and l = 1000 m, the inductance per unit length is obtained:
D D
L0 = 0.2 ln = 0.46 lg [mH/km phase]
re re
At frequency of 50 Hz the reactance per unit length is:

D D
x0 = L0 = 314 0.46 lg = 0.1445 lg [/km phase] (1.41)
re re
Thus, we can draw the conclusion that the reactance of an electric line does
not depend upon the current passing through the line.
Total flux linkage of a conductor, from an n-conductors system
Consider the general case of n parallel conductors (Fig. 1.32), representing a
multi-phase system under normal steady state conditions.
Conductor 1 H=0
d1
dk
D12
D1k
Conductor 2 Conductor k
Fig. 1.32. Contribution of current ik to the total linkage flux of conductor 1.
In order to define a contour, consider first an imaginary conductor that

constitutes the return path for the sum of currents from all phases (under normal
operating conditions the intensity of current flowing through the imaginary
conductor is zero). For symmetry reasons, this imaginary conductor is considered
parallel with the other conductors.
The distance between the real conductors is small enough so that they
influence each other. For simplicity, consider only the calculation of magnetic flux
linking the conductor 1, due to existence of the current from conductor k, the
currents from the other conductors are considered zero. Finally, we apply
superposition, which takes into account the influence of magnetic flux due to the
currents from the others conductors. As it can be seen in Figure 1.32 the magnetic
field lines due to currents ik are concentric circles.
Having the previous assumptions made, we may alike the general case of a
multi-phase system with the case studied earlier of a system with two conductors.
We denote by dk the distance from the centre of conductor k to the imaginary
conductor, where the magnetic flux intensity is zero, and by D1k the distance from
the centre of conductor 1 to the centre of conductor k. By applying equation (1.35),
the self-flux linking the circuit composed by conductor 1 and imaginary conductor,
due to current i1 in conductor 1, is:
0i1 d1
11 = ln [Wb/m] (1.42,a)
2 re
and the flux linking the conductor 1, due to the current flowing through conductor
k, has the following expression:
0ik d
1k = ln k (1.42,b)
2 D1k
Therefore, the total flux linking the conductor 1 due to the contributions of all
currents flowing through the n conductors is:
0 d1 d2 d d
t1 = i1 ln + i2 ln + ... + ik ln k + ... + in ln n (1.43)
2 re D12 D1k D1n
Expression (1.43) can be written as:
0 1 1 1 1
t1 = i1 ln + i2 ln + ... + ik ln + ... + in ln
2 re D12 D1k D1n
(1.44)

+ 0 [i1 ln d1 + i2 ln d 2 + ... + ik ln d k + ... + in ln d n ]
2
Knowing that the sum of instantaneous currents through the n conductors is
zero:
i1 + i2 + ... + ik + .... + in1 + in = 0
we may express the current in in terms of the other n-1 currents [1.10]:
in = i1 i2 ... ik .... in1 (1.45)
Substituting the current in from (1.45) into (1.44) the following expression is
obtained:
0 1 1 1 1
t1 = i1 ln + i2 ln + ... + ik ln + ... + in ln
2 re D12 D1k D1n
0 d1 d d d
+ i1 ln + i2 ln 2 + ... + ik ln k + ... + in1 ln n1
2 dn dn dn dn
Considering the imaginary conductor is located at infinite distance with

respect to the real conductors, the logarithms of ratios of distances from real
conductors to the imaginary conductor tend toward zero so that the expression of
the total flux linking the conductor 1 get the form:
0 1 1 1 1
t1 = i1 ln + i2 ln + ... + ik ln + ... + in ln (1.46)
2 re D12 D1k D1n
Using self and mutual inductances, we can see that the expression (1.46)
represents the Maxwells law referring to inductances:
t1 = L11i1 + L12i2 + ... + L1k ik + ... + L1nin (1.47)
Therefore, in the general case of a system with n conductors, where the sum
of all currents is zero, the self-inductance Ljj and the mutual inductance Ljk are
given by expressions:
0 1
L jj = ln [H/m] (1.48,a)
2 re
0 1
L jk = ln [H/m] (1.48,b)
2 D jk

The above equations constitute the basis of practical evaluation of reactance
of the electric lines.
Inductance of a single-circuit three-phase overhead electric line
Let us consider a single-circuit three-phase overhead electric line (Fig. 1.33)
with unequal distances between phases.
Due to unequal spacing between phases it cannot be defined the inductivity
La assigned to the phase a that could be constant in time and cannot be say that the
flux a is proportional to the current ia (both in instantaneous quantities). For this
reason, we next consider the sinusoidal steady state so that we must express the
inductivity of a phase into the complex space:
a
La = (1.49)
Ia
By expressing the flux linking a phase it can be defined an operator, constant
in time, and an inductivity that allow coherent operations, into a complex space (of
pulsation ), that establish relationships between flux and current, electromotive

voltage and the derivative of current, etc.
D12
1 D23
2
D13 3 Fig. 1.33. Tower phase spacing of a

single-circuit three-phase overhead line.
Applying (1.46) for this case it results the expression of flux linkage of phase
a per unit length:
0 1 1 1
a = I a ln + I b ln + I c ln (1.50)
2 re D12 D13
In a three-phase electric system, symmetrical and balanced, the dependency

between the currents on the three phases is given by relationships:
I a = I a ; I b = a2 I a ; I c = aI a (1.51)
where
1 3 1 3
a = e j 2 / 3 = + j ; a 2 = e j 2 / 3 = j
2 2 2 2
Substituting expressions (1.51) into (1.50) obtain:
0 1 1 3 1 1
+ j 3 ln 1 =
a = I a ln + I a j ln + I
2 D12 2 2 D13
a
2 re 2
0 D12 D13 3 D13
= I a ln j ln
2 re 2 D12
Therefore, the inductance per kilometre of phase a get the form:
a 0 D12 D13 3 D13 '

La = = ln j ln La jL"a (1.52)
I a 2 re 2 D12
Observation: For the case when D12 = D13 = D the imaginary part becomes
zero, so that an expression similar with (1.40), corresponding to the case of the
two-conductor system, is obtained.
From (1.52) we can draw the conclusion that in the expression of inductance,
an imaginary part appears which leads to a supplementary resistance on phase:
( )
Z a = R + jL a = R + j L'a jL"a = R + L"a + jL'a (1.53)
By increasing the real part of the impedance, supplementary active power and
energy losses on the line appear. In order to avoid this, for symmetry of the circuit
and equilateral spacing between phases, the phase transposition method is used for
an electric line of length l (Fig. 1.34).
l/3 l/3 l/3

a c b
Ia
Fig. 1.34. Transposition
of the phases, without Ib b a c
return to the initial state, c b a
for a single-circuit three- Ic
phase overhead line. Section 2 Section 3
Section 1
Transposition cycle
Therefore, if apply equation (1.46), the average linkage flux of phase a is:

1 1 1 1
a , av = 0 ia ln + ib ln + ic ln +
3 2 re D12 D13

(1)
0 1 1 1
+ ia ln + ib ln + ic ln +

2 re D23 D21

(2 )

1 1 1
+ 0 i a ln + ib ln + ic ln =
2 re D31 D32

(3 )
0 1 1 1
= ia ln + ib ln + ic ln =
2 re GMD GMD
0 GMD
= ia ln (1.54)
2 re
where GMD = 3 D12 D23 D31 is the geometric mean distance between positions 1, 2
and 3.
Based on equation (1.54), the expression of average inductance per phase

becomes:
0 GMD
La , av = ln (1.55,a)
2 re
Knowing 0 = 410 7 H/m and considering the unit length of l = 1000 m, the
inductance per phase and kilometre is obtained:
GMD GMD
L0 = 0.2 ln = 0.46 lg [mH/km phase] (1.55,b)
re re
At frequency of 50 Hz the reactance per unit length is:

GMD
x0 = L0 = 0.1445 lg [/km phase]
re
Inductance of a double-circuit three-phase overhead electric line
Consider a double-circuit electric line with phase transposition, as shown in
Figure 1.35.
Considering that the two circuits are identical from manufacturing and
loading point of view then i a = i a ' , ib = ib ' , ic = ic ' .
The total linkages flux of phase conductor a from the circuit abc and of phase
conductor a' from the circuit a'b'c' on all the three transposition sections, is:
0 1 1 1 1 1 1
(a1) = i a ln + ib + i c ln + ia' + ib ' ln + ic '
2 re D12 D13 D11' D12' D13'
0 1 1 1 1 1 1
(a1') = i a ' ln + ib ' + ic ' ln + ia + ib ln + ic
2 re D1'2' D1'3' D1'1 D1'2 D1'3
0 1 1 1 1 1 1
(a2 ) = i a ln + ib + i c ln + ia' + ib ' ln + ic '
2 re D23 D21 D22' D23' D21'
0 1 1 1 1 1 1
(a2' ) = i a ' ln + ib ' + ic ' ln + ia + ib ln + ic
2 re D 2 '3 ' D2'1' D2 ' 2 D 2 '3 D2'1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1
(a3) = i a ln + ib + ic ln + ia' + ib ' ln + ic '
2 re D31 D32 D33' D31' D32'
0 1 1 1 1 1 1
(a3') = i a ' ln + ib ' + i c ' ln + ia + ib ln + ic
2 re D3'1' D3 ' 2 ' D3 ' 3 D3'1 D3'2
(1.56)
l/3 l/3 l/3

a c b
Ia
b a c
Ib
c b a
Ic
c b a
Ic
b a c
Ib
a c b
Ia
1 3 1 3 1 3
2 a 2 2 b 2 2 b a 2
b 3 1 b a 3 1 a c 3 1
a b a b
Section1 Section 2 Section 3
Transposition cycle
Fig. 1.35. Double-circuit line with phase transposition. The position of transposition
sections 1, 2 and 3.
The average linkage flux of any of the two phase conductors a or a' is:
(1) (1) (2 ) (2 )
1 a + a ' a + a ' (a3) + (a3') 1 (1)
a , av = a ', av =
3 2
+
2
+
2 3
(
= a , av + (a2, )av + (a3,)av )

(1.57)
(1) (1)
a + a ' 0 1 1
(a1,)av = (a1'), av = = i a ln 2 2 +
2 2 2 re D11'
1 1
+ ib ln + ic ln
D12 D1'2' D12' D1'2 D13 D1'3' D13' D1'3
(a2 ) + (a2' ) 0 1 1
(a2, )av = (a2',)av = = i a ln 2 2 +
2 2 2 re D22'
1 1
+ ib ln + ic ln
D23 D2'3' D23' D2 '3 D21D2'1' D21' D2 '1
(a3) + (a3') 0 1 1
(a3,)av = (a3',)av = = i a ln 2 2 +
2 2 2 re D33'
1 1
+ ib ln + ic ln
D31D3'1' D31' D3'1 D32 D3'2' D32' D3'2
The following notations are adopted:
Dab , eq = 4 D12 D1'2' D12' D1'2
Dbc , eq = 4 D23 D3'2 ' D23' D2'3
Dac , eq = 4 D31 D3'1' D31' D3'1
GMRa = re D11'
GMRb = re D22'
GMRc = re D33'
Taking into account that i a + ib + ic = 0 , we obtain:
GMD
a , av = a ', av = 2 10 7 ia ln [H/m phase] (1.58)
GMR
where geometric mean distance GMD is defined by:
GMD = 3 Dab , eq Dbc , eq Dac , eq (1.59)
and geometric mean radius GMR is:

GMR = 3 GMRaGMRbGMRc (1.60)
According to equation (1.58), the expression of average inductance per phase

becomes:
GMD GMD
La , av = 0.2 ln = 0.46 lg [mH/km phase] (1.61)
GMR GMR
Inductance of a single-circuit three-phase overhead electric line, with
bundle conductors
In the case of extra high voltage powered electric lines, power losses due to
corona discharge and their influence on telecommunication lines become
excessively high if a single conductor per phase is used. The voltage gradient is
considerable decreased if instead of a single conductor per phase more conductors
are used, and the distance between the conductors of each phase is small as
compared with the distance between phases. Such conductors are called bundled
conductors.
Assume that instead of a single conductor, there are f conductors on each
phase, also called sub-conductors. In the following we consider the case of a phase
consisting of f = 5 sub-conductors, as shown in Figure 1.36,a [1.14].
The following assumptions are considered:
all the sub-conductors from the bundle have the same radius r, and the
current in each phase splits equally among the f parallel sub-conductors;
the distance D between bundle centres is much greater than the distance df
between the sub-conductors of the same phase.
6 7 r 3
10 8 2
9
13
D
D D
2
D1
1 12 2/n
D1
5 2 D 11
13
3
1 A
df 4 3 15 14
a. b.
Fig. 1.36. Electric line with bundled conductors: a. Phase spacing for the case of line
with 5 sub-conductors per bundle; b. sub-conductors spacing for the case of line with
f sub-conductors per bundle.
For the calculation of the total linkage flux of sub-conductor 1, from phase a,
by applying expression (1.46) it results:
0 ia 1 1 1 1 1
t 1 = ln + ln + ln + ln + ln +
2 5 re D12 D13 D14 D15
ib 1 1 1 1 1
+ ln + ln + ln + ln + ln +

5 D16 D17 D18 D19 D1,10
ic 1 1 1 1 1
+ ln + ln + ln + ln + ln = (1.62)
5 D1,11 D1,12 D1,13 D1,14 D1,15

0 ia 1 i 1
= ln + b ln +
2 5 (re D12 D13 D14 D15 ) 5 D16 D17 D18 D19 D1,10 ( )
ic 1
+ ln
5 (
D1,11D1,12 D1,13 D1,14 D1,15 )

where D1j is the distance from the sub-conductor 1 to sub-conductor j, j = 2, 3, ..., 15.
0 1 1 1
t1 = ia ln + ib ln + ic ln (1.63)
2 GMR f GMD1b GMD1c
where the following definitions have been introduced:

GMR f = 5 re D12 D13 D14 D15 is geometric mean radius of the bundle;
GMD1b = 5 D16 D17 D18 D19 D1 10 geometric mean distance from conductor 1 to
phase b;
GMD1c = 5 D1,11D1,12 D1,13 D1,14 D1,15 geometric mean distance from conductor 1 to
phase c.
Considering the phases are located in an equilateral triangle corners that is

GMD1b = GMD1c = D , and ia + ib + ic = 0 , the expression (1.63) becomes:
0 D
t 1 = ia ln (1.64)
2 GMR f
In order to calculate the inductance per kilometre of conductor 1, we take into

account the fact that the intensity of current passed through the conductor 1 is 1/5
from the total current per phase. Thus:
t1 5 0 D
L1 = = ln (1.65)
ia 2 RMG f
5
Next, calculating the total linkage flux t 2 of conductor 2, we find the same
geometric mean radius GMRf. Due to the large distances between phases, we can
consider that the inductances of the five parallel conductors of a phase are
approximately equal L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 , so that:
L1 0 D D
La = = ln = 2 10 4 ln [H/km phase] (1.66)
5 2 GMR f GMR f
In the particular case of f conductors per bundle, symmetrical spaced along a

circle of radius A, the distances between the sub-conductors of a phase, from
equation (1.62), can be calculated with:

D12 = 2 A sin
f
2
D13 = 2 A sin
f
#
( f 1)
D1 f = 2 A sin
f
respectively
2 ( f 1)
D12 D13 " D1 f = A f 1 2 sin 2 sin 2 sin = A f 1 f (1.67)
f
f
f
where the following trigonometric identity has been used:
2 ( f 1)
2 sin 2 sin " 2 sin = f (1.68)
f f f
Therefore, in this case, for the geometric mean radius and geometric mean
distances, the following expressions are obtained:
GMR f = f re A f 1 f
GMD1b = f D1, f +1D1, f + 2 " D1, 2 f (1.69)
GMD1c = f D1, 2 f +1D1, 2 f + 2 " D1,3 f
Considering that practical, the distances D1,f+1 . . . D1,2f . . . D1,3f are equal to the
distance between bundles centres, for the inductance La the same expression as in
(1.66) is obtained, where GMRf and GMDs are given by (1.69).
Application
Calculate the reactance of 750 kV single-circuit three-phase overhead electric line.
Each phase consists of Al-Ol conductors of 5300/69 mm2, and the conductors of bundles
are of radius r = 2.515 / 2 cm . The distance between the conductors of bundles, situated in
the corners of a pentagon, is df = 40 cm (Fig. 1.36,a). The mean distance between the
bundle centres of two different phases is D =17500 mm. Thus:
D12 = D15 = 40 cm , D13 = D14 = 2 40 cos 36 = 64.72136 cm
1/ 5
2.515 1 / 4
GMR f = e 40 2 64.72136 2 = 23.09 cm
2
Therefore, the inductance per kilometre, noted by La 0 , is:
17500
La 0 = 2 10 4 ln = 0.86559 mH km
230.9
xa 0 = La 0 = 314 0.86559 103 = 0.272 km
Considering the distances D between bundles centres are not equal and perform
phase transposition, obtain an average reactance of 0.2861 /km.
Underground electric lines have the same parameters as overhead electric
line: series impedance consisting of a resistance and an inductive reactance and
shunt admittance consisting of a conductance and a susceptance.
As compared with overhead lines there are some important differences such as:
cables are much closer to each other;
in the most cases the cross-section of underground cables is not of circle
form, being of circle sectors form more or less regular;
conductors are surrounded by other metallic objects (usually grounded),
such as screens, protection sheaths or steel tubes;
insulation material between conductors is solid (in the most cases) or gas.
This insulation material is mostly mixed than uniform because, in fact, it
consists of each phase insulation, as well as the filling material between
phases.
All factors enumerated earlier tend to complicate the calculation of lines

constants.
The closeness between phase conductors and the irregular forms of cross-
sectional areas tend to make non-uniform the distribution of field lines into cross-
sectional area as well as the displacement currents around the dielectric surface.
The non-uniform distribution of currents, eddy currents, secondary currents
induced in screens, sheaths, tubes, etc., modify the inductive, respectively
capacitive reactance, and adds supplementary active power losses. When the cables
have a mixed insulation, in addition to power losses by corona discharge that occur
in insulating gas, power losses in dielectric also occur. The complexity of
constants line calculation for underground cables is compensate by the fact that all
dimensions are kept at standard values and thus, the constants once determined are
available in tables and charts.
Therefore, if for overhead lines, in terms of the voltage level, the average
inductive reactance ranges in the interval:
x0 = 0.306 0.45 /km
for underground lines this value is:
x0 = 0.074 0.154 /km
1.2.2.3. Capacitive susceptance

Two conductors of an overhead electric line, have a capacitance, which once
connected to an alternating voltage leads to the appearance of a current even for
no-load conditions. This current is bigger at the sending-end of the line and
decrease to zero towards the receiving-end of the line. Consequently, the receiving-
end of an electric line operating under no-load conditions has a capacitive power
factor.
An electric line has an intricate structure, such as the double-circuit three-
phase overhead line, with two bundled conductors, forming an assembly of 12
conductors, one or two shield conductors as well as the ground, which has
capacitances between pairs of conductors and between conductors and ground.
No matter how intricate is the geometry of a line an effective capacitance to
ground can be obtained. The determination manner of this effective capacitance is
presented in the following.
The capacitive susceptance per phase of a multi-phase line, is given by
formula:
B = C = 2fC (1.70)
where: f is frequency, [Hz];
C effective capacitance per phase, [Farad].
Consider first the case of an infinite straight conductor of radius r (Fig. 1.37),
belonging to an electric line, and then define a Gaussian cylindrical surface coaxial
with conductor axis, charged with instantaneous electric charge q.
E
r
D
R ds
Fig. 1.37. Cylindrical surface coaxial with conductor centre.
In homogeneous medium, the law of dependency between the electric field

intensity E [Volt/metre] and the electric field density D [Coulomb/metre2], is given
by relationship:
D = E (1.71)
where: = 0 r is electric permittivity, [F/m];
1
0 permittivity of vacuum, 0 = F/m;
4 9 109
r relative permittivity of medium, r = 1 F/m for dry air.
The value of electric flux density D, called also electric field induction, is
determined by applying the electric flux law along the cylindrical surface of radius
R, surrounding the conductor, as shown in Figure 1.37:
D d s = D 2Rh = q
A
(1.72)
with
q = ql h
where: D is electric flux density vector, [C/m2];
ds element area vector (perpendicular to the surface A), [m2];
A closed surface area, [m2];
q algebraic sum of all the line charges enclosed within surface A, [C];
ql charge density per unit length, [C/m];
h length of conductor, [m].
For R r , from expression (1.72) it results the magnitude of per length
electric flux density:
q
D= l (1.73)
2R
Let us imagine two points A and B located at the distance d A and d B
respectively from the centre of conductor in question. The point A is farther away
than B relative to the conductor. The potential difference between the two points A
and B is the line integral of the electric field E along any curve path joining the two
points (the potential difference is independent on the path followed in irrotational
field):
dB

VBA = VB VA = E d s
dA
(1.74)
Taking account of equations (1.71) and (1.73) equation (1.74) becomes:

dB
ql ql dA
VBA = VB VA = 2R dR = 2 ln d
dA B
(1.75)
Consider now two parallel conductors a and b of equal radii ra = rb = r

located at the distance D from each other (Fig. 1.38).
electric field
lines
equipotential
lines
qa qb
r r
V =0
Fig. 1.38. Cross section of a two-conductor system.
The voltage between the two conductors is determined considering the

contribution of the electric charge from each conductor:
qa D q r
Vab = ln + b ln (1.76)
2 r 2 D
Since the two conductors are charged with electric charges of equal values
but opposite in sign, that is qa = qb , obtain:
qa D r q D
Vab = ln ln = a ln (1.77,a)
2 r D r
If consider that conductor b is the image of conductor a then the potential of
conductor a relative to the point of potential zero (or to ground), that is at the half
distance between the two conductors (Fig. 1.38), is:
Vab q D
Va = = a ln (1.77,b)
2 2 r
The capacitance between the two conductors is given by:
qa
Cab = = (1.78,a)
Vab ln D
r
We can also express the capacitance to ground:
qa 2
CaN = CbN = = Fm (1.78,b)
Va ln D
r
The real situations consists of multiphase systems so that let us consider the
case of n parallel conductors that carry the line charges q1 , q2 , , qn , located
above a perfectly conducting earth plane as shown in Figure 1.39.
conductor 2
M
q2 conductor k
DM1
DM2 DMk DMn
q1
qn
qk
conductor 1
conductor n
V=0
Fig. 1.39. n conductors system.
In this case the following assumptions are considered:

the distance between conductors is much greater than their radius; in
consequence, the distribution of a charge on a conductor is not influenced
by the presence of the charges from the other conductors;
charges are uniformly distributed on conductors;
the dielectric is assumed to be linear, so that superposition for fields and
potentials can be applied;
the sum of instantaneous values of the n electric charges from the n
conductors is zero:
q1 + q 2 + ... + q k + ... + q n = 0 (1.79)
because the regime studied is assumed to be normal steady state.
The real overhead electric lines have the parallel conductors so that the cross
sections are located in the same plane (two-dimensional space), therefore, we may
define the potential of a point M relative to the n conductors system by formula:
1 n 1
VM =
2 k =1
qk ln
DMk
(1.80)
The individual terms in expression (1.80) are referred to as logarithmic

potentials and can be viewed as the individual contributions of each conductor
charge to the total potential of point M [1.8, 1.18]. Notice that the theory of the
logarithmic potential is valid in a plane-parallel space.
The main application of (1.80) is to calculate the transmission line
capacitance in terms of potentials and electric charges of conductors. For example,
the voltage of a point on the surface of conductor 1 with respect to the whole
system of charges is easily determined if consider that the point M is located on
conductor 1:
1 1 1 1 1
V1 = q1 ln + q2 ln + ... + qk ln + ... + qn ln (1.81)
2 r D12 D1k D1n
where: r is the conductors radius;

D12 distance from the considered point on conductor 1, to the centre of
conductor 2, and so on.
A similar expression as (1.81) can be written for any from the n conductors
(Fig. 1.39). Therefore, for the general case, we obtain n expressions as in (1.81),
which can be written as matrix form:
[V ] = [] [q] (1.82)
where: [V] is column vector of potentials with components V1, V2, ..., Vn;
[q] column vector of electric charges with components q1 , q2 , , qn ;
[] matrix of Maxwells potential coefficients having the terms:
1 1 1 1
jj = ln ; jk = ln (1.83)
2 r 2 Dij
The capacitances can be calculated by calculating the inverse of matrix []:
[q ] = [ ]1 [V ] = [C ] [V ]
Notice that the matrix [C ] includes off-diagonal terms, that is, there are also
mutual capacitances. Under symmetrical and balanced steady state conditions, the
capacitance of one conductor in the presence of the others can be expressed as an
equivalent capacitance.
Capacitance of a single-circuit three-phase overhead electric line
For better understanding of calculation of electric lines capacitance consider
now the simple case of a single-circuit three-phase overhead electric line with
transposed conductors (Fig. 1.34).
Consider the expression of the average potential on the entire length of a

transposition cycle:
1
(
Va , av = Va(1) + Va(2 ) + Va(3 )
3
) (1.84)
where Va(1) is the potential in a point situated on conductor a from the first
transposition section.
The conductors radii of the three phases are equal each other and equal to r.
1 1 1 1
Va , av = qa ln + qb ln + qc ln +
3 2 r D12 D13
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ qa ln + qb ln + qc ln + qa ln + qb ln + qc ln
r D23 D21 r D31 D32
or
1 1 1 1
Va , av = qa ln + qb ln + qc ln (1.85)
2 r 3 D D D 3 D D D
12 23 31 13 21 32
Under normal steady state conditions the per unit length electric charges qa ,
qb and qc of phases a, b and c satisfy the equality:
qa + qb + qc = 0 , that is qa = (qb + qc ) (1.86)
so we obtain:
1 GMD
Va , av = qa ln (1.87)
2 r
where GMD = 3 D12 D23 D31 .
Therefore, the per length unit average capacitance to ground is given by:
qa 2
Ca , av = = (1.88)
Va , av ln GMD
r
1
Knowing that 0 = F/m, r = 1 , length l = 1000 m and using lg
4 9 10 9
instead of ln, expression (1.88) becomes:
0.02415
Ca , av = 10 6 [F/km] (1.89)
GMD
lg
r
In a similar manner the average capacitance for a single-circuit or double-
circuit electric line with bundle conductors can be determined. In all these cases the
same mean distances and radii are used as for inductance calculation. The only one
difference is that the radius r of the conductor is replaced with an equivalent radius
Rf .
Application
For the same example of the 750 kV single-circuit three-phase overhead electric line
with bundled conductors let us calculate now the capacitive susceptance.
The average capacitance of phase a is given by:
0.02415
Ca , av = Cb, av = Cc , av = 10 6 (1.90)
GMD
lg
Rf
where the equivalent radius Rf is:
1/ 5
2.515
R f = (rD12 D13 D14 D15 )1 5 = 40 2 64.72136 2 = 242.7398 mm
2
Hereby obtain:
314 0.02415 6
ba , av = bb, av = bc , av = Ca , av = 10 = 4.0765 10 6 S/km
17500
lg
242.7398
that is a value very closed to the recommended one for an 750 kV overhead electric line, of
4.12 10 6 S/km, evaluated taking into account the inequality of the distances between
bundle centres and using the geometric mean distances.
Effect of earth on the capacitance
Consider also the case of single-circuit overhead electric line (Fig. 1.40). The
effect of earth can be taken into account by using the method of electric charges
images. These have a charge equal but opposite in sign and are symmetrically
located below the surface of earth. By applying the phase transposition in sections
2 and 3 of the line, only the conductors change their positions, the distances
remaining the same.
By applying expression (1.81), the potential of the conductor phase a,
throughout the section 1, is:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Va(1) = qa ln qa ln + qb ln qb ln + qc ln qc ln =
2 r H1 D12 H12' D13 H13'
1 H H H
= qa ln 1 + qb ln 12' + qc ln 13' (1.91,a)
20 r D12 D13
Likewise, the potentials of conductor phase a, throughout the transposition

sections 2 and 3, can be obtained:
1 H H H
Va(2 ) = q a ln 2 + q b ln 23' + q c ln 21' (1.91,b)
2 0 r D23 D21
1 H H H
Va(3) = q a ln 3 + q b ln 31' + q c ln 32' (1.91,c)
2 0 r D31 D32
qa 1 1
1
Cab a qa qc qb
Cac 2 2 2
qb b qb qa qc
qc 3 3 3q
Ccb c qc qb a
Cb0
Ca0 Cc0
H2 H1 H3
H12 H13 H2 H1 H 3 H2 H1 H3
ground
c c b a
qc 3 3 3
qb b b a c
2 2 2
a a c b
qa 1 1 1
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3
Fig. 1.40. Single-circuit three-phase line (with phase transposition)

considering the influence of earth.
The average potential of phase a, taking into consideration the expressions

(1.84) and (1.86), is given by:
3 D D D 3 H H H
qa 12 23 31 1 2 3
Va , av = ln (1.92)
2 0 r H12 ' H13' H 23'
3
From expression (1.92), the resultant capacitance of phase a can be expressed

as:
20
Ca =
GMD 3 H1H 2 H 3
ln
r 3 H12 ' H13' H 23'
If we define the geometric mean distances:

H mean, s = 3 H1H 2 H 3
(1.93)
H mean, m = 3 H12' H13' H 23'
it results:
20
Ca = (1.94)
GMD H mean, s
ln + ln
r H mean, m
or
20
Ca = (1.95)
GMD H mean, m
ln ln
r H mean, s
Notice that, by considering the influence of earth in expression (1.95), a

bigger value for capacitance compared with (1.88) is obtained, since
H mean, m > H mean, s .
Likewise, we can determine the influence of earth on service capacitance, of
a double-circuit line, of a line with bundled conductor, etc.
For the determination of service capacitance of a three-phase underground
line, the equipotential surface of conductors (plumbum or aluminium cover
surrounding the three phases) is replaced with a system of charges qa ' , qb ' , qc ' (the
images of charges qa , qb , qc with respect to a surface S), so that, in the resulted
electric field of the real charges and of their images, the surface S to remain
equipotential. The calculation goes on using the method presented earlier. The
service capacitance of a three-phase overhead line is much smaller than the service
capacitance of a three-phase underground line.
If the average capacitance per unit length for a single-circuit overhead line is:
C = (8 9.5) F/km
then for a three-phase underground electric line this has a value of:
C 23 F/km
1.2.2.4. Conductance
The conductance is the shunt parameter from the equivalent circuit of an
electric line and it corresponds to shunt active power losses, due to imperfect
insulation and corona discharge [1.1]. If note these losses by Pins , respectively by
Pcor , and line nominal voltage by U n , the conductance G L of the line is
determined with formula:
Pins + Pcor
GL = [S] (1.96)
U n2
a) Active power losses due to imperfect insulation
In the fixing points of the conductor on the electric tower, current leakages
through insulation towards ground occur, being more intensive as the atmospheric
conditions are worst.
Consider an insulators chain from an overhead electric line of nominal phase-
to-phase voltage Un = 220 kV that can be replaced with an insulating resistance,
under normal atmospheric conditions, of about 2.4109 /phase. Taking into
consideration that such line is equipped along one kilometre with 3 support chains,
it results that the insulating resistance is 0.8109 /phase, and the corresponding
conductance is GL=1.25 nS/km. In consequence, this conductance produces losses

2
9 220 103
per phase of Pins = GLU 2f = 1.25 10 20 W/km.
3
During unfavourable atmospheric conditions (rain, moist), the values of
losses increase 5-6 times, but remain negligible for calculations of operating
regimes. In polluted areas, due to intensive dirt deposition on the lines elements,
the conductance increases very much, up to 20 40 nS/km, but, taking into
consideration that by designing insulators chain that do not favour dirt deposition
are chosen, with self-cleaned glazed surface, or are periodically washed, in practice
the value of Pins is negligible.
b) Power losses due to corona discharge
These losses must be taken into account from the designing stage of the line.
Corona phenomenon is an incomplete and autonomous electric discharge and
occurs at the conductors surface, as a luminous corona accompanied by a
characteristic noise. This electric discharge appears when the electric field intensity
among conductors surface exceeds the critical value Ecr=21.1 kVrms/cm. It must be
mentioned that local increments of electric field may occur due to non-uniform
surface of conductors caused by mechanical damages, dust deposition, spots of
rain, wires spiralling or even by roughness of conductors surface.
Corresponding to critical electric field intensity, the critical phase-to-phase
voltage at which corona phenomenon occurs can be calculated with the following
formula:
GMD
U cr = 84 m1 m2 r n lg [ kV ] (1.97)
re
where: m1 is coefficient that take into account the conductors surface state,
being equal to 1 for smooth surface, 0.88 0.99 for roughness
surface and 0.72 0.89 for stranded conductor;
m2 coefficient that takes into account the atmospheric conditions; is
equal to 1 for nice weather and 0.8 for moisture and rainy
weather;
air relative density; under standard conditions of temperature and
pressure ( t = 25 C, p = 760 mmHg), =1;
r conductor radius;
n number of conductors from bundle;
GMD geometric mean distance between phases, [cm];
re equivalent radius of the conductor, [cm].
Expression (1.97) is valid when phases are equilateral spaced in the corners
of a triangle. Whether the conductors are placed in the same plane, the critical
voltage for the conductor from middle is with 4% less than, and for the conductors
from exterior is with 6% greater than the value calculated with expression (1.97).
In designing of overhead electric lines, corona discharge is verified for
operating regimes at voltages above 60 kV. The standards indicate that on dry
weather, the condition for which there are no power losses by corona discharge is
formulated as U n < U cr .
The calculation of power losses due to corona discharge, by using
experimental empiric formula is performed. For voltages above 110 kV and large
diameters, Peeks formula is the most used in this evaluation:
241
Pc = ( f + 25) re (U U cr )2 105 [kW/km] (1.98)
GMD
where: f is the frequency of electric network, [Hz];
U, Ucr the phase-to-phase network voltage and critical voltage, [kV],
respectively.
Peeks formula provides good results only for overhead lines operating at
voltages up to 110 kV and with not too large diameters of conductor. For voltages
above 110 kV and large diameters, the Petersons formula is used:
U2
Pc = 14,7 10 6 f F [kW/km] (1.99)
GMD
ln
re
where F is Petersons function and is dependent on the value of U/Ucr ratio. For
400 kV lines, the power losses due to corona discharge reach 5 7 % from Joules
losses, and for 750 kV lines, these are 4 times bigger compared with 400 kV lines.
Corona phenomenon leads to:
increase in power and energy losses;
decreasing of life time of conductors, fittings, clamps, caused by the
corrosion process, high frequency disturbances and slight hissing noises.
The avoidance of corona discharge appearance needs increasing of critical
voltage Ucr by:
increasing in conductors radii, leading to assembling and operating
difficulties of the line;
using bundle conductors, obtaining on this approach the increasing of
apparent surface of the sub-conductors group and the decreasing of the
critical field intensity at the conductors surface; this is the most used
method being the most widespread.
For cables, the conductance appears due to the power losses by ionization
phenomenon in the dielectric of cables, current leakages due to imperfect insulation
or to power losses due to magnetic hysteresis loop. For power losses assessment in
dielectric material the tangent of the angle of dielectric losses tan is used. For
110 kV and 220 kV cables the power losses in insulation increase up to
5 10 kW/km.
From the above presented issues, results that the conductance GL is a value
that can be determined only through experimental approaches; it varies generally
along the line, caused by line state, meteorological conditions and the voltage
variations as well.
In practice, the value of the conductance is considered within the interval:
(
GL = 0.97 10 8 27 10 8 ) S/km
1.2.2.5. Equivalent circuit of the electric lines

So far, the calculation manner of electrical lines parameters on length unit
has been shown, instead, the total impedance and admittance of the line is
calculated in terms of length l and the number of circuits n operating in parallel:
1
z= (r0 + jx0 )l = R + jX
n (1.100)
y 0 = n(g 0 + jb0 )l = G0 + jB0
The electric lines are classified by voltage level, its length as well as the
environment. In the modelling of electric line the most used is four-terminal
network, where the shunt admittance, which represents corona losses, leakage
current and shunt capacitive currents, is split equal to both input and output ends of
the equivalent circuit.
i R X k
B G B G
2 2 2 2
ground
Fig. 1.41. Equivalent model of electric lines.
In literature, overhead lines of length less than 80 km are classified as short

lines, for which the conductance and capacitive susceptance can be neglected
without influencing the accuracy of operating regimes of power systems
calculation. Thereby, the equivalent circuit of electric line is:
i zik=Rik+jXik k
Vi Vk
Fig. 1.42. Series equivalent line model.
For medium and long lines, due to high value of shunt capacitive currents or
for the cases when corona losses become significant, the shunt admittance is no
longer neglected. Obtain thus the equivalent circuit, which represents, with good
accuracy, the electric line.
i zik k
yik0 yki0
Vi Vk
2 2
Fig. 1.43. Equivalent circuit.
A more detailed theory of long lines parameters determination is presented in

Chapter 3.
1.2.3. Transformers modelling

The existence of electric transformers and autotransformers in the electric
networks makes possible obtaining different voltage levels. In actual electric power
systems, the transmitted power can suffer 4-5 voltage and current transformations
that make the rated power of all transformers from the system be 4-5 times bigger
than the rated power of all generators.
An important part of the transformers and autotransformers are manufactured
with two or more three-phase windings disposed either on common magnetic cores
constituting three-phase units or on magnetic cores individual to each phase,
constituting single-phase units.
Many transformers from the system are used for voltage and reactive power
control and because of that one winding is tapped.
In Figure 1.44, the simplified equivalent circuits of transformer and
autotransformer are presented.
V1 N1 V1 N1
N2 V2 N2 V2
a. b.
Fig. 1.44. Simplified equivalent circuits of transformers (a) and autotransformers (b).
Autotransformers are used when the transformer turns ratio is small. These
have also a third winding of small rated power, delta-connected, constituting
closing path for currents of the 3rd harmonic and multiple of 3, reducing on this
way the flowing of these harmonics in the network. Often, the third winding of
autotransformers is used for connecting synchronous compensators for reactive

power compensation.
Nowadays electric power systems, high voltage and ultra high voltage loops
often occur. The power flow control in these loops and preventing of electric
lines overloading are performed by means of special transformers with complex
turns ratio that modifies not only the voltage magnitude but also voltage phase
angle.
The transformers from electric power systems can be ordered on three
categories [1.11]:
step-up transformers, by means of which the generators are connected to
transmission network and transformers supplying auxiliary services;
coupling transformers which links different parts of the transmission
network, usually with different voltage levels, or which links the
transmission and distribution networks;
distribution step-down transformers which decrease the voltage level
according to the desired consumers voltage level.
1.2.3.1. Mathematical model and equivalent circuits

To study the two-winding three-phase transformers the model of a single-
phase transformer can be considered. This approach is based on the fact that the
magnetic core and the electric circuits are symmetrically manufactured, so that the
study of three-phase transformers, under symmetrical regime of phases a, b and c
can be performed by using the direct-sequence equivalent circuit of a single-phase
transformer.
Let us consider the magnetic circuit of a transformer with two windings
disposed on a common magnetic circuit called magnetic core (Fig. 1.45). One part
from the magnetic field lines are focused in the magnetic core, made from
ferromagnetic material with magnetic permeability > 0, constituting the utile
magnetic flux, and one part of them are closing through air constituting leakage
magnetic flux. By convention the winding that receive the energy from the network
is called primary winding and the one that send is toward the network is called
secondary winding.
Ni Nk
Ii i k Ik
Vi Vk
Ei Ek
Fig. 1.45. Two-winding transformer model.

By applying the law of electromagnetic induction along the magnetic circuits

Ei and Ek respectively, crossing the paths of primary and secondary windings,
obtain:
d

E ds=
dt
(1.101)
E
Applying (1.101) for the two paths corresponding to the two windings and
taking as reference the direction of current I i , for instantaneous quantities the
following system of equations can be written:
d i
vi + Ri ii = d t

(1.102)
v + R i = d k
k k k
dt
The magnetic fluxes i , k are the sum of the utile and leakage fluxes:
i = N i + Li , ii
(1.103)
k = N k + Lk , i k
where: Ni, Nk are number of primary and secondary turns;
Ri, Rk resistances of primary and secondary windings;
Li , , Lk , leakage inductances of primary and secondary windings;
fascicular flux common to the two windings.
Considering the sinusoidal steady state and expressing (1.102) as phasor
form, obtain:
( )
V i + Ri I i = j N i + Li , I i
(1.102')

(
V k + Rk I = j N k + Lk , I k )
The mathematical model of the electric transformer, under sinusoidal steady
state conditions, is described by the phasor equations of the two electric circuits:
V i + z i I i = N i E
(1.102'')
V k + z k I k = N k E
where E = j is e.m.f. (electromagnetic force) per turn of winding, and the
impedances of the windings are:
z i = Ri + j Li ,
(1.104)
z k = Rk + j Lk ,
Based on the system of equations (1.102"), we can draw a simplified model

of the two-winding transformer (Fig. 1.46).
Ii zi zk Ik
Vi Ni E Nk E Vk
Fig. 1.46. Simplified transformer model.
On the hypothesis of z i = z k = 0 , from (1.102") the equations of the ideal

transformer are obtained:
V i 0 = N i E
(1.105)
V k 0 = N k E
Based on the equations (1.105) it can be defined the transformer turns ratio
Nik, which is equal to the ratio between the number of turns of the two windings or
to the ratio of the no-load voltages at the two terminals:
N i V i0
N ik = = (1.106)
Nk V k0
The transformer turns ratio defined by (1.106) is, in this case, real; normally,
this is complex because there is a phase shift between secondary and primary
voltages.
In practice, the two-winding transformer is represented either as equivalent
circuit with magnetic coupling (Fig. 1.47,a) or as equivalent circuit with
transformer operator (Fig. 1.47,b).
Ii zi zk Ik Ii zi Nik zk Ik
Vi V i0 Vk 0 Vk Vi V i0 Vk 0 Vk
a. b.
Fig. 1.47. Two-winding transformer equivalent circuit: a. circuit with magnetic coupling;
b. circuit with transformer operator.
Further, if the Kirchhoffs theorem for magnetic circuits is applied along the
contour linking the magnetic circuit (Fig. 1.45):
H ds =
M
we obtain the expression of intensity of the total current (ampere-turns):

ik = N i I i + N k I k (1.107)
If assume that ik remain constant, because the permeability of magnetic

core is assumed infinite, for the load regime ( I k 0 ) as well as for no-load regime
( I k = 0 ), we can write ik N i I i 0 and ik N k I k 0 respectively. In the previous
relationships I i 0 is the no-load current if the transformer is supplied at the winding
i, and I k 0 is no-load current if the transformer is supplied at winding k.
Because the no-load current can be negligible compared with the load
current, we achieve:
Ni I i N k I k
and the turns ratio get the expression
Ni I
N ik = k (1.108)
Nk Ii
or
Nk I
N ki = i (1.108')
Ni Ik
If the first equation from (1.102'') is divided to the second one, and taking
into consideration (1.108) and (1.108'), the mathematical equations of the two-
winding transformer becomes:
z ik I i V i = N ik V k
(1.109)
z ki I k V k = N ki V i
where:
z ik = z i + N ik2 z k
(1.110)
z ki = z k + N ki2 z i
Under these circumstances, the two-winding transformer can be modelled

through an impedance series with an ideal transformer, for which two cases are
defined:
a. Equivalent circuit with transformer operator Nik and impedance z ik
referred to winding i (impedance z ik is galvanically connected to node i)
(Fig. 1.48,a);
b. Equivalent circuit with transformer operator Nki and impedance z ki
referred to winding k (impedance z ki is galvanically connected to node k)
(Fig. 1.48,b);
i z ik Nik k i Nki z ki k
Vi V i0 Vk Vi Vk0 Vk
a. b.
Fig. 1.48. Two-winding transformer equivalent circuit, with transformer operator:

a. step-up transformer; b. step-down transformer.
In consequence, the two-winding transformer is drawn as a branch

characterised by two parameters: either impedance z ik and turns ratio Nik or
impedance z ki and turns ratio Nki satisfying the system of equations (1.110). In
literature, the turns ratio is also defined as a:1 where a = N ik , respectively 1:a
1
where = N ki . Conventionally, the transformer operator replaces the ideal
a
transformer (without power losses).
If express z k from the second equation of (1.110) and substitute it in the first
one, obtain:
( )
z i + N ik2 z ki N ki2 z i = z ik
Knowing that N ik N ki = 1 we can obtain the relationship between

impedances and admittances referred to the two windings:
z ik = N ik2 z ki
(1.111,a)
z ki = N ki2 z ik
and
y = N ki2 y
ik ki
2
(1.111,b)
y ki = N ik y ik
where z ik = 1 y ik and z ki = 1 y ki .
If the admittance y i 0 = I i 0 V i 0 , noted with a supplementary subscript 0,

which represents the no-load power losses, is connected on the primary winding
side of the ideal transformer, then the turns ratio becomes (Fig. 1.49):
Ni Ik
N ik = (1.112)
Nk I i I i0
i
zi i i0 zk k
i0
Vi y i0 Vk
Fig. 1.49. The modelling of no-load power losses

in the two-winding transformer.
Further, if the admittance y i 0 is moved from the ideal transformer terminals
at the real transformer terminals, the product z i I i 0 can be negligible as compared
with the product z i I i . Keeping the no-load admittance y i 0 connected at i 0
terminals, then we obtain the equivalent circuit of two-winding single-phase
transformer (Fig. 1.50).
i zik Nik k i Nki z ki k
Vi yi0 Vk Vi y i0 Vk
a. b.
Fig. 1.50. Equivalent circuit of two-winding transformer, with transformer operator:
a. step-up transformer; b. step-down transformer.
Into large electric power systems, into transformers from connecting
substation, during different operating regimes, the power flow can change its
direction. In this case, for more accurate assessment of power losses, the equivalent
circuit of transformer is used, where the admittance modelling the power losses
is located at the input and output terminals (Fig. 1.51). The two shunt admittances
have different values because the admittance y ik 0 will be referred to winding i
while the admittance y ki 0 will be referred to winding k.
i z ik N ik k
Vi yik 0 yki 0 Vk
2 2
Fig. 1.51. Equivalent circuit of two-winding transformer

with transformer operator.
Autotransformers are usually installed into electric network loops where the
direction of power flow can be changed. Three-phase transformers and
autotransformers can be manufactured so that to provide both voltage magnitude

and phase angle regulation.
Phase-shift transformers provide a phase angle shift of secondary vectors
V k , I k related to the primary ones V i , I i (Fig. 1.52). Under these conditions, a
transformer has complex turns ratio N ik and provides phasor shift of angles
determined by the connection class:
N ik = N ik e j ik = N ik (cos ik + j sin ik ) (1.113)
where Nik is absolute value of turns ratio:

Vi ,n
N ik = (1.114)
Vk ,n
ik transformer turns ratio angle, [radians].
wmax ik
wc
wn
V
wmin
Vregulated
V
Fig. 1.52. Regulating voltage diagram of phase-shift transformer.

Phase shift transformers (known also as phase shifters), having a particular
connection of windings, are installed into electric network loops in order to change
the active and reactive powers flows.
Two cases are defined [1.12]:
a) Step-up transformer, with the secondary winding k tapped, having the
possibility to modify the number of turns (regulated winding), the regulated voltage
and the turns ratio values being calculated with formula:
V
V k , regulated = Vk + (wa wn )Vk (cos ik + j sin ik ) (1.115,a)
100
Vi ,n
N ik = (1.116,a)
V k , regulated
b) Step-down transformer, with the primary winding i tapped, having the

possibility to modify the number of turns (regulated winding), the regulated voltage
and the turns ratio values being calculated with formula:
V
V i , regulated = Vi + (wa wn )Vi (cos ik + j sin ik ) (1.115,b)
100
V i , regulated
N ik = (1.116,b)
Vk ,n
where: Vi, Vk are rated voltages of transformer windings connected at nodes i

and k;
wa actual tap label;
wn median tap label;
V percentage voltage step size.
If ik = 0 , transformer provides only voltage control;
If ik = 2 , transformer provides only shift in phase angle control and
thus active power redispatching;
If 0 < ik < 2 , transformer provides both active power and voltage
control.
To be mentioned that, usually, the winding with voltage control possibilities
is that of higher voltage because this is more accessible, and the current is lower.
For a better understanding of drawing manner of the two-winding transformer
equivalent circuit, let us consider the equivalent circuit case with impedance z ik ,
referred to i node, and complex turns ratio N ik , being the case of step-up
transformer, then we can design the generalised equivalent circuit (Fig. 1.53).
Ii i m z ik N ik (1-m) Nik2 z ik k Ik
yik 0 y ki 0
Vi Vk
2 2
Fig. 1.53. Generalised equivalent circuit with transformer operator.
The generalised model of the transformer with transformer operator consists

of an ideal transformer with complex turns ratio N ik , in series with an impedance
or admittance. The series impedance consists of two terms: m z ik , referred to
winding i, and (1 m ) N ik2 z ik which is proportional with the impedance z ik ,
referred to winding i.
It can be seen that by using the generalised equivalent circuit we can achieve
the transformer equivalent circuits corresponding to the two cases: m = 1 for step-
up transformer and m = 0 for step-down transformer.
For easier implementation of two-winding transformer mathematical model
into professional software for load flow calculation, galvanic equivalent circuit can
be used. In this respect, we consider the equivalent circuits of two-winding

transformer, with real turns ratio Nik (Fig. 1.48,a,b) and equations (1.109).
If the current I i is expressed from the first equation of (1.109) to which we
add and subtract the term y ik N ik V i , after rearranging the terms we obtain:
I i = y ik (1 N ik )V i + y ik N ik (V i V k ) I i 0 + I ik (1.117)
In a similar manner, if from the second equation of (1.109) we express the

current I k to which we add and subtract the term y ik N ik V k , then we obtain:
I k = y ik N ik (N ik 1)V k + y ik N ik (V k V i ) I k 0 + I ki (1.118)
where the equality y ik N ik = y ki N ki has been used.

Following the equations (1.117) and (1.118), the galvanic equivalent circuit
of two-winding transformer is achieved (Fig. 1.54).
yik Nik
Ii i k Ik
Vi yik (1-Nik ) yik Nik (Nik -1) Vk
Fig. 1.54. Galvanic equivalent circuit of two-winding transformer.
1.2.3.2. Transformer parameters

Two-winding transformer
Let us consider the equivalent circuit with transformer operator of the
transformer with parameters referred to winding i, for which we consider the two
operating regimes: no-load and short-circuit (Fig. 1.50,a).
Transformer parameters, series impedance z ik = Rik + jX ik and shunt
admittance y i 0 = Gi 0 jBi 0 respectively, are calculated in terms of its
manufacturing parameters.
In general, in catalogues the following specific parameters of the transformer
are given:
Sn is rated power of transformer, respectively autotransformer;
Ui,n rated phase-to-phase voltage of winding i;
Uk,n rated phase-to-phase voltage of winding k;
Psc active power losses under short-circuit test;
nom
usc [%] percentage voltage under short-circuit test;

P0 active power losses under no-load test;
i0 [%] percentage current under no-load test;

u p percentage voltage variation on tap;
wn median tap label.
In order to calculate the equivalent resistance Rik of the transformer consider
the short-circuit test, that is k 0 winding is short-circuited and the transformer is
supplied at i 0 terminals, so that the current from winding i is equal to the rated
current I i ,n . Based on the above-mentioned hypothesis, we obtain the expression
of active power losses:
Pscnom = 3 Rik I i2, n
Taking into consideration the relationship:

Sn Sn
Ii, n = =
3Vi , n 3 U i, n
it results that the transformer resistance is calculated with formula:

U i2, n
Rik = Pscnom [] (1.119)
S n2
In order to calculate the equivalent reactance X ik of the transformer, we

depart from the short-circuit voltage value:
usc [%]
Vsc = Vi , n
100
and taking into consideration that:
Vsc = zik I i , n
it results:
2
usc [%] U i , n 1 u [%] U i , n
zik = = sc [] (1.120)
100 3 Ii, n 100 S n
Knowing the two terms Rik and zik we can obtain the equivalent reactance of
transformer with expression:
X ik = zik2 Rik2 zik [ ] (1.121)
Observation: For transformers of large rated power zik >> Rik , so the
reactance X ik is identified by impedance zik .
In the case of autotransformers with tapped windings, in the calculation of the
short-circuit percentage voltage, the tap position is considered:
u sc = A(wn wa ) + B(wn wa ) + C
2
where A, B, C are constants given into autotransformers catalogues.

Concerning the equivalent conductance Gi of the transformer, consider the
no-load test characterised by the fact that k 0 winding operates under no-load
conditions and at i 0 terminals the voltage Vi , n = U i , n 3 is applied. For this
regime, the three-phase active power losses are given by:
2
U i, n
P0 = 3 Gi 0 Vi ,2n = 3 Gi 0 = Gi 0 U i2, n
3
from where it results the conductance of the two-winding transformer:
P0
Gi 0 = [S] (1.122)
U i2, n
In practice, the equivalent inductive susceptance Bi0 is calculated departing

from the transformer magnetising losses, therefore:
I0 i [%] 1 i [%] 3 U i , n I i , n i [%] S n

yi 0 = = 0 Ii, n = 0 = [S] (1.123)
Vi , n 100 U i, n 100 U i2, n 100 U i2, n
3
and the susceptance is determined with formula:
Bi 0 = yi20 Gi20 yi 0 [S] (1.124)
Three-winding transformer
In the catalogues of these transformers the following characteristics are
given: rated powers of the three windings SnI, SnII, SnIII, power losses under no-load
conditions P0, rated power losses under short-circuit test Pscnom nom
I II , Psc II III ,
Pscnom
I III , percentage short-circuit voltages u sc I II [%] , u sc II III [%] , u sc I III [%] .
In calculating the equivalent resistances of transformer windings, the rated

powers of the three windings must be taken into account. Hereby, three types of
transformers are defined [1.1]:
Type a. Case S n I = S n II = S n III
At this type of transformer, the winding resistances are referred to the same
voltage level and are calculated departing from the expression of power losses
under short-circuit test Pscnom , that are maximum at the rated loading of windings I
and II, winding III being no-loaded:
Pscnom = 3 R I I I2 + 3 R II I II 2
where: R I , R II are resistances of windings I and II referred to the same voltage

level;
I I , I II rated currents of windings I and II referred to the same voltage
level.
Since the rated powers of the two windings (I and II) are equal, the secondary
current I II referred to the primary winding is equal to the primary current.
Therefore, the expression of the rated power losses under short-circuit conditions
becomes:
Pscnom = 2 3 RT I n2
We can obtain, thus, the expression of the resistance
Pscnom U n2 U n2
RT = = Pscnom = Pscnom (1.125)
6I2 2 ( 3Un In )
2
2 S n2
2
Type b. Case S n II = S n I , S n III =
Sn I
3
At this type of transformer, the rated power losses under short-circuit test
Psc are maximum when the transformer is full loaded on the windings I and II,
nom
while the winding III operates under no-load conditions. The winding resistances
get the expression:
U n2
R I = R II = RT = Pscnom (1.126)
2 S n2
and
2
R III = RI (1.127)
3
Type c. This case is defined by two situations:
2 2
S n II = S n I , S n III = S n I
3 3
or
2 1
S n II = S n I , S n III = S n I
3 3
Similar to the previous cases, Pscnom is calculated as it follows:

Pscnom = 3 I I2 R I + 3 I II 2 R II + 3 I III
2 R III
=
2 2
2 3 I 3
= 3 I I2 RI + 3 I I RI + 3 I RI =
3 2 3 2
4 23 I I2 3 1 11
= 3 I I2 R I + 3 I I RI + 3 R I = I I2 R I 3 + 2 + = I I2 R I
9 2 9 2 2 2
The resistance of the primary winding RI is given by:
RI =
2 Pscnom 2
= Pscnom
( 3Un )
2
=
6 U2
Pscnom n2 (1.128)
11 I I2 11 ( 3Un In )
2
11 Sn
and
2
R II = R III
= RI (1.129)
3
It should be mentioned that in the case of three-winding transformers, RI, RII,
RIII define the winding resistances (primary, secondary and tertiary windings),
referred to the same voltage level, different by the case of two-winding
transformers were R define the total resistance of the two windings per one phase
referred to the same voltage level.
In calculation of inductive reactance, in catalogues are given the percentage
short-circuit voltages between two terminals being determined as follows: short-
circuit voltage between the terminals I and III ( u sc I III ) is obtained by supplying
the primary winding, the tertiary one being short-circuited, and the secondary one
operating under no-load conditions. Similarly, short-circuit voltages u sc I II and
u sc II III are determined. By analogy with the two-winding transformers, the
inductive reactances of the transformer windings can be expressed as:
u sc I II [%] U n2
X I II =
100 Sn
usc I III [%] U n2
X I III = (1.130)
100 Sn
u sc II III [%] U n2
X II III =
100 Sn
where: Un is voltage level at which the transformer parameters are referred;
Sn rated apparent power of the winding with the greatest value.
Knowing that:
X I II = X I X II ; X I III = X I X III and X II III = X II X III
it results:
X I II + X I III X II III
XI =
2
X + X I II X I III
X II = II III (1.131)
2
X + X II III X I II
X III = I III
2
The conductance and the susceptance of these types of transformers are
calculated in the same manner as for two-winding transformers.
1.2.4. Electric generators modelling

The electric generators are synchronous machines that represent the main
source of energy from the electric power plants. These can be divided into two
categories by the design model: hydro-generators, with isotropic rotor on the
directions of d and q axes, and turbo-generators, with anisotropic rotor on the
directions of the two axes. To simplify, we next consider a turbo-generator where
the synchronous reactances along the direct and quadrature axes are equal,
X S = X d = X q . The synchronous reactance of the generator is calculated with
formula:
x[%] U n2
XS = [ ] (1.132)
100 S ng
where: x[%] is percentage synchronous reactance;
Un phase-to-phase rated stator voltage, [kV];
Sng rated apparent power of generator, [MVA].
The synchronous generator is represented, in the direct-sequence circuit,
through an impedance, where the armature resistance is neglected, in series with an
electromotive force (Fig. 1.55,a). By optimum operating reasons in the system, the
generator is represented, under steady state conditions, through constant active
power, P = ct. , and constant terminal voltage, U = ct. (Fig. 1.55,b).
jXS jXS
P
I
E U E U
a. b.
Fig. 1.55. Direct-sequence circuit representation of electric generator:
a. XS = ct., E = ct.; b. XS = ct., P = ct. and E = ct. or U = ct.
The operating equation under normal steady state is:

E = U + jX S I (1.133)
Based on this equation, the phasor diagram is drawn, where the terminal
voltage of the generator is taken as reference (Fig. 1.56) [1.12].
P
A N
N C (I=ct)
E I UnEn
XS
Pn
jXS I UnIn
CE (E=ct)

U
O O Un2 O O
I XS
Qn
a. b.
Fig. 1.56. Phasor diagram of the synchronous generator under normal steady state.
To study the generator, the inductive operating regime is analysed, when

voltage lags the current by degrees. Under the hypothesis of constant terminal
voltage, a semicircle CE of centre O' and radius O'N is drawn, which represents the
geometric locus of the operating points with constant electromotive force.
Likewise, the circle CI of centre O and radius ON, which represents the geometric
locus of the operating points with constant stator current I = I or with constant
apparent power, is drawn.
Considering the rated operating regime, the powers diagram is obtained by
multiplying each of phasors, U n , X S I n and En by U n X S , where the phasor ON
becomes equal to the rated apparent power Sn. The intersection point of the two
circles represents the rated operating point, for which both the internal voltage E
and the armature current I are maximum. In order to draw the powers diagram, the
Cartesian coordinates system of axes P and Q of centre O, where the imaginary
axis is overlapped on the phasor U = U , has been chosen. The projections of Sn on
the horizontal and vertical axes represent the rated reactive power Qn , and the
rated active power Pn , having the expressions (Fig. 1.56,b):
EnU n
Pn = U n I n cos n = sin n (1.134)
XS
EnU n U2
Qn = U n I n sin n = cos n n (1.135)
XS XS
The main electric quantities that characterise a synchronous generator are
rated (active or apparent) powers, rated voltage and rated power factor. When the
generator operates under a given regime different from the rated one, the previous
enumerated quantities are large scaled, and comprised in a domain constrained by
the loading limits (Fig. 1.57) referred to as loading capability curve of the
synchronous generator. This is important to the power plant operators who are
responsible for proper loading operation of the generator [1.11, 1.13].
Mechanical limit
of turbine (L3)
P
Field current
Underexcitation Pmax (L2)
limit (L4) N
Armature
current (L1)
Minimum active
power limit n
(L5)
Pmin Q
Qmin O Qmax
O
Leading Lagging
Fig. 1.57. Loading capability curve of a synchronous generator.
Taking into consideration the complexity of the processes from inside the
synchronous machine, in order to draw the loading capability curve of synchronous
generator, the following hypothesis are considered [1.19]:
Armature resistance R=0 is neglected;
The magnetising characteristic is assumed linear E0 = f (I ex ) ;
Power losses by Joules effect in the armature windings as well as the
power losses in the armature core are neglected;
Synchronous reactance is constant X S = ct.
Starting from these hypotheses, the following operating limits of the

synchronous generator are defined.
a) Armature current limit (L1), Is,max, imposed by the heating limit of stator
windings. This limit is a circle of centre O and of radius UnIn that represents the
geometric locus of the operating points given by the expression:
S n2 = Pn2 + Qn2 = ( 3UnIn )2

(1.136)
Taking into account that the apparent power S must not exceed the rated
value, that is S S n , the operating point must be situated inside or on the limit
circle L1.
For a value of armature current greater than the limit value, the generator can
operate under secure conditions for a short period of time depending on the
measure of how much the limit value is exceeded.
b) Field current limit (L2), Ir,max. Providers of electric equipments specify
the maximum value of the excitation current Iex, imposed by the heating limit of
rotor windings. Likewise, there is also a limit value of the excitation voltage equal
to the rated one. Also, by secure operating reasons at motor torque shocks a
minimum value of the excitation current is imposed. The limit curve of field
current is a circle of centre O' and of radius proportional to the rated internal
voltage En.
As it can be seen in Figure 1.57, for an active power less than the rated power
Pn, field current limit is more restrictive than the armature current limit. The rated
operating point of the generator is the intersecting point of the two limits L1 and
L2 when the generator is used at maximum from the generated apparent power
point of view.
c) Mechanical limit of turbine (L3), Pmax, imposed by the maximum shaft
torque of turbine. Taking into consideration that, in general, the mechanical power
of turbine is greater than the electric power of generator, this limit is a horizontal
line drawn at an active power value greater than the rated power output Pn of the
generator.
Under leading regime, the operating domain of the synchronous generator is
constrained by another three limits:
core end heating limit which is a curve determined through experimental
tests;
static stability reserve chosen so that a certain value of the internal angle
is maintained;
minimum excitation current limit that ensure a motor torque reserve to the
generator.
The generator operating point near to the three limits previous defined can be
avoided by using the underexcitation limiter so that the 4th limit can be defined:
d) Underexcitation limit (L4). By means of automatic control systems of the
generator, the operating at leading power factor is constrained by the characteristic
shown in Figure 1.57.
e) Minimum active power limit (L5), Pmin. In thermal power plants a minimal
power, Pmin, is required by combustion reasons.
If the operating point is different from the rated one, under lagging regime,
due to the limits L2 and L3, the maximum reactive power is determined with
formula:
1/ 2
E U
2
U n2
Q = Qmax = n n P2 when P Pn (1.137)
X s Xs

[ 2
Q = Qmax = S n Pn ]
2 12
when P Pn (1.138)
If information about En and XS are not available, an approximate limit of the
maximum reactive power is calculated: Qmax = 0.9 Qn where Qn = S n sin n .
Appendix
Table A1
Average values of the per kilometre parameters of the overhead electric lines
fn Un r0 x0 b0 ZC PN
[Hz] [kV] [/km] [/km] [S/km] [] [MW]
220 0.070 0.421 2.920 380 127
50 400 0.034 0.328 3.611 300 535
(Romania) 750 0.017 0.275 4.082 260 2160
230 0.050 0.488 3.371 380 140
60 345 0.037 0.367 4.518 285 420
(USA) 500 0.028 0.325 5.200 250 1000
765 0.012 0.329 4.978 257 2280
1100 0.005 0.292 5.544 230 5260
Note: the quantities ZC and PN are explained in Chapter 3.
Chapter references
[1.1] Poeat, A., Arie, A., Crian, O., Eremia, M., Alexandrescu, A., Buta, A.
Transportul i distribuia energiei electrice (Electric energy transmission and
distribution), Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1981.
[1.2] Crian, O. Sisteme electroenergetice (Electric power systems), Editura Didactic
i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1979.
[1.3] Ionescu, T.G., Pop, O. Ingineria sistemelor de distribuie a energiei (Energy
distribution systems engineering), Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 1998.
[1.4] Meslier, F., Persoz, H. Rseaux de transport et dinterconnexion, D070,
Techniques de lIngnieur, Trait de Gnie lectrique, EdF, Paris, 1992.
[1.5] Carrive, P. Rseaux de distribution. Structure et planification, D4210,
[1.6] Gros, M., Righezza, P. Rseaux de distribution. Exploitation, D4230,
[1.7] Bergen, A.R. Power Systems Analysis, Prentice Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, 1986.
[1.8] Elgerd, O.I. Electric energy systems theory: An introduction, McGraw-Hill, 1971.
[1.9] Bercovici, M., Arie, A.A., Poeat, A. Reele electrice. Calculul electric (Electric
networks. Electric Calculation), Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 1974.
[1.10] Grainger, J.T., Stevenson, W.D. Power Systems Analysis, McGraw-Hill, 1994.
[1.11] Mackowski, J., Bialek, J.W., Bumby, J.R. Power Systems Dynamics and
Stability, John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, New York, 1997.
[1.12] Potolea, E. Regimurile de funcionare a sistemelor electrice (Operating regimes

of electric power systems), Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 1977.
[1.13] Adibi, M.M., Milanicz, D.P. Reactive Capability limitation of synchronous
machine, IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Vol. 9, No.1, February 1994.
[1.14] El-Hawary, M. Electrical power systems. Design and analysis (Revised
printing), IEEE Press, New York, 1995.
[1.15] Persoz, H., Santucci, G., Lemoine, J.C., Sapet, P. La planification des rseaux
lectriques, Edition Eyrolles, 1984.
[1.16] Morgan, V.T., Findlay, F.D. The effect of frequency on the resistance and
internal inductance of bare ACSR conductors, IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery,
Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. l391l396, July 1991.
[1.17] Morgan, V.T., Zhang, B., Findlay, R.D. Effect of magnetic induction in a steel-
cored conductor on current distribution, resistance and power loss, IEEE Trans.
on Power Delivery, Vol. 12, pp. 12991308, July 1997.
[1.18] Mocanu, C.I. Teoria cmpului electromagnetic (The theory of electromagnetic
field), Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1984.
[1.19] Ghi, C. Maini i acionri electrice (Electric machines and operation),
Volume I, Institutul Politehnic din Bucureti, Bucureti, 1992.
Chapter 2
RADIAL AND MESHED NETWORKS
2.1. General considerations

In order to ensure a proper operation of the load, a certain level of power
quality is required, respectively the continuity in supplying, keeping the frequency
and voltage near the nominal values and a waveform of the voltage as sinusoidal as
possible as well. One of the restrictive conditions for the networks operation is the
magnitude voltage deviation with respect to the reference voltage, called nominal
voltage. Of importance is how much the voltage in a point of the network is
deviated from the nominal value, and also the voltage drop between two nodes,
galvanically connected to an electric network. In this respect, there are two notions
used: phasor voltage drop and algebraic voltage drop.
The phasor voltage drop refers to the phasor difference of two voltages, from
two different nodes of the network.
The algebraic voltage drop refers to the algebraic difference between the rms
voltages into two nodes of the network, of the same nominal voltage. For
simplicity, in this paperwork, the algebraic voltage drop is further called voltage
drop and will not be underlined.
In terms of the type and the importance of the load, the admissible deviations
of the voltage in a node of the network are given in standards. These deviations
must not be exceeded during exploitation, because they would lead to an unsuitable
operation of the load.
The electric networks operation is strongly influenced by the loads behaviour
to different changes. The load modelling through static characteristics presents
importance for network analysis. In this respect, some simplifying hypotheses are
used [2.1]:
a. Constant impedance (the values of the impedance will be constant in time
and independent of the currents passed through them or the terminal
voltage). The active and reactive powers absorbed by these loads are
proportional with the square of the terminal voltage;
b. Constant active and reactive powers (these are independent of the terminal
voltage and current passing through the load);
c. Constant active and reactive currents.
It should be mentioned that these hypotheses of load modelling through static

characteristics are ideal conditions. In practical cases, the network loads are
complex, including electric engines, arc furnaces, rectifiers, illumination, etc.,
which leads to a non-linear load characteristic.
Generally, the network calculation under constant impedance hypothesis
leads to more optimistic results than the real ones. Instead, the hypothesis of
constant powers leads to more pessimistic results than the real ones. For short
electric lines, the third hypothesis of the load modelling through constant current
leads to results closer to reality.
The modelling of the power sources generators, in the calculation of the
normal operation regime, by using one of the following simplifying hypotheses can
be performed:
Constant electromotive voltage characteristic;
Constant current characteristic. In this case, the network must have a
specific node equilibrium node where the currents generated or
absorbed into different nodes of the network are closing;
Furthermore, in one of the networks nodes, must be fixed a voltage related
to the neutral conductor. This node, called reference node, can coincide or
not with the equilibrium node;
Constant active power and constant voltage magnitude characteristic. In
this case, in one of the network nodes must be applied a voltage source,
constant as magnitude and phase angle, which is considered reference
voltage. If in this node the active and reactive powers generated by the
source are left to vary freely, this node coincides with the equilibrium
node;
Constant reactive power characteristic.
If the constant voltage or current characteristics for the power sources as well
as for the loads are used, then systems of linear equations for the steady state
calculation are obtained. This type of modelling does not express the real situation,
where the generators from the power system operates according to a characteristic
Pg = ct. and V g = ct .
For the other hypotheses, closer to reality for large power systems, systems of
non-linear equations (of second degree) result. For short electric networks the
linear hypothesis that leads to results closer to reality are used.
The electric lines can be classified, in terms of their length, into short lines
respectively long lines (generally longer than 250 km). The long electric lines
operate at 220 kV, 400 kV or 750 kV and serve for the transmission of the electric
energy. The short electric lines usually operate at voltages below 110 kV being
used for the repartition and distribution of electric energy.
Consider a three-phase electric line that satisfies the conditions of
homogeneity and symmetry as well as symmetric voltages and balanced currents
on all the three phases. Under these conditions it is sufficient to study the operation
of a single phase, with a double-wire circuit, where the going conductor represents
Radial and meshed networks 85
the conductor of the phase, with the service parameters, and the return conductor is
a fictitious neutral conductor, which ensures the closing of the current.
For the short overhead lines, powered at low nominal voltages, the intensities
of the shunt currents the capacitive currents as well as the leakage ones have
low values as compared with those of the conduction current that passes through
the phase conductor. Therefore, in the case of short lines, the shunt currents can be
neglected and the corresponding equivalent circuit is a dipole with lumped
parameters (Fig. 2.1,a), where the shunt admittances have been neglected. For
more accurate results, the equivalent (or T) circuit, with lumped parameters, is
used (Fig. 2.1,b).
Phase conductor Phase conductor

Z
Z
Y Y
2 2
Neutral conductor Neutral conductor

a. b.
Fig. 2.1. Equivalent circuits for short lines.
For the underground electric lines, powered at high nominal voltages, even
for small length cases, the leading leakage currents should be taken into account so
a proper circuit, either of lumped or uniformly distributed parameters, is chosen.
2.2. Radial and simple meshed electric networks
2.2.1. Current flows and voltage drops calculation

under symmetric regime
Assume a radial electric network operating at alternating voltage, supplying
only one load, represented through a dipole with the impedance Z = R + jX
(Fig.2.2,a). Being given the current at the receiving end i B , of i B = ct. and source
voltage V A = ct. characteristic, it is required to determine the current I A at the
sending end and the voltage at the receiving end V B , which can be kept within
admissible limits only if the voltage drop does not exceed the recommended
values. In Figure 2.2,b the fundamental phasor diagram of the voltage drop is
plotted.
+j
C
VA
I VAB
VA
B
IA A B
I
VB
jX
0 Ia
Z=R+jX D E
IB=iB A R
I
-jIr B
VA VB
iB=IB=I
VAB
DVAB
a. b.
Fig. 2.2. The radial electric network supplying one load:
a. equivalent circuit; b. fundamental phasor diagram of the voltage drops.
The voltage V B is chosen as phase reference, and the current i B = I B = I

(lagging load) lags behind the voltage with an angle B = . Due to the current
passing through the line, an active phase-to-neutral voltage drop R I in phase with
I occurs, and an inductive voltage drop jX I , which leads the current by 90 as
well.
The sum of these two phase-to-neutral voltage drops is the phasor voltage
drop represented in the diagram by the segment AC , which represents the phasor
difference between the voltage at the sending and at the receiving end of the line,
that is:
V AB = V A V B = Z I (2.1)
Its projections on the two axes correspond to the segments AD = VAB and
CD = VAB , and represent the longitudinal and the transversal components of the
voltage drop, having the following expressions:
VAB = RI cos + XI sin = RI a + XI r (2.2)
V = XI cos RI sin = XI a RI r (2.3)
where: I a = I cos is active component of the current passing through the line;
I r = I cos reactive component of the current passing through the line;
R ohm resistance of the line;
X inductive reactance of the line.
Consider the circle sector of radius equal to the supply voltage VA , which
intersects the horizontal axis in the point E. The algebraic difference between the
voltages magnitudes (or the effective values)
DVAB = VA VB (2.4)
is called voltage drop (phase-to-neutral).
For lower values of the phase angle between the two voltages, the
transversal component of the phasor voltage drop can be neglected, and the
longitudinal component is identified with the voltage drop:
DVAB V AB
If the phase angle has great values, the voltage drop can be determined
directly, with the expression:
DVAB = VA VB = (VB + VAB )2 + (VAB )2 VB

Since VAB << VB + VAB , if the expansion of the square root by means of
Newtons binomial theorem is performed, the voltage drop expression become:
( )
2
1 VAB 1 ( VAB )
4
DVAB VAB + +L (2.5)

2 VB + VAB 8 (VB + VAB )3
For the lines powered at medium voltages, only the first two terms of the
relation (2.5) can be hold, with good accuracy. Taking into account the expressions
(2.2) and (2.3) and the fact that VAB for normal operating conditions of the line
should not exceed a few percentages out of the voltage VB , the term in the
denominator of the expression (2.5) can be neglected, resulting:
1 (VAB )
2
DVAB VAB +
2 VB
or
DVAB RI cos + XI sin +

( XI cos RI sin )2 (2.6)
2VB
where the voltage at the receiving end of the line ( V B ) is unknown. Therefore, to
simplify, the voltage V B will be approximated with the line-to-neutral nominal
voltage Vn . For the single-phase system, consisting of two conductors, Vn = U n / 2 ,
and for the three-phase system Vn = U n / 3 .
In this case, the expression of the voltage drop becomes:
DV AB RI cos + XI sin +
( XI cos RI sin )2 (2.7)
2 Vn
For electric lines powered at low voltage, the following expression can be
used, with good accuracy:
DV AB V AB = RI cos + XI sin (2.8)

If the loads are replaced with their single-phase active and reactive powers,
then the expressions of the line-to-neutral voltage drops become:
RP0 + XQ0
V AB (2.9)
Vn
XP0 RQ0
VAB (2.10)
Vn
RP0 + XQ0 ( XP0 RQ0 )

2
DV AB + (2.11)
Vn 2Vn3
In terms of the total powers P and Q carried on the line, the powers
P0 = P / 2 and Q0 = Q / 2 for the single-phase system respectively P0 = P / 3 and
Q0 = Q / 3 for the three-phase system are used.
The relationship between the phasor voltage drop V AB and the longitudinal
and transversal components, VAB and VAB , is defined as:
V AB = VAB + jVAB (2.12)
Therefore, the voltage drop DVAB given by (2.6) can be expressed in terms
of the components of the phasor voltage drop:
1
DVAB = Re{V AB } + (Im{V AB })2 (2.13)
2Vn
Once the value of the voltage drop DVAB is obtained, it should be compared
with the maximum admissible phase-to-neutral voltage drop Vadm :
%
DVAB Vadm = Vn (2.14)
100
In order to determine the phase shift between the phasor V A and phasor V B ,
which for short lines is usually relatively small, the fundamental phasor diagram of
the voltage drops (Fig. 2.2,b) is also used:
CD V AB XI a RI r XI RI r
tan = = = a (2.15)
OD VB + V AB VB + RI a + XI r Vn
Note that between the phase-to-neutral voltage drop DVAB and the phase-to-
phase voltage drop DU AB , in the case of the single-phase system, there is the
following relationship:
DU AB = 2 DVAB (2.16,a)
and for the three-phase system:

DU AB = 3 DVAB (2.16,b)
where DU AB = U A U B , U A and U B being the phase-to-phase voltages, at the

nodes A and B.
The components of the phase-to-phase voltage drop can be determined with
the expressions:
U AB = 3 VAB (2.17,a)
U AB = 3 VAB (2.17,b)
By substituting the currents in terms of the three-phase powers carried on the
line PB and QB and the nominal voltage of the line U B U n corresponding to the
phase-to-phase voltage, results:
P QB RPB + XQB RPB + XQB
U AB = 3 R B + X = (2.18,a)
3U B 3U B UB Un
PB QB XPB RQB XPB RQB

U AB = 3 X R = (2.18,b)
3U B 3U B UB Un

RP + XQB ( XPB RQB )

2
DU AB B + (2.19)
Un 2U n3
Next, consider the general case where a three-phase radial line supplies n
concentrated loads (Fig. 2.3).
Zn
Z2
Z1
A I1 1 I2 2 In n
z1=r1+jx1 z2=r2+jx2 zn=rn+jxn
VA i1 i2 in V
n
Fig. 2.3. The main electric circuit of a radial electric line,

supplying n concentrated loads.
In Figure 2.3 the following notations have been used: i k (k = 1, 2,, n) for
nodal currents, I k (k = 1, 2, , n) for the currents flowing through the line
sections, z k = rk + jxk for the impedances of the line sections, respectively Z k
(k = 1,2, , n) for the cumulated impedances of the line sections between the
source node and each other node.
On the basis on the Kirchhoffs first theorem, written for each node, the
currents passed through the line sections can be expressed in terms of the nodal
currents:
n
I1 = i
k =1
k ; I 2 = I 1 i1 and so on.
The generalized expression of the phasor voltage drop becomes:

n n n
V An =
k =1
zk I k = (rk I ka + xk I kr ) + j (xk I ka rk I kr )
k =1 k =1
(2.20,a)
and
n n n
V An =
k =1
Z k ik = (Rk ika + X k ikr ) + j ( X k ika Rk ikr )
k =1 k =1
(2.20,b)
respectively.
Note that the product Z k i k can be identified with the electric moment of a
load related to the supplying end of the line.
Taking into account that the electric network loads are expressed in terms of
the active and reactive powers, the expression of the phase-to-neutral voltage drop
DVAn , for n loads, becomes:
2
n n

( rk Pk 0 + xk Qk 0 ) ( xk Pk 0 rk Qk 0 )
DVAn = k =1 + k =1 (2.21)
Vn 2Vn3
respectively for the phase-to-phase voltage drop DU An :

2
n n
r P x Q
( k k k k ) ( xk Pk rk Qk )
+
DU An = k =1 + k =1 3
(2.22)
Un 2U n
where: Pk 0 , Qk 0 and Pk , Qk are single-phase powers, respectively the three-phase

powers of the loads;
Vn, Un nominal phase-to-neutral, respectively phase-to-
phase voltage.
If the electric network is homogeneous, that is, it is designed with conductors
of the same cross-sectional area, of the same material, and by design the
conductors are spaced symmetrically between them and related to ground, the next
relationships are defined:
2
n n n n

r0 l P k k0 + x0 l Q k k0
x0 lk Pk 0 r0 lk Qk 0
DVAn = k =1 k =1
+ k =1 k =1 (2.23)
Vn 2Vn3
respectively
2
n n n n

r0 lk Pk + x0 lk Qk 0
x l P
k k r0
lk Qk
DU An = k =1 k =1
+ k =1 3
k =1 (2.24)
Un 2U n
For determination of the voltage drops expression, only series parameters of
the line have been considered. This is possible for the lines of nominal voltages
less than 110 kV (when the capacity and the conductance of the lines have low
influences).
2.2.2. Radial electric line with unbalanced loads on phases

The calculation formula for the voltage drops from paragraph 2.2.1
referred to balanced three-phase lines powered at alternating voltage, assumption
that has allowed studying the behaviour of a single phase. The results can be
generalized.
There are situations when the line is differently loaded on the three phases,
which leads to an asymmetrical operating regime. In these cases, the electric lines
are designated with four conductors, three of them being active conductors and the
other one neutral, as is the case of the low voltage powered networks.
Next, consider a low voltage powered network of unbalanced loads. Let us
first consider a particular case where the currents are in phase with the voltages and
the network is equally loaded on two phases (b, c), and on the other phase (a) the
loading is bigger (Fig. 2.4).
The phasor diagram of the voltage drops for such a network is represented in
Figure 2.4. As a consequence of the unbalanced load on phases, in the neutral
conductor a current I 0 appears, corresponding to the geometrical sum of the three
currents from the active phases and the phase-to-neutral voltage drops
V a = Z a I a , V b = Z b I b , V c = Z c I c are numerically not equal. By this effect,
the neutral point at the loads will change its position from O to O', and will have a
potential which corresponds to the voltage drop in the neutral conductor
V 0 = Z 0 I 0 , corresponding to the OO' segment. This voltage drop is called the
displacement of the neutral.
The voltage drop on each phase can be obtained by adding the phasor voltage
drop on the corresponding phase to the voltage drop on the neutral conductor:
V m = Z m I m + Z 0 I 0 (2.25)
where: I m is the current passing through the conductors phases a, b or c;

I0 the current passing through the neutral conductor;
Zm impedance of the phase;
Z0 impedance of the neutral conductor.
Va
Va
Va
Fig. 2.4. The phasor diagram of the
voltage drops for unbalanced three-
Ia phase line and cos =1;
O Va, Vb, Vc sending end voltages;
V'a, V'b, V'c receiving end voltages.
O V0
Ic Ib
Vc Vb
Vc Vb
Ic+Ib
Vc Vb
For the unbalanced three-phase lines supplying loads of power factor

cos = 1 , the voltage drop on each phase (in the phase conductor and the neutral
conductor) becomes:
n
Vm = r0 l I
k =1
k k + r0L0 I 0 (2.26)
where r0 and r0 represent the specific resistances corresponding to the active

conductors and to the neutral conductor.
If the loads are expressed in terms of powers, expression (2.26) becomes:
n
lk Pk 0 P
Vm = r0
k =1 Vn
+ r0L0 0
Vn
where: Pk 0 is active single-phase power flowing into the line sections of the
phases a, b or c;
P0 active power flowing through the neutral conductor;
Vn phase-to-neutral nominal voltage;
lk , L0 lengths of the line sections and neutral conductor, respectively.
Particular cases deriving from the three-phase unsymmetrical system are
single-phase and double-phase ramifications often used in practical. These lines
represent ramifications from a three-phase line with four conductors that supply
single-phase loads.
Assume the case of a two-phase line with two active conductors a, b and
one neutral conductor loaded with equal currents in phase with the voltages. The
phasor diagram of this line with active balanced loads is shown in Figure 2.5.
Va
Fig. 2.5. Phasor diagram

of the voltage drops for a
double-phase line with
active balanced loads. O
Ic Ib
V0
O
I0
Vc Vc O Vb Vb
Vc Vb
For unity power factor, the voltage drops due to the currents I b and I c are:
V b = Rb I b
V c = Rc I c
The current passing through the neutral conductor corresponds to the
geometrical sum of the currents from the b and c phases, and give rise to a voltage
drop V 0 = R0 I 0 , which also represents the displacement voltage of the neutral
point from O to O'. From the graphical design results that the effective value of the
current passing through the neutral conductor is equal to the value of the currents
from the other phases, that is I 0 = I b = I c . Taking this into account, the total
voltage drop on the phase conductor b (or c) and on the neutral conductor has the
following value:
n
I0
Vm = Vb + V0 cos 60 = r0 l I
k =1
k k + r0L0
2
or, if the loads are expressed in terms of powers:
n
lk Pk 0 LP
Vm = r0
k =1 V n
+ r0 0 0
2Vn
In the case of the single-phase ramification, the phase conductor and the
neutral conductor have the same cross-sectional area because the current from the
ramification is the same through both conductors. The voltage drop on the going
and return conductors is:
n n
lk Pk 0
Vm = 2 r0 k =1
lk I k = 2 r0
k =1 Vn
2.2.3. Simple meshed electric networks

Consider a short electric line that links the nodes A and B, of given voltages
VA and VB, respectively. If assume the line to be symmetric, homogeneous, and
powered by symmetric voltages and supplying itself symmetric loads, then the
equivalent circuit for calculation is the one shown in Figure 2.6, where the phase
conductor and the fictitious neutral conductor have been represented.
Z Zn+1=Z
Z2 Z2 Z2
Z1 Z1 Z1
IA k IB IA B
A B A
I1 I2 Ik Ik IB I1 I2 In In+1
VA VB VA
i1 i2 ... ik ... in i1 i2 ... in-1 in in+1=-IB VB
Vk
a. b.
k Z
IA A B IB IA A IAB B IB
VA VB iA iB
i1 i2 ... ik ik ... in-1 in VA VB
c. d.
Fig. 2.6. Electric circuit for calculation of current flows and of voltage drops into
short electric lines powered from two sources: a. initial electric circuit;
b. considering of source from node B as a load powered with a negative current;
c. representation of the network powered from both ends as two radial
networks; d. electric circuit with charges thrown to nodes.
In such an electric structure appears the problem of determining the current

flows through the line sections and the voltage drops. Also, of interest is to
determine of node k, where the service voltage V k has the lowest value, the load
from this node being supplied from both sources.
To determine the current flows through the line sections, it is necessary and
sufficient to know one of the intensity currents supplied by the sources,
respectively I A or I B . Thus, for example, knowing the current I B and taking into
account that the intensities of the currents i k absorbed by the loads are given, the
current I A can be inferred on the basis of Kirchhoffs first theorem, by means of

the following formula:
n
IA = i
k =1
k IB (2.27)
The currents I 1 , I 2 , , I n can be determined by applying Kirchhoffs first

theorem in each of the nodes 1, 2, , n (Fig. 2.6,a).
The network powered from both ends, A and B, can be considered as a radial
network, powered from only one end, for instance from source A, source B being
considered as a load powered through the respective network with a negative
current (Fig. 2.6,b), that is I B = i n +1 .
Phasor voltage drop, corresponding to this case, can be expressed in terms of
the cumulated impedances (referred to source A) Z k and the derived currents i k ,
resulting:
n +1
V AB = V A V B = Z
k =1
k ik (2.28)
Knowing the value of phasor voltage drop V AB , one may want to determine
the current i n +1 = I B . Taking this into consideration, the equation (2.28) can be
written as:
n
V AB = Z
k =1
k ik + Z n +1 i n +1 (2.28')
where Z n +1 = Z is the total impedance of the line. From the relationship (2.28') the
calculation expression of the current I B = i n +1 can be determined:
n
Z
k =1
k ik
V A V B
IB = (2.29,a)
Z Z
In a same manner, the calculation formula for the current intensity IA can be
established:
n
Z
k =1
'
k ik
V A V B
IA = + (2.29,b)
Z Z
'
Taking into account that Z k + Z k = Z (Fig. 2.6,b) we see that the formulae
(2.29,a) and (2.29,b) verify the relationship (2.27).
Once the currents I A and I B are calculated, the current flows I 1 , I 2 , , I n
into the considered network can be determined and thus we seek for node k of
minimum voltage. Analysing the expressions (2.29,a) and (2.29,b) it can be noticed
that each of them has two terms:
' '
I A = i A + I AB ; I B = i B I AB (2.30)
where:
n n
1 1
'
iA =
Z
k =1
'
Z k ik ;
'
iB =
Z
Z
k =1
k ik (2.31)
1
I AB = (V V B ) (2.32)
Z A
Observations:
' '
The terms i A and i B depend only upon the values of the load currents and
'
upon the cumulated impedances Z k and Z k of the network, in relation with
' '
supplying nodes A and B respectively. The currents i A and i B substitute the load
currents i k . It is as if the currents had been moved at the supplying nodes A and B
'
(Fig. 2.6,d). Thus, the current i B represent the sum of electric moments Z k i k , in
relation with node A, divided to the total impedance Z of the line. Likewise, the
' ' '
current i A represents the sum of electric moments Z k i k , in relation with node B,
divided to the total impedance Z of the line.
The additional term I AB determined only by the difference between the
voltages applied at nodes A and B, which does not depend on the load currents,
represents the balancing current or no-load current, through the branch considered
between nodes A and B. If V A V B , the current I AB exists even when the line
operates under no-load conditions. This balancing current cause, apart from
changes in load values, overloading of a power source compared with the other,
thus increasing the energy losses. Therefore, in exploitation it required, as much as
possible, the existence of the same voltage at the supplying nodes.
If the loads are expressed in terms of power and the power losses on the line
sections are not taken into consideration S 0 being the apparent complex power
carried on a phase and S = 3S 0 being the power carried by the three-phase system
then from the expressions (2.29,a) and (2.29,b) the approximate distribution of
the powers can be obtained:
n
s
k =1
0k
'
Zk
V V B

S0A = + A Vn (2.33,a)
Z Z
n
s
k =1
0k Zk
V V B

S 0B = A Vn (2.33,b)
Z Z
where s 0 k represents the single-phase apparent complex powers absorbed by the

loads i = 1, 2, , n.
Analysing the current flows given by the relations (2.29,a,b) or the power
flows given by (2.33,a,b), we see that some of the loads are supplied from source
A, and another part from the source B. There will also be a load supplied from end
' ''
A (with I k ) and from end B (with I k ) as well. The connection point of the load is
called point of powers separation and is shown in the circuit as k (Fig. 2.6,c). In
this point, the electric line can be sectioned obtaining two radial lines A-k and B-k,
where the voltage drops are calculated with the relations established for the cases
of radial networks or the lines powered from one end. It is possible to obtain two
points of separation, one for the active powers and the other for the reactive
powers. In the point of powers separation, line voltage is the lowest and because of
that it is necessary to perform voltage drops verification up to the points of powers
separation.
2.2.4. Load flow calculation of radial electric networks

The radial configurations are specific to the distribution electric networks of
medium and low voltage. These networks, especially the urban ones, can be
strongly meshed, but, for technical and economical reasons, under normal
conditions they operate radially. During short periods of time, these networks can
operate in meshed configuration, especially when usual manoeuvres are done for
configuration changes.
2.2.4.1. Particularities of the radial electric networks

The radial electric networks have some particularities, which make possible
the use of some appropriate analysing methods of their operation, among which the
load flow calculation can be mentioned.
The main particularity of the radial electric networks is related to the power
(current) flow through branches. Assuming that within a radial network there are
no local generators (distributed generation), the network is supplied from only one
power injection point, called source node. Under these conditions, the power flow
through network branches has a well-determined character, the flow being
unidirectional in any natural operating state. In conclusion, in a radial network, any
node k called derivation (parent) node, except the source node, receives electrical
energy from only one node, called up stream node, through only one branch called
ingoing branch and can transmit electrical energy to one or more next nodes, or to
none of them, case in which the node k is called end node (Fig. 2.7).
When a meshed network is subjected to radial operation (the case of
distribution networks), the network opening is done in a well determined number
of points, obtaining one or more distinct radial sub-networks. Every sub-network
consists of a source node and one or more load nodes, including also the derivation
nodes, which may have no consumption.
Source Derivation Sub-network 1 Sub-network 2

node node
End
node
In operation Out of service
branch branch
Fig. 2.7. Notations used for distribution networks with meshed topology.
The following assumptions are considered for the modelling of the electric
networks elements [2.3]:
the three phase voltages form a positive-sequence symmetrical system;
the currents form a balanced three-phase system;
the network parameters are homogeneous, constant in time and
independent of the supply voltage or currents;
the network operates under steady state conditions.
Under these conditions, the positive-sequence one-line diagram is used for
the load flow calculation. The electric lines (overhead and underground cables) can
be represented by equivalent circuits with lumped parameters. Taking into
account the unidirectional character of the power flows, the transformers can be
represented by equivalent circuit with transformer operator (see Figure 1.50,
section 1.2.3.2).
In the absence of distributed generation, for the load flow calculation of
radial electric networks, only two of the three types of nodes existing in complex
meshed networks are considered:
load nodes, modelled through complex powers, obtained by combining
three components [2.1]:
S = ( Pc + jQc ) + 3 ( I ac + jI rc )U + ( Gc + jBc )U 2 (2.34)
where: Pc and Qc represents the components of a constant complex power,
I ac and I rc are the components of a constant complex current, Gc and Bc
are the components of a constant admittance, and U is the phase-to-phase
voltage magnitude of the node;
the slack node, representing the point of power injection into the radial
network (the source node), where the specified quantities are the voltage
magnitude and phase angle.
2.2.4.2. Backward/forward sweep

In the case of a radial (arborescent) electric network, with n nodes and l
branches and only one injection node, the number of closed loops (independent
cycles) is equal to zero, all branches being of tree type. Under these conditions
l n + 1 = 0 , which leads to l = n 1 . The unknown steady state quantities of this

network are: the voltages of the n 1 load nodes and the currents (powers) flowing
through the l = n 1 branches. Therefore, there are 2 ( n 1) unknown quantities,
whose determination requires an equal number of equations. By applying the
Kirchhoffs current law in the n 1 load nodes, considered as being independent,
the currents flowing through branches can be obtained. The Kirchhoffs voltage
law cannot be applied because l n + 1 = 0 . Instead, by applying Ohms law on the
l = n 1 tree branches, the voltage drops at their ends can be obtained. Considering
the voltage at the source node as reference, and using the voltage drop on network
branches, the voltages at the load nodes can be calculated.
Based on the previous issues, the load flow calculation in radial electric
networks can be performed using a specific method, known in literature as the
backward/forward sweep [2.10], [2.11]. Basically, this method consists of two
steps:
Backward sweep, where, starting from the end nodes and going toward the
source node S, using the Kirchhoffs current law, the current at each load
node as well as the current flowing through its ingoing branch are
calculated (Fig. 2.8,a);
Forward sweep, where, starting in the opposite direction, from the source
node S (whose constant voltage is taken as reference) and going toward the
end nodes, using the Ohms law, the voltage drop on each branch as well
as the voltage at each load node are calculated (Fig. 2.8,b).
1 14
S 2 S 13
7 5 8 10
4 11
6 3 9 12
a. b.
Fig. 2.8. The steps of the load flow calculation by means of the backward/forward sweep:
a. calculation of the currents through branches; b. calculation of the nodal voltages.
To understand this method the following specifications are to be mentioned:

1) When the electric network consists of more arborescent sub-networks,
the backward/forward algorithm is independently applied for each sub-network,
considering its source node as reference;
2) The load flow calculation in radial electric networks can be also
performed by means of the nodal voltages method. Solving the equations (2.74),
having the form [Y nn ][U n ] = [ I n ] , for the linear model (see 2.3.2.1), or
[Y nn ][U n ] = S *n U n for the non-linear model, the voltages of the independent
*
nodes are obtained, and finally the powers (currents) flowing through branches are
calculated. Using the backward/forward sweep, the unknown quantities are
simultaneous obtained after performing the two steps.
The load flow solution, by the backward/forward sweep, for the linear
network model (the loads represented through constant currents, the lines and
transformers modelled through series impedances) is obtained processing only
once the two steps. In the case of the non-linear model of the network (the loads
represented in the form given in (2.34), the electric lines modelled by equivalent
circuits, and the power transformers by circuits), the load flow solution is
obtained by iterative calculations. The convergence criterion consists in comparing
the modulus of the complex power at the source node or the voltage magnitude at
the load nodes between two successive iterations.
The load flow calculation algorithm using the backward/forward sweep
consists in the following steps [2.12]:
1. Ordering the network (indexing the ingoing node and ingoing branch
for each load node) and setting the voltages at the load nodes to the
value of the sources node voltage (S):
(0)
U k = U S , k = 1, 2,K, n, k S (2.35)
2. Set the initial iteration index: p = 1 ;
3. Backward sweep: traversing the network from the end nodes toward the
source node and performing the following operations:
3.1. Calculation of the current at the node k using the expression of the
load power given by formula (2.34):
*
( p) Sk
Ik = (2.36)
3U (k
p 1)*
3.2. Calculation of the current flowing through the branch ingoing to

node k:
1 ( p)
( p)
I ik = Ik +
N ik
( p)
I kj

(2.37)
jNext ( k )
where: i is the index of the node up stream to the node k;
Next ( k ) the set of nodes next to the node k;
N ik the turns ratio of the i k branch ( N ik = 1 for
lines).
4. Forward sweep: the calculation of voltages at the nodes, traversing the
network from the source node toward the end nodes. For the actual
iteration p, considering the traversing direction of a branch from node i
toward node k, the calculation is performed in the following manner:
4.1. Calculation of the voltage drop on the i k branch:
( p) ( p)
U ik = 3 Z ik I ik (2.38)
4.2. Calculation of the voltage at the node k:
( p)
Uk =
1
N ik
(
( p) ( p)
U i U ik ) (2.39)
5. Calculation of the power injected into the network by the source node:
( p)
S S = 3U S
jNext ( S )
*( p )
I Sj (2.40)
6. If the network model is linear or if p > 1 and S (S ) S (S ) then go

p p 1
to the next step, else update p = p + 1 and go to step 3.

7. Calculation of power losses through the network branches.
In literature, there are also others calculation algorithms for the unknown
state quantities by means of the backward/forward sweep. The principle of one of
these algorithms consists in the use of a recursive set of equations to calculate all
the unknown state quantities (nodal voltages and power flows) after processing the
forward and backward sweeps [2.13]. In order to test this algorithm, consider the
radial network with n loads in Figure 2.9, with the line sections represented by
series impedances z k = rk + jxk , and the loads by complex constant powers
s k = pk + jqk . The powers Pn and Qn represents the components of the complex
power flowing through a fictive branch outgoing from the node n. The voltage V A
of the source node of the network is constant.
PA+jQA Pk-1+jQk-1 Pk+jQk Pk+1+jQk+1 Pn+jQn

A 1 ... k-1 k k+1 n
z1 zk zk+1
UA
VA= s1 sk-1 sk sk+1 sn
3
a.
Pgk+jQgk
PA+jQA Pk-1+jQk-1 Pk+jQk Pk+1+jQk+1 Pn+jQn
A 1 ... k-1 k+1 n
k
z1 zk zk+1
UA
VA= s1 sk-1 sk sk+1 sn
3
b.
Fig. 2.9. Distribution electric network:
a. simple radial network b. radial network with one distributed generator.
In the forward sweep, the state quantities Pk , Qk and Vk of the node k are
used to calculate the state quantities at the node k + 1 using the set of equations:
Pk2 + Qk2 Pk2 + Qk2
Pk +1 = Pk rk +1 p k +1 ; Qk +1 = Qk xk +1 qk +1
3Vk2 3Vk2
2 2
(2.41)
3V 2 = 3V 2 2 r P + x Q + r 2 + x 2 Pk + Qk
k +1 k ( k +1 k k +1 k ) k +1( k +1
3Vk2
)

Considering that the state quantities PA , QA and VA at the node A are known
or estimated, the state quantities at the other nodes can be calculated by successive
applications of equations (2.41) starting from the first node and going toward to the
node n.
In the backward sweep, the state quantities Pk , Qk and Vk at the node k are
used to calculate the state variables at the node k 1 , using the set of equations:
Pk'2 + Qk'2 Pk'2 + Qk'2
Pk 1 = Pk + rk + pk +1 ; Qk 1 = Qk + xk + qk +1
3Vk2 3Vk2
'2 '2
(2.42)
3V 2 = 3V 2 + 2 r P ' + x Q ' + r 2 + x 2 Pk + Qk
( ) ( )
k 1 k k k k k k k
3Vk2
where Pk' = Pk + pk and Qk' = Qk + qk .
Similarly to the forward sweep, in the backward sweep, considering the state
quantities Pn , Qn and Vn at the node n as known, the state quantities at the others
nodes can be calculated by successive applications of equations (2.42) starting
from the node n 1 and going toward the node A.
By successive applications of the backward and forward sweeps the load flow
solutions are achieved. The following boundary constraints are considered during
the calculation process [2.10]:
to voltage magnitude VA at the sources node A is known, and considered
constant;
the components of the apparent power flowing through a hypothetical
branch outgoing from the node n are: Pn = 0 and Qn = 0 .
2.2.4.3. Backward/forward sweep adaptation for the case of

distributed generation
Usually, the distributed generators are used to produce locally, in
consumption areas, relatively reduced amounts of power and are connected in
medium and low voltage distribution networks. The main differences with respect
to the classical power plants (thermal, nuclear, and hydro) are related to the
location and the installed capacity.
These sources can generate active power and sometimes can generate or
consume reactive power, having the possibility to maintain the nodal voltage at a
set value by means of an automatic voltage regulator. The distributed generators
capable to vary their output active power can contribute to the frequency control
into the power system. Taking into account these considerations, the nodes to
which these generators are connected can be classified in:
PQ nodes, to which the specified quantities are the generated active Pgsp
and reactive Qgsp (capacitive or inductive) powers, and the unknown
quantities are the components of the complex voltage U ;
PU nodes, to which the specified quantities are the generated active power
Pgsp and voltage magnitude U sp , and the unknown quantities are the
generated reactive power Qg and the voltage phase ;
U nodes, to which the specified quantities are the components of the
sp
complex voltage U (magnitude U sp and phase sp ), and the unknown
quantities are the generated active Pg and reactive Qg powers.
In order to consider these types of nodes in the backward/forward sweep for

the radial electric networks which include distributed generators, some
specifications and adaptations are necessary. Therefore, the distributed generators
should be modelled by PQ nodes, where the specified quantities Pgsp and Qgsp are
considered as being components of a constant complex power with negative sign
S = ( Pgsp + jQgsp ) , because the backward/forward sweep, presented above, cannot
be applied for the PU and U nodes. This inconvenience is due to the fact that for
these types of nodes, one or both components of the voltage are specified, which is
not appropriate to the backward/forward sweep algorithm where the voltage
components are specified only at the source node. Starting from the voltage of this
node, chosen as reference, the voltages of the others nodes are calculated in terms
of the voltage drops on the line sections. However, in order to apply the
backward/forward sweep algorithm for the PU and U nodes, some adaptations are
required, which are based on the decoupling of the four state quantities, i.e. the
interdependences P and Q U, respectively. These adaptations are presented
below.
As previously explained, the PU nodes are characterized by the specification of
the generated active power Pgsp and the voltage magnitude U sp . In the load flow
calculation process, by backward/forward sweep, these nodes are assimilated with
PQ type nodes. The active and reactive powers are equal to the specified values
Pgsp and Qg , considered with negative sign. To maintain the nodal voltage at the
specified value U sp , the interdependence relationship between the voltage and the
reactive power is used, i.e. appropriate change of the reactive power Qg , between
the limits Qgmin and Qgmax , is adopted. Depending on the model used for the nodes,
two situations could be encountered:
in the case of modelling by constant currents, the reactive component of
the complex current I gr is determined based on the condition that the
nodal voltage should be equal to the specified value U sp [2.24]; for the
backward/forward sweep algorithm, the nodal current is considered as
(
I = I ga
sp
)
+ jI gr , where I ga
sp
represents the specified value of the
generated active current;
in the case of modelling by constant powers, the generated reactive power

Qg is determined based on the condition that the nodal voltage should be
equal to the specified value U sp ; in the backward/forward sweep
algorithm, the nodal power is considered as S = Pgsp + jQg . ( )
The use of the second model for the load modelling requires a non-linear
mathematical model for load flow calculation. Like the global load flow calculation
methods, for the backward/forward sweep algorithm, the calculation of the
generated reactive power and its comparison with the capability limits at every step
is performed.
For better understanding of the modified backward/forward method applied
when PU nodes are present within the network, a radial electric network with only
one generator located at the node k is considered (2.9,b). The calculation steps are
presented in the following:
1. Initialise the iterative step p = 0 and establish the initial value of the
0 (0)
(
reactive power Qg( ,k) = 0 , so that S k = Pc ,k + jQc ,k Pgsp, k + jQg( , k) ,
0
)
where Pc ,k and Qc ,k are the components of a complex constant power
consumed at the node k, and Pgsp,k is the specified active power
generated at the node k;
2. Update the iterative step p = p + 1 ;
3. Perform load flow calculation by backward/forward sweep;
4. If U k( ) U ksp < U the iterative process stops;
p
5. Calculate the generated reactive power Qgcalc

, k necessary to achieve the
specified voltage U ksp at the node k. Establish the new value of the
generated reactive power Qg( ,k) in terms of its value with respect to the
p
min max
capability limits Qg,k and Qg,k :
Qg( p, k) = Qgcalc min calc max

, k if Qg , k Qg , k Qg , k

( p) min calc min
Qg , k = Qg ,k if Qg ,k < Qg , k (2.43)

Qg( p, k) = Qgmax calc max
, k if Qg , k > Qg , k

6. Calculate the new value of the complex power at the node k by formula
( )
S k = Pc ,k + jQc ,k Pgsp,k + jQg( ,k) and go to step 2.
( p) p
There are several possibilities to calculate the value of the generated reactive
sp
power Qgcalc
, k necessary to achieve the specified voltage U k at the node k, i.e.:
(i) using the voltage sensitivity to the reactive power variation U k Q k ,

obtained from the sensitivity matrix:
Qgcalc ( p 1)
= Qg , k +
(U ( ) U )
k
p sp
k
,k ( p)
U k

Qk
(ii) using the secant method [2.25]:
( ) ( )
p 1 p2
( p 1) Qg , k Qg , k
Qgcalc
,k = Qg ,k + ( p 1)
Uk ( p 2)
Uk
U k( ) U ksp
p
( )
(iii) using a calculation formula based on the generated reactive current I gr , k ,
calculated by considering the constant currents model for the load:
( p 1)
Qgnec
, k = 3U k I gr ,k
2.2.4.4. Backward/forward sweep adaptation for meshed

distribution electric network
The backward/forward algorithm presented earlier can be used only for load
flow calculation of arborescent networks. By convenient changes that imply
additional computation, the method can be expanded for load flow calculation of
simple or complex meshed electric networks.
Consider a simple meshed electric network, supplied at two ends (Fig.2.10,a).
A 1 2 k-1 k n B
z1 z2 zk zn zn+1
VA s1 s2 sk-1 sk sn VB
a. Ik-1,k
A 1 2 k-1 k n B
z1 z2 zk zn zn+1
VA s1 s2 sk-1 sk sn VB
b.
A 1 2 k-1 k' k'' n B
z1 z2 zk zn zn+1
VA s1 s2 sk-1 sk' sk'' sn VB
c.
Fig. 2.10. Calculation steps for a simple meshed electric network.
To apply the backward/forward sweep for the load flow calculation of this
network, one of the loops nodes is split (for example node k) obtaining two radial
sub-networks [2.14]. After splitting the node k, we require that the total consumed
power at the two resulted nodes k and k to be constant and equal to the power at
the node k before splitting:
s k ' + s k" = s k (2.44)
The calculation of the powers consumed at each node is performed in terms

of the balancing current that appears at the loop closing, given by the relation:
V k 1 V k
I k 1,k = (2.45)
Z AB
where Z AB is the cumulated impedance between nodes A and B, and the voltages
V k 1 and V k correspond to the operating state when the branch between the nodes
k 1 and k is in out of service state (Fig. 2.10,b). These voltages are calculated
by successively applying of the backward/forward sweep for the sub-networks
supplied from the source nodes A and B, respectively.
The load flow calculation is iteratively performed, by setting at each iteration
the power consumed at each node resulted after splitting and by calculating the
load flow for each radial sub-network. The iterative process goes on until the
difference between the voltages of the two nodes k and k is less than an specified
value .
The steps followed for load flow calculation of a simple meshed network are:
1. One of the loops branches is switched to out of service state (for
instance, the branch between the nodes k 1 and k, Fig. 2.10,b), and for
the new configuration the load flow is calculated by means of the
backward/forward sweep;
2. The node k is split into nodes k and k and a new branch is introduced
between nodes k 1 and k, having the same parameters as the branch
between the nodes k 1 and k (Fig. 2.10,c). The voltages and the
powers consumed at the split nodes are set to:
V k ' = V k 1 ; V k '' = V k
(2.46)
s k ' = 0; s k '' = s k
3. The balancing current through the loop is calculated as:

V k ' - V k ''
I k ', k '' = (2.47)
Z AB
n +1
where Z AB = Z
i=1
i is the total impedance of the loop;
4. Updating the powers at the nodes k and k with the relations:

s k ' = s k ' + 3V k ' I *k ',k ''

(2.48)
s k '' = s k - s k '
5. The load flow is calculated for the network configuration in Figure 2.10,c;
6. If V k ' V k '' > then go to step 3, else return to the initial configuration
(Fig. 2.10,a) considering V k = V k '' and I k 1,k = I k 1,k ' .
When the network has a complex meshed configuration, the load flow
calculation by means of the backward/forward sweep is performed by introducing a
number of supplementary nodes (resulted after splitting) equal to the number of
loops. At each step, the equality of voltages at the split nodes for one single loop
has to be achieved. The calculation is repeated until the differences of the voltage
magnitudes at the split nodes in all loops is less than the specified value .
2.2.4.5. Advantages of the backward/forward sweep

The backward/forward sweep load flow algorithm has some advantages as
compared to the global methods based on the nodal voltages:
for the nonlinear model of the network, the number of the iterations is
smaller than the one required by Seidel-Gauss and Newton-Raphson
methods, and the calculation effort during each iteration is smaller, too;
the calculation of the nodal admittance matrix is not necessary;
the introducing of switches and shunts (elements of reduced impedance) do
not cause convergence problems.
Application
Consider the radial electric network from Figure 2.11,a, given that:
the voltage at the source node U 1 = 20 kV ;
the complex powers at the loads: s 2 = 0 kVA , s 3 = ( 250 + j150 ) kVA and
s 4 = ( 75 + j 50 ) kVA .
The one-line diagram of the electric network and the branch parameters are shown in
Figure 2.11,b.
The voltages at the load nodes, and current flows for this network have to be
determined.
For simplicity, the phase-to-phase voltages are used. The initial values of voltages at
the load nodes are:
U (0) (0)
2 = U 3 = U 1 = 20 kV
U (0)
4 = N 42 U 1 = 0.02 20 = 0.4 kV
Only the calculation of the first iteration is detailed below, the results of the whole
iterative process being presented in Table 2.1.
S1 1 2 3 s3
4
s4
a.
S1 1 I12 (1.4+j0.1) 2 I23 (2.1+j0.15) i3 3
I120 I210 I230 I320 s3=(250+j150) kVA

j30 S j30 S j45 S j45 S
I240
I24 (0.8-j8.72) S
N42=0.02
I'24
(0.028+j0.058)
4
s4 =(75+j50) kVA
b.
Fig. 2.11. Radial electric network: a. one-line diagram; b. equivalent circuit.
Backward sweep
Calculation of the current in the branch 2 3
s*3 ( 250 j150 ) 103

i 3(1) = = = ( 7.217 j 4.330 ) A
3U 3(0)* 3 20 103
U 3(0) 20 103
(1)
I 320 =y = j 45 106 = j 0.520 A
320
3 3
23 = i 3 + I 320 = ( 7.217 j 3.810 ) A
I (1) (1) (1)
i (1)
s*4 ( 75 j50 ) 103 = (108.253 j 72.169 ) A
4 = =
3U (0)*
4
3 0.4 103
24 = i 4 = (108.253 j 72.169 ) A
I '(1) (1)
24 = N 42 I 24 = 0.02 (108.253 j 72.169 ) = ( 2.165 j1.443 ) A

I (1) '(1)
s*2
i (1)
2 = =0A
3U (0)*
2
U (0) 20 103
I (1)
210 = y
2
= j 30 106 = j 0.346 A
210
3 3
U (0) 20 103
I (1)
230 = y
2
= j 45 106 = j 0.520 A
230
3 3
U (0) 20 103
I (1)
240 = y
2
= ( 0.8 j8.72 ) 106 = ( 0.009 j 0.101) A
240
3 3
2 + I 23 + I 230 + I 24 + I 240 + I 210 = ( 9.391 j 4.488 ) A
(1)
I 12 = i (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1)
Forward sweep
Calculation of the voltage at the node 2
(1)
U 12 (1)
= 3 z12 I 12 = 3 (1.4 + j 0.1)( 9.391 j 4.488 ) 103 = ( 0.024 j 0.009 ) kV
2 = U 1 U 12 = 20 ( 0.024 j 0.009 ) = (19.976 + j 0.009 ) kV

U (1) (1)
23 = 3 z 23 I 23 = 3 ( 2.1 + j 0.15 )( 7.217 j 3.810 ) 10 = ( 0.027 j 0.012 ) kV

3
U (1) (1)
2 U 23 = (19.976 + j 0.009 ) ( 0.027 j 0.012 ) = (19.949 j 0.021) kV

U 3(1) = U (1) (1)
24 = 3 z 24 I 24 = 3 ( 0.028 + j 0.058 )(108.253 j 72.169 ) 10 = ( 0.013 + j 0.007 ) kV

3
U (1) '(1)
4 = N 42 U 4 U 24 = 0.02 (19.949 j 0.021) ( 0.013 + j 0.007 ) = ( 0.386 j 0.007 ) kV

U (1) (1) (1)
Calculation of the power injected at the source node

U1 20 103
(1)
I 120 =y = j 30 106 = j 0.346 A
120
3 3
( )
*
S 1(1) = 3U 1 I 12
(1) (1)
+ I 120 = 3 20 ( 9.391 j 4.142 ) = ( 325.314 + 143.483) kVA
S1(1) = 355.551 kVA
Table 2.1
Results of the iterative process
Quantity Iteration 1 Iteration 2 Iteration 3
0 1 2 3 4
i3 A 7.217 j 4.330 7.240 j 4.334 7.240 j 4.334
I 320 A j 0.520 0.001 + j 0.518 0.001 + j 0.518
I 23 A 7.217 j 3.810 7.241 j 3.816 7.241 j 3.816
Table 2.1 (continued)

0 1 2 3 4
I '24 = i 4 A 108.253 j 72.169 113.498 j 72.728 113.681 j 72.430
I 24 A 2.165 j1.443 2.270 j1.455 2.274 j1.455
i2 A 0 0 0
I 210 A j 0.346 j 0.346 j 0.346
I 230 A j 0.520 j 0.519 j 0.519
I 240 A 0.009 j 0.101 0.009 j 0.101 0.009 j 0.101
I 12 A 9.391 j 4.488 9.520 j 4.507 9.524 j 4.507
U 12 kV 0.024 j 0.009 0.024 j 0.009 0.024 j 0.009
U2 kV 19.976 + j 0.009 19.976 + j 0.009 19.976 + j 0.009
U 23 kV 0.027 j 0.012 0.027 j 0.012 0.027 j 0.012
U3 kV 19.949 j 0.021 19.949 j 0.021 19.949 j 0.021
U 24 kV 0.013 + j 0.007 0.013 + j 0.008 0.013 + j 0.008
U4 kV 0.386 j 0.007 0.386 j 0.008 0.386 j 0.008
S1 kVA 325.314 + 143.483 329.782 + 144.141 329.921 + 144.141
S1 kVA 355.551 359.907 360.021
Notes: The load flow results were achieved after 3 iterations by applying the
backward/forward sweep. The difference between voltages at the last two iterations is less
than 0.001 kV, and the difference between apparent powers at the source node is 0.1 kVA.
The same results were achieved using Seidel-Gauss (12 iterations) and Newton-Raphson
(3 iterations) methods.
2.3. Complex meshed electric networks
2.3.1. Transfiguration methods

In the following, several commonly used transfiguration methods will be
presented.
a) The reduction of a conductor of a certain length and cross-sectional
area, to an equivalent conductor of a different length and cross-sectional area.
In calculation of a network, sometimes it is advantageous that portions of line with
different cross-sectional areas be transformed into sections of line with the same
cross-sectional area. Thus, the conductor of cross-sectional area s1 and length l1 can
be substituted with another conductor of cross-sectional area s2 and length l2,
provided that the distribution of the loads and the voltage drop along the
conductors remains the same. In other words, the resistances of the two conductors
must remain unchanged; thereby the equivalencing condition emerges:
s1
l1 = l2
s2
As equivalencing cross-sectional area, the most frequent cross-sectional area
from the respective network will be chosen.
b) Loads throwing at the nodes. Composing branches in parallel needs the
loads to be situated only at their ends, in nodes. If the loads are connected
everywhere along the branches, first their throwing (moving) at the ends is
performed, with the condition of keeping the voltage drop constant, in the initial
circuit as well as in the transformed circuit. In Figure 2.12 an electric line to which
the loads i1 and i 2 are connected is represented.
Z
Z2 Z2
Z1 Z1 Z
A 1 2 B A B
VA i1 i2 VB VA iA iB VB
a. b.
Fig. 2.12. Electric network diagram for the throwing of the loads at the nodes:
a. initial circuit; b. transfigured circuit.
For instance, to throw at the ends the two currents i1 and i 2 from Figure
2.12, a, two loads i A and i B applied at the lines ends in the transformed network
(Fig. 2.12,a) will be determined, such that the same voltage drop as in the initial
network is obtained:
V AB = Z 1 i1 + Z 2 i 2 = Z i B
' '
V BA = Z 1 i1 + Z 2 i 2 = Z i A
from where it results:
n
'
Z 1 i1 +
'
Z 2 i2
Z
k =1
'
k ik
iA = =
Z Z
n
(2.49)
Z i + Z 2 i2
Z
k =1
k ik
iB = 1 1 =
Z Z
' ' '
where Z 1 , Z 2 , ..., Z k and respectively Z 1 , Z 2 , ..., Z k represents the impedances
from the two ends to the connection points of the k loads.
In the particular case of moving only one load, the consumed current
component, moved at one of the ends, is proportional to the impedance of the line
from the point of consumption to the other end, and inversely proportional to the
line impedance.
From the expression (2.49) results that load throwing at the nodes is
performed according to the rule determined for distribution of the currents
(powers) in the case of the networks supplied from two ends, that is considering the
electric moments of the loads referred to the supplying points. For the case of the
homogenous network, in the relationships of transformation, the impedances are
substituted with the corresponding lengths.
c) Composing of several branches of different supplying voltages which
debit into a node, in a single equivalent branch. Consider the branches A, B, C
of an electric network that has different phase-to-neutral voltages V A , V B , V C at
the ends and debits into a node O (Fig. 2.13).
VA
A IA
VE YA
IE
E YE
O IE
Fig. 2.13. Ramified electric
network with different VB
voltages at the ends. IB YB
B
Y VO
VC I C
C
C
These branches can be substituted with a single equivalent branch of

admittance Y E and voltage V E at the end E. In order to determine the quantities of
the equivalent branch E-O, the relations of equivalencing between the real circuit
with three branches and the equivalent circuit with a single branch are written:
IE = I A + IB + IC (2.50)
Kirchhoffs first theorem will be written as:
(V E V O )Y E = (V A V O )Y A + (V B V O )Y B + (V C V O )Y C
or
V E Y E V O Y E = V A Y A + V B Y B + V C Y C V O (Y A + Y B + Y C )
Equating the left and right terms, obtain:

n
Y E =Y A +Y B +YC = Y
k =1
k
respectively
V Y +V BY B +V CY C
V
k =1
kYk
VE = A A = (2.51)
Y A +YB +YC n
Y k =1
k
It should be mentioned that the replacing of the parallel branches with an

equivalent branch is possible only if along them there are no derivations with
supplementary loads.
Instead, in the case of inverse transformations, the current passed through the
equivalent branch is known and the currents passed through the branches of the
initial network, not transfigured, are required. In this case, voltage drops
expressions are written:
I I I I
V A V O = A ; V B V O = B ; V C V O = C ; V E V O = E
YA YB YC YE
From the last relationship, the voltage of the node O can be determined:
I
VO =VE E
YE
which, after substituting in the other three equations, enable us to determine the
currents passed through the component branches:
Y
I A = I E A + (V A V E )Y A (2.52,a)
YE
YB
IB = IE + (V B V E )Y B (2.52,b)
YE
YC
IC = I E + (V C V E )Y C (2.52,c)
YE
It is obvious that if the voltages of the branches are equal, the relations are
still correct, with the observation that the voltage of the equivalent branch is equal
to that of the component branches. In this case, in expressions (2.52) the second
term of the right side will disappear.
d) Star delta transformation. Another structure, which comes as a sub-
assembly into a meshed network, is the star structure, in the simplest case powered
from three nodes (Fig. 2.14).
The condition of equivalencing of the two circuits (Fig. 2.14,a,b): the
impedances measured at the pairs of terminals 1 2, 2 3 and 3 1 of the star-
shape network must be equal to the impedances measured at the same pairs of
terminals of the delta-shape network:
Z 12 (Z 23 + Z 31 ) Z (Z + Z 12 ) Z (Z + Z 23 )
Z1 + Z 2 = ; Z 2 + Z 3 = 23 31 ; Z 3 + Z 1 = 31 12
Z 12 + Z 23 + Z 31 Z 12 + Z 23 + Z 31 Z 12 + Z 23 + Z 31
I1 I1
1 1
Z1
Z31 Z12
I12
I31
Z3 Z2
I23
3 2 3 2
I3 I2 I2
I3 Z23
a. b.
Fig. 2.14. Star and delta circuits.
Next, solve this system of three equations with unknown quantities Z 1 , Z 2 ,

Z3 :
Z 12 Z 13 Z 23 Z 12 Z 31 Z 23
Z1 = ; Z2 = ; Z3 = (2.53)
Z 12 + Z 23 + Z 31 Z 12 + Z 23 + Z 31 Z 12 + Z 23 + Z 31
If the system of equations is solved in terms of the unknown quantities Z 12 ,

Z 23 , Z 31 obtain:
Z1 Z 2 Z2 Z3 Z1 Z 3
Z 12 = Z 1 + Z 2 + ; Z 23 = Z 2 + Z 3 + ; Z 31 = Z 1 + Z 3 + (2.54)
Z3 Z1 Z2
In terms of admittances, from the equations (2.53) and (2.54) we obtain the
transformation relationships of a delta-shape network into a star-shape network
with three branches:
Y 12 Y 13 Y 12 Y 23 Y Y
Y 1 = Y 12 + Y 13 + ; Y 2 = Y 12 + Y 23 + ; Y 3 = Y 31 + Y 23 + 31 23 (2.53')
Y 23 Y 31 Y 12
respectively, the expressions of the admittances resulted from the star-delta

transformation:
Y 1Y 2 Y 2Y 3 Y 3Y1
Y 12 = ; Y 23 = ; Y 31 = (2.54')
Y1 + Y 2 + Y 3 Y1 + Y 2 + Y 3 Y1 + Y 2 + Y 3
Observation: In the case of general transformation, a star network having 1,

2, , n supplying terminals, can be transformed into a polygon with n(n 1) 2
branches, connecting its terminals two by two.
Since the two networks (Fig. 2.15,a,b), initial and transformed, are
equivalent, it results that the terminal voltages V 1 , V 2 , ..., V n and the currents I 1 ,
I 2 , ..., I n , which enter into the terminals, must be identical in the two cases.
I1star 1 2 I2star I1p 1 I12 Y12 2 I2p

Y1 Y2 I1
O I1n 3
V1 Yn Y3 V2
Instar 3 I3star Y1n
n VO
Vn V3 Inp 3 I3p
a. b.
Fig. 2.15. The general transformation of a network from star into a polygon:
a. star-shape network; b. polygon-shape network.
For instance, for the current injected at the node 1 into the polygon-shape
network:
I 1 p = I 12 + I 13 + K + I 1n = Y 12 (V 1 V 2 ) + Y 13 (V 1 V 3 ) + K + Y 1n (V 1 V n ) (2.55)
respectively, into the star-shape network:
Y Y Y Y Y Y
I 1 star = Y 1 (V 1 V O ) = n1 2 (V 1 V 2 ) + n1 3 (V 1 V 3 ) + K + n1 n (V 1 V n )
Yk
k =1
Yk Yk
k =1

k =1
(2.56)
where
n
Y
k =1
kV k
VO = n
Y
k =1
k
Equating the two currents from (2.55) and (2.56), obtain:

Y 1Y j
Y1 j = n
Yk k =1
or, in the general case
Y iY j
Y ij = n
(2.57)
Y
k =1
k
Notice that the polygon has not all its branches independent. Thus,
considering the transformed admittance between nodes i and j, given by (2.57), and
dividing Y ij to Y i , where:
Y iY
Y i = n
Y
k =1
k
whatever i might be, obtain:

Y ij Yj
=
Y i Y
Therefore, it results that:
Y1j Y2j Y nj Yj
= =K= =
Y 1 Y 2 Y n Y
Now, we can draw the conclusion that any complete polygon, having all
branches independent from each other, cannot be transformed into a star. The
triangle (delta) is the only polygon that allows this transformation, having all
branches dependent from each other.
e) Electric networks equivalencing by using Kron elimination. In some
cases, of interest is to hold only certain nodes in calculation (for instance: 1, 2
which are source nodes), whereas the other non-essential nodes (passive nodes,
loads passivized through Z=ct.), since not of interest, are eliminated/reduced
through star-delta transformation, taking benefit of the zero value of the current
injected into the non-essential nodes (for instance: nodes 3 and 4) (Fig. 2.16,b).
1 Y14 Y42 2 1 Y14 Y42 2
4 4
Y43 Y43
3 3
Y30
0
a. b.
1 2 1 2
4
0 0
c. d.
Fig. 2.16. Exemplification of the non-essential nodes elimination:
a. initial network; b. the network with the load from node 3 replaced with an
impedance Z=ct.; c. the circuit after the elimination of node 3; d. the circuit after the
elimination of nodes 3 and 4.
For the electric network from Figure 2.16,b, where node 4 was non-essential,
and node 3 became passive, by replacing the consumption with an impedance
Z=ct., the equation from the nodal voltages method) becomes:
I 1 Y 11 Y 14 U 1
I
2 = Y 22 Y 24 U 2
(2.58)
I 3 = 0 Y 33 Y 34 U 3

I 4 = 0 Y 41 Y 42 Y 43 Y 44 U 4
)
As it can be seen in 2.4.2., in the framework of nodal voltages method, phase-to-phase
voltage is used.
In the first stage the node 3 is eliminated. In this regard, from the equation
corresponding to the current from node 3, where I 3 = 0 , U 3 is obtained and then
substituted in the equation of the current from node 4, resulting:
I 4 = 0 = Y 41U 1 + Y 42 U 2 + Y 43U 3 + Y 44 U 4 =
Y
= Y 41U 1 + Y 42 U 2 + Y 43 34 U 4 + Y 44 U 4
Y 33
or
Y Y
Y 41U 1 + Y 42U 2 + Y 44 34 43 U 4 = 0
Y 33
It can be noticed that by eliminating node 3, the term 44 has been modified:
' Y 34 Y 43
Y 44 = Y 44
Y 33
resulting the reduction of the number of equations with one unit (Fig. 2.16,c):
I 1 Y 11 Y 14 U 1
I = Y 22 Y 24 U 2 (2.59)
2
I 4 = 0 Y 41 Y 42 Y '44 U 4
Next, in order to eliminate the node 4, U 4 is obtained from the new equation
corresponding to it and substituted in the first two equations in (2.59):
Y Y Y Y
I 1 = Y 11 14 ' 41 U 1 14 ' 42 U 2
Y 44 Y 44
Y Y Y Y
I 2 = 24 ' 41 U 1 + Y 22 24 ' 42 U 2
Y 44 Y 44
or
I 1 Y 11
'
Y 12 U 1
'
I = ' ' (2.60)

2 Y 21 Y 22 U 2
where:
Y 14 Y 41 ' Y 14 Y 42
; Y 12 =
'
Y 11 = Y 11 ' '
Y 44 Y 44
' Y 24 Y 41 ' Y 24 Y 42
Y 21 = '
; Y 22 = Y 22 '
Y 44 Y 44
respectively the new electric circuit from Figure 2.16,d.
Observation: to minimize the calculation effort, the order of elimination of

the nodes must not be random. Thus, first are eliminated the non-essential nodes
with the smallest number of connections, that is with the smallest number of terms
in the nodal admittance matrix; the nodes with many connections will be
considered at the end of the elimination process. In the example shown, the
elimination first of node 3 has been performed by connecting two admittances
(Y 34 + Y 30 ) , followed by a transformation star-delta. If would have been eliminated
first node 4, two transformations star-delta would have been necessary, which
means an increased calculation effort.
In the general case, by using the method of partitioning into blocks, the
equation (2.58) can be written as:
[I r ] [A] [B ] [U r ]
[I ] = [C ] [D ] = [U ] (2.61)
e e
[I r ] =
I1
[I e ] =
I3
[U r ] =
U1
where: ; for the preserved nodes, and ,
I 2 U 2 I 4
[U e ] =
U3
for the nodes that are being eliminated.
U 4
From (2.61) results:
[I r ] = [A][U r ] + [B][U e ]
[I e = 0] = [C ][U r ] + [D][U e ]
If [U e ] is expressed from latter equation and substituted into the previous
equation, it results:
[I r ] = [A][U r ] [B][D]1[C ][U r ] = [Y rr ][U r ]
where the admittance matrix reduced to the preserved nodes can be calculated with
the expression:
[Y rr ] = [A] [B][D]1[C ] (2.62)
f) A general reduction method [2.4]. The general method takes into

consideration the expanding of the partitioning method in the case of expressing
the nodal currents, from the nodal voltages method, in terms of nodal powers and
reduction or equivalencing only a certain zone from the whole network, the
reduced zone can contain load (consumer) and/or generator nodes.
The electric network is divided into two sub-networks (Fig. 2.17):
Internal sub-network (having I nodes), where all quantities are known in
real time (voltage Ui and phase angle i , current flows on electric lines, generated
powers Pg , Qg , consumed powers Pc , Qc , network structure);
External sub-network (having E nodes) that will be reduced/equivalated,

where there is a lack of on-line information (only the power flow on
interconnection tie-lines, electric lines state and the most important generators are
known);
A number of frontier nodes (F), connected to nodes I and E, from both
sub-networks; there are no connections between nodes I and E.
Internal External
System System
I E
F
Fig. 2.17. The division of the electric network.
Because the state of the external sub-network is not fully known, its reducing
or equivalencing is performed. The matrix equation from the nodal voltages
method applied in the divided network is:
[Y EE ] [Y EF ] [0] U E [ I E ]
Y
[ FE ] [Y FF ] [Y FI ] U F = [ I F ]
(2.63)
[ 0] [Y IF ] [Y II ] U I [ I I ]
Next, equation (2.63) is expressed in terms of the vector [S ] of injected

complex powers. In this regard, the vector [S ] is written as:
[ S ] = U d I * = U d ([Y nn ]U n )
*
(2.64)
where [U d ] is a diagonal matrix whose elements correspond to the elements of the
vector [U n ] , but grouped into I, F and E:
(U E )
d

U d = (U F )d
(2.65)
(U I )d
By using (2.63) and (2.65), equation (2.64) becomes:
S E (U E )d
Y *
EE
Y *EF
[0] U *
E

S F = (U F )d
Y *FE

Y *FF Y *FI

U * F (2.66)

S I (U I )d [ 0] Y IF Y II
* *
U I
*

Note:
If [A] is a square matrix with only diagonal terms, [X] being a vector,
x1 0 L 0 x1
0 x2 L 0 x
[A] = ; [X ] = 2 and noting through [Xd] the diagonal matrix
L L L L M

0 0 0 xn xn
whose elements are those of the matrix [A], it can be shown that the vector
x1 y1
x y
[W ] = 2 2 can be rewritten as

xn y n
[W ] = [X d ][y ] = [Yd ][X ]
The matrix equation (2.66) can be rewritten as a system of three vector
equations:
S E = (U E )d [Y EE ] U E + [Y EF ] U F
*
(2.67,a)
S F = (U F )d [Y FE ] U E + [Y FF ] U F + [Y FI ] U I
*
(2.67,b)
S I = (U I ) d [Y IF ] U F + [Y II ] U I
*
(2.67,c)
The reduction procedure of the network consists in manipulating the equation

(2.67,a):
(U E )d
1
S E = Y U *E + Y *EF U *F
*
(2.68)
EE
or
1
U *E = Y *EE (U E )1 S E Y *EF U *F (2.69)
d
Component i of the term (U E )d [S E ] is given by
1
S Ei S Ei *
= U Ei
U Ei U E2i
If we define the vector:
S E1
U 2
E1
[wE ] = M
S En
U 2
E n
then the expression from (2.68) takes another form:
(U E )d
1
( )
S E = U E
*
d
w E = (W E )d U E
*
(2.70)
By substituting (2.70) in (2.69) it results:
( )
1
U *E = Y *EE (W ) U * Y * U *
E d E EF F
or by conjugating:
1
U E = (Y EE ) W E
*
( ) d

U E [Y EF ] U F
If in the latter relation we multiply to the left with [Y EE ] we obtain:
[Y EE ] U E = (W *E )d U E [Y EF ] U F
or
( ( ))
1
U E = [Y EE ] W E [Y EF ] U F
*
(2.71)
d
By substituting (2.71) in (2.67,b) obtain:
[S F ] = (U F )d [Y FF ][U F ] + [Y FE ] ([Y EE ] (W *E )d ) [Y EF ][U F ] + [Y FI ][U I ]

1
*

or
( ( ))
*
1

S F = (U F )d [Y FF ] [Y FE ] [Y EE ] W E d [Y EF ] U F + Y FI U I
* * * *

If in the latter equation we let [Y FF ] stand for the term that modifies the
initial matrix, then:
( ( ))
1
Y eq = [Y FE ] [Y EE ] W *E [Y EF ] (2.72)
d
where Y eq corresponds to an equivalent network connected to the frontier nodes.

If assume that the voltage magnitudes at the external nodes and the injected powers
remain constant, then (W E )d = S E / U E2 is constant. As a consequence, the
injections at the external nodes can be represented by equivalent admittances given
by:
*
Si
yi = i (external network) (2.73)
U i2
Observations: for the validity of the resulted equivalent it is necessary that all
the terms Wi remain constant after considering a contingency inside the network.
But this contradicts the classical approach where the load injections into the
external nodes were represented through constant impedances.
2.3.2. Load flow calculation of meshed networks

2.3.2.1. Formulation of the load flow problem
The load flow defines the state of a power system at a certain instant of time
and corresponds to a given generation and consumption pattern. Taking into
consideration that the load varies from moment to moment, the values of the
electric variables, characteristic of this state, vary also from scenario to scenario.
The results obtained after the load flow calculation, being the starting point
for any analysis of transmission and distribution networks, represent [2.4]:
Necessity in the planning strategies of electric networks development for
the determination of the optimal configuration as well as in the exploitation
activity for establishing the operating regime (overloading possibilities,
voltage level, weak network areas identification, etc.);
Input data in the following activities:
(i) contingency analyses, for testing the unavailability of an electric line,
transformer or synchronous generator, known as security criteria with
(N 1) or (N 2) availabilities;
(ii) transmission capacity analysis, for testing the limits of transfer powers
(thermal limit Imax adm);
(iii) VAr voltage analysis, for assessment of necessity of VAr voltage
equipment and its regulation manner;
(iv) on-line control, of power system operation, using state estimators and
process computers.
Starting point in the study and the selection of the protection relays and
automations, also for static, transient and voltage stability analysis, the
optimisation of operating regimes, etc.
The mathematical model for steady state analysis is based on nodal voltages
method using either nodal admittance matrix
*

[Y nn][U n] = [I n] = S n * (2.74)
U n
or nodal impedance matrix:
[Z nn][I n]=[U n] (2.75)
For steady state analysis, assume that the electric network is symmetrical,
load balanced, and there are no magnetic couplings between its elements. In
consequence, the electric network can be modelled through a single-line diagram.
In the framework of load flow calculations phase-to-phase voltage is used,
which also represents the rated voltage of the networks elements given in catalogues.
2.3.2.2. Nodal admittance matrix

Generally, an electric network consists of branches electric lines,
transformers and nodes to which the generators and/or loads are connected. The
branches are represented through impedances/admittances, the generators through
injected currents/powers at nodes and the loads through impedances or
currents/powers coming out from the nodes.
In electric power systems and networks analysis in order to define the

parameters and the structure of their elements the so-called system matrix is used
nodal admittance matrix ([Ynn]) or nodal impedance matrix ([Znn]).
(i) Nodal admittance matrix in the case of the network without
transformers
Consider the single-line diagram and the equivalent circuit of an electric
network, respectively (Fig. 2.18).
1 y13 3
I1 1 3 I
3 I1 y130 y310 I3
V1 V3 y120 y12 y23 y320

2
V2 I2 y210 y230
I2 2
a. b.
Fig. 2.18. Three-node network: a. Single-line diagram; b. Equivalent circuit.
In order to obtain the nodal admittance matrix [Ynn] and the equations from
nodal voltages method, respectively, we apply the Kirchhoffs first theorem at the
independent nodes, conventionally adopting the sign + for injected nodal
currents and the sign for consumed nodal currents:
12 13
(
y (V 1 V 2 ) + y (V 1 V 3 ) + y + y V 1 = I 1
120 130
)

( )
y 21 (V 2 V 1 ) + y 23 (V 2 V 3 ) + y 210 + y 230 V 2 = I 2 (2.76)

31 32
(
y (V 3 V 1 ) + y (V 3 V 2 ) + y + y V 3 = I 3
310 320
)
If we group the latter system of equations in terms of the nodal voltages then:
( 13 120 130
)
y + y + y + y V 1 y V 2 y V 3 = I1
12 12 13
( )
y 21V 1 + y 21 + y 23 + y 210 + y 230 V 2 y 23V 3 = I 2 (2.76')

(
y 31V 1 y 32 V 2 + y 31 + y 32 + y 310 + y 320 V 3 = I 3 )
or, as matrix form:
Y 11 Y 12 Y 13 V 1 I 1
Y
21 Y 22 Y 23 V 2 = I 2
Y 31 Y 32 Y 33 V 3 I 3
or
[Y nn ][V n ] = [I n ] (2.77)
where:
Y 11 = y12 + y13 + y120 + y130 ; Y 12 = y12 ; Y 13 = y13 ;
Y 21 = y ; Y 22 = y + y + y +y ; Y 23 = y ;
21 21 23 210 230 23
Y 31 = y ; Y 32 = y ; Y 33 = y + y + y +y
31 32 31 32 310 320
(ii) Nodal admittance matrix in the case of the networks with

transformers [2.9, 2.22]
Consider the case of the series ik branch of a transformer (shunt losses are
neglected) with complex transformer turns ratio N ik (Fig. 2.19,a) where
V
N ik = i ' is the complex transformer turns ratio.
Vk
z ik i
N ik k Ik Ii i N ki z ki
Ii i Iik k Ik
Si Sk
Vi Vi Vk Vi Vk
a. b.
Fig. 2.19. Equivalent circuit with transformer operator.
If apply Kirchhoffs second theorem for the loop in Figure 2.19,a, obtain:
V i + z ik I ik + V i ' = 0
Knowing that V ik = z ik I ik the relationship between voltages results:
V ik = V i N ik V k (2.78)
In order to establish the relationship between currents we start from the
equality between the complex apparent powers from the input and those at the
output terminals of the ideal transformer:
* *
S i = 3V i ' I ik = S k = 3V k I k (2.79)
Then, considering V i ' V i , obtain:

*
Vi I
= N ik = k
(2.80)
Vk I ik
respectively
I k = N *ik I ik
(2.80')
I i = I ik
Using the matrix form, the relationship of voltages becomes:

V V
V ik = [1 N ik ] i = [ Aik ] i (2.78')
V k V k
where [ Aik ] is known as quasi-incidence matrix of the ik branch to i and k nodes.
In this case, when the branch is directional from i to k, that is the ideal
transformer (of transformer turns ratio N ik ) is connected to the k node, the quasi-
incidence matrix is written as:
i k
[ Aik ] = ik [1 N ik ]
Expressing the relationship between currents as matrix form:
Ii 1
I = N * I ik = [ Aik ] t I ik
*
k ik
and taking into account that I ik = y ik V ik and considering the expression (2.78') of
V ik , obtain:
[Aik ] *t I ik = [Aik ] *t y ik V ik = [Aik ] *t y ik [Aik ]

Vi V
= [Y ik ] i
V k V k
where:
[Y ik ] = [Aik ] *t y ik [Aik ] =
1
* y ik [1 N ik ]
N ik
The nodal admittance matrix of the branch representing a transformer can
be written as:
'
Y ik y ik
' y ik N ik
[Y ik ] = Y 'ii '
= * (2.81)
Y ki Y kk y ik N ik y ik N ik2
with the mention that the admittance y ik is referred to winding i.

If the branch is directional from k to i, that is the ideal transformer (of
transformer turns ratio N ki ) is connected to i node (Fig. 2.19,b),
[ Aki ] = ik [ N ki 1] , then nodal admittance matrix becomes:
y N2 y ki N ki
*
[Y ik ] = ki ki (2.81')
y ki N ki y ki
with the mention that the admittance y ki is referred to winding k.

It is clear that, in the case of a transformer with complex transformer turns
' '
ratio ( N ik or N ki ), the matrix [ Y ik ] is asymmetrical since Y ik Y ki , and for a
transformer with real transformer turns ratio ( N ik ), the matrix [ Y ik ] is symmetrical

' '
since Y ik = Y ki .
(iii) General rules for writing the nodal admittance matrix [Ynn]
Any diagonal term Y ii is equal to the sum of the series and shunt
admittances of the branches (lines, transformers, others) galvanically connected to i
node. If at the respective node a transformer branch is connected, we have two
cases:
if the ideal transformer is connected to i node, the series admittance of the
transformer is multiplied by the square of transformer turns ratio:
Y ii = (y ik
) y
+ y ik 0 + ki
N ki2 (2.82)
where the first sum stands for lines elements, and the second sum stands for
transformer elements;
if the series admittance of the transformer is galvanically connected to i
node, the diagonal term is:
Y ii = y +y ik ik 0
(2.82')
where y ik
corresponds to series admittances of lines and transformers as well.
If we do not neglect the shunt components of the transformer, these are added
to the term Yii since by hypothesis these are connected on the primary winding side.
The non-diagonal terms in the case of transformer branch are expressed as
follows:
if the transformer operator N ik is connected to k node:
' ' *
Y ik = y ik N ik ; Y ki = y ik N ik (2.82")
if the transformer operator N ki is connected to i node:

' * '
Y ik = y ki N ki ; Y ki = y ki N ki (2.82"')
The non-diagonal terms, in the case of line branch, are equal to the minus
sign value of admittance of the incident line to the two i and k nodes.
The non-diagonal term can be zero ( Y ik = 0 ) if there is no connection
between i and k nodes.
(iv) What is essential or specific for the [Ynn] matrix?

First, for a network without transformers, this is a square and symmetrical
matrix of size equal to the number of independent (n) nodes.
Second, the module of self-admittance of the nodes diagonal term is
bigger or at least equal to the sum of the modules of the non-diagonal terms:
Y ii Y
ik
ik
Sometimes, due to phase-shift transformers and capacitive susceptances of

the lines it is possible that the previous inequality is not true. If we neglect the

shunt components then Y ii = Y ik .
ik
The number of null terms on rows and columns is equal to the number of
branches incident to node plus 1 (corresponding to the self-admittance of the node).
Third, in the real networks, the number of non-zero elements from matrix
[Ynn] is low, being about 2%. The matrix [Ynn] is said to have a high degree of
sparsity or to be a sparse matrix.
Considering for instance a power system of 1000 nodes the number of
incident branches to a node does not exceed 1015 (electric lines and
transformers). In consequence from 1000 terms of any row or column only
11...16 terms are non-zero the others 989...984 being equal to zero.
For general case, of electric network, the relationship between nodal voltages
and currents are expressed as:
[Y nn ][V n ] = [I n ] (2.77)
In practice, in power systems operation analysis, three-phase powers and
phase-to-phase voltages are used. In this respect, the expression (2.77) is
multiplied by 3 resulting:
[Y nn ] 3 [V n ] = 3 [I n ]
Taking into consideration the relationship between phase-to-neutral voltages
and phase-to-phase voltages U = 3 V , and noting I = 3 I , it results the known
form of matrix equation (2.74) from nodal voltages method.
Under these conditions, the expression of three-phase apparent power
becomes:
* * *
S = 3V I = 3 V 3 I = U I (2.83)
mentioning that the currents I are 3 times bigger than the real ones I.
The nodal voltages method in the case of the three-phase models of the
electric lines
To calculate the asymmetrical load regimes of the phases it is useful to
consider the equivalent circuit, thus emphasizing the self and mutual parameters
(Fig. 2.20,a,b).
Note that in the equivalent circuit from Figure 2.20,c, the hypothesis from
equation (2.83) with phase-to-phase voltage and currents multiplied by 3 has
been applied.
i k
a
Ii a z aa
ik a
a
Ik
b z bb z ab
ik b
Ii b z acik ik
b Ik
c z ccik z bc
ik c
Ii c c Ik
yab ybc yab ybc
yac yac
y aa
ik
y bb
ik
y ccik y aa
ik
y bb y cc
ik
ik
a.
a a
I i i z aa z ab z ac k
Ik
b b
[I i ] = I i z ba z bb z bc [I k] = I k
c c
I i
z ca z cb z cc Ik
a y aa y ab y ac [Z ik] y aa y ab y ac V
a
Vi
y ba y bb y bc = [Y ik]
k
[Y ik]
[V i] = V i
b = y ba y bb y bc [V k] = V b
2 y ca y cb y cc y ca y cb y cc 2 k
c
V
c
i
V k
b.
[I i] i [Z ik] k [I k]
[Y ik] [Y ik]
[U i]= 3 [V i] [U k]= 3 [V k]
2 2
c.
Fig. 2.20. Equivalent circuit of a three-phase electric line.
Using direct writing rules of the nodal admittance matrix, the relationship
between the nodal voltages and currents is (Fig. 2.20,c):
[Y ik ] [Z ]1
[I i ] [Z ik ] + 2
1
ik [U i ]
[I ] = [Y ik ] [U k ]
(2.84)
k [Z ik ]1 [Z ik ] +
1

2
2.3.2.3. Active and reactive power flow

Transmission line [2.3]
In this section the expressions for the active and reactive power flows in
transmission lines are derived. In this respect, consider the equivalent circuit
from Figure 2.21.
Sik i Iik yik k Ski
Vi yik0 yki0 Vk Fig. 2.21. Equivalent circuit of the

transmission line.
For the power flow calculation on a branch, we first consider the phase-to-
neutral voltages V i and V k and the current passed through the branch I ik ,
respectively.
The apparent power at the sending-end has the expression:
* * *
S ik = 3V i I ik = 3V i 3 I ik = U i I ik (2.85)
where I ik is the value of current at the sending-end, determined by
I ik = V i y ik 0 + (V i V k ) y ik =
1
3
[
U i y ik 0 + (U i U k ) y ik ] (2.86)
resulting:
not
3 I ik = U i y ik 0 + (U i U k ) y ik = I ik (2.87)
where U i and U k are the phase-to-phase voltages.

Next, we express the voltages as polar coordinates:
ji
U i = Uie = U i (cos i + j sin i )
(2.88,a)
jk
U k = Uke = U k (cos k + j sin k )
and the series and shunt admittances as Cartesian or polar coordinates:
y ik = g ik + jbik = yik e j ik = yik (cos ik + j sin ik )
(2.88,b)
y ik 0 = y ki 0 = g ik 0 + jbik 0
Thus, the expression of the power flow on a branch is calculated as follows:
( )
* *
S ik = U i I ik = U i U i y ik 0 + (U i U k ) y ik = U i2 y ik 0 + y ik
* * *
U i U k y ik =

= U i yik ( cos ik j sin ik ) + gik 0 jbik 0
2
U iU k yik cos ( i k ik ) + j sin ( i k ik )

or
S ik Pik + jQik (2.85)
Equating the real and imaginary parts, the active and reactive powers flowing
on the transmission line from node i to node k are obtained:
Pik = U i2 ( g ik 0 + yik cos ik ) U iU k yik cos(i k ik )
(2.89,a)
Qik = U i2 (bik 0 + yik sin ik ) U iU k yik sin (i k ik )
The expressions of active and reactive powers flowing in opposite direction
are:
Pki = U k2 (g ki 0 + yki cos ki ) U kU i yki cos( k i ki )
(2.89,b)
Qki = U k2 (bki 0 + yki sin ki ) U kU i yki sin ( k i ki )
Transformer
Consider the case of equivalent circuit with transformer operator and real
turns ratio (Fig. 2.19,a,b) for which power losses, represented only through shunt
admittance y i 0 located on the primary winding side, are taken into consideration.
The expressions of complex powers flowing through transformer depend on
the side the taps are located.
Consider first the case of the step-up transformer (Fig. 2.22,a) where the taps
are located on the secondary winding side, and the series parameters are referred to
the lower voltage side. Adopting the same convention as for transmission line, it
can be written:
[
S ik = U i I i = U i y i 0 U i + y ik (U i N ik U k ) *=
*
]
= U i2 ( g i 0 jbi 0 + yik ) U i U k y ik N ik
* * *
where: y i 0 = gi 0 jbi 0 .
Ii i Iik y ik i Nik k I Ii i Nki k y ki k Ik

k
Sik Ski Sik Ski
Vi yi0 Vi Vk Vi yi0 V k Vk
a. b.
Fig. 2.22. Equivalent circuits of transformer with shunt admittance.
a. Step-up transformer; b. Step-down transformer.
Expressing in polar coordinates, obtain:

[ ]
Pik + jQik = U i2 (g i 0 + jbi 0 ) + yik e j ik U iU k yik N ik e j ( i k ik )
Separating the real and imaginary parts of the latter expression yields the
active Pik and reactive Qik power flow expressions:
Pik = U i2 (g i 0 + yik cos ik ) U iU k yik N ik cos(i k ik )

(2.90,a)
Qik = U i2 ( bi 0 + yik sin ik ) U iU k yik N ik sin (i k ik )
The expressions of active Pki and reactive Qki powers flowing in opposite
direction are:
*
[ ]
S ki = U i ' I k = N ik U k y ik (N ik U k U i ) *= U k2 y ik N ik2 U k U i y ik N ik
* * *
Expressing in polar coordinates, obtain:
Pki + jQki = U k2 yik N ik2 e j ik U kU i yik N ik e j ( k i ik )
then it results:
Pki = U k2 yik N ik2 cos ik U kU i yik N ik cos( k i ik )
(2.90,b)
Qki = U k2 yik N ik2 sin ik U kU i yik N ik sin ( k i ik )
Likewise, if consider the case of the step-down transformer (Fig. 2.22,b),
where the taps are located on the primary winding side, the expressions of active
and reactive powers for both directions are:
( )
Pik = U i2 g i 0 + yki N ki2 cos ki U iU k yki N ki cos(i k ki )
(2.91,a)
( )
Qik = U i2 bi 0 + yki N ki2 sin ki U iU k yki N ki sin (i k ki )
Pki = U k2 yki cos ki U kU i yki N ki cos( k i ki )

(2.91,b)
Qki = U k2 yki sin ki U kU i yki N ki sin ( k i ki )
Analysing the expressions of powers flow through both step-up and step-
down transformers observe that these are identical, taking also into consideration
the relationships (1.111,b). Furthermore, if consider the transformer operates on the
median tap, and introducing the quantities in per units, that is N ik N ki 1 , obtain
the expressions of powers flow similar to the ones for transmission line.
2.3.2.4. Nodal equations

By definition, the nodal power is the difference between the generated and
consumed powers into a node.
Taking into consideration that one set of generator units (noted by g) and one
set of loads (noted by c) are connected at i node, the expression of the nodal
complex power is (Fig. 2.23):
S i = Pi + jQi = S gi S ci (2.92)
node i
Sgi=Pgi+jQgi
k (i)
Sci=Pci+jQci
Fig. 2.23. Nodal powers balance.
According to conservation of powers at node i it results:

Si S
k ( i )
ik =0
or
Pi = P
k ( i )
ik ; Qi = Q
k ( i )
ik
Taking into account the expressions of powers flow on a branch (2.89), the
exchanged powers between the i node and remaining part of the network through
the nodes directly connected with it, are:
n n
Pi = U i2 (gik 0 + yik cos ik ) U i U k yik cos(i k ik )
k =1 k =1
(2.93)
n n
Qi = U i2 (b
k =1
ik 0 + yik sin ik ) U i U
k =1
k yik sin (i k ik )
Next, we express equations (2.93) in terms of nodal admittance matrix

elements. According to Figure 2.23, the terms of nodal admittance matrix are:
(y ) [( y
n
Y ii = ik
+ y ik 0 = ik cos ik + g ik 0 ) + j ( yik sin ik + bik 0 )]
k ( i ) k =1 (2.94,a)
= Yii e j ii Gii + jBii
Y ik = y ik = yik e j ik = Yik e j ik Gik + jBik (2.94,b)
Therefore, the two equations of balance powers become:

n
Pi = U i2 Re{Y ii } + U i U Yk =1
k ik cos(i k ik )
(2.95)
n
Qi = U i2 Im{Y ii } + U i U Y
k =1
k ik sin (i k ik )
If equations (2.88,a) and (2.94) are used, the expression of nodal power
becomes:
n
Si =U i Ii =U i
*
Y
k =1
* *
ik U k Pi + jQi
or
n
Si = U U e
k =1
i k
j ( i k )
(Gik jBik ) =
n
= U U {G [cos(
k =1
i k ik i k ) + j sin (i k )] (2.96)
jBik [cos(i k ) + j sin (i k )]}

The expressions for active and reactive power injections are obtained by
identifying the real and imaginary parts of equation (2.96), yielding:
n
Pi (U m , m ) = U U [G
k =1
i k ik cos(i k ) + Bik sin (i k )] =
n n
(2.97,a)
= U U GG
k =1
i k ik = GiiU i2 + U U GG
k =1, k i
i k ik
respectively
n
Qi (U m , m ) = BiiU i2 U U BB
k =1, k i
i k ik (2.97,b)
where:
GGik = Gik cos(i k ) + Bik sin (i k )
(2.98)
BBik = Bik cos(i k ) Gik sin (i k )
and Um and m are vectors of state variables.

From (2.92) and (2.97) results the mathematical model of steady state:
Pgi Pci = Pi (U m , m )
(2.99)
Q gi Qci = Qi (U m , m )
2.3.2.5. Power losses

For a branch i-k, the total power losses are simply calculated with formula:
S ik = S ik + S ki (2.100)
or, by separating the real and imaginary parts obtain the active and reactive power
losses:
Pik = Pik + Pki (2.101,a)

Qik = Qik + Qki (2.101,b)
For the transmission line, the reactive power losses can have negative sign,
due to the capacitive shunt currents, that means the line generates reactive power.
2.3.2.6. Basic load flow problem

Problem variables
The load flow problem can be formulated as a set of non-linear algebraic
equality/inequality constraints. These constraints represent both Kirchhoffs
theorems and network operation limits. In the basic formulation of the load flow
problem, four variables are associated to each node i: Ui voltage magnitude (node i);
i voltage angle; Pi and Qi net active and reactive powers (algebraic sum of
generation and load).
Basic node types
Depending on which of the above four variables are known (given) and
which ones are unknown (to be calculated), three basic types of nodes can be
defined (Table 2.2).
The major problem in the definition of node types is to guarantee that the
resulting set of power flow equations contains the same number of equations and
unknown quantities, as are normally necessary for solvability. For each node we
have four unknown state quantities P, Q, U, , and only two equations (for active
and reactive power balance). This requires that two of the state quantities to be
specified, the other two resulting after the steady state calculation.
Table 2.2
Node types
Quantities
Node type Symbol
Specified Unknown
P, U
Generator node G G min , Q
pure
or (Q , Q max )
hybrid
P,Q P(Q)
C C
Load node or BC(GC) P, Q , U
C
Passive node YC P = 0, Q = 0 , U
Slack (swing)
Us, s = 0 P, Q
node S
These nodes are explained as follows:

At generator node (PU node), active power P, voltage magnitude U as
well as reactive power limits (Qmin and Qmax) are specified. Fixing a certain voltage
level U sp at this type of node is possible due to the control possibilities through
reactive power support from generators. After calculation, the generated reactive
power Qg and the angle voltage are determined.
At hybrid generator node, the injected power is equal to the algebraic sum
of the power produced by the generator unit and the power absorbed by local load.
Load node (PQ node) must have either both active and reactive powers
specified or only one of the powers plus a parameter such as conductance (Gc) or
susceptance (Bc). The passive nodes of zero injected powers are also included in
this category. In these nodes there are no connected loads or, if any, they are
represented through constant admittance (Yc) or impedance (Zc).
Slack (swing) node (U node), where the voltage magnitude Us and the
phase angle s = 0 are specified, has a double function in the basic formulation of
the power flow problem: it serve as the voltage angle reference and since power
losses S are unknown in advance, the active and reactive powers generation of
the U node are used to balance generation, load and losses, and are determined at
the end of steady state calculation. The apparent power at the slack node should be:
Ss = S
jc
cj + S S
i g
gi
Therefore, the slack node must be chosen so that it can undertake the
inaccuracies introduced by the power losses in the network. Usually, this role is
performed by the most important power plant of the system.
2.3.2.7. Seidel Gauss method

Let us consider the expression of the injected current in i g c node [2.9]:
* n
Si
Ii=
Ui
*
= Y
k =1
ik U k (2.102)
and by separating the current corresponding to one of the independent nodes,

namely i node, it becomes:
n
I i = Y ii U i + Y
k =1, k i
ik U k , i = 2,..., n ; i s (= 1)
Thus, the voltage at i node can be written as:
1 n
Ui =
Y ii
Ii
Y ik U k , i = 2,..., n

(2.102')
k =1, k i
which represents the fundamental equation of Gauss iterative method.
For the beginning, a set of initial voltages U i( 0) is considered. Usually these

voltages are equal to the nominal ones, except for the specified voltages, as
magnitude, at the slack node and generator nodes, which are constant during the
calculation process. For the (p+1) step following any given p step in the iterative
process, the linear relationship (2.102') becomes:
1 ( p) n
( p)
Ui
( p +1 )
=
Y ii
Ii
Y ik U k , i s

(2.102")
k =1; k i
where
( p )*
( p) Si ( p)
Ii = ; Si = Pi + jQi( p )
( p )*
Ui
In the framework of Seidel Gauss method, the finding of solution is
accelerated, by using in the (p+1) step the values of all the nodal voltages U k , with
k<i, already calculated in the same iterative step, according to the relationship:
1 Pi jQi( p ) i 1 n
Y ik U k , i s

( p +1 ) ( p +1) ( p)
U i , calc = Y U (2.103)
Y ii U ( p )
* ik k
i k =1 k = i +1
The convention of the current and powers flow is important. Currents
entering the nodes are considered positive, and thus the power into the node is also
positive. A load draws power out of the node and thus the active and inductive
reactive powers are entered in expression (2.103) with negative sign.
The iterative calculation goes on until the voltages magnitude difference
obtained after two successive iterations becomes smaller than a value imposed as
convergence test:
( p +1) ( p)
Ui U i
The Seidel Gauss method leads to a solution in a large number of iterations;

instead, it can be improved through convergence acceleration, under the hypothesis
of a non-periodic evolution of the process (Fig. 2.24).
U
real value
Ui
p+1
p+1 U i, acc
Ui p+1 p Fig. 2.24. Exemplification
Ui Ui of the convergence process
p
Ui acceleration.
calculation step
p p+1
Therefore, by applying the convergence acceleration factor , the updated

voltage expression gets the form:
( p +1) ( p)
( ( p +1)
U i , acc = U i + U i , calc U i
( p)
), i s (2.104)
Usually (12), with moderate values, being preferred for the regimes
calculation, since large values could lead to divergence. The acceleration in the
initial phase can be unfavourable if the tendency towards the solution is oscillating.
It is recommended to use 3-4 iterations without acceleration, that is = 1 , then,
according to the number of nodes and parameters of the electric network,
= 1.2 K 1.75 , and every 10 iterations to use = 2.2.
The non-linear relations (2.103) are applied in a different manner in terms of
node types:
(i) Voltage calculation at the slack node is omitted, the voltage at this node
is specified in magnitude and phase angle, being maintained constant during the
entire iterative process;
(ii) For the load node, the reactive power Qi( p ) = Qi is considered constant,
and the voltage is updated every iteration by using equation (2.103);
(iii) A generator node is treated differently; the voltage to be controlled at the
node is specified and the generator voltage regulator varies the reactive power
output of the generator within its reactive power capability limits to regulate the
terminal voltage.
In order to maintain the voltage at the specified value we must proceed to its
correction:
( p)
( p) U i , calc
U i , cor = U isp ( p)
(2.105)
U i , calc
Note that, by applying expression (2.105), the corrected voltage magnitude

( p)
U i , cor becomes equal to the specified voltage U isp .
For the calculation of reactive power at iteration (p), as support to maintain the
voltage at generator terminals to the specified value, the most updated values of
voltages are used:
*

( p ) ( p )
( )
i 1 n
Qi( p) ( p) 2 *

k =1
( p +1)
= Im U i , cor Y ii + U i , cor Y ik U k +
Y ik U k

(2.106)
k = i +1
where Im stands for the imaginary part of the equation.

For a PU node the upper and lower limits of VAr generation to maintain the
nodal voltage constant are also given. The calculated reactive power is checked for
the specified limits:
Qimin < Qi( p ) < Qimax
If at the generator node i there is reactive power consumption, this must be

taken into account in defining the capability limits.
If the calculated reactive power Qi( p ) falls within the specified limits
( p) ( p)
(between Qimin and Qimax ), then at iteration (p) the voltage is set to U i = U i , cor ,
( p +1)
then at iteration (p+1) the new value of voltage U i , calc is calculated by using the
expression (2.103);
If the calculated reactive power Qi( p ) is outside the specified limits ( Qgmin
,i ,
Qgmax
, i ), then the ig node, of PU type, is transferred to the set of c nodes of PQ
type. The reactive power Qi is fixed at one of the violated limits as follows:
(i) if Qi( p ) < Qimin , then Qi( p ) = Qimin ;
(ii) if Qi( p ) > Qimax , then Qi( p ) = Qimax .
That means the reactive power support is not sufficient to maintain the
voltage at the specified value, and the voltage at iteration (p) is the calculated value
( p) ( p)
U i = U i , calc .
Note that after the convergence test is satisfied, generator nodes must be
again treated accordingly, that is depending on the reactive power calculated, the
final voltages are established as explained earlier.
Also, in the end of the calculation process, after the (p+1) iteration when the
convergence test is satisfied, the apparent complex power at the slack node s is
calculated with the expression:
n
( p +1) ( p +1)*
Ss
final
=Ss
*
= U s2 Y ss + U s
k =1,k s
*
Y sk U k (2.107)
Observations [2.4]:
a) If the calculated real power generation violates generator limits, the excess
(or deficiency) of slack node generation is distributed among the remaining units,
and more load flow iteration are carried out. This adjustment is repeated until slack
node generation is within acceptable limits;
b) Also, if slack node reactive power generation violates generator limits,
then a number of possibilities may be considered. One possibility is to change the
slack node to a different generator. Another is to change slack node voltage
appropriately without violating its voltage limits. A third possibility is to introduce
reactive generation and/or load by means of the switching of appropriate capacitor
and/or inductor banks.
In practice, for the control of the convergence of iterative process, there are
also other criteria to use, the most common consisting in testing the module of the
difference between the apparent powers at the slack node, calculated at two
successive iterations:
( p +1) ( p)
Ss Ss
Once the state vector is calculated we could determine the injected powers
and the load flow on the network branches.
In chapter 8 Performance methods for power flow studies, methods of
Newton-Raphson type for steady state calculation are presented.
2.4. Reconfiguration of the distribution electric networks

Usually, the urban distribution electric networks consist of underground
cables. These cables rise some problems concerning the repairing of insulation
damages or braking of conductors. The time necessary to detect and repair the
damages can be important, time in which many loads can remain not supplied. In
order to cope with this inconvenient, a back-up supply is recommended, which
implies the existence of at least two supply paths for each consumption point, from
the same source or from different sources. In order to limit the number of loads
affected by a short circuit emerging into the electric networks with such
configurations, the networks are operated in radial configuration.
The rural distribution electric networks mainly consist of overhead electric
lines. This type of lines do not present special problems in detecting and repairing
the damages. In addition, the density of the loads supplied by these networks is
much smaller than the one in urban networks. A reserve in the power supply of
these loads is not economically justified, the structure of the rural distribution
electric network being usually arborescent or radial. Although these networks have
a meshed structure they are operated in radial configuration.
In practice, for short periods of time, the distribution electric networks can de
operated in a meshed configuration, especially when reconfiguration manoeuvres
are performed within the network.
2.4.1. Operating issues

Generally, by reconfiguration of a physical system is understood the
modification of the operational connections that exist among its components, in
order to improve the system operation as a whole or just a part of it, without
modifying the characteristic parameters of the system components.
In the particular case of distribution electric networks, the reconfiguration
aims at improving and optimising the operating state by changing only the
topological state in operation / out of service of some electric lines. The
network reconfiguration is possible only for meshed networks, for which the
arborescent operation is recommended. For such configuration, the set of electric
lines in operation and out of service have a well determined number of
elements, the number of the electric lines in operation being equal to the number
of load nodes. The elements of these two sets can be exchanged subject to the
arborescent operation of the network. The advantage is the possibility of achieving
the most suitable configuration in order to improve or optimise the operating state,
in terms of the strategy of network configuration and of the electricity demand. For
example, consider a simple meshed electric network, which supplies n loads (Fig.
2.25). The arborescent configuration allows us to achieve n + 1 possible
arborescent configurations in operation.
Source A Source B
1 2 ... k ... n Base
network
Network
sectionalization
Configuration 1
...
Configuration k
...
Configuration n+1
Fig. 2.25. Possible arborescent configurations for a simple meshed electric network.
The reconfiguration process can be applied for all the possible operating
conditions of a distribution electric network:
normal conditions, characterized by the availability of all the network
elements, the state quantities being within the admissible operating limits;
critical conditions, characterized by the availability of all the network
elements, with some of the state quantities being at the limit of normal
operation (the thermal limit, the voltage stability limit, etc.);
emergency operation, characterized by the unavailability of one or more
elements of the network, due to operation under critical conditions on
expanded period of time or to some accidental damages emerged from
outside the network.
For the normal and critical conditions, finding the optimal configuration of an
electric network actually implies network reconfiguration, but for the emergency
operation the process becomes one of reconstruction. Usually, under normal
conditions, the purpose is to reach an optimum in operation in order to minimize
the active power losses and energy losses and to improve the security in supplying
the loads. For the critical conditions the goal of the reconfiguration process is to
restore the network normal operating state, by load reducing and balancing the
lines load as well as by reducing the voltage drops and also by obtaining uniformity
of the voltage level at the loads. For the emergency operation the goal is to supply
as many as possible loads after the detection and isolation of the fault. In this case,
the optimisation is of lower interest, more important being the restoration of the
power supply of all loads in a time as short as possible and the reducing of the
financial penalties for the electricity not supplied.
At least two arguments are supporting of the reconfiguration process:

the operating state of the network can be improved by a reduced
coordination effort, achieving considerable results. The advantages mainly
consist in decreasing the active power losses and, in most cases, in
decreasing the reactive power losses as well as the decreasing of the line
load, the decreasing of the voltage drops and the improvement of the
voltage level at loads. The effort done for network reconfiguration is
related to the cost of the manoeuvres necessary to change the present
configuration and, eventually, the cost of the electricity not supplied during
these manoeuvres;
a second aspect refers to the dynamics of the power energy demanded by
the loads. The load curve can be significantly changed either for long or for
shorter periods of time, causing the change of the load gravity centre and
thus of the operating state of the network. Therefore, specific (normal)
operating configurations can be defined for each period of time in terms of
the season and the characteristics of the consumer activity during the
week-days.
2.4.2. Mathematical model of the reconfiguration process

The reconfiguration process of a distribution electric network can be seen as
an optimisation problem. To define the mathematic model, we start from the
observation that to any electrical network, consisting of n nodes and l branches, a
graph G ( X, A ) can be assigned, where X is the set of nodes and A is the set of
branches. To these sets, state or operational quantities can be also assigned, which
characterize the operating state of the network.
Therefore, to the set A of the branches it can be assigned:
the set I of state quantities, representing the branches currents;
the set C of decision quantities, representing the topological states of the
branches; for any branch l from the set A , the topological state can be:
cl = 1 , if the branch l is in operation;
cl = 0 , if the branch l is out of service.
To the set X of the nodes, it can be assigned:

the set U of state quantities representing the nodal voltages;
the set F of quantities representing the reliability indices of the nodes.
Based on these notations, the mathematical model of the reconfiguration
optimisation problem has the general form [2.15], [2.16]:
OPTIM f ( U, I, C, F ) (2.108)
subject to equality and inequality constraints:

g ( U, I, C, F ) = 0
(2.109)
h ( U, I, C, F ) > 0
In equation (2.108), f ( U, I, C, F ) represents the objective function, which, in

the general case, it can be written as:
f ( U, I, C, F ) = 1 f1 ( U, I, C, F ) + 2 f 2 ( U, I, C, F ) + K + n f n ( U, I, C, F ) (2.110)
where: f1 , f 2 ,K, f n represent the weighting of criteria taken into account;

1 , 2 ,K, n weight coefficients of every criterion.
The criteria that can be used in the objective function for the electric
distribution network reconfiguration problem are:
real power losses decrease;
decrease and balancing the branch load;
voltage drops decrease;
improve the safety in power supply of the loads;
decrease the manoeuvres cost.
Analysing the criteria shown above, it can be seen that, in most of the cases,
for the mathematic model solution, the main goal is the minimization of the
objective function. There can be also situations when the goal is to find the
maximum of the objective function.
In terms of the number of criteria taken into account, the objective function is
of single-criterion type, when only one criterion is considered, or multi-criterion
type, when two or more criteria are considered.
The constraints can be related to the network exploitation or operation:
the network connectivity or the supply of all loads, constraint checked by
applying the Kirchhoffs current law in all load nodes;
the arborescent configuration of the network;
the security in operation, which refers to branch load, voltage drops as well
as nodal voltage level;
the reliability level in the power supply of the loads;
the possibility of the network branches to be subjected to manoeuvres;
the maximum number admitted for manoeuvres to change the network
operating configuration.
A synthesis on the issues that can be taken into consideration in the
reconfiguration process is presented in Table 2.3.
Of the many issues presented above, that can be taken into account in the
mathematical model of the reconfiguration problem, only the following aspects are
of interest in operation:
active power losses ( P );
branch load ( I I adm );
voltage drops ( U );
maximum yearly number of interruptions ( N int );

duration of the supply restoration ( Tdint ).
Table 2.3
Issues used currently in the reconfiguration of the distribution electric networks
Operating state
Issue
Normal Critical Emergency
Power losses Criterion - -
Manoeuvres cost Criterion - -
Criterion/ Criterion/
Security in power supply Criterion
Constraint Constraint
Branch load Constraint
Voltage drops Constraint
Arborescent configuration Restriction Restriction Restriction
Configuration connectivity Restriction Restriction Restriction
Executing manoeuvres on certain
Restriction Restriction Restriction
electric lines and transformers
Admitted number of manoeuvres Restriction Restriction -
The objective functions assigned to these issues are:
P = R I
lA
2
l l cl ;

lA
{
I I adm = max I l I ladm ;} U = max
kX
Zl Il ; (2.111)
lDk
N int = max { N ( ek , ek )} ; Tdint = max {Td ( ek , ek )}

kX kX
where: Z l = Rl + jX l is the impedance of the branch l;

I ladm the admissible current (thermal limit) of the branch l;
Dk the path between the node k and the source node;
e k the equivalent failure rate of the node k with respect to the source
node;
e k the inverse of the mean time to repair of the node k with respect to
the source node.
The reconfiguration process constraints can be written under the form:
ik = I c , k X;
lA k
l l lR = l n + nC ;
I l I ladm , l A; Z
lDk
l I l U adm , k X; (2.112)
adm
N man N man ;
adm
N int N int ; Tdint Tdadm
max
where: i k is the complex load current at the node k;

Ak the set of branches adjacent to the node k;
lR the number of out of service branches;
nC the number of load nodes;
U adm the admissible voltage drop in the network;
N man the number of manoeuvres necessary to obtain the final
configuration;
adm
N man the maximum admissible number of manoeuvres necessary to
obtain the final configuration;
adm
N int maximum yearly number of interruptions in the load supply;
Tdadm
max
maximum admissible duration of the supply restoration.
In order to identify the theoretical and practical possibilities for
reconfiguration problem solution we start from some remarks regarding the
mathematical model. In the case when the problem solution does not involve the
voltage change at the source node, the size of the sets U , I and F implicitly
depend on the quantities of the set C , so that the objective function can be written
as:
OPTIM f ( U ( C ) , I ( C ) , F ( C ) ) (2.113)
Therefore, in solving the optimisation reconfiguration problem, the final goal

is to explicitly determine the decision variables cl , l A . These are discrete binary
variables, which can be equal to 1 or 0. Under these conditions, the mathematical
model has the form of a general mathematical programming problem with discrete
variables. Furthermore, for the previously discussed issues, the functions assigned
to each criterion, as well as the ones that describe the constraints, have a convex
character. Hereby, the mathematical model takes the form of a convex
programming problem with discrete variables.
Out of the previous remarks, the conclusion that comes out is that a
theoretical possibility to solve the mathematical model consists in the use of tools
specific to the mathematical programming: linear programming, convex
programming, dynamic programming, etc.
A modern and relatively new possibility in solving the reconfiguration

optimisation problem is based on artificial intelligence techniques, such as decision
trees, genetic algorithms, fuzzy logic, expert systems, Petri nets, etc.
A practical possibility to obtain the solution to the reconfiguration process
consists in searching within the solutions space, which is the set of all arborescent
configurations that can be generated for an electric network with a meshed
structure. The number of elements of the solutions space is directly influenced by
the complexity and the geographical spread of the electric network.
Only a small part of the possible arborescent configurations of an electric
network, that form the solutions space, fulfil the inequality constraints, and they
form what is called the set of allowed operating configurations. Because the
optimum is related to various issues, the final configurations obtained after the
reconfiguration process can be different. The goal of reconfiguration is to identify
those optimal configurations which fulfil all the technical and operational
constraints.
The methods based on searching within the solutions space, used for
reconfiguration problem solution, can be systematic or heuristic.
In the frame of the systematic methods (uninformed searching methods) all
the possible arborescent configurations of a distribution electric network are
individually generated and analysed. The configuration corresponding to the
optimal operation subjected to the main objective is further considered. As far as
this principle is concerned, the systematic search methods are optimal methods,
which ensure finding the global optimal solution. This is the main advantage of the
systematic searching methods. Although there are only two possible values for
each variable, it is rather difficult to apply this kind of methods for most of the
distribution networks because of the very large number of arborescent
configurations which have to be generated and analysed. This is the main
disadvantage on the systematic methods.
Solving the mathematical model
Mathematical Programming Artificial Intelligence Techniques Searching inside the Solution Space
Linear Programming Decision trees Systematic Search (uninformed)
Convex Programming Genetic Algorithms Heuristic Search (informed)
Dynamic Programming Fuzzy Logic
Expert Systems
Petri Networks
Fig. 2.26. Possibilities of solving the reconfiguration problem.
The heuristic methods (informed searching methods) are used in order to

decrease the number of configurations that should be analysed to achieve the
reconfiguration solution. These methods use a number of observations that allow

filtering for analysing only the intermediary configurations that lead to a final
solution close to or even identical to the optimal global solution. The advantage
consists in a considerable reduced computation time and effort to the detriment of
the fact that they are not optimal.
The theoretical and practical possibilities of solving the reconfiguration
optimisation problem are synthetically presented in Figure 2.26.
2.4.3. Reconfiguration heuristic methods

A heuristic method is a searching procedure that allows for an easy solving of
a combinative problem. The existence of the heuristic methods is based on the use
of a set of observations, rules and knowledge, gained from previous experience or
theoretically developed, that allow filtering for analysis only the solutions that lead
to a final solution close to or even identical to the optimal global one.
For the reconfiguration of the distribution electric networks, the main issue
that allows the use of heuristic methods is related to the variation of the currents
curve within network branches for different arborescent configurations. For a
simple meshed network consisting of an electric line supplying n loads (Fig. 2.27),
consider that the network splitting is performed by opening the line between the
nodes k 1 and k, the currents flowing through the other line sections increase
toward the source nodes A and B. The increase of these currents has a convex form.
When the line section chosen for network splitting is changed, the currents curve is
moved up or down, whilst preserving the shape.
Ik Ik
| In+1|
| I1|
| I2| | In|
| In-1|
| Ik-1|
| Ik+1|
A I1 1 I2 2 Ik-1 k-1 k Ik+1 k+1 In-1 n-1 In n In+1 B
VA i1 ik-1 ik ik+1 in-1 in VB
Fig. 2.27. Variation of currents flowing through the branches

of a simple meshed network that operates radially.
The heuristic methods starts from an initial configuration, chosen based on

specific requirements, and scan for improved configurations. If there is at least one
improved configuration, the selection criterion replaces the actual configuration
with the improved one. The procedure ends when no improved configuration ca be
found by applying the searching mechanism for the actual configuration. An
improved configuration of the actual one is defined as being that configuration
which leads to the evolution of the objective function value in the desired direction.
2.4.3.1. Reconfiguration strategies

The heuristic reconfiguration methods of the distribution electric networks
are based on three strategies [2.15], [2.17]:
constructive strategy, in which all the branches of the initial
configuration are in out of service state. By successively transitions to the in
operation state of some branches, the desired arborescent configuration is
achieved (Fig. 2.28). Because each load node can be supplied by just one branch,
the number of intermediary steps necessary to achieve the final configuration is
equal to the number of the load nodes.
(1) (2) (3)
Fig. 2.28. Principle of the constructive strategy.
destructive strategy, in which all branches of the initial configuration are

in operation state. By successive transition to the out of service state of some
branches the desired arborescent configuration is achieved (Fig. 2.29). The number
of intermediary steps necessary to achieve the final configuration is equal to
difference between the total number of branches and the number of the load nodes.
(1) (2)
Fig. 2.29. Principle of the destructive strategy.
the branch exchange strategy starts from an initial arborescent

configuration and preserves the arborescent character during the process. For the
transition from one configuration to another, a branch is switched in operation
and than another one, from the loop resulted from this manoeuvre, is switched out
of service (Fig. 2.30). While for the previous strategies the number of
intermediary steps necessary for achieving the final configuration is well defined,
for this strategy the number of steps depends on many factors, out of which the
most important are the searching manner of the substituting configuration and its
selection criterion.
(1) (2) (3)
Fig. 2.30. Principle of the branch exchange strategy.
Since for the branch exchange reconfiguration strategy, the path between
the initial and the final configuration is not unique, for identifying improved
configurations, several strategies can be applied (Fig. 2.31).
Local Descending
Ordered Dynamic
Strategy for search

of improved configurations
Random Maximal
Irrevocable Tentative
(irreversible) (reversible)
General
reversible Backtracking
Fig. 2.31. Strategies for searching improved configurations [2.12].
Taking into account the convex variation of the curve of the branch currents
for a simple meshed network, for the criteria based on these currents, the searching
process is simplified. Therefore, starting from an out of service branch, branch
exchange is subsequently performed with the two adjacent branches. If an
improved configuration is found for one of these exchanges the search continues in
this direction with the next branch, until no improved configurations can be found.
Depending on the fact that the searches continue or not, the search is called
descending or local.
In a complex meshed network the number of out of service branches can be

greater or equal to 2. Examination of out of service branches can be random or
ordered; in the second case various ordering criteria can be used, such as: the
voltage drop at the terminals of these branches, the resistance of the loop to which
the branch is assigned, etc.
If for a complex meshed network, starting from the actual configuration,
different improved configurations can be found, the substitution configuration can
be decided upon by choosing the best of them (maximal strategy) or the first
configuration encountered (dynamic strategy).
The main disadvantage of the heuristic methods consists in the fact that the
global optimal solution is not guaranteed. The search around local optimums is
avoided by returning to a previous improved configuration and restarting the search
on a different path. For this procedure the search strategies can be irrevocable
(irreversible) or tentative (reversible) [2.18]. In an irreversible search once a
certain improved configuration is found the search mechanism does not return to
previous improved configurations. A tentative search strategy returns to a previous
configuration by following either exactly the path between the initial and the final
configuration (backtracking search) or any other path (general reversible search).
2.4.3.2. Heuristic methods for active power losses reducing

Reducing the active power losses is the main objective of the reconfiguration
process of the distribution electric networks operated under normal conditions. The
improved configurations are strictly subjected to the inequality constraints,
especially to those referring to line load, nodal voltage level and voltage drops.
Power losses include three components, namely (see Chapter 7):
own technologic consumption;
technical losses;
commercial losses.
The reduction that can be achieved by reconfiguration is aimed at Joule
losses, that belong to own technologic consumption, the objective function of this
criterion having the form:

MIN [ P ] = MIN Rl I l2 cl
lA
(2.114)
Minimization of the active power losses by reconfiguration requires,

irrespective of the strategy employed, to start from an initial configuration and
adopting some intermediary configurations to reach the final configuration.
Theoretically, the analysis of the objective function while passing from one
configuration to another is performed by load flow calculation and evaluating the
total active power losses of the network. For the linear model of the network, the
evaluation of the active power losses variation can be performed without load flow
calculation. In this regard, the results obtained in Appendix 2.2 are used further on
to describe some heuristic methods for active power losses reduction.
A. Branch exchange strategy

Consider a simple meshed electric network supplying n loads (Fig. 2.32,a).
The initial radial configuration from which the branch exchange strategy starts is
the one in which the splitting is done between the nodes k and k + 1 (Fig. 2.32,b).
IA A 1 2 k-1 k k+1 n B IB
z1 z2 zk-1 zk zk+1 zn zn+1
VA i1 i2 ik-1 ik ik+1 in VB
a.
A I1 1 I2 2 Ik-1 k-1 Ik k k+1 In n In+1 B
z1 z2 zk-1 zk zn zn+1
b.
Fig. 2.32. Simple distribution electric network:
a. meshed network; b. meshed electric network with radial operation.
The local load transfer of one load or of a group of loads between two
neighbouring feeders is performed by doing an elementary exchange for an out of
service branch. The selection of this branch exchange is based on using the
equation. (A2.2.8) to estimate the active power losses variation P generated by
the load transfer from one feeder to another. The condition for the load transfer is
P < 0 . For the network shown in Figure 2.32,b, consider the transfer of the load
from the node k located on the feeder supplied from node A to the feeder supplied
from node B (Fig. 2.33).
ik=-ik ik=+ik
A I1-ik 1 I2-ik 2 Ik-1-ik k-1 k Ik=ik k+1 In+ik n In+1+ik B

z1 z2 zk-1 zk+1 zn zn+1
Fig. 2.33. Simple meshed electric network after the transfer

of the node k from the feeder A to the feeder B.
After the load transfer the currents through the line sections between the
nodes A and k will decrease with the value of i k , and the currents through the line
sections between the nodes B and k will increase with the same value. By applying
equation (A2.2.8) for the mentioned line sections, for the current flows
corresponding to the situation previous to the load transfer, and considering that
i k = i k , one obtains:
k k k

PA,k = 3 ik2 ri 2ika ri I ia 2ikr ri I ir
i =1 i =1 i =1
(2.115)
n n +1 n +1

PB ,k = 3 ik2 ri + 2ika ri I ia + 2ikr ri I ir
i = k +1 i = k +1 i = k +1
By summing up the above relations, the active power losses variation, as a
result of the transfer of the node k from the feeder A to the feeder B, is [2.19]:
n +1 k
n +1 k

P = 3 ik2 RAB + 2ika ri I ia ri I ia + 2ikr ri I ir ri I ir (2.116)
i = k +1 i =1 i = k +1 i =1
where RAB is the resistance between nodes A and B.
The optimal currents pattern represents the current flows through the
branches of a simple meshed electric network for which the active power losses are
minimised, in comparison with any other operating state. For a simple meshed
electric network, the optimal currents pattern corresponds to the natural repartition
of currents through the line sections, considering only their resistances, given that
the voltages at the two ends are equal [2.1, 2.14, 2.20].
Consider that the meshed electric network in Figure 2.32,a has equal voltages
at both ends. The current flows through the network branches is determined
starting from the current I A or I B and subsequently applying Kirkhoffs current
law in nodes 1, 2,K, n , or in the nodes n,K , 2,1 , respectively. The currents injected
by the two supplying nodes are calculated with the relations (2.29,a) and (2.29,b)
adapted for the situation in which only the branches resistances are considered:
n
R i
k k n +1
IA = k =1
RAB
; Rk = r
i = k +1
i
n
(2.117)
R i k k k
IB = k =1
; Rk = ri
RAB i =1
To obtain the radial configuration from Figure 2.33, the line section between
nodes k 1 and k from the meshed network is switched out of service state
(Fig. 2.33). The currents through the line sections between nodes A and k decrease
with the value of I k , and the currents through the line sections between nodes B
and k increase with the same value. By applying the relation (A2.2.8) for the
mentioned line sections, corresponding to the current flows in meshed operation
and considering that i k = I k , the active power losses variation, after
transforming the simple meshed networks into two radial sub-networks, is:
n +1 k
n +1 k

P = 3 I k2 RAB + 2 I ka ri I ia ri I ia + 2 I kr ri I ir ri I ir (2.118)
i = k +1 i =1 i = k +1 i =1
Taking into account that the current flows for the line sections of the simple
meshed network has been calculated considering only the branch resistances, the
voltage drops of the nodes A and B with respect to the node k can be written as:
k k k
V Ak = ri ( I ia + jI ir ) = ri I ia + j ri I ir
i =1 i =1 i =1
n +1 n +1 n+1
(2.119)
V Bk = r (I
i = k +1
i ia + jI ir ) = rI
i = k +1
i ia + j ri I ir
i = k +1
Assuming equal voltages at both ends V A = V B , the voltage drops of the

nodes A and B with respect to the node k are identical V Ak = V Bk , and
subtracting the first row of equation (2.119) from the second one, one obtains:
n +1 k
n +1 k

i ia ri I ia +
r I j ri I ir ri I ir = 0 (2.120)
i = k +1 i =1 i = k +1 i =1
which leads to:
n +1 k
rI
i = k +1
i ia ri I ia = 0
i =1
n +1 k
(2.121)
r I r I
i = k +1
i ir
i =1
i ir =0
Based on the previous results, relation (2.118) becomes:

P = 3I k2 RAB (2.122)
The previous equation shows that by transforming a simple homogeneous
meshed network, which operates with equal voltages at both ends, into two radial
sub-networks, the active power losses increase. The smallest increase is recorded
on the line section with the smallest current. Consequently, applying the optimal
current pattern method, in order to reduce the active power losses, three steps are
necessary:
a) Closing a loop by switching a line section from the out of service state
to the in operation state;
b) Calculating the optimal currents pattern in the closed loop achieved
previously;
c) Identifying the line section from the loop whose current magnitude is
minimum and switching it in the out of service state.
B. Destructive strategy
Employment of the destructive type strategy for active power losses
reduction is based on the notion of optimal currents pattern in a loop. As presented
in section 2.4.3.1, the destructive strategy consists in subsequent openings of the

loops within a complex meshed network, until the final radial configuration is
achieved. The selection criterion at each computation step of the branch of a loop
that should be switched out of service is based on the conclusions provided by
equation (2.122). The following steps are required:
a) Load flow calculation, considering only the branch resistances;
b) All closed loops are individually analysed, by identifying the origin
nodes and calculating the cumulative resistance of the line sections
between them;
c) Identifying for each loop, the branch with the minimal current and
calculating the power losses variation after switching the branch out of
service;
d) Selecting the branch for which the variation of the power losses P has
the lowest value and switching it out of service.
C. Constructive strategy
Employment of this strategy in the reconfiguration process for active power
losses reducing is based on the results obtained in Appendix A2.2. This strategy
consists in subsequently switching in operation some network branches, until the
final arborescent configuration is achieved. The selection of the branch that should
be switched in operation among the candidate branches at each computation step,
is based on the active power losses increase minimization criterion [2.15], [2.17].
Consider the electric network in Figure 2.32, for which, at a certain
computation step, a choice between introducing either the line section between the
nodes k 1 and k or the line section between the nodes q and q + 1 is necessary
(Fig. 2.34).
A I1 1 Ik-1 k-1 k q q+1 Iq+2 n In+1 B

z1 zk-1 zk zq+1 zq+2 zn+1
VA i1 ik-1 ik iq iq+1 in VB
Fig. 2.34. Selecting the branch that has to be added to the network.
By applying the expression (A2.2.8) to the current flows corresponding to

Figure 2.34, the active power losses variation for both cases becomes:
k k 1 k 1

PA,k = 3 ik2 ri + 2ika ri I ia + 2ikr ri I ir
i =1 i =1 i =1
(2.123)
n +1 n +1 n +1
PB ,q = 3 iq2 ri + 2iqa ri I ia + 2iqr ri I ir
i = q +1 i =k + 2 i=k +2
The choice is done based on the criterion min {PA,k , PB ,q } .

2.4.3.3. Reducing and balancing the branch load

This criterion is employed within the reconfiguration process for critical
operating conditions, characterized by the fact that the power flows through
branches closely to the technical capacity, which is the maximum load of the
network branches (I I adm )max , has exceeded a specified value, usually equal to
unity.
The objective function for the branch load reducing criteria can be expressed
as follows:
[
MIN (I I adm )max ] (2.124)
If the objective is the balancing of branch loads, the objective function is
expressed as follows:
1 l I
MIN (2.125)
l k =1 I adm k
While reducing the branch loads is a local criterion, when applied for a single
branch of the network the load balancing on branches is a global criterion, which is
used for the whole network. In the last case the goal is equivalent to obtaining more
or less the same load for all branches. This can be represented mathematically as
[2.21]:
I I I 1 l I
=

I adm 1 I adm 2
= L = =
I adm l l k =1 I adm k
(2.126)
Theoretically, for branch load reduction, elementary branch exchanges for all
branches in out of service state can be performed. To perform only the branch
exchanges that leads to the proposed goal we consider the fact that at an elementary
branch exchange in a certain loop only the current flow through the line sections of
the loop in question will change (Fig. 2.35).
Im
m
k
n
a.
-Im m
k
n
+Im
b.
Fig. 2.35. Variation of currents in a meshed network:
a. before the branch exchange; b. after the branch exchange.
Starting from the previous observation, we conclude that for reduction a

branch load, the necessary condition is to perform branch exchanges only in the
loops that include that branch. Since for each out of service branch only two
elementary exchanges are possible, the second necessary condition is that the
chosen branch exchange should lead to the decrease of current flows through the
branch in question.
The sufficient conditions that ensure this objective are that, by a branch
exchange, a non-zero load should be transferred from a feeder to a neighbouring
one, and on the feeder to which the transfer was performed, no branch load
exceeding the admissible value or the existing load of the branch in question
should emerge. For the network in Figure 2.35, the second sufficient condition is
given by [2.12]:
I l + I m I adml ; l = k + 1,K , n
(2.127)
I m I admmn
For a better understanding, the possible branch exchanges in Figure 2.36

necessary to reduce the load of the branch in question, are presented.
I > Iadm
Fig. 2.36. Possible branch exchanges performed to reduce the branch load.
2.4.3.4. Reducing the voltage drops

This criteria is employed in the reconfiguration process for critical operating
conditions, characterized by the fact that the voltage drop occurring along some
branches is bigger than the admissible value, or that the minimum voltage node has
a voltage level too low with respect to the voltage of the source node which
supplies it. In this case, by performing branch exchanges, the goal is to achieve the
reduction of the voltage drops along the branches on the path between the source
node and the minimum voltage node. Likewise to the previous method,
theoretically, in order to fulfil this objective, elementary exchanges for all out of
service branches can be performed. In order to perform only those branch
exchanges that can lead to this objective, it should be taken into account that, when
performing an elementary exchange, the current values will change only for the
branches of the loop to which the exchanged branches belong, which leads to
voltage change for all nodes in the arborescent sub-networks that include the
branches of the respective loop. Based on this observation, we conclude that the
first necessary condition to reduce the voltages drop in a network is to perform a
branch exchange that will include at least one of the branches on the path between
the minimum voltage node and the source node that supplies it. From the same
reason as the one when reducing the branch loads, the second necessary condition
is that the chosen branch exchange should lead to a voltage drop decrease on the
path considered. The sufficient conditions that ensure this objective are: for a
branch exchange, a non-zero load should be transferred from a feeder to a
neighbouring one, and in the arborescent sub-network for which the transfer was
performed no voltage drops exceeding the admissible value or the existing voltage
drops occurring on the path in question should emerge [2.12].
For a better understanding, the possible branch exchanges performed in the
Figure 2.37 to reduce the voltage drop between the source node and the node in
question, are presented.
Umin
Fig. 2.37. Possible branch exchanges performed to reduce the maximum voltage drop.
Appendix 2.1
EXISTENCE AND UNIQUENESS OF THE FORWARD/BACKWARD
SWEEP SOLUTION
Consider a simple electric network consisting of a source node and a load node,
linked by an electric line (Fig. A2.1.1).
SA A Z=R+jX 1 S1
VA V1
Fig. A2.1.1. Example of electric network with two nodes.
For this network, the voltage V A at the source node and the complex power S 1 at
the load node are known, and the goal is to establish the operating conditions in which, by
applying the backward/forward sweep, to achieve the load flow results as well as the proof
of their uniqueness.
For the load flow calculation of this network, the voltage at the load node is first
(0)
initialised, V 1 = V A , and then the following calculations are iteratively performed:
S 1*
I ( p) =
3V 1( p 1)*
V 1( p ) = V A Z I ( p ) (A2.1.1)
S (Ap ) = 3V A I ( p )*
where I represents the line current, and p stands for the iteration index.
In order to determine the convergence conditions of the iterative process, it is

necessary to know the complex power S 1 . Because for the general equation (2.34) finding
these conditions is extremely difficult, two particular load modelling cases will be
considered in the following: by constant current or by constant power (these are the most
frequently used models in electric network studies). Therefore:
(1) In the case of load modelling by constant complex current, the line current I ,
obtained from the first relation of (A2.1.1), is constant and independent on the voltage level
at the node 1. Under these conditions, the mathematical model is linear, and the load flow
results are achieved after just a single iteration. Mathematically, V 1 and S A exist and are
well determined for any value taken by the current I . Technically, low or negative values
of the active component of the voltage V 1 , due to a too large voltage drop on the line, are
not accepted.
(2) For the case of load modelling by complex constant power, consider that the
power has the expression S 1 = P1 + jQ1 , with P1 and Q1 constant. Therefore, the
mathematical model is no longer linear, and in order to achieve the load flow results an
iterative computation should be performed. In order to establish the conditions for which
PA , Q A and V1 exist, we start from the relationship between the powers at the two nodes:
PA2 + QA2
PA = P1 + R
3VA2
(A2.1.2)
PA2 + QA2
QA = Q1 + X
3VA2
The voltage V 1 at the load node can be calculated in terms of the voltage V A at the
source node, by means of the relationship:
P1 jQ1
V 1 = V A ( R + jX ) (A2.1.3)
3V 1*
The following relationship exists between the magnitudes of voltages V A and V 1 at
the two ends of the line:
P12 + Q12
3VA2 = 3V12 + 2 ( RP1 + XQ1 ) + R 2 + X 2 ( ) 3V12
(A2.1.4)
Next, the following notations are adopted:

2
R X V
r= ; x= ; v= 1 (A2.1.5)
3VA2 3VA2 VA
obtaining thus the system of equations that describes the network operation, in the form:
A 1 (
P = P + r P2 + Q2
A A )

(
QA = Q1 + x PA + QA
2 2
) (A2.1.6)

(
v 2 1 2 ( rP1 + xQ1 ) v + r 2 + x 2 )( P 1
2
)
+ Q12 = 0
The previous system is non-linear, having the unknown variables PA , QA and v. The
first two equations of the set (A2.1.6) define two curves in the system of PA QA co-
ordinates. The crossing points ( PA1 , QA1 ) and ( PA2 , QA2 ) of these curves are in fact the
solutions for the unknown variables PA and QA (Fig. A2.1.2).
Fig. A2.1.2. Defining the solutions

of the single-load network [2.10].
To determine the solutions analytically, from the first two equations in (A2.1.6) we
express the power losses on the line as:
(
P = PA P1 = r PA2 + QA2 ) (A2.1.7)
Q = QA Q1 = x ( PA2 + QA2 )
and, by dividing the two equations, it results:
P r
= (A2.1.8)
Q x
From equations (A2.1.7), the power losses in terms of the load power components
and the power losses components, are:
P = r ( P1 + P ) + ( Q1 + Q )
2 2

(A2.1.9)
Q = x ( P1 + P ) + ( Q1 + Q )
2 2

Using the equation (A2.1.8) and substituting the unknown variable Q from the
second equation in (A2.1.9) into the first one, we obtain a second order equation where the
variable is P :
r2
P 2 2
r +x
r
2
(1 2rP1 2 xQ1 ) P +
r + x2
2 (P
1
2
)
+ Q12 = 0 (A2.1.10)
The solutions are:

r (1 2rP1 2 xQ1 ) (1 2rP1 2 xQ1 )2 4 ( r 2 + x 2 )( P12 + Q12 )
P11,2 = (A2.1.11)
(
2 r 2 + x2 )
Likewise, we proceed to the calculation of the unknown variable Q :

x (1 2rP1 2 xQ1 ) (1 2rP1 2 xQ1 )2 4 ( r 2 + x 2 )( P12 + Q12 )
Q11,2 = (A2.1.12)
(
2 r +x2 2
)
Solving the third equation in (A2.1.6), the solutions for the voltage v are obtained:
(1 2rP1 2 xQ1 )2 4 ( r 2 + x 2 )( P12 + Q12 )

1 1
v1,2 = rP1 xQ1 (A2.1.13)
2 2
The existence of these solutions is conditioned by the sign of the quantities under to
be square-rooted, i.e:
(1 2rP1 2 xQ1 )2 4 ( r 2 + x 2 )( P12 + Q12 ) 0 (A2.1.14)
On the boundary, the above relation describes a parabola. Considering also the
restriction P1 0 (node 1 being of load type), the existence domain of the solutions of the
system of equations (A2.1.1) is given by the hatched area in Figure A2.1.3.
Q1
1
2 1
2 2
4 P'1 r + x

P1
1
2
2 2
Q'1 r + x
Fig. A2.1.3. The existence domain of the solutions [2.12].
In figure A2.1.3, the following notations have been made:

P1 = ( rP1 + xQ1 ) 2
r +x 2
and Q1 = ( xP1 rQ1 ) 2 2
r + x , representing components of a
rotation of angle = atan ( x r ) , of the system of axes P1 Q1 around the origin.
For technical and psychical reasons [2.9, 2.22, 2.23], of the two values of the
voltage v, only the value with the sign + is accepted. The quantities PA and QA depend
upon the existence and the uniqueness of the quantity v, as expressed in equations (A2.2.1).
The proof of existence and uniqueness of the load flow solution for the general case
of a radial (arborescent) network consisting of n nodes can be obtained by generalizing the
results previously achieved. Applying iteratively the process described earlier, it can be
demonstrated that for each branch i of the electric network there is a unique relationship
between the active Pi and reactive Qi power entering (injected) into the branch and the
voltage magnitude U i +1 at the other end of the branch.
Appendix 2.2
THE ACTIVE POWER LOSSES VARIATION AS A RESULT OF A LOAD
VARIATION IN A RADIAL NETWORK
Consider a radial electric network that supplies n loads, whose one-line diagram is
illustrated in Figure A2.2.1. The loads are modelled by constant currents and the lines
sections by series impedances.
A I1 1 I2 2 k-1 Ik k n-1 In n
z1 z2 zk zn
VA
i1 i2 ik-1 ik in-1 in
Fig. A2.2.1. Radial electric network supplying n loads.
For this network, the active power losses variation to a change of the load current at
any node k is of interest. In this respect, the complex power losses are firstly expressed with
the relation:
n n n n
S = 3 [ I ]t [ Z ][ I ] = 3 x I
*
z k I k I *k = 3 z k I k2 = 3 rk I k2 + j 2
k k (A2.2.1)
k =1 k =1 k =1 k =1
where z k is the impedance of the branch k, between the nodes k 1 and k, and I k is the
complex current flowing through the branch k.
In the previous relation the active power losses can be expressed as:
n n
P = 3
k =1
rk I k2 =3 r (I
k =1
k
2
ka + I kr2 ) (A2.2.2)
where I ka and I kr are the active and reactive components of the complex current I k .
The current I k ca be expressed in terms of the load currents as:
n
Ik = i
i=k
i (A2.2.3).
Expanding the equation (A2.2.2) and considering the equation (A2.2.3), it results:
{
P = 3 r1 ( i1a + K + ika + K + ina ) + ( i1r + K + ikr + K + inr ) + K +

2 2

(A2.2.4)
+ rk ( ika + K + ina ) + ( ikr + K + inr )

2

2 2
+ K + rn ina ( 2
+ inr )}
In the previous equation the line sections resistances are considered to be constant.
Also, consider that the load currents are constant, except the current at the load connected
to the node k. In order to calculate the power losses variation in the whole network for a
variation of the current i k , the expansion of expression of P from equation (A2.2.4)
using Taylor series is performed in the vicinity of the operating point, in terms of the
quantities ika and ikr [2.12]:
Not ( P ) ( P ) 1 ( P ) 2
2
( P ) = P = ika + ikr + ika +
ika ikr 2
2 ika
(A2.2.5)
( P )
2
( P ) 2 2
+2 ika ikr + ikr + K
ika ikr 2
ikr
The partial derivatives that emerges in this expansion have the expressions:
( P )
= 3 2r1 ( i1a + K + ika + K + ina ) + K + 2rk ( ika + K + ina ) + K + 2rn ina
ika
( P )
= 3 2r1 ( i1r + K + ikr + K + inr ) + K + 2rk ( ikr + K + inr ) + K + 2rn inr
ikr
2 ( P )
2
= 32r1 + K + 2rk + K + 2rn
ika
(A2.2.6)
2 ( P )
=0
ika ikr
2 ( P )
2
= 32r1 + K + 2rk + K + 2rn
ika
p ( P )
= 0 () p 3, q p
q
ika ikrp q
Replacing the equations from (A2.2.6) in (A2.2.5) and taking into account (A2.2.3),
it results:
P = 3 2 ( r1 I1a + r2 I 2 a + K + rk I ka ) ika + 2 ( r1 I1r + r2 I 2 r + K + rk I kr ) ikr +

(A2.2.7)
(
+ ( r1 + r2 + K + rk ) ika
2 2
+ ikr )
The latter equation express the active power losses variation in the network due to
the change of current in node k, of the form i k = ika + j ikr :
2 k k k

(
P = 3 ika 2
+ ikr ) r + 2i r I
i ka i ia + 2ikr r I i ir

(A2.2.8)
i =1 i =1 i =1
Likewise, the expression of the reactive power losses variation due to the change of
current in node k is:
2 k k k
(
Q = 3 ika 2
+ ikr ) xi + 2ika xi I ia + 2ikr x I i ir (A2.2.9)
i =1 i =1 i =1
Neglecting the reactance of the line sections, the voltage drop V Ak between the
nodes A and k becomes:
k k
V Ak = VAk + jVAk =
i =1
ri I ia + j r I
i =1
i ir (A2.2.10)
and the expression of the active power losses variation becomes [2.19]:
k
P = 3 ik2

r + 2 Re {i V }
i k
*
Ak (A.2.2.11)
i =1
where Re stands for the real part, and * indicates the complex conjugate.
Chapter references
[2.1] Bercovici, M., Arie, A.A., Poeat, A. Reele electrice. Calculul electric (in
Romanian) (Electric networks. Electric calculation), Editura Tehnic, Bucureti,
1974.
[2.2] Grainger, J.T., Stevenson, W.D. Power systems analysis, Mc Graw-Hill, 1994.
[2.3] Eremia, M., Trecat, J., Germond, A. Rseaux lectriques. Aspects actuels,
Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 2000.
[2.4] Debs, A. Modern power systems control and operation: A study of real time
operation of power utility control centers, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1992.
[2.5] Guill, A.E., Paterson, W. Electrical power systems. Volume one. 2nd Edition,
Pergamon Press, Oxford, New York, 1979.
[2.6] Weedy, B.M. Electrical power systems. 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons,
Chichester, New York, 1979.
[2.7] Poeat, A., Arie, A.A., Crian, O., Eremia, M., Alexandrescu, V., Buta, A.
Transportul i distribuia energiei electrice (Transmission and distribution of
electric energy), Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1981.
[2.8] El-Hawary, M. Electrical power systems. Design and analysis (Revised
printing), IEEE Press, New York, 1995.
[2.9] Eremia, M., Criciu, H., Ungureanu, B., Bulac, C. Analiza asistat de calculator
a regimurilor sistemelor electroenergetice (Computer aided analysis of the
electric power systems regimes), Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 1985.
[2.10] Chiang, H.D., Baran, M. On the Existence and Uniqueness of Load Flow
Solution for Radial Distribution Power Network, IEEE Transactions on Circuits
and Systems, Vol. 37, No. 3, March 1990.
[2.11] Bart, A. Reconfiguration des rseaux de distribution en rgime critique et
dfaillant, Thse 1176, Ecole Polytechnique Fdrale de Lausanne, 1993.
[2.12] Tritiu, I. Reconfigurarea reelelor electrice de distribuie de medie tensiune
(Reconfiguration of distribution electric networks of medium voltage), Ph.D. Thesis,
Universitatea Politehnica din Bucureti, 1998.
[2.13] Baran, M., Wu, F. Network Reconfiguration in Distribution Systems for Loss
Reduction and Load Balancing, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol.4,
No.2, April 1989.
[2.14] Goswami, S.K., Bassu, S.K. A new Algorithm for the Reconfiguration of
Distribution Feeders for Loss Minimisation, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery,
Vol.7, No.3, July 1992.
[2.15] Cherkaoui, R. Mthodes heuristiques pour la recherche de configurations
optimales d'un rseau lectrique de distribution. Thse 1052, Ecole Polytechnique
Fdrale de Lausanne, 1992.
[2.16] Tritiu, I., Eremia, M., Ulmeanu, P., Bulac, C., Bulac, A.I., Mazilu, G. Un
nouveau mode daborder la reconfiguration des rseaux de distribution urbaine,
CIGRE, Black Sea El Net Regional Meeting, Suceava, 10-14 June 2001.
[2.17] Cherkaoui, R., Germond, A. Structure optimale de schma dexploitation dun
rseau lectrique de distribution. Energetica Revue, Nr.5 B, 1994.
[2.18] Florea, A.M. Elemente de Inteligen Artificial, Vol. I, Principii i Modele.
(Elements of artificial intelligence. Vol. I, Principles and models) Litografia
Universitii Politehnica din Bucureti, Bucureti, 1993.
[2.19] Cinvalar, S., Grainger, J.J., Yin, H., Lee, S.S.H. Distribution feeder
reconfiguration for loss reduction, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol.3,
No.3, April 1988.
[2.20] Shirmohammadi, D., Hong, H.W. Reconfiguration on electric distribution
networks for loss reduction and load balancing, IEEE Transactions on Power
Delivery, Vol.4, No.2, April 1989.
[2.21] Kashem, M.A., Ganapathy, V., Jasmon, G.B. Network reconfiguration for load
balancing in distribution networks, Generation, Transmission and Distribution,
IEE Proceedings, Volume: 146 Issue: 6, Nov. 1999.
[2.22] Potolea, E. Calculul regimurilor de funcionare a sistemelor electroenergetice
(Calculation of the operating regimes of the power systems), Editura Tehnic,
Bucureti 1977.
[2.23] Barbier, C., Barret, J.P. Analyse des phnomnes dcroulement de tension sur
un rseau de transport, Revue Gnrale dElectricit, Tome 89, No.10, October
1980.
[2.24] Augugliaro, A., Dusonchet, L., Favuzza, S., Ippolito, M.G., Riva Sanseverino, E.
A new model of PV nodes in distribution networks backward/forward analysis,
39th International Universities Power Engineering Conference UPEC 2004, 6-8
September 2004, Bristol, England.
[2.25] Shirmohammadi, D., Hong, H.W., Semlyen, A., Luo, G.X. A compensation-
based power flow method for weakly meshed distribution and transmission
networks, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol.3, No.2, May 1988.
Chapter 3
AC TRANSMISSION LINES
For long-distance energy transmission hundred of kilometres, either AC or

DC, long lines powered at high (HV) and extra high voltages (EHV) are used.
These lines present a set of operating peculiarities and therefore their modelling is
different from distribution short lines modelling (with respect to wavelength).
Accurate analysis of phenomena that occur on EHV transmission long lines
does not have to consider the line parameters as lumped, as performed in the case
of medium or low voltage powered lines, instead of uniformly distributed along the
line.
The following assumptions can be made in this regard [3.1]:
a) The leakage current and conduction current through dielectric are
approximately equal to the value of current flowing through the series impedance
and therefore they cannot be neglected anymore;
b) For no-load conditions of the line, the conduction current at the source is
non-zero. The no-load current is capacitive and varies from a cross-section to
another: the current increases from the receiving-end (load) toward the sending-end
(source), and the voltage increases from the source toward the receiving-end. This
increase in voltage is known as Ferranti phenomenon and is more pronounced as
the length of line increases (i.e. for L = 4 = 1500 km , the voltage for no-load
conditions could theoretically reach infinite values).
Therefore, if a transmission line with uniformly distributed parameters is
supplied with a sinusoidal voltage, in every point of the line the voltage and current
have a sinusoidal variation in time, but their magnitude depends on the position of
the considered point along the line.
3.1. Operating equations under steady state

Consider a very short section x, from a line of length L, at a distance x
measured from the receiving-end (Fig. 3.1). By applying Kirchhoffs theorems
obtain:
Voltage drop in section x is:
V (x + x ) V (x ) = z 0 x I (x ) (3.1)
Shunt current passing through y 0 x is:
I (x + x ) I (x ) = y 0 xV ( x ) (3.2)
I(L) I(x+x) z0x I(x) I(0)
V(L) V(x+x) y0x V(x) V(0)

I(0)
I(L) x x
L x=0
Source Load
Fig. 3.1. Equivalent circuit of a transmission line telegraph equations.
Equation (3.1) can be written as:

V (x + x ) V (x )
= z 0 I (x )
x
In the limit, when x 0 ,
V (x + x ) V (x )
lim = z 0 I (x )
x 0 x
or
dV (x )
= z 0 I (x ) (3.3)
dx
for current respectively obtain:
d I (x )
= y 0 V (x ) (3.4)
dx
Differentiating with respect to x it results:
d V (x ) d I (x )
2
2
= z0
dx dx
d I ( x ) y dV ( x )
2
= 0
dx 2 dx
or taking into account equations (3.3) and (3.4) obtain:
d V (x )
2
= z 0 y 0 V (x ) (3.5)
dx 2
d I (x )
2
= z 0 y 0 I (x ) (3.6)
dx 2
AC transmission lines 167
where: z 0 = r0 + jx0 = r0 + jl0 is per length complex impedance of the line;

y 0 = g 0 + jb0 = g 0 + jc0 per length complex admittance of the line.
Equations (3.5) and (3.6) are known as telegraph equations, which define the
electromagnetic energy transfer along the long lines.
The voltage V (x ) and current I (x ) are unique solutions of a second-order
differential equation with constant coefficients. Knowing the form of a solution for
V (x ) and I (x ) , we can deduce the other solution. The general solution for V (x )
from (3.5) can be written in exponential form as:
V (x ) = A1 e x + A2 e x (3.7)
where A1 , A2 and are integration constants.
Calculating the second order derivative:
d V (x ) 2
= (A1 e x + A2 e x ) = V (x )
2
2
(3.8)
dx 2
and equating with (3.5) we obtain:
2
= z0 y0
Thus, the expression of the complex propagation coefficient will be:

2
= z 0 y 0 or = z 0 y 0 = (r0 + jx0 )(g0 + jb0 ) (3.9)
The propagation coefficient can also be expressed as:

= + j (3.9')
where: is the attenuation coefficient, [nepers/m], depending on the voltage and

current magnitude variation on the line;
the phase coefficient, [rad/m], expressing the voltage or current
phase variation in two points on the line.
By substituting (3.7) in (3.3) obtain:
dV ( x ) d
= (A1 e x + A2 e x ) = (A1 e x A2 e x ) = z 0 I (x )
dx dx
respectively:

I (x ) = (A1 ex A2 e x ) = 1
(A1 ex A2 e x ) (3.10)
z0 ZC
If consider
z0 z0 z r0 + jx0
= = 0 =
z0 y y0 g0 + jb0
0
so the ratio
z0
ZC = + (3.11)
y0
is called characteristic impedance (or surge impedance) of the electric line.

Observation: For a lossless electric line, r0 0 and g 0 0 , the characteristic
impedance has the dimension of a resistance. The minus sign has no meaning
because there is no negative resistance.
The propagation coefficient and the characteristic impedance Z C of the
line reflect the geometrical and material properties (of the conductor and dielectric
environment) and characterize the electromagnetic energy propagation. They do
not depend on the line length. Parameters , , and Z C are called secondary
parameters of the electric line and they can be inferred from the primary
parameters r0, l0, c0, g0.
In order to determine the constants A1 and A2, the conditions in the limit
imposed at the input and output terminals of the circuit are used. Therefore:
At the receiving-end, for x = 0, obtain:
V (0 ) = V B = A1 + A2
1
I (0 ) = I B = ( A1 A2 )
ZC
resulting in:
A1 = 1 2 (V B + Z C I B ) (3.12')
A2 = 1 2 (V B Z C I B ) (3.12'')
Substituting (3.12') and (3.12'') in (3.7) obtain:

x x x x
V (x ) =
1
(V B + Z C I B )ex + 1 (V B Z C I B )e x = V B e + e + Z C I B e e
2 2 2 2
or
( ) (
V ( x ) = cosh x V B + Z C sinh x I B ) (3.13)
Likewise, the equation of current is obtained:

( ) (
I (x ) = Y C sinh x V B + cosh x I B ) (3.14)
The matrix equation that gives the voltage and current in terms of the output
quantities, in a point placed at the distance x, is:
V (x ) cosh x Z C sinh x V B
I (x ) = Y sinh x cosh x I B
C
At the sending-end, for x = L, obtain:
V A cosh L Z C sinh L V B
I = Y sinh L cosh L I B
(3.15)
A C
The coefficients of the long lines equations are:
A = D = cosh L ; B = Z C sinh L ; C = Y C sinh L
Since the coefficients fulfill the necessary condition of a passive four-

terminal network, that is:
AD BC = cosh 2 L sinh 2 L = 1
it results that any electric long line can be represented through an equivalent four-
terminal network (Fig.3.2).
IA IB
A=coshL B= ZCsinhL
VA VB
C =Y CsinhL D=coshL
Fig. 3.2. Equivalent four-terminal network of an electric line.
In the case when the input quantities V A , I A are given and output quantities
V B , I B are required we obtain:
1
V B cosh L Z C sinh L V A cosh L Z C sinh L V A
I = Y sinh L =
cosh L I A Y C sinh L cosh L I A
B C
(3.16)
3.2. Propagation of voltage and current waves

on a transmission line
3.2.1. Physical interpretation

In order to emphasize the physical aspect of propagation of the voltage and
current waves on a line, the following equations are written again:
V (x ) = A1 e x + A2 e x (3.7)
I (x ) =
1
(A1 ex A2 e x ) (3.10)
ZC
where the constant A1 will be determined in terms of the input quantities, that is for
x=L:
V A = A1 e L + A2 e L
Z C I A = A1 e L A2 e L
Adding these equations the following expression results:
1
A1 = (V + Z C I A)e L (3.17)
2 A
For the constant A2 the value from (3.12''), determined in terms of the output
quantities, will be kept. Substituting (3.17) and (3.12'') in (3.7) obtain:
1
V (x ) = (V A + Z C I A)e Lex + 1 (V B Z C I B )e x
2 2
or taking into consideration Figure 3.3,a:
V ( x ) = V A e x ' + V B e x
' '
(3.18)
where
1
'
VA = (V + Z C I A) = V A' e j a
2 A
1
'
VB = (V B Z C I B ) = VB' e j b
2
Taking into account that = + j it results that:
V (x ) = V A e j (a x ) e x + V B e j (b x ) e x
' '
Expressing in instantaneous values, the voltage is a function of t and x:

V (x,t ) = 2VA' sin (t x + a )e x + 2VB' sin (t x + b )e x (3.19)
or
V (x, t ) = Vd ( x' ,t ) + Vr ( x,t )
Thus, in any point and any instant of time, the voltage is a sum of two waves
of decreasing phase angle:
direct travelling wave, which propagates from the source toward the
consumer, of preponderant magnitude, V A = (V A + Z C I A ) 2 and which is
'
exponentially damped with the coefficient e x ' (Fig. 3.3,b);

L
x
x=L x=0
x'=L-x
a.
Vd t t+t
2 VA e-x -x
Vr
2 VB e
v v
x' x
x'=vt
b. c.
Fig. 3.3. Travelling waves propagation along a transmission line: a. defining of line
section, b. direct travelling wave propagation, c. reflected travelling wave propagation.
reflected travelling wave, which propagates from the consumer to the

source (in the opposite direction of the energy transfer), of lower magnitude
V B = (V B Z C I B ) 2 with respect to the direct waves, and which is exponentially
'
damped with the coefficient e x (Fig. 3.3,c).

In any point x, there is a superposition of travelling waves resulting in a
stationary wave.
Velocity and direction of propagation
In order to determine the velocity and direction of propagation of the waves,
two successive points along the line, having the same phase angle, are considered.
If the voltage phase angle at the instant t and the distance x' is equal, by definition,
to the voltage phase angle at the instant ( t + t ) and the distance ( x'+ x' ), then it
can be written:
t x' + a = (t + t ) (x'+x')+ a
t x' = 0
or in the limit:
x'
= =
t
where v is the velocity of propagation of the wave.
It results that the direct travelling wave Vd (x' , t ) is moving in the positive
direction along the x-axis, with the same velocity = / ; for this reason Vd (x' , t )
is called direct wave.
Likewise, for the second travelling wave, obtain:
x
= =v
t
that is Vr (x, t ) is moving in the positive direction along the x-axis, thus in the
opposite direction from the direct travelling wave, with the same velocity = / .
Therefore, Vr (x, t ) is a reflected or inverse wave.
For lossless electric lines, that is for r0 0 and g 0 0 , from equation of
propagation coefficient (3.9), it results:
j x0b0 = j l0c0 = j (3.20)
where = l0c0 .
If substitute in the expression of velocity of propagation of the waves

obtain:
1
v= = (3.21)
l 0 c0
Returning to the equation (3.9) and taking into account (3.21) obtain:
j 2f 2 2
= j = j = j (3.20')
T
It should be mentioned that in the case of lossless overhead lines, the velocity
of propagation of the waves is independent on the frequency and it is equal to the
velocity of the light in vacuum, which is 300.000 km/s. In all the other cases, the
velocity of propagation of the waves is lower than the velocity of the light. As a
consequence, the wavelength of the AC powered electric lines (with frequency
of 50 Hz) is equal to:
v 300.000 km/s
= = = 6000 km
f 50 Hz
only when the power losses on the line can be neglected.

Therefore, the propagation phenomenon is periodical in space after every
6000 km. Generally, of interest are the lines with lengths of l/4=1500 km and
l/2=3000 km
Proceeding in a similar manner for current travelling waves, obtain:
I (x ) = I A e x I B e x = I A' e j a e ( + j )x I B' e j b e ( + j )x
' '
and in instantaneous values respectively:
I ( x,t ) = 2 I A' sin (t x'+ a )e- x ' 2 I B' sin (t x + b )e x (3.22)
Observations:
The reflected waves of current have opposite sign with respect to the direct
current waves as compared to the voltage waves that bear the same sign;
The damping factor attached to both the direct waves ( e x ' ) and the
reflected waves ( e x ) shows that the propagation phenomenon on real lines, with
resistance and shunt admittance, operates with electric energy losses.
3.2.2. Apparent characteristic power. Natural power

(SIL surge impedance loading)
The operation of an electric line without reflected wave is more favourable,
from the economic point of view, because in this case energy losses decrease and
in consequence the transmission efficiency improves. Under these circumstances,
'
the term V B from equation (3.18) becomes zero, that is:
1
VB =
'
(V B Z C I B ) = 0
2
so that
VB V
IB = = B
Z C Z load
By the notion of characteristic impedance Z C understand a value of the

impedance of the consumer from the point B for which there can be no reflected
waves, that is with minimum losses on the line. Thus, when the receiving-end B of
the line is closed on an impedance of value equal to the characteristic impedance,
the propagation phenomenon occurs as if the considered line is of infinite length ).
In this case, the impedance measured at the sending-end of the line (source) is also
equal to the characteristic impedance Z C , respectively to the impedance measured
at the receiving-end of the line (load).
The apparent power demanded by the consumer, under such circumstances
regime without reflected waves is called characteristic apparent power ( S C ). The
expression of the single-phase characteristic apparent power at the consumer is:
)
The ratio of voltage to current at any point along an infinite line is a constant equal to the
characteristic impedance of the line [3.2].
* VB2
S B 0,C = V B I B = *
ZC
or, if is the angle of characteristic impedance Z C :
VB2 VB2 V2
S B 0,C = = = B (cos + j sin )
[ZC (cos + j sin )]* Z C (cos j sin ) Z C
In the regime without reflected wave, where V B = Z C I B , the equations

(3.13) and (3.14) become:
(
V (x ) = V B cosh x + sinh x = V B e x )
( )
I (x ) = I B sinh x + cosh x = I B e x
The characteristic single-phase apparent power in a point x on the line can be

determined from expression:
S 0,C (x ) = V ( x )I ( x ) = V B I B e( + )x = S B 0,C e 2x
*
* *
Since is very small for overhead electric lines, the characteristic

impedance having a high resistive component, the dominant term of the
characteristic apparent power S B 0, C will be the active characteristic power:
VB2
PB 0,C = cos
ZC
respectively:
P0,C ( x ) = PB 0,C e 2 x
Since the attenuation coefficient has a small value, the active power
P0,C ( x ) does not vary much along the line, being almost of the same value as
characteristic active power absorbed by the consumer P0,C (x ) PB 0,C .
Furthermore, in the case of lossless electric lines the attenuation coefficient is
zero, that is = 0 and thus j , and the characteristic impedance becomes a
resistance; under these circumstances PB 0,C is conserved along the line, being a
characteristic constant called natural power or surge impedance loading:
VB2
PB 0,C = P0, N =
ZC
For a transfer of active power, the voltage is the same along the entire length of
the line and assuming this is equal to the nominal voltage, then P0, N = Vn2 Z C . The
three-phase natural power is:
PN = 3 P0, N = U n2 Z C
where: Un is phase-to-phase nominal voltage;

ZC characteristic impedance of the lossless line.
The three-phase natural power is an index in designing the transmission
capacity of the lines. In Table 3.1, several natural power values corresponding to
different operating nominal voltages are given.
Table 3.1
Un [kV] 20 110 220 400 750
Overhead
1 30 120 400500 1800
PN lines
[MW] Underground
10 300 12001400 20002500 40005000
lines
Such regime of natural power has the following characteristics:

the equivalent impedance of the line and of the consumer, determined in
every point of the line, is the same and equal to the characteristic impedance;
the phase angle between current and voltage in every point of the line has
the same value. If consider a lossless line, then the voltage and current are in phase
at the receiving-end of the line as well as in any point of the line;
the voltage and current values do not change much along the line, and if
the line is without losses, they remain constant; instead only phase angle will shift
in proportion to the line length;
the power transmitted on the line under this regime has a strong active
characteristic.
A phenomenon specific to long lines will appears: although on the line there
are inductive and capacitive reactive power losses, the line absorbs from the source
only active power. The explanation is as follows: the inductive reactive power
losses occurring on the line reactance are compensated by the capacitive reactive
power generated by the line. In this respect, for the line without losses on resistance
and conductance ( r0 0 , g 0 0 ) consider the inductive and capacitive losses per
length unit:
Qind = I 2 x0 ; Qcap = V 2b0
From their ratio it results:

2
Qind I 2 x0 I x0
2
1
= 2 = = 2 Z C2 = 1

Qcap V b0 V b0 ZC
Therefore, on every segment of the line, inductive and capacitive reactive

powers are reciprocally compensated. Thus, under natural power regime the line
does not absorb reactive power at its ends; it is said that the line is self-
compensated.
3.3. Coefficients of transmission lines equations

For the numerical solving of long lines equations (3.15) the determination of
coefficients cosh L , sinh L , Z C sinh L , Y C sinh L is needed. Since the
quantity is a complex number, the coefficients of long lines, equations are
hyperbolic functions of complex quantities.
3.3.1. Numerical determination of propagation coefficient

In order to determine the numerical values of the complex propagation
coefficient for underground cables and overhead lines, either algebraic method or
trigonometric method can be used.
Algebraic method enables us to determine the constants and by
considering the real parts of the square equation (3.9) and the magnitude square of
coefficient. The following equations are obtained:
r0 g 0 x0 g 0 = 2 2
(r
0
2
)( )
+ x02 g 02 + b02 = 2 + 2
then
=
1
(r 0
2
)( )
+ x02 g 02 + b02 + (r0 g 0 x0b0 ) =
2
1
= z 0 y 0 + (r0 g 0 x0b0 )
2
=
1
(r 0
2
)( )
+ x02 g 02 + b02 (r0 g 0 x0b0 ) =
2
1
= z 0 y 0 (r0 g 0 x0b0 )
2
Trigonometric method. In this respect, the expression of complex propagation
coefficient is considered:
= z0 y0 = (r0 + j x0 )(g0 + j b0 ) = + j
By expressing:
z 0 = z0 ; y 0 = y0'
where
tan = x0 r0 ; tan ' = b0 g0
it results
'
= z 0 y 0 + =
2 2
The magnitude of propagation coefficient can be expressed as follows:
r 2 g 2
= 4 (r 2
2
+ 0 0 0
x g 2
+)(
b 2
= )x b 1 + 0 1 + 0
x0 b0
0 0 0 4
(3.23)
= x0b0 4 (1 + cot 2 )(1 + cot 2 ) = x0b0
1
sin sin
Taking into account (3.20'), the expression of magnitude becomes:
= 2 / (3.23')
where
= 0 sin sin (3.24)
is the equivalent wavelength of the line with losses, and 0 the wavelength
corresponding to the electromagnetic waves of T period, propagating on a lossless
line.
In order to simply the calculation, the following assumption can be taken into
consideration:
If neglect the shunt power losses ( g 0 0 that is tan ' , ' = 90 ,
sin ' = 1 ) the expression (3.23') becomes:
2 2
= (3.23'')
0 sin '
where
' = 0 sin (3.24')
The value of can be expressed as:

0 0
' = 0 sin = =
4
1+ cot 2 r
2
4 1 + 0
x0
Furthermore, if consider r0 << x0 then the expansion of the square root of

denominator by means of binomial theorem is made and keeping only a reduced
number of terms, achieve:
0

2
1 r0
1 +
2 x0
respectively the magnitude of propagation coefficient:

2
2 1 r
1 + 0 (3.23''')
0 2 x0
For a lossless transmission line ( ' = 90 , = 90 ), from (3.23'') it results:

2 6.28
vacuum = = 1.05 103
0 6000
Propagation coefficient angle , is determined by assuming that shunt

losses are neglected ( g 0 0 , that is ' = 90 ). It results:
+ + 90
= = or 2 = + 90
2 2
then
r0
tan 2 = tan ( + 90) = cot =
x0
It is known that the tangent is negative between 2 and ; since is a

positive angle, that means 2 is in the interval from 2 to . Consequently, we
can write:
2 = atan (r0 x0 )
atan(r0 x0 ) being considered in the interval from 0 to 2 .
Taking into account that r0 x0 << 1 , atan(r0 x0 ) can be approximated to

r0 x0 , that is:
r0

2 2 x0
Therefore:
r r r
= cos cos 0 = sin 0 0 [Nepers/km] (3.25)
2 2 x0 2 x0 2 x0
respectively
OEL = sin = 1.05 103 [rad/km]
since r0 2 x0 << 1 and 90 .
In the case of lossless electric lines, from (3.25) and taking into account
(3.20) obtain:
r0 1 b 1 r0
= x0b0 = r0 0 (3.25')
2 x0 2 x0 2 Z C
If consider 10 3 , and knowing that for overhead lines the inductive

reactance varies from x0 = 0.28 [/km] (4 bundled sub-conductors) to
x0 = 0.42 [ / km] (one conductor per phase) obtain:
r0 r r
OEL = = 0 K 0 [nepers/km]
2(280K 420) 560 840
For lossless underground lines, the velocity of propagation is theoretically
300.000 km/s
equal to = , where r is the relative permittivity of dielectric. For
r
cables insulated with impregnated paper, r = 3.6 K 4 , which leads to a
wavelength of [3.1]:
300.000 km/s
0 = = 3000 K 3150 [km]
f 50 3.6 K 4
Assume the reactance of three-phase underground lines lies in the interval
from 0.06 to 0.13 /km. This means:
2
UEL = (2.09 K 2 ) 10 3
3000K3150
r0 r0
UEL = UEL = [nepers/km]
2 x0 60 K 130
UEL UEL = (2.08 K 2 ) 103 [rad/km]
3.3.2. Numerical determination of characteristic impedance

By definition, the expression of characteristic impedance has the form:
z0
ZC = = Z C = Z C' + j Z C"
y0
where
z 0 = z0 ; y 0 = y0 '
tan = x0 r0 ; tan ' = b0 g 0

respectively the characteristic impedance angle:
= ( ') 2
Characteristic impedance magnitude
2
r
2 2
1+ 0
z0 r0 + x0 x x0 = x0 1 + cot 2
ZC = =4 2 2
= 0 4 2
4
y0 g 0 + b0 b0 g0 b0 1 + cot 2 '
1+
b0
x0 sin ' x sin sin '
= = 0
b0 sin sin x0b0
Taking into consideration the relations:

x0 2
z0 = ; = x0b0 =
sin 0
and if for overhead lines may assume g 0 0 ( sin ' = 1 ), it results:
sin sin
Z C z0 = z0 0
2
or
' 6000
Z C z0 = z0 1000 z0
2 2
In terms of the value of the per length impedance z0 = (0.28 K 0.4) /km,
we obtain for overhead lines the following values Z C = (280 K 400) .
Characteristic impedance angle
Let
= ( ') 2 ( 90) 2
or
2 = 90 = (90 )
respectively
tan 2 = tan (90 ) = cot = r0 x0
= 1 2 atan (r0 x0 )
Taking into account that r0 x0 << 1 it results that:
= r0 2x0
In the case of overhead lines when ' = 2 and r0 << x0 it results that is
negative and close to zero, that is in the interval from -15 to 0.
The components Z C' and Z C'' of the characteristic impedance are obtained as
follows:
Z C' = Z C cos Z C = z0 ( ' 2 ) = 280K 400
where have been taken into consideration that is very small, thus cos = 1 ; the
values close to 280 correspond to lossless overhead lines, with twin conductors;
the values close to 400 correspond to the lines with only one conductor per
phase.
1 r 1 r 1 r0
Z C" = Z C sin Z C sin 0 0 Z C = =
2 x0 2 x0 2 x0b0
1 6000
= r0 0 = r0 = 477 r0 []
4 4 3.14
Notice that:
the real part Z C' is dominant, the characteristic impedance behaves like a
resistance;
the imaginary part Z C'' has the minus sign, therefore it is a capacitive
reactance.
Underground electric lines have characteristic impedance much smaller than
the overhead lines. Therefore, the impedance value varies in a wider range in terms
of the cable type and the insulating material. For cables insulated with paper having
the reactance in the interval from 0.06 /km to 0.130 /km and for
0 = 3000K3150 [km] , then Z C = 30 K 65 [] .
3.3.3. Numerical calculation of A, B, C and D coefficients

As it has been shown in paragraph 3.2, the transmission lines coefficients
are:
A = D = cosh L ; B = Z C sinh L ; C = Y C sinh L
For the numerical calculation of the coefficients, series expansion of

hyperbolic functions is used:
cosh L = cosh z 0 y 0 L = cosh z y = 1+

( zy) + ( zy) + ( zy) K
2 4 6
2! 4! 6!
that is
2 2 4 4
zy z y z y
A = D = cosh z y = 1 + + + +K
2 24 720
zy

B = Z C sinh L = Z C sinh z y = Z C +
( zy) + ( zy)
3 5

+ K =
1! 3! 5!

(3.26)
=
z

zy +
( zy) ( )
3
+
zy
5

z y z 2 y 2 z3 y3
+ K = z 1 + + +

+ K
y 6 120
6 120 5040

2 2
zy z y
3 3
z y

C = Y C sinh L = y 1 + + + + K
6 120 5040

Comments:
For OEL of L < 650 km or UEL of L < 50 km, generally, the term L is
smaller than 1 (e.g. for OEL L = 1.05 10 3 650 = 0.682 ) and only the first two
terms of the series expansion can be taken into account;
For L > 1000 km the magnitude of L becomes greater than 1 and
therefore the superior order terms cannot be neglected anymore;
For L < 250 km obtain A = 1 , B = z , C = y .
Thus, for transmission lines of usual 300 500 km lengths, the first two
terms of the expansion can be used with a good approximation.
3.3.4. Kennellys correction coefficients

As has been mentioned, transmission electric lines have uniformly distributed
parameters (Fig. 3.4,a).
I1 Z I2
V1 Y Y V2
2 2
a. b.
Fig. 3.4. Equivalent circuits:
a. uniformly distributed parameters; b. lumped parameters.
Let us consider the equivalent circuit with lumped parameters (Fig. 3.4,b)
for which the matrix equation can be written as:
V 1 1 0 1 Z 1 0 V A B V 2
I = Y
Y 2 =
1 0 1 1 I 2 C D I 2
1 2 2
where the equivalent four-terminal network coefficients are given by the
expressions:
Z Y
A = 1 + ; B = Z
2
(3.27)
Z Y Z Y
C = Y 1 + ; D = 1 +
4 2
Expressions (3.27) are approximate if Z = z 0 L = z and Y = y 0 L = y are the

rated impedance respectively the rated total admittance of the line. For more
accuracy Kennellys correction coefficients are determined. In this regard, let us
equate the long lines coefficients A, B, C and D with the ones of four-terminal
network:
Z Y
A = A or 1 + = cosh L
2
2 2
zy z y
B = B or Z = Z C sinh L z 1 + + + ... (3.28)
6 120

Therefore:
Z = K1 z
where the first Kennellys correction coefficient is:
2 2
zy z y
K1 = 1 + + + ...
6 120
Substituting Z = Z C sinh L in the first equation from (3.28) it results that:
Y
1 + Z C sinh L = cosh L
2
then
L
Y A 1 cosh L 1 2 sinh 2 1 L
= = = 2 = tanh (3.29)
2 B Z C sin h L L L ZC 2
2 Z C sinh cosh
2 2
If the expression
1 1 y0 y
= = =
ZC z0 z0 y0 zy
y0
is substituted in (3.29) obtain:

zy
tanh
y zy y 2 y
Y = K
= tanh =
2 zy 2 2 zy 2 2

2
The second Kennellys correction coefficient is given by:
zy
2
zy
5

zy 2
tanh 2
2 1 zy 2 ... =
K2 = = +
zy zy 2 3 15
2 2

2 2
zy z y
=1 + ... for OEL longer than 300 km.
12 120
It results that the use of equivalent circuit leads to the same results for
voltage and current at the ends, as in the case of using long lines equations, only if
the parameters z and y are corrected with Kennellys coefficients K 1 and K 2 .
For a faster calculation of Kennellys coefficients, the expressions of A and B
coefficients obtained from series expansion of trigonometric functions can be used.
Therefore:
zy z y z2 y2
y1 + y 1
Y A 1 cosh z y 1 12 12 72
= = = y1 z y
2 B Z C sinh z y zy 2 12
1+ zy
6 1
6
In the case of the lossless line, that is r0 0 and g 0 0 , it results:
z j x ; y jb
If substitute z and y in the Kennellys coefficients expressions, obtain:

zy jx jb xb
K1 = 1 + 1+ =1
6 6 6
zy jx jb xb
K 2 =1 1 =1+
12 12 12
3.4. Transmitted power on the lossless line

Consider the operating equation (3.13) of a long transmission line:
( ) (
V (x ) = cosh x V B + Z C sinh x I B ) (3.13)
For the ideal case of a lossless transmission line ( r0 0 , g 0 0 ) the

complex propagation coefficient has the simplified form:
2
= z 0 y 0 j x0b0 = j l0c0 = j = j
0
Taking into account the simplified expression of , the other quantities can
be obtained:
2 2
cosh x = cosh j x = cos x = cos
0 0
where = 2x 0 is the angle of the line (in degrees), corresponding to the length
x measured from the consumer node:
2 2
sinh x = sinh j x = j sin x = j sin
0 0
z0 x l
ZC = 0 = 0 = ZC
y0 b0 c0
The above equation shows that the characteristic impedance for a lossless line
becomes a simple resistance.
Under these circumstances, equation (3.13) becomes:
V (x ) = V B cos + jZ C I B sin (3.30)
for x=L respectively, that is at the sending-end of the transmission line

L = 2L 0 :
V A = V B cos L + jZ C I B sin L
where: I B = (PB 0 jQB 0 ) V B .

*
Considering the voltage phasor at node B as reference V B = VB 0 , the

voltage phasor in node A can be expressed in two ways:
P jQB 0
V A = VB cos L + jZ C sin L B 0

VB
V A = V A e j = V A (cos + j sin )
Equating the real and imaginary parts, from the right side of the last two
expressions deduce the expressions of active and reactive powers at the receiving-
end B:
VA VB
PB 0 = sin (3.31)
Z C sin L
VB (VA cos VB cos L )

QB 0 = (3.32)
Z C sin L
Likewise, the expressions of the powers at the sending-end can be obtained:

VA VB
PA0 = sin (3.33)
Z C sin L
VA (VA cos L VB cos )

QA0 = (3.34)
Z C sin L
For short electric lines (from electrical point of view) it can be considered
that Z C sin L Z C L = X L , respectively cos L 1 and therefore, the power
expressions (3.31) (3.34) get the known approximate forms:
VA VB
PA0 = PB 0 = sin = Pe (3.35)
XL
VA2 VA VB cos V V cos VB2

QA0 = ; QB 0 = A B (3.36)
XL XL
Expressing as phase-to-phase values, and considering the voltages at both
ends of the transmission line are equal, U A = U B , then the simplified expressions of
the apparent complex powers are:
U A2 U2
S A = 3S A0 = PA + jQA = sin + j A (1 cos ) (3.37)
XL XL
U A2 U2
S B = 3S B 0 = PB + jQB = sin j A (1 cos ) (3.38)
XL XL
that is PA = PB and QA = QB .
In the particular case when U A = U B = U n , from (3.31) obtain:
U n2 sin
PB = sin = PN (3.39)
Z C sin L sin L
where PN = U n2 Z C is the natural power of the transmission line; it corresponds to

electric energy transmission with constant voltage along the line.
3.5. Transmission lines operating regimes

Generally, operating regimes calculation aims:
establishing of voltage and current variation along the line, in order not to
exceed the acceptable values;
determining of the electric energy transmission efficiency that means its
increasing.
Two general cases of energy transmission will arise:
a) Only active power transfer: P < PN , P = PN , P > PN and Q = 0, which
includes the particular case of no-load operating regime;
b) Active and reactive power transfer: P 0 and Q 0 , which includes the
particular case of the line with equal voltages at both ends.
3.5.1. Transmission lines equations expressed in per unit

To ease qualitative analysis of phenomenon let us further consider the case of
lossless electric lines. In this regard, the equations obtained in 3.4 are used:
V (x ) cos jZ C sin V B
I (x ) = jY sin cos I B
(3.40)
C
If per unit are used, it results:
V (x )
v( x ) = = cos + j i B sin
VB
I (x )
i (x ) = = j sin + i B cos
Y CV B
or as matrix form:
v(x ) cos j sin v B = 1
i (x ) = j sin
cos i B

Expressing i B in terms of single-phase powers PB 0 = PB 3 and QB 0 = QB 3 ,

which bear in addition the index 0, the complex single-phase apparent power is:
*
S B 0 = PB 0 + jQB 0 = V B I B
*
S P jQ
I B = B 0 = B 0 * B 0
VB VB
or in per unit:
IB P jQB 0 PB 0 jQ B 0
iB = = B0 = = pB j q B
YC V B YC VB2 PN 0
In the latter expression the denominator is the single-phase natural power:
2
VB2 U B 1 U2 P
YC VB2 = = = B = N = PN 0
ZC 3 ZC 3 ZC 3
Finally, obtain the equations of lossless transmission lines expressed in per
unit:
v(x ) cos j sin v B = 1
i (x ) = j sin cos pB jqB
(3.41)

3.5.2. Loading only with active power ( p B 0 , q B = 0 )
In this case, the basic equations (3.41) become:

v(x ) cos jsin v B = 1
i (x ) = jsin cos pB
(3.42)

In a first step, the voltage v(x ) and current i ( x ) phasors, are represented
graphically in terms of the transmission line angle.
a. The particular case when natural power is transmitted on the line:
p B = PB PN = 1 ; q B = 0 , that is the consumer is closed on the characteristic
impedance Z B = Z C . From (3.42) obtain:
v( x ) = cos + j sin = e j
i (x ) = cos + j sin = e j
It results that the geometric locus described by the peaks of the phasors v(x )
and i ( x ) are circles of radius equal to unity, the voltage and current remaining
constant along the line (Fig. 3.5).
j j
M M
2 x 2 x
= =
0 0
x)
)
i(x
v( 0 v= 0i=
vB iB
1
1
=
=
v(x)=vB i(x)=iB
Fig. 3.5. Geometric locus of the voltage and current phasors,

by assuming p B = 1 and qB = 0 .
Observe that v = i = , therefore the voltage and current are in phase at the
receiving-end since the consumers impedance is a pure resistance Z B = Z C (being
a regime of natural power) and are maintained in phase along the entire line, being
shifted with angle with respect to the consumer quantities.
The fact that there is no voltage drop on the line and no current variation is
due, on one hand, to the hypothesis that line resistance is zero ( r0 0 ) and, on the
other hand, to the line self-compensation phenomenon the shunt capacitive
energy compensates locally the inductive energy stored into the series elements of
the line:
1 1
Wc = C0V 2 ; Wp = L0 I 2
2 2
that is C0 V 2 = L0 I 2 therefore
V L0
= = ZC
I C0
b. The case of transmitted active power ( pB ) smaller than the natural

power: pB < 1 , qB = 0
From the basic equations (3.41) it results:
v(x ) = cos + jpB sin
i (x ) = pB cos + j sin
In order to draw the geometric locus described by the peak of the phasor v(x ) ,
for pB < 1 , two concentric circles are plotted: one of radius 1 = vB = 1 and another
one of radius 2 = pB < 1 (Fig. 3.6).
v(x) j i(x) j
2=pB m1 2=pB M
2 2 x
= x =
m2 0
M 0 0i
vB iB
1
0v 1=
1
1 =
v(x)<vB i(x)>iB
Fig. 3.6. The geometric locus of voltage and current phasors, for pB < 1 and qB = 0 .
From the centre of the circles a line of angular coefficient is drawn, which
intersects the circles in m1 and m2. By projecting m1 on the real axis and m2 on the
imaginary axis, the parametrical coordinates of v(x ) phasor are obtained:
x = 1 cos ; y = pB sin
or
x 1 = cos ; y pB = sin
In order to eliminate the variable , we can use:
sin 2 + cos 2 = 1
and we obtain:
2 2
x y
+ =1
1 pB
Therefore, the geometric locus described by the peak of the phasor v(x ) is an
ellipse with the big semiaxis equal to 1 and the small semiaxis equal to pB < 1 .
Instead
v ( x ) = cos + jpB sin = x + jy
that is, by adding the phasors x and jy, we determine the M point of the geometric
locus of the ellipse described by the peak of the phasor v(x ) in the first quadrant.
In the second quadrant, from the source ( = 90 ) toward the consumer ( = 180 )
a similar variation is obtained.
In an analogous manner, the graphic of current intensity variation i (x ) can be
also plotted:
i ( x ) = pB cos + j sin = x' + jy'
where
x' = pB cos and y' = sin
The peak of the phasor i (x ) also describes an ellipse, but shifted with 90.
The diameters of the ellipse are orthogonal with the ones of the ellipse described by
v(x ) phasor.
Taking into account that v < and i > , it results that i > v, which can
explain why the line voltage increases from the source toward the receiving-end.
For an angle in the interval from 0 to /2 (that is, x 0 ... 1500 km) the voltage
decreases from the receiving-end (M ( = 0)) toward the source (M ( = 90)). This
is due to the fact that a capacitive current passes through the line, that is in every
section of the line (except for the receiving-end) the series conduction current is
shifted before the voltage.
c. The case of transmitted active power ( p B ) bigger than the natural
power: pB > 1 and qB = 0 .
In this situation the phenomenon evolves in an opposite direction compared
with the precedent case ( p B < 1 , q B = 0 ). The geometric loci described by the
peaks of the phasors v(x ) and i (x ) are ellipses with the big semiaxis equal to
pB > 1 and the small semiaxis equal to 1 (Fig. 3.7). By analyzing the geometric
loci, we notice that in this case v > and i < , resulting i < v .
j i(x) j
v(x)
M 1=1
1=1
2 x 2
= = x
0 0
0v M
vB iB
2=pB
0i
2=pB
v(x)>vB i(x)>iB
Fig. 3.7. The geometric locus of voltage and current phasors, in the case of p B > 1 and
qB = 0 .
Thus, the current has an inductive character, that is in every section of an

electric line of length less than 1500 km the current i (x ) lags the voltage v(x ) . This
explains the voltage drop that occurs from source toward the receiving-end,
respectively the voltage increases from receiving-end toward the source.
If consider the equations (3.41) in the case pB 0 and qB = 0 ,
v(x ) = cos + jpB sin
(3.42)
i (x ) = pB cos + j sin
in the limit, the case of the no-load operating regime of the line can be obtained,
when pB = 0 and qB = 0 . It results:
v(x ) = cos
that is the variation of voltage phasor is a cosine function.

The magnitudes of the voltage and current phasors can be obtained from the
equations (3.42):
( )
v(x ) = cos 2 + pB2 sin 2 = 1 + pB2 1 sin 2
i(x ) = ( )
pB2 cos 2 + sin 2 = 1 + pB2 1 cos 2
In Figure 3.8, the graphical representation of v(x ) and i (x ) magnitudes for

the case pB < 1 is given.
v(x) i(x)
x' x x'=L-x x' x x'=L-x

L L
Fig. 3.8. v(x) and i(x) magnitudes variation for p B < 1 .
Once v(x) and i(x) determined in per unit, it is necessary to return to V(x) and
I(x) values. In this respect, consider the voltage VA at the sending-end of the line
known, that is for
x = L, = L and V(L) = VA
From:
v A = V A V B = cos L + jpB sin L
it results:
VA VA
VB = =
v A cos L + jpB sin L
From:
v( x ) = V ( x ) V B
it results:
cos + jpB sin
V (x ) = v(x )V B = V A (3.43)
cos L + jpB sin L
respectively the magnitude
2
cos + pB sin
2 2
V ( x ) = VA 2
cos L + pB sin L
2 2
As regards the current phasor, from the expression

i (x ) = I (x ) YC V B
it results:
V A pB cos + j sin
I (x ) = i(x )YC V B =
Z C cos L + jpB sin L
respectively the magnitude
VA pB2 cos 2 + sin 2
I ( x) = 2
cos L + pB sin L
2 2
ZC
In order to compare, from qualitative point of view, the variations of the
functions V(x) and I(x), we start from the matrix equation (3.42), where the
following change of variable is performed:
' = x ' = L
where the angle L corresponds to the length L of the line, and the length x ' is
measured from source toward the receiving-end.
It results:
V ( x) 2
cos ( L ') + pB sin ( L ')
2 2
= 2
(3.44.a)
cos L + pB sin L
2 2
VA
and
I ( x) pB2 cos 2( L ') + sin 2( L ')

= 2
(3.44,b)
cos L + pB sin L
2 2
VAYC
It is obvious that VA and pB being given, the voltage VB and the current IB
varies in terms of the length L of the line and of the angle L respectively (Fig. 3.9).
A particular case of the line operating for pB < 1 and qB = 0 is the no-load
regime ( pB = 0 and qB = 0 ). In this case, for a given voltage VA at the sending-end,
from (3.43) it results that the voltage at the receiving-end ( x = 0 ) is:
VA
V (x ) x = 0 = V B = (3.43')
cos L
V(x)
VA pB<1
pB=1
1
0 L1 x'=L-x
L2
L3
Fig. 3.9. Voltage variation on transmission lines

for V A = ct. , p B < 1 and q B = 0 .
For L = 2 (the quarter-wave line, with L = 1500 km ) the voltage at the

receiving-end tends theoretically to infinite:
VA
VB =
0
For the long transmission lines, close to 1500 km, under no-load conditions,
dangerous overvoltages can occur. In Figure 3.10, the variation of the ratio
V (x ) VA in terms of the ratio x' / L for lines with lengths of 400, 800, 1100 and
1400 km are given. This variation is an ideal case, when line parameters are
considered constant. In reality, if high overvoltages on the line occur, corona
discharge appears. This leads to a decreasing of the voltage level with respect to
the ideal case, since corona phenomenon appearance modifies the parameters of the
line, especially line conductance and capacitance.
As an example, for a line of 1400 km operating under no-load conditions,
when corona discharge appears, the overvoltage is modified (Fig. 3.10, dotted line).
It can be noticed that initially, irrespective of the length of the line, corona
discharge leads to losses; as the length of the line increases, the capacitive effect of
the line increases faster than corona discharge losses. Thus, for a line of 1000 km
length, when L = /3, from (3.43') it results that the ratio VB /VA is practically equal
to 2.
It should be mentioned that, for lines of lengths below 1500 km, corona
phenomenon occurrence could produce due to the increasing capacity of the
affected conductor also a supplementary overvoltage, compared with the case
when corona is absent. This is why a very careful analysis of the no-load regime of
lossless long electric lines must be performed.
V(x)
1400 km 1400 km
VA with corona
3
1100 km
2
800 km
400 km
1
x'/L
0.15 0.5 1
Fig. 3.10. Overvoltage variation in terms of corona discharge.
3.5.3. Loading with active and reactive power ( p B 0 , q B 0 )
Consider the basic equations (3.41):

v ( x ) = cos + qB sin + jpB sin = x + jy (3.45)
i ( x ) = pB cos + j ( sin qB cos ) = x '+ jy ' (3.45')
where the parametrical coordinates for v(x ) phasor are:

x = cos + qB sin ; y = pB sin
In order to eliminate the parameter from the last equations, we can express:
cos = x qB sin ; sin = y pB
and substituting in
2 2
2 y
2 y
sin + cos = + x qB =1
pB pB
obtain
qB qB2 + 1 2
x 2 2xy + y =1
pB pB2
Thus, the geometric locus of v(x ) peak of the voltage phasor is an ellipse
rotated with respect to the main coordinate axes x and y.
In a similar manner, an ellipse for the i(x) phasor is also obtained:
qB2 + 1 2 q
2
x' + 2x'y' B + y'2 = 1
pB pB
From the analysis of the two ellipses it results that for transferred power
PB < PN ( pB < 1 ) there can be cases when the voltage at the receiving-end is bigger
than the voltage at the sending-end. Besides, the inductive reactive power transfer
qB > 0 can lead to a maximum voltage value in a certain point of the line, while the
capacitive reactive power transfer qB < 0 leads to a maximum value of the current
in a certain point of the line (Fig. 3.11).
In order to determine the position of the maximum value of the voltage,
express the magnitude of v(x ) from equation (3.45):
v 2 ( x ) = (cos + qB sin ) + pB2 sin 2 =

2
= cos 2 + 2qB sin cos + qB2 sin 2 + pB2 sin 2 =
( )
= 1 sin 2 + qB sin 2 + pB2 + qB2 sin 2
max
v(x)
M(0)
value
1
position
L x'=L-x
Fig. 3.11. Establishing of the position and maximum value

of the voltage on a transmission line.
If replace w = v(x ) , then:
[ ( )]
w2 = 1 1 pB2 + qB2 sin 2 + qB sin 2 (3.46)
To determine the position of the maximum value, differentiate (3.46) with

respect to the angle :
w2

= 2w
w

[ ( )]
= 2 sin cos 1 pB2 + qB2 + 2qB cos 2 0 (3.47)
then:
cot 2 max =
(
1 pB2 + qB2 ) (3.48)
2 qB
It can be observed that:
for pB and qB given, the value of max angle does not depend on the line
length;
proceeding similarly, notice that the magnitude of the current i 2 ( x ) has

also an extreme value for the same max angle, given by the relation (3.48). As far
as the position is concerned, maximum value of the voltage on the line corresponds
to the minimum value of the current and vice-versa.
To establish the value of this voltage extreme, the equation (3.48) is used:
( )
1 pB2 + qB2 = 2qB cot 2max
and substituting in (3.46), it results:
w2 = 1 2qB cot 2max sin 2 + 2qB sin cos = 1 2qB (cot 2max sin cos )sin =
sin
= 1 2 qB (cos 2 max sin cos sin 2max ) =
sin 2 max
sin
= 1 2 qB sin ( 2max )
sin 2max
Therefore, for a point x on the real axis, the quantity v 2 (x ) can be expressed in
terms of max as:
sin
v 2 (x ) = 1 + 2 q B sin (2max ) (3.49)
sin 2max
Likewise, for i 2 (x ) obtain:
cos
i (x ) = 1 2 q B
2
cos(2 max ) (3.49')
sin 2max
By analyzing the obtained relationships, notice that:
If qB is positive, that is an inductive power is transmitted on the line, for
= max the line voltage has a maximum:
sin max
v 2 (max ) = 1 + 2qB sin (2max max ) = 1 + qB tan max
2 sin max cos max
and the current a minimum, given by:
i 2 (max ) = 1 qB cot max
If q B is negative, that is a capacitive power is transmitted on the line, the
current has a maximum and the voltage a minimum.
These observations result also from the analysis of the derivatives of v(x) and
i(x) functions in the node = 0 , that is at the receiving-end. From the equation
(3.47) it results:
w2

[ ( )]
= sin 2 1 pB2 + qB2 + 2 q B cos 2 = 2 q B
=0
respectively
i 2
= 2 q B

=0
Figure 3.12 gives the shape of curves v( x) , having on abscissa x ' = L x , and
i ( x) , having on abscissa the variable x, measured from the source. The maximum
value of the voltage corresponds to the minimum value of the current and vice-versa.
Thus, at the receiving-end the derivative has the sign of qB . For qB positive,
the voltage curves have a positive derivative in the origin; they increase up to a
maximum and then begin to decrease (Fig. 3.12,a). The current curves, for qB
positive, have a negative derivative in the origin, decrease up to a minimum and
then begin to increase (Fig. 3.12,b). In consequence, it can be said that the point
corresponding to the angle = max represents a point of separation of the reactive
power; from this point a part of the reactive power generated by the line will flow
toward the receiving-end, and the remaining part will flow toward the source.
V(x) I(x)
v(x)= V i(x)= I
A pB= 0.75 B
1.3 pB= 1.25 1.3

pB= 1
q B = 0 .2 pB= 1
1.0 1.0
pB= 1.25
pB= 0.75
0.7 0.7
0 500 1000 1500 0
x =L-x [km] x[km] 1500 1000 500
a. b.
V(x) I(x)
v(x)= V i(x)= I
A B
1.3 pB= 0.75 pB= 1.25
1.3
pB= 1 pB= 1
qB = 0.2
1.0 1.0
pB= 1.25 pB= 0.75
0.7 0.7
0 500 1000 1500 x [km] 1500 1000 500 0
x =L-x [km]
c. d.
Fig. 3.12. The variation of v(x) and i(x) quantities on long electric lines (1500 km) for
p B < 1 , p B = 1 , p B > 1 and q B = 0.2 , respectively q B = 0.2 .
For q B positive, for the line segment situated between = 0 (at receiving-
end) and = max , the voltage v(x ) leads the current i ( x ) , and for the line segment
between = max and = L (at source), the current i ( x ) leads the voltage v(x ) .
3.5.4. Operating regime with equal voltages at both ends

In order to prevent problems in operating, when two power systems are
connected through a long transmission line, it is necessary that the voltages at both
ends of the line be practically equal and close to the nominal voltage. In this
respect, it is important that for a given active power pB to determine the reactive
power qB cr so that VA = VB . For x = L , = L , this condition leads to
v A2 = v 2 (L ) = 1 ; from (3.45) obtain:
( )
v 2 (L ) = 1 = cos L +qB cr sin L 2 + pB2 sin 2 L
or
cos L + qB cr sin L = 1 pB2 sin 2 L
For lines of length L < 1500 km, that is < 90 , it results:
cos L + 1 pB2 sin 2 L

qB cr = (3.50)
sin L
Analysing the relation (3.50), in terms of the transferred active power pB the
character of reactive power qB cr at the receiving-end is determined:
For pB = 1 , it results that qB cr = 0 , as expected since the natural power is
transmitted on the line;
For pB < 1 , it results that qB cr is positive, that is at the receiving-end, in
order to obtain VA = VB , a compensating reactor should be installed;
For pB > 1 , it results that qB cr is a negative real number or a complex
number:
if 1 pB2 sin 2 L > 0 then qB cr is a negative real number and at the
receiving-end a capacitor bank should be installed;
if 1 pB2 sin 2 L < 0 , from (3.50) it results:
pB2 sin 2 L 1
qBcr = tan L + j = q 'Bcr + jq ''Bcr
sin L
and the complex power is:
s Bcr = pB + j ( q 'Bcr + jq ''Bcr ) = ( pB q ''Bcr ) jq 'Bcr
Thus, to obtain equal voltages at both ends, VA = VB , supplementary active
power ( q ''Bcr ) as well as capacitive reactive power ( q 'Bcr ) should be injected at the
receiving-end.
For the case when 1 pB2 sin 2 L = 0 , it results that p B max = 1 sin L , that is
the maximum power which can be transmitted on the line for a capacitive
compensation (for VA = VB ) is obtained. In this case, according to (3.50), the

compensation power becomes:
cos L + 0
q B cr = = cot L (3.51)
sin L
The variation of the voltage curves, under the assumption VA = VB is given in
Figure 3.13. The maximum and minimum voltage values appear, due to the
symmetry of the line, for max = L 2 .
pB<1
V(x)
Fig. 3.13. Voltage variation along pB=1

1 VA=VB
a line with VA = VB , under
several operating regimes.
pB>1
L x
For the calculation of maximum value let us return to the equation (3.49),
where we can make the substitution = L 2 (Fig. 3.14, a).
v(x) v(x)
L L
qBtan qBtan
1 2 2
2
v (x) 1 2
v (x)
1 1
L/2 x'
L L
a. b.
Fig. 3.14. Overvoltages on transmission lines: a. voltage curve for
compensation at the receiving-end; b. voltage curves for lines of lengths L
and L 2 under no-load conditions ( p B = 0 , q B = 0 ).
Therefore:
L
sin
v 2 ( max ) = 1 + 2q B 2 sin 2 L
L max
=
2 sin 2 max 2
L (3.52)
sin sin L
= 1 + 2q B 2 2 = 1 + q tan L
L B
2
2sin cos L
2 2
The most unfavourable situation occurs for the operating regime with
pB = 0 , case when the overvoltage on the line will be maximum. From the
expression (3.50) the value of qB cr results:

2 sin 2 L
1 cos 2
qB cr = = = tan L (3.53)
sin L 2
2 sin L cos L
2 2
Substituting in equation (3.52), obtain:
1
v 2 (max ) = 1 + tan 2 L =
2 cos 2 L
2
respectively
1
v(max ) = (3.54)

cos L
2
Thereby, at the operation with pB = 0 , the overvoltage occurring on a line of
length L, compensated so that VA = VB , is equal to the overvoltage that can appear
on a line of length L 2 for no-load conditions ( p B = 0 , qB = 0 ). The same
equation as in (3.43') but proved for L 2 was obtained. Equal voltages at both
ends, for pB = 0 , by means of shunt compensation with reactors are obtained. If
the overvoltage exceeds a certain permitted value, an additional reactor should be
placed at the middle of the line.
In order to decrease the rated capacity of shunt compensating reactors,
assume that, under no-load conditions of the line, pB = 0 , the ratio VA VB is
smaller than 1 (0.9 0.85), that is:
VA
= <1
VB
which leads to:
cos L
qB cr = (3.55)
sin L
3.6. Series and shunt compensation of transmission lines

There are some compensation possibilities of the transmission lines, such as:
(i) Series:
equivalent impedance of the power system reduced to the connection
node of the line;
capacitor banks series connected on the line to compensate its inductive

reactance.
(ii) Shunt:
shunt reactors to compensate the capacitive susceptance of the line and
to control the voltage along the line;
shunt capacitors to increase the line transmission capacity.
(iii)Mixed.
3.6.1. Influence of power system lumped reactance

Mention that the operating regime of transmission line was studied for the
particular case when the line is connected to a power system represented by an
infinite power busbar, when the power system short-circuit reactance XS is zero.
In reality, the power system short-circuit reactance is not zero, having a small
value (Fig. 3.15), that leads to a fictive extension of the line influence the line
voltage variation and leading to dangerous overvoltages along the line for weak
loading and no-load conditions as well.
Eg I1 L
jXS 1 2 I2
V1 V2
1' 2'
Fig. 3.15. Equivalent electric circuit.
From the physical point of view, the explanation is that the current I1, having
a capacitive character, at its passing through the lumped inductive reactance XS
generates a voltage jump Vb at the reactance terminals (Fig. 3.16,a).
v(x)
with XS
Vb without XS I1
Vb Eg Vb =jXSI1
Eg
Vb
x'
Fig. 3.16. The influence of power system reactance XS on the voltage level
on a transmission line weakly loaded.
The more pronounced capacitive character I 1 has, compared with the

terminal voltage Vb on the one hand, and the higher the reactance of the system XS
is, that is the smaller the short-circuit power of the system is, on the other hand, the
higher the voltage jump will be. This phenomenon appears as if the equivalent
generator at the connection node of the transmission line would be overexcited.
Usually, the electromotive force E g (e.m.f. reduced to the sending-end
terminals of the long electric line) is set by automatic voltage regulators, so that the
terminal voltage V b = V 1 is constant. In the case of too high V b variation, voltage
regulation could lead to important decreasing of E g thereby generating the
instability of the considered power system. Also, when sudden load shedding
occurs, transient phenomena appear, and the voltage regulation may not be fast
enough to eliminate in a short time the overvoltage that can appear.
Consider the equivalent circuit of a transmission electric line (having the line
2
angle L = L ) connected to a power system of finite power (Fig. 3.15). With
0
the assumption of lossless line, the matrix equation can be written:
E g 1 jX S cos L jZ C sin L V 2
I = cos L I 2
(3.56)
1 0 1 jYC sin L
If calculate the terms corresponding to t.e.m. Eg separately, obtain:
sin
cos L X S YC sin L = cos L sin L =
cos
cos L cos sin L sin cos( L + )
= =
cos cos
sin L cos + sin cos L sin ( L + )
jZ C (sin L + tan cos L ) = jZ C = jZ C
cos cos
where
XS X U2 P sin
tan = = S2 n = N =
ZC U n Z C Psc cos
Finally, it results:
E1 = E g cos = cos( L + )V 2 + jZ C sin ( L + ) I 2
(3.57)
I 1 = jYC sin L V 2 + cos L I 2
Expressions (3.57) give direct relationship between E g , I 1 , V 2 and I 2 .

Notice that series reactance X S leaves the expression of current I 1 unchanged.
Instead, in the voltage equation changes appear, that is the obtained equation
corresponds to an equivalent line of length 'L = L + . It results that, as regards
the voltage, the lumped reactance XS leads to apparently extension of the line. The
angle has relatively small values for strength power systems (having high Psc
value) and high values for weak systems (having small Psc value). For example,
for a power system with Psc = PN , tan = 1 and angle = 45 (/4), an apparent
extension of the line with 750 km is obtained.
Consequently, in designing long transmission lines, the possibility or
impossibility of its connecting to an existent power system should be assessed. An
index of this possibility is the ratio PN Psc and tan respectively. In this regard,
in the relation:
E g = (cos L X SYC sin L )V 2 + jZ C (sin L + X S YC cos L ) I 2
it should be imposed the condition that, for no-load conditions, when the current at
the receiving-end of the line is zero I 2 = 0 , phenomenon of self-excitation of the
generators in the system should not appear, that is E g > 0 . It results:
E g = V 2 (cos L X S YC sin L ) > 0

or if express in the form:
sin L P
E g = V 2 1 X S YC cos L = V 2 cos L 1 N tan L > 0

cos L Psc
Taking into account that V 2 and cos L ( L < 2 ) are positive, it results the
condition:
PN
1 tan L > 0
Psc
or
PN
< cot L (3.58)
Psc
For information, voltage variation curves at the end of a long transmission
line, under no-load, are given for different short-circuit powers Psc of the
connection node to the system, obtained experimentally (Fig. 3.17) [3.4]:
V2 Psc=PN
Eg
2 Psc>PN
1 Psc=
200 400 600 L (km)
Fig. 3.17. Voltage variation curves for different short-circuit powers

of the connection node.
Notice that, for an electric line of 400 km length, if the power system to
which the line is connected is of infinite power, the overvoltage has a limited value,
of only 10%, while for a system with Psc = PN , the overvoltage is with 120%
higher.
In practice, if the condition given by (3.58) is not fulfilled, then the following
measures should be taken:
a compensation reactor should be installed at the source busbars;
for the so-called capacitive regime of generators, thermal limit under no-
load conditions of the line should be verified.
3.6.2. Series compensation with capacitors

In order to compensate (diminish) the inductive reactance of a long electric
line, capacitor banks are series connected on the line. The lumped reactance of the
capacitors being negative ( X 1 = 1 / C ), the angle from tan 1 = X 1 / Z C is
negative; it is as if an apparently shortening of the line occurred.
Due to the fact that the inductive reactance of the line is diminished, the
series capacitive compensation has the following advantages:
Increases the transmission capacity of the line, that is increases the natural
power of the line. For a given line, the natural power PN = U n2 / Z C can
( )
increase by diminishing Z C = l0 c0 , either by diminishing X L (l0 ) or
by increasing Bc (c0 ) ;
Decreases the overvoltages that appear on the electric lines under the
assumption of no-load;
Increases the static stability limit of the transmission line by increasing the
V V
synchronization couple Pe = A B sin ;
X L X c
Decreases the voltage drops under normal operating conditions being
thus a voltage control method.
Notice that, series capacitors compensate both voltage increases and voltage
drops (Fig. 3.18). Therefore:
a) If inductive currents ( p2 > 1 ) pass through the capacitor banks station,
generating a voltage that decreases on the line, a voltage increasing from V1' to V2'
occurs at the output end of the capacitor banks station (Fig. 3.18,b).
The voltage variation across the capacitor banks station is V c = jX 1 I c sin .
'
The angle is the phase shift between Ic and voltage V 2 and depends on the place
where the capacitor banks are installed on the line. The higher the angle is, the
higher the compensation effect will be, as well as V c . The compensation effect is
at a minimum for = 0.
Ic jX1
0 V2
Ic 0
V1 Vc V2 V1 -jX1Ic V2 -jX1Ic
Ic
V1
a. b. c.
Fig. 3.18. Compensation of voltage variations by means of series capacitors:
a. basic circuit; b. Ic current is inductive; c. Ic current is capacitive.
The voltage variation across the capacitor banks station is V c = jX 1 I c sin .

'
The angle is the phase shift between Ic and voltage V 2 and depends on the place
where the capacitor banks are installed on the line. The higher the angle is, the
higher the compensation effect will be, as well as V c . The compensation effect is
at a minimum for = 0.
b) If capacitive currents flow through the line ( p2 < 1 ), generating a voltage
that increases on the line, a voltage drop occurs at the capacitor banks station
output terminals (Fig. 3.18,c).
Choosing of installing point of the capacitor banks station must be done on
the basis of a technical and economical study, where the problem of voltage and
current regulation on the line as well as maximum power transfer possibilities,
under stability conditions, must be taken into consideration.
Let us consider the equivalent circuit of an electric line, having a series
capacitor bank, connected to a power system of finite power (Fig. 3.19).
2+2 1+1
2 1
Eg jXS 1
X1= C
I1 1 2 I2
V1 V1 V2 V2
1 2
V(x) V1
p2<1
V2
p2=1
V2
p2>1
V1
'=L2
Fig. 3.19. The influence of series capacitors on voltage increases and decreases.
The following problem arises: where to install the capacitor banks station,
that is how big 1 should be, in order to maximize the transmitted power on the
line (3.35):
E gV 2
Pe = sin (3.59)
B
in other words, the B coefficient of the equivalent four-terminal to be minimum. In
this respect, the matrix equation is written as:
E g 1 jX S cos 2 jZ C sin 2 1 jX 1 cos 1 jZ C sin 1 V 2
I = cos 1 I 2
1 0 1 jYC sin 2 cos 2 0 1 jYC sin 1
(3.60)
Two situations can be considered:
a) When the lumped reactance of the power system is ignored ( X S 0 ), the
following coefficients are obtained:
A ' = cos L X 1YC sin 1 cos 2 ; B ' = jZ C ( sin L + X 1YC cos 1 cos 2 )
(3.61)
C ' = jYC ( sin L X 1YC sin 1 sin 2 ) ; D ' = cos L X 1YC sin 2 cos 1
where X 1 = X c = 1/ C .
b) If the lumped reactance of the power system is taken into account, the
operating equations of the whole structure become:
cos(2 + 2 ) sin (2 + 2 ) cos(1 + 1 ) sin (1 + 1 )
E g jZ C jZ C V 2
=
I cos 2 cos 2 cos 1 cos 1
1 I2
jYC sin 2 cos 2 jYC sin 1 cos 1
(3.62)
where: tan 2 = X S / Z C = PN / Psc due to the power system reactance;
tan 1 = X 1 / Z C due to the series capacitor bank.
After the multiplications and equating of terms obtain the expression of
coefficient B that interests us that most:
sin (1+ 1) cos(2 + 2 ) sin (2 + 2 )
B = jZ C + jZ C cos 1
cos 1 cos 2 cos 2
or, in absolute value:
B=
ZC
[sin (1+1 )cos(2+ 2 ) + sin (2 + 2 )cos 1 cos 1] =
cos 1 cos 2
= ZC {sin (1 + 1)cos(2 + 2 ) + sin (2 + 2 )[cos(1 + 1) + sin 1 sin 1] } =

cos 1 cos 2
=
ZC
[sin (L + 1+ 2 ) + sin (2+ 2 )sin 1sin 1] (3.63)
cos 1 cos 2
In order to determine the installing point of a single capacitor banks station,

to obtain a maximum power transfer on the line, for V1, V2 and constant, we
differentiate the expression (3.63) of B with respect to 1 and equate to zero. The
first term in brackets being constant ( L = 1 + 2 ) , the derivative with respect to
1 is zero. Therefore:
B ZC
= 0 + sin ( 2 + 2 ) cos 1 sin 1 + sin 1 sin 1 cos ( 2 + 2 ) 2 1
1 cos 1 cos 2
Taking into account that 2 = L 1 , so that 2 1 = 1 , it results:

B Z C sin 1
= cos 1 sin ( 2 + 2 ) sin 1 cos ( 2 + 2 ) =
1 cos 1 cos 2
(3.64)
Z C sin 1
= sin ( 2 + 2 1)
cos 1 cos 2
To obtain the extreme value we equate the expression (3.64) to zero, so that:
sin (2 + 2 1 ) = 0
or
sin ( L + 2 21 ) = 0
that is:
L + 2 1 P
1 = = L + atan N (3.65)
2 2 Psc
In order to perform the compensation, we need to study several operating
regimes and among these to choose the most unfavourable situation.
The voltage and current variations occur continuously along the structure
with uniformly distributed parameters, undergoing a jump in the installing point of
the capacitor banks station. The nearer the station gets to the centre of the line, the
smaller this jump is, being zero at the very centre ( = 0 ) and changing the
direction beyond it.
The following characteristic situations are considered:
a) Transmission line under no-load conditions the maximum overvoltage
appears at the receiving-end (Fig. 3.20,a). By installing one series capacitor bank at
the sending-end, the overvoltage along the line is reduced. The capacitor installed
in the middle of the line, where = 0 , has no effect on the overvoltage!
b) Transmission line compensated with shunt reactors, having equal voltages
at both ends, when overvoltages occur in the middle of the line (Fig. 3.20,b,c). By
installing capacitor banks the overvoltage diminishes.
Observations:
For a capacitor banks station asymmetrically situated on the line, reflected
waves cannot be avoided during the operation. In other words, neither a
characteristic impedance nor a natural power can be attached to the considered

structure;
The option with capacitors installed at the ends of the line is good for
limiting the overvoltages, but it is not convenient from the maximum power
transferred under static stability conditions point of view;
In the case of two capacitor banks symmetrically situated on the line, the
expression of characteristic impedance can be established. Thereby, transmission
under natural power conditions can be performed (ideal case).
v(x) v(x)
1 1
L [km] L [km]
450 900 450 900
a. b.
v(x)
Fig. 3.20. Voltage variation on a 900 km

electric line, in terms of series compensation
L [km] location.
450 900
c.
In practice, for economic reasons, a compromise is preferred, with only one

capacitor banks station asymmetrically situated on the line, at a distance that allows
the transmission of a maximum power during the operation under stability
conditions.
3.6.3. Natural power control by capacitors
In order to tune the natural power to the transmitted power, the control of
characteristic impedance of a transmission line by means of series or shunt
capacitors can be performed.
Compensation by series capacitors
As it has been shown, the series compensation apparently reduces the
length of the line, and the series inductive reactance (XLXc) respectively, while
keeping constant the capacitive susceptance (Bc). For the analysis of compensation
effects, the following per unit quantities are defined:
Per unit characteristic impedance:

Z C , series X L Xc X
= = 1 c = 1 kseries (3.66)
ZC XL XL
XL
where: Z C = is the characteristic impedance of the line without
Bc
compensation;
XL Xc
Z C , series = characteristic impedance of the line having series
Bc
capacitors;
k series = Xc / XL series compensation degree.
Per unit line angle:

L , series ( X L X c ) Bc
= = 1 k series (3.66')
L X L Bc
where L = L = X L Bc represents the angular coefficient of the transmission

line.
Per unit natural power:
Bc
U n2
PN , series XL Xc 1
= =
PN Bc 1 k series
U n2
XL
Therefore, by means of compensation with series capacitors the characteristic

impedance and line angle decreases and the natural power increases.
Compensation by shunt capacitors
The same per unit quantities are introduced:
Per unit characteristic impedance:
XL
Z C , shunt Bc + Bc Bc
= = (3.67)
ZC XL Bc + Bc
Bc
Per unit line angle

L , shunt X L (Bc + Bc ) Bc + Bc
= = (3.67')
L X L Bc Bc
Per unit natural power

PN , shunt Bc+Bc
= (3.67")
PN Bc
The square of (3.67") gives:
2
PN , shunt Bc

P =1+ B
N c
from where it results the compensation degree by means of shunt compensation:

2
Bc PN , shunt
= 1
Bc PN
Notice that the compensation by means of shunt capacitors reduces the
characteristic impedance whereas it increases the angle and natural power
respectively.
Comparison between compensation with series and shunt capacitors
Table 3.2. summarises, in a comparative manner, the influence of compensation
type on the electric line.
Table 3.2
Compensation type Capacitors installed
Parameter series shunt
ZC
L
PN
It is interesting to realize a comparison between the amounts of capacitive

reactive power supplied either through series compensation or shunt compensation
respectively, for the same increase in transmitted power.
Let us consider the transmitted power through an electric line, without
compensation, equal to the natural power:
U n2 U n2 Bc
PN = = = U n2 (3.68)
ZC XL XL
Bc
In the case of a transmission line shunt compensated with capacitors, the
expression of transmitted power becomes:
U n2 Bc + Bc
PN , shunt = = U n2 (3.69)
Z C , shunt XL
where Bc is the capacitive susceptance that, if is added, determines the increasing
of transmission capacity.
If consider the ratio between (3.68) and (3.69) and if make it equal to 2, then
a two-fold increase in the transmitted power is obtained ( PN , shunt = 2 PN ):
PN , shunt B c + Bc B
= = 1+ c = 2
PN Bc Bc
The square of the latter equation gives:

Bc
1+ =4
Bc
from where Bc = 3Bc , that is the capacitive susceptance necessary to be shunt

connected on the line in order to double the transmitted power would be three times
the capacitive susceptance of the line without compensation. The reactive power
produced by Bc is:
Qc = 3 BcU n2
If we make the ratio between Qc and the transferred power without

compensation it results:
Qc 3BcU n2
= = 3 Bc X L = 3 L
PN 2 Bc
Un
XL
leading to tripling the transmission angle of the uncompensated line.

The case of a transmission line series compensated with capacitors
The transferred power on the uncompensated line is given by:
XL
PN = I 2 Z C = I 2 (3.70)
Bc
where I is the electric current passing through the uncompensated line.

In order to double the transferred power at constant voltage, by means of
series compensation, the current should be doubled:
PN , series 4I 2 X L X c Bc XL Xc
= 2
=4 = 4 1 K series
PN I Bc XL XL
where K series = X c / X L is the compensation degree with series capacitors.

If we impose the above condition, PN , series = 2 PN , we obtain:
4 1 K series = 2
then, it results:
K series = X c / X L = 0.75
The reactive power produced by means of series compensation is:
= 0.75 X L (2 I ) = 3 X L I 2
2 2
Qc = X c I series
From the expression (3.60) obtain:

Bc
I 2 = PN
XL
so that the ratio:

2
Q c 3 X L I
= = 3 X L Bc = 3 L
PN PN
a result identical to the one obtained in the case of compensation by shunt
capacitors. In other words, the power obtained for both series and shunt
compensation is the same.
3.6.4. Shunt compensation with reactors

Similar effects with the ones obtained for series capacitors can be achieved
by installing shunt compensation reactors. The shunt compensation reactors are
used to absorb the capacitive power (the capacitive currents) generated by the line,
during off-peak load hours or no-load operation.
Let us consider an electric line AB supplied by station A (Fig. 3.21,a) that
should be maintained under no-load. When the circuit breaker a is closed, the
generators connected in node A should absorb the reactive power shock caused by
the capacity of the line.
a b
A B
A C B
a. b.
Fig. 3.21. Installing of compensation reactors.
If a compensation reactor is installed in station B beforehand which absorbs

the capacitive power of the line then the closing of a is not accompanied by a
shock for the generators connected to A; furthermore, nor will voltage in point B
which increases due to Ferranti phenomenon reach values dangerous to line

insulation and to the equipment in the electric substation.
Compensation reactors are installed either at the receiving-end of the line or
along it. For lengths over 400 km line tearing appear as a necessity, in order to
perform compensation, i.e. at the middle of the line (Fig. 3.21,b).
In Figure 3.22, other possible schemes for installing compensation reactors
are presented: a. at line voltage: 1 on line without circuit breaker; 2 on busbar
without circuit breaker; 3 on line with circuit breaker; 4 on busbar with circuit
breaker; b. at secondary voltage of the transformer; c. on tertiary winding.
The installing of reactors on the electric line or on the substation busbar is not
decided only by economic reasons (reduction of expenses and energy losses), but
also by the protection measures against overvoltages due to switching and
connection of the line. In order to perform the voltage control in terms of the
loading regime of the line, several reactors are usually installed in parallel. The
installing point of the reactor on the line and its size are determined in terms of the
transferred power and overvoltages that might appear along the line.
Lines 400kV
1
3 400kV
10kV
35kV
400kV
110kV
2 4
220kV
a. b. c.
Fig. 3.22. Other possible connecting schemes of compensation reactors in substations.
In this respect, consider a shunt-connected reactor on a lossless transmission

line at the distance L2 from the source and L1 from the receiving-end (Fig. 3.23).
For the reactor representation we need to calculate:
1 1 R X
Yr = = Gr + jBr = = 2 r 2j 2 r 2
Zr Rr + jX r Rr + X r Rr + X r
Taking into account that Rr << X r , it results:

Xr
Yr j = jBr (3.71)
Rr2 + X r2
L
Eg 2 1
jXS I1
I2
V1 Yr= -jBr V2
v(x)
x'
Fig. 3.23. Electrical configuration with one shunt compensation reactor.
The operating matrix equation of the whole electrical structure can be written
as:
E g 1 jX S cos 2 jZ C sin 2 1 0 cos 1
jZ C sin 1 V 2
I = 0 1 jYC sin 2 cos 2 Y r 1 jYC sin 1
cos 1 I 2
1
(3.72)
Similarly as for series compensation, two situation are considered:
a) Considering that the lumped reactance of the power system is neglected,
the following coefficients are obtained:
A ' = cos L + Br Z C cos 1 sin 2 ; B ' = jZ C ( sin L + Br Z C sin 2 sin 1 )
(3.73)
C ' = jYC ( sin L Br Z C cos 1 cos 2 ) ; D ' = cos L + Z C Br cos 2 sin 1
For line lengths smaller than the quarter wavelength ( L < / 2 ), the absolute
value of the term B' from expression (3.73) results greater than the absolute value
of the term B = Z C sin L from (3.40). Thus, when shunt compensation by means
of reactors is performed, for V1 , V2 and constant, the maximum power
transmissible on the line is smaller than the one in the case without compensation,
reaching the minimum value at 1 = 2 = L 2 .
The shunt compensation reactor leads to a current change along the line due
to the term Vr Br , hereby compensating the capacitive currents generated by the
line. The effect of this compensation leads to a decrease of overvoltages along the
line. Figure 3.24 illustrates the voltage variation, for different placement locations
of a compensation reactor, on a transmission line of 900 km length, assuming that
the line operates under no-load conditions. We see that the placement of the reactor
at the receiving-end (Fig. 3.24, curve d) allows an optimal compensation of the
overvoltage that can appear in this point. Instead, a maximum stationary
overvoltage appears at the middle of the line. The reactor placement only at the
middle of the line leads to a decrease of the maximum overvoltage but will not
solve the problem at the receiving-end. The most convenient voltage profile is
obtained when two reactors are symmetrically located, at 300 km and 600 km,
respectively, away from the source.
900 km
a
v(x)
3 a
pB= 0 450 km 450 km
d b
2
b
c 300 km 300 km 300 km
1 c
450 900 [km] 900 km

d
Fig. 3.24. Voltage variation for different positions of compensation reactors, under the
assumption of no-load conditions of the line.
When the risk of self-excitation phenomenon of the equivalent generator

appears at the line energizing, it is also necessary to install another compensation
reactor close to the source (Fig. 3.24, curve a). In this case, in order to energize the
line, the following condition should be satisfied:
PN
< cot L (3.74)
Psc + Qr
Shunt compensation reactor leads, as for series capacitor banks, to an
apparent shortening of the line. As in the case of series capacitors, when the reactor
is asymmetrically installed on the line, the considered system (reactor included)
does not admit an operation under natural power regime.
In the case of two reactors, symmetrically installed on the line, for the steady
state regime the characteristic impedance equivalent to the entire structure can be
established and therefore, a natural power regime can be achieved [3.1].
L
Eg 1 2 2 1
jXS I1
I2
V1 -jBr -jBr V2
Fig. 3.25. Electrical configuration with two shunt compensation reactor.
For the electrical configuration from Figure 3.25, with two compensation
reactors symmetrically installed on the line, the line coefficients become:
Z C2 Br2
A = D = cos L + Z C Br sin L + sin 21 sin 22
2

B = jZ C sin L + 2 Z C Br sin 1 sin L + 2 + Z C2 Br2 sin 22 sin 2 1 (3.75)
2

C = jYC sin L 2 Z C Br cos 1 cos L + 2 Z C2 Br2 sin 22 cos 2 1
2
b) Considering the influence of the lumped reactance of the power system
(Fig. 3.23), the matrix equation (3.72) becomes:
cos ( 2 + 2 ) sin ( 2 + 2 ) cos 1 jZ C sin 1
E g jZ C V
I = cos 2 cos 2 sin ( 1 + 1 ) 2
1 jY sin Y cos 1 + jYC sin 1 I
cos 2 r sin 1 2
C 2
(3.76)
where: tan 2 = X S Z C = PN Psc due to the power system reactance;
tan 1 = X r Z C due to the shunt reactor.
After matrix multiplications and equating of terms of the equivalent four-

terminal network, similar relations as in the case of series capacitors are obtained,
the coefficient B being of interest:
B = jZ C ( sin L + Br Z C sin 1 sin 2 ) + jX S ( cos L + Z C Br sin 1 cos 2 ) (3.77)
or
cos ( 2 + 2 ) sin ( 2 + 2 ) sin ( 1 + 1 )
B = jZ C sin 1 + jZ C (3.78)
cos 2 cos 2 sin 1
or, in absolute value:
ZC
B= cos ( 2 + 2 ) sin 1 sin 1 + sin ( 2 + 2 ) sin ( 1 + 1 ) =
sin 1 cos 2
ZC
=
sin 1 cos 2
{ }
cos ( 2 + 2 ) cos 1 cos 1 cos ( 1 + 1 ) + sin ( 2 + 2 ) sin ( 1 + 1 ) =
ZC
= sin ( L + 1 + 2 ) cos ( 2 + 2 ) cos 1 sin 1
sin 1 cos 2
As also showed at case a), the value of the term B increases relative to the
case without compensation, its function having an extreme value. In order to
determine to which value of corresponds this extreme, we will differentiate B
with respect to 1 , obtaining:
B ZC
= 0 + cos ( 2 + 2 ) sin 1 sin 1 + cos 1 sin 1 sin ( 2 + 2 ) 2 1
1 sin 1 cos 2
Given that 2 = L 1 it results 2 1 = 1 , then:
B Z C sin 1
= cos ( 2 + 2 ) sin 1 sin ( 2 + 2 ) cos 1 =
1 sin 1 cos 2
(3.79)
Z C sin 1
= sin ( 1 2 2 )
sin 1 cos 2
and from the condition B 1 0 it results:
1 P
1cr = L +atan N (3.80)
2 Psc
For strength power systems (large values of Psc ), the critical installing point
of the shunt reactor gets next to the middle of the line, while for weak power
systems (small values of Psc ) the critical installing point of the shunt reactor gets
next to the source.
Taking into consideration that the angle 2 is positive, it results that the sign
of the derivative is negative for values 1 < 1cr ( 1cr being the distance in degrees,
from the receiving-end to the point where B has a maximum value), until the
extreme point is reached, beyond this point the derivative being positive.
Therefore, the function B has a maximum in the critical point 1cr where the
transmitted power is at a minimum:
EgV2
Pe = sin = minimum!
Bmax
For this reason, it is important to avoid the installing of the compensation

reactor exactly in the critical point because the transmitted power would be
minimal; the installing place will be chosen nearby.
Observations:
As regards the advantages and disadvantages of using compensation reactors,
mention that:
The specific cost for line compensation by means of shunt reactor is
smaller than if using capacitors;
The use of reactors leads to a decrease in the transmission angle, whereas
increasing the transfer characteristic impedance. This leads also to a decrease in the
maximum transmission power. The decrease of both natural power and maximum
transfer power is a disadvantage compared with series capacitors compensation;
Shunt reactors leads to an increase in power losses, directly influencing the
transmission efficiency.
3.6.5. Mixed compensation of transmission lines

By compounding of compensation systems shunt reactors and series
capacitors an optimal transmission from the standpoint of transferred power and
operating stability can be achieved. In such a mixed structure (Fig. 3.26) notice that
the modification of parameters by means of series compensation influences the
compensation effects with shunt reactors and vice versa. In this case, line
transmission capacity becomes a nonlinear function of the line and of the
compensation device parameters.
A2 B2 A1 B1
C2 D2 C1 D1
I1 Z1=-jX1 I2
V1 Y2 =-jb2 Y3 =-jb3 V2
Fig. 3.26. Mixed compensation configuration.
According to Figure 3.26 the elementary matrix corresponding to the four-

terminal networks chain results:
V 1 cos 2 jZ c sin 2 1 0 1 Z 1 1 0 cos 1 jZ C sin 1 V 2
I = 1 0 1 Y 3 1 jYC sin 1
1 jYC sin 2 cos 2 Y 2 cos 1 I 2
(3.81)
or
V 1 A2 B2 1 + Z 1Y 3 Z 1 A1 B1 V 2 A B V 2
I = C =
1 2 D 2 Y 2 + Y 3 + Y 2 Y 3 Z 1 1 + Y 2 Z 1 C1
D1 I 2 C D I 2
To establish the rated capacity of compensation reactor under the hypothesis

of maximum transmitted power, it is necessary to minimize the value of the
coefficient B, according to the well-known expression:
V1 V2
Pe = sin
B
In this respect, the matrix product is performed and the coefficient B is
identified:
B = [A2 (1 + Z 1Y 3 ) + B 2 (Y 2 + Y 3 + Y 2 Y 3 Z 1 )]B1 + [A2 Z 1 + B 2 (1 + Y 2 Z 1 )]D1 =
= A2 B1 + B 2 D1 + B1 B 2 (Y 2 + Y 3 ) + A2 D1 Z 1 + B 2 D1Y 2 Z 1 + A2 B1 Z 1Y 3 + (3.82)
+ B1 B 2 Y 2 Y 3 Z 1
Let us consider the following hypothesis and calculation steps:

a) The simplified case of a lossless line: Y 2 = jb2 and Y 3 = jb3 .
B' = A2 B1 + B 2 D1 j (b2 + b3 )B1 B 2 jX 1 ( A2 D1 jb2 B 2 D1 jb3 A2 B1 b2b3 B1 B 2 )

(3.83)
b) Furthermore, the reactors are considered to be equal sized, that is
b2 = b3 = b 2 .
[
B' = A2 B1 + B 2 D1 jb B1 B 2 jX 1 A2 D1 j (b / 2 )(B 2 D1 + A2 B1 ) b 2 / 4 B1 B 2( ) ]
(3.84)
c) The expressions of the line coefficients are substituted in the expression of
B' :
A1 = cos 1 ; B1 = jZ C sin 1 ; C1 = jYC sin 1 ; D1 = cos 1 (3.85,a)
A2 = cos2 ; B 2 = jZ C sin 2 ; C 2 = jYC sin 2 ; D 2 = cos2 (3.85,b)
It results:
B ' = jZ C ( cos 2 sin 1 + sin 2 cos 1 ) + jbZ C2 sin 1 sin 2 jX 1 [ cos 2 cos 1 +
( )
+ Z C ( b 2 )( sin 2 cos 1 + cos 2 sin 1 ) + Z C2 b 2 4 sin 1 cos 2 ] =
= j {Z C sin ( 1 + 2 ) + bZ C2 sin 1 sin 2 X 1 [ cos 2 cos 1 + Z C ( b 2 ) sin ( 1 + 2 ) +
( )
+Z C2 b 2 4 sin 1 sin 2 ] } (3.86)
d) Let us consider the compensation at the middle of the line, that is
1 = 2 = L 2 . It results:
{
B' = j Z C sin L + bZ C2 sin 2 ( L 2 )
(3.87)
[ ( )
X 1 cos 2 ( L 2 ) + Z C (b 2)sin L + Z C2 b 2 4 sin 2 ( L 2 ) ]}
respectively:
= Z C sin L + bZ C2 sin 2 ( L 2 )
X equiv
(3.88)
( ( )
X 1 cos 2 ( L 2 ) + (b 2)sin L + Z C2 b 2 4 sin 2 ( L 2 ) )
If expressed in per unit (by referring to Z C ), results:
( p.u.) = sin L + b sin 2 ( L 2 )
X equiv
( ( )
x1 cos 2 ( L 2) + (b 2)sin L + b 2 4 sin 2 ( L 2) )
where x1 and b are expressed in per unit.
The latter expression can also be written as:
(
( p.u.) = k0 + k1b x1 k2 + k3b + k4b 2
X equiv ) (3.89)
where:
k0 = sin L ; k1 = sin 2 ( L 2 ); k2 = cos 2 ( L 2);
(3.90)
k3 = 1 2 sin L ; k4 = 1 4 sin 2 ( L 2)
In the particular case, when the mixed compensation is not performed, x1 = 0
and b = 0 , it results:
( p.u.) = k0 = sin L
X equiv (3.91)
that is the equivalent reactance of the system without compensation

( B = jZ C sin L ).
The influence of compensation reactor on series compensation consists in:
increasing of equivalent reactance of the electric network:
(k0 + k1b )
increasing of series compensation efficiency:
(
x1 k2 + k3b + k4b 2 )

If we analyse the expression of X equiv (p.u.), we observe that it has a
maximum that can be calculated by differentiating the expression (3.89) with
respect to b:
X equiv
= k1 k3 x1 2k4 x1bmax = 0
b
k1 k3 x1
bmax = (3.92)
2k4 x1
The value bmax corresponds to the maximum value of the equivalent
reactance and thus to the minimum transmitted power. This imposes the avoidance
of bmax since would otherwise lead to a resonance regime; therefore, a value close
to bmax would be suitable.
3.7. Transmitted power on the line with losses
3.7.1. Power formulae

In 3.4 the maximum transmitted powers on a lossless electric line have been
determined. Taking into account that there are cases when huge amounts of power
(e.g. at least 1000 MVA) are transmitted on long distances and at extra high
voltages (400 kV and above), the power losses by Joule effect, leakage currents or
corona discharge are high enough not to be neglected and single-phase active and
reactive power expressions, both for sending and receiving ends, will be further
determined on the basis of general operating equation for long lines:
V 1 A B V 2
I = (3.93)
1 C D I 2
Let us consider the simple case of a long line where node 1 is the sending-end
and node 2 is the receiving-end. Let the receiving-end voltage be the reference
V20 , and let the sending-end voltage be V1 .
V1 V2 0
A B
P1+jQ1 I1 C D I2
P2+jQ2
1 2
Fig. 3.27. Long line case.
Starting from the matrix equation (3.93) and taking into account the condition
of reciprocity AD BC = 1 , the expressions of sending-end and receiving-end
currents are determined:
1 A
I2 = V1 V 2
B B
(3.94)
D 1
I1 = V 1 V 2
B B
Further, by using the equations (3.93) and (3.94), the expressions of single-
phase complex apparent powers, draws out the sending-end and into the receiving-
end, are determined:
S2 *
S 20 = = P20 + jQ20 = V 2 I 2
3
(3.95)
S *
S 10 = 1 = P10 + jQ10 = V 1 I 1
3
Substituting the expressions of currents from (3.94) in (3.95), obtain:
* * *
1 A V V A
S 20 = V 2 V 1 V 2 = 2 * 1 * V22
B B B B
(3.96)
* * *
D 1 D 2 V 2V 1
S 10 = V 1 V 1 V 2 = *
V1 *
B B B B
By expressing also the constants A, B, C, and D as

A = A a ; B = B b ; C = C c ; D = D d
the receiving-end and sending-end complex powers are given by the following
expressions:
V2V1
S 20 = [cos(b ) + j sin (b )]
B (3.97,a)
A
V22 [cos( b a ) + j sin ( b a )]
B
D 2
S 10 = V1 [cos( b d ) + j sin ( b d )]
B (3.97,b)
VV
2 1 [cos( b + ) + j sin ( b + )]
B
The real and imaginary parts are written as:
V2V1 A
P20 = cos( b ) V22 cos( b a ) (3.98,a)
B B
V2V1 A
Q20 = sin ( b ) V22 sin ( b a ) (3.98,b)
B B
D 2 VV
P10 = V1 cos( b d ) 2 1 cos( b + ) (3.98,c)
B B
D 2 VV
Q10 = V1 sin ( b d ) 2 1 sin ( b + ) (3.98,d)
B B
Taking into account that the arguments a , b and c are fixed, the active
power that can be delivered to receiving-end is maximum at = b :
V2V1 A 2
P20, max = V2 cos( b a ) (3.99,a)
B B
and the reactive power corresponding to this limit is:
A
Q20, max = V22 sin ( b a ) (3.99,b)
B
As b > a and a , b > 90 it results that Q20, max has a negative value so
that, in order to increase the transmission capacity of a long electric line, leading
reactive power must be supplied.
For a lossless electric line, the network constants arguments get the values
a = b = 0 and b = 90 respectively, and equations (3.98) become:
V2V1 VV A
P20 = sin ; Q20 = 2 1 cos V22 (3.100,a,b)
B B B
V2V1 D VV
P10 = sin ; Q10 = V12 2 1 cos (3.100,c,d)
B B B
If the latter equations of active and reactive powers at sending and receiving
ends are analysed, maximum transmitted power is obtained for = b = 90 that
is:
V2V1
P20 = P10 = (3.101)
B
From equations (3.100) we see that the transmitted active power on a lossless
electric line depends on the rms voltages at both ends V1 and V2 , on phase angle
and on the coefficient B.
Analysing the expression (3.101) it can be said that by series compensation
with capacitors, the transmissible power increases in comparison with the case
without compensation since the coefficient B decreases, the reactance X 1 = 1 C
being negative, while for shunt compensation with reactor, the maximum
transmissible power will decrease in comparison with the case without
compensation.
3.7.2. Performance chart (Circle diagram)
The performance chart (circle diagram), for a long line, treated as a four-
terminal network, operating with constant receiving-end voltage can be obtained
starting from the operating equations written for voltages at both ends [3.1, 3.2]:
V 1 = AV 2 + B I 2 (3.102,a)
V 2 = DV 1 B I 1 (3.102,b)
In Figure 3.28,a,b the phasor diagram is drawn to a voltage scale for both the
above equations.
V1 D V1
B I2 d
D V2 V1
-a 1
2 -B I1
a V2 I1
I2 V2
a. b.
Fig. 3.28. Phasor diagram.
By multiplying each of the phasors in Figure 3.28,a by V2 B , and each of the

phasors in Figure 3.28,b by V1 B , the phasors BI 2 and BI1 get the form of a
power so that the expressions of powers at the receiving and sending ends can be
obtained. With these new forms the performance chart for both sending-end and
receiving-end powers can be drawn (Fig. 3.29).
P0
N b +
P0 M V1V2
S10
B
V1V2
power limit
B S20
ce line
+ d referen
b -d DV 2 O2
- a B 1
Q0 Q0
A V 2 b -a
O1 B 2
Fig. 3.29. Performance chart.
The geometric loci of the operating points M and N respectively, for a

VV
delivered load, are circles of equal radii 1 = 2 = 1 2 . For a symmetrical
B
network, a = b , the circle centres O1 and O2 are located on the reference line.
The active and reactive powers at both receiving and sending ends are
determined by projecting the phasors S 10 and S 20 on the two axes.
If the line operates with fixed voltages at both ends, the delivered power will
increase as increases and the power factor of the load will change from lagging,
through unity, to leading values. Figure 3.29 shows that there is a limit at = b
for the power that can be delivered.
3.7.3. Power losses

For a given operating regime, by using the geometric loci of the phasors S 10
and S 20 the corresponding power losses can be calculated. The geometric loci of
phasors at the line ends can be obtained under the following hypotheses:
transmission power under the hypothesis of fixed voltages at the line ends;
transmission power under the hypothesis of constant power losses;
transmission power under the hypothesis of constant transmission
efficiency.
Besides the geometric loci method, the establishing of the power losses can
be also evaluated directly, through analytical calculation starting from the
expressions:
P = 3P0 = 3(P10 P20 )
(3.103)
Q = 3Q0 = 3(Q10 Q20 )
or
S = 3 S 0 = 3(S 10 S 20 ) (3.104)
S 0 = S 10 S 20 =
1
B
[
AV22( b a ) + DV12( b d ) 2V1V2 cos b (3.105) ]
Identifying the real and imaginary parts, it is obtained:
1 1
P0 = P = AV22 cos( b a ) +
3 B (3.106,a)
+ DV12 cos ( b d ) 2V1V2 cos cos b
1 1
Q0 = Q = AV22 sin( b a ) +
3 B (3.106,b)
+ DV12 sin ( b d ) 2V1V2 cos sin b
Knowing the active and reactive power losses on an electric line, the
expression of transmission efficiency can be determined:
P2 P20
= = (3.107)
P2 + P P20 + P0
3.8. Application on AC long line

Consider a transmission line of 800 km length, operating at Un = 400 kV. The per
kilometre parameters of the line are given: r0 = 0.035 / km , x0 = 0.334 / km ,
g0 = 0.207 106 S/km and b0 = 3.449 106 S/km .
I. Determination of the transmission line parameters
(i) Propagation coefficient and characteristic impedance Z C ;
(ii) Line coefficients A , B , C and D ;
(iii) Parameters of the equivalent circuit: Z and Y .
II. Operation of the lossless transmission line under no-load conditions
III. Shunt compensation of the lossless transmission line under no-load conditions
(i) Determine the reactance of the shunt compensation reactor installed at the
receiving-end so that, under no-load conditions, the voltage at the line ends
be equal to the nominal voltage. Determine for this case how much has to be
the minimum short-circuit power of the system to which the line is connected
so that the self-excitation phenomenon of the equivalent generator of the
source will not appear?
(ii) Analyse the influence of the placement position of the shunt compensation
reactor on its rated power so that, for no-load conditions, to obtain equal
voltages at both ends.
(iii) Elaborate the shunt compensation solution so that the overvoltages along the
line be less than = 5% .
IV. Series compensation of the lossless transmission line under no-load conditions
(i) Assuming that a capacitor bank is installed in series with the line, determine
the reactance of the capacitor bank in terms of its placement location so that,
under no-load conditions, to obtain equal voltages at both ends;
(ii) Given the short-circuit power of the system Psc = 10000 MW , determine the
placement location of the capacitor bank so that the maximum power transfer
on the line be possible.
V. Operation of the transmission line under different loads
(i) Calculate the transmission efficiency for different values of the power
transferred on the line (i.e. 400 MW, 500 MW, 600 MW and 700 MW, and
power factor cos = 0.98 ), and draw the voltage profile along the line for
each case. Assume that the voltage at the receiving-end is fixed and equal to
U 2 = U n = 400 kV .
(ii) Elaborate the series compensation solution for the four cases from the point
(i), so that the voltage along the line be within admissible range.
Solution
I. Calculation of the transmission line parameters
(i) Propagation coefficient and characteristic impedance Z C
First we express the per kilometre parameters of the line:

z 0 = r0 + j x0 = 0.035 + j 0.334 = 0.3358 e j 84.02 /km
y = g0 + j b0 = 0.207 106 + j 3.449 106 = 3.4552 106 e j 86.57 S/km
0
The propagation coefficient is then calculated:

1
j (84.02+86.57)
= z 0 y = 0.3358 3.4552 103 e 2 = 1.077 103 e j 85.29 rad/km
0
or
= (0.0884 + j1.0736) 103 rad/km
and the characteristic impedance is:

1
z0 0.3358 j (84.0286.57)
ZC = = 103 e 2 = 311.76 e j ( 1.27)
y 3.4552
0
or
Z C = (311.68 j 6.93)
(ii) Line coefficients A , B , C and D
The line coefficients calculated with the exact formulae gives:
A = D = cosh L = 0.6549 + j 0.0536 = 0.6571 e j 4.679
B = Z C sinh L = 19.676 + j 236.244 = 237.062 e j 85.239
1
C= sinh L = (0.0942 + j 2.4372) 103 = 2.439 103 e j 87.786
ZC
In order to determine the line coefficients using the approximate formulae, we

calculate firstly the total impedance and admittance of the line:
z = z 0 L = ( 0.035 + j 0.334 ) 800 = 28 + j 267.2 = 268.66 e j 84.02
( )
y = y L = 0.207 106 + j 3.449 106 800 = (0.1656 + j 2.7592) 103 =
0
= 2.764 103 e j 86.57 S
For easier calculation of the line coefficients, we make the product:
z y = 268.66 e j 84.02 2.764 103 e j 86.57 = 0.7426 e j170.59
Using the approximate formulae, we obtain:
zy z2 y2
A = D = 1+ + = 1 + 0.3713 e j170.59 + 0.02298 e j 341.18 =
2 24
= 0.6554 + j 0.05333 = 0.6576 e j 4.652
z y z2 y2
B = z 1 + + = 268.66 e j 84.02 (1 + 0.1238 e j170.59 + 0.0046 e j 341.18 ) =
6 120

= 19.688 + j 236.261 = 237.081 e j 85.236
z y z2 y2
C = y 1 + + = 2.764 103 e j 86.57 (1 + 0.1238 e j170.59 + 0.0046 e j 341.18 ) =
6 120

= ( 0.0943 + j 2.437 ) 103 = 2.439 103 e j 87.784
Analysing the results obtained for the line coefficients we find very small errors
which shows that the approximate formulae can also be used with good accuracy.
(iii) Parameters of the equivalent circuit: Z and Y
A long transmission line can be represented by an equivalent circuit (Fig. 3.30),

whose parameters are either lumped or uniformly distributed.
The impedance and admittance to ground calculated with the exact formulae, specific
to the long lines, gives:
Z = Z C sinh L = 19.676 + j 236.244 = 237.062 e j 85.24
Y 1 L
= tanh = ( 0.1045 + j1.4693) 103 = 1.473 103 e j 85.93 S
2 ZC 2
I1 1 z 2 I2
y y
V1 V2
2 2
Fig. 3.30. Equivalent circuit of the line.
The impedance and admittance to ground calculated with the exact formulae, specific
to the long lines, gives:
Z = Z C sinh L = 19.676 + j 236.244 = 237.062 e j 85.24
Y 1 L
= tanh = ( 0.1045 + j1.4693) 103 = 1.473 103 e j 85.93 S
2 ZC 2
The parameters of the equivalent circuit can also be calculated using the approximate
formulae. Therefore, the impedance has the expression:
Z = K1 z
where the Kennellys first correction coefficient is:
zy z2 y2
K1 1 + + = 0.8823 + j 0.0188 = 0.8825 e j1.22
6 120
resulting:
Z = 0.8825 e j1.22 268.66 e j 84.02 = 237.081 e j 85.24 = (19.688 + j 236.262)
The admittance to ground has the approximate expression:
Y 1
= K y
2 2 2
where the Kennellys second correction coefficient is:
zy z2 y2
K 2 1 + = 1.0654 j 0.0116 = 1.0655 e j ( 0.62)
12 120
resulting:
Y 1
= 1.0655 e j ( 0.62) 2.764 103 e j 86.57 = 1.473 103 e j 85.94 =
2 2
= (0.104 + j1.469) 103 S
Comparing the results obtained for the line parameters with the exact and the
approximate formulae we find very small errors.
II. Operation of the lossless transmission line under no-load conditions

Considering that the resistance and conductance are neglected ( r0 = 0 and g0 = 0 ),
the propagation cofficient is calculated using the expression:
j = j x0 b0 = j 0.334 3.449 103 = j1.0733 103 rad/km
The characteristic impedance is then determined:

x0 0.334
ZC = = = 311.19 ;
b0 3.449 106
and the natural power is:
U n2 4002
PN = = = 514.15 MW ;
Z C 311.19
The transmission angle of the line is:
L = L = 1.0733 103 800 = 0.8586 rad = 49.196
When the line is energized from the sending-end and the receiving-end operates
under no-load, the phase-to-phase voltage at the receiving-end has the expression (3.43'):
U1
U2 =
cos L
Assuming that U1 = U n , then:
Un 400
U2 = = = 612.12 kV
cos L cos(49.196)
It can be seen that an overvoltage of 212.12 kV appears, which represents 53.03% of

Un. In order to reduce the overvoltages when the line is energized under no-load at the
receiving-end, reactors (shunt compensation) or capacitor banks (series compensation) may
be used.
III. Shunt compensation of the lossless transmission line under no-load conditions
(i) Determine the reactance of the shunt compensation reactor installed at the
receiving-end so that, under no-load conditions, the voltage at the line ends be equal with
the nominal voltage. Determine for this case how much has to be the minimum short-circuit
power of the system to which the line is connected so that the self-excitation phenomenon of
the equivalent generator of the source will not appear?
The reactive power of the shunt compensation reactor, installed at the receiving-end,
so that, under no-load conditions, the voltage at both ends be equal with the nominal
voltage, is determined with the expression (3.53):
L 49.196
qr = tan = tan = 0.4578 p.u.
2 2
meaning:
Qr = qr PN = 0.4578 514.15 = 235.38 MVAr
Therefore, the reactance is:

U n2 4002
Xr = = = 679.76
Qr 235.38
In this case, the maximum value of the voltage appears at the middle of the line,
being calculated with the expression (3.54):
1 1
umax = u ( L / 2) = = = 1.0998 p.u.
L 49.196
cos cos
2 2
Considering that the voltage at the receiving-end, chosen as base voltage and phase
origin, is U 2 = U n = 400 kV , then the maximum voltage on the line will be:
U max = 1.0998 400 = 439.92 kV
and the maximum overvoltage is:

U max = (umax 1) U n = 0.0998 400 = 39.932 kV
representing 9.98%.
In order to avoid the self-excitation phenomenon of the equivalent generator it is
necessary that (3.74):
PN
< cot L
Psc + Qr
and, in the limit, it results:
PN 514.15
Psc ,min = Qr = 235.38 = 360.20 MW
cot L cot(49.196)
(ii) Analyze the influence of the placement location of the compensation reactor on
its rated power so that, under no-load conditions, to obtain equal voltages at both ends.
We denote by L1 the distance from the receiving-end to the point where the reactor is
installed, and by Br 1 X r the susceptance of the compensation reactor. First we write the
matrix equation, which defines the relationship between the quantities at the sending- and
receiving-end.
V 1 A ' B ' V 2
I =
1 C ' D ' I 2
Neglecting the influence of the lumped reactance of the power system, and taking
into account that the line is considered without losses, the coefficient A ' is a real value
having the expression (3.73):
A ' = cos L + Br Z C cos 1 sin 2
For no-load conditions I 2 = 0 then V 1 = A 'V 2 .

In order to have equal voltages at both ends, it is necessary that A ' = 1 , from where it
results:
1 cos L
Br =
ZC cos 1 sin 2
The reactance of the compensation reactor has the expression:

1 cos 1 sin 2
Xr = ZC
Br 1 cos L
and its reactive power is calculated with:
U n2 U n2 1 cos L 1 cos L
Qr = = = PN
X r Z C cos 1 sin 2 cos 1 sin 2
For example, when the reactor is installed at 200 km away from the receiving-end we
have:
1 = L1 = 1.0733 103 200 = 0.2147 rad = 12.3
1 = ( L L1 ) = 1.0733 103 600 = 0.644 rad = 36.897
The reactance is:

cos(12.3) sin(36.897)
X r = 311.19 = 526.78
1 cos(49.196)
and the reactive power is:
4002
Qr = = 303.73 MVAr
526.78
The values of the reactance X r and reactive power Qr of the compensation reactor,
in terms of the its placement location with respect to the receiving-end, are presented in
Table 3.3.
Table 3.3
L1 [km] 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Xr [] 679.76 609.46 526.78 435.52 339.88 244.23 152.98 70.3 0
Qr [MVAr] 235.38 262.53 303.73 367.37 470.76 655.11 1045.9 2275.9
We see that the value of the reactance of the compensation reactor decrease and tends
toward zero, and its reactive power increase and tends toward when the placement point
gets next to the source (L1 L).
Therefore, in order to obtain equal voltages at both ends, for no-load conditions, the
compensation reactor has to be installed at the receiving-end (the point where, under no-
load conditions, the voltage is maximum).
(iii) Elaborate the shunt compensation solution so that the overvoltages along the
line be less than = 5% .
As proven earlier, it results that the installing of a single compensation reactor at the
receiving-end is not sufficient to keep the maximum voltage on the line at values less than
= 5% . Under these circumstances, in order to obtain a distribution as uniformly as

possible of the voltage along the line, another compensation reactor is installed at the
middle of the line that will reduce the overvoltage in the respective point to a value equal to
the one at the ends. The reactive power of the reactor that should be installed at the middle
of the line is:
49.196
qM = tan L = tan = 0.218 p.u.
4 4
and the maximum value of the voltage on the line appear in the points situated at L 4 and
3 4 L , being:
1 1
umax = = = 1.0235 u.r.
49.196
cos L cos
4 4
or
U max = umaxU n = 1.0235 400 = 409.4 kV
We see that by installing the second reactor at the middle of the line, the overvoltage
is 2.35%, which is less than = 5% .
The voltage variation along the lossless line, with and without compensation, is
illustrated in Figure 3.31.
U(x) 1.6
Un a.
[p.u.] 1.4
1.2 b.
1
c.c.
0.8
0.6
0 200 400 600 800 [km]
L-x
Fig. 3.31. Voltage variation along the considered line, operating under no-load conditions:
a. without compensation; b. shunt compensation at the receiving-end;
c. shunt compensation at the middle of the line and at the receiving-end.
IV. Series compensation of the lossless transmission line under no-load conditions
(i) Assuming that a capacitor bank is installed in series with the line, determine the
reactance of the capacitor bank in terms of its placement location so that, under no-load
conditions, to obtain equal voltages at both ends.
In the case of series compensation by means of a capacitor bank, of reactance X c
and located at the distance L1 from the receiving-end, we start from the matrix equation:
V 1 A ' B ' V 2
I =
1 C ' D ' I 2
The coefficient A ' is the same as in expressions (3.61), where the lumped reactance
of the power system has been neglected, with the mention that it is a real value, having the
form:
X1
A ' = cos L sin 1 cos 2
ZC
For no-load conditions I 2 = 0 , and to achieve equal voltages at both ends it is
necessary that A ' = 1 , resulting:
cos L 1
X1 = X c = ZC
sin 1 cos 2
For example, when the capacitor bank installed at 200 km away from the receiving-
end, the angles are (Fig. 3.19):
1 = L1 = 1.0733 103 200 = 0.21466 rad = 12.299
2 = ( L L1 ) = 1.0733 103 600 = 0.64398 rad = 36.8973
and the reactance is:

cos(49.196) 1
X c = 311.19 = 633.03
sin(12.299) cos(36.8973)
Table 3.4 gives the values of the reactance X c in terms of the placement location of
the compensation reactor with respect to the receiving-end.
Table 3.4
L1 [km] 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Xc [] - -1377.5 -633.03 -396.5 -284.92 -222.35 -183.83 -158.9 -142.46
We see that the value of the reactance X c necessary to obtain equal voltages at both
ends, under no-load conditions, is - when the capacitor bank is located at the receiving-
end of the line ( 1 = 0 and 2 = L ), increasing toward the value given by:
cos L 1 49.196
X c = ZC = Z C tan L = 311.19 tan = 142.46
sin L 2 2
when the capacitor bank is located at the sending-end ( 1 = L and 2 = 0 )
(ii) Given the short-circuit power of the system Psc = 10000 MW , determine the
placement location of the capacitor bank so that the maximum power transfer on the line be
possible.
Using the expression (3.65), written for the case when the lumped reactance of the
power system is no longer neglected, which represents the placement location of the
capacitor bank for a maximum power transfer, it results:
1 1 P 1 514.15
L1 = = L + atan N = 0.8586 + atan = 423.93 km
2 Psc 2 1.0733 103 10000
Therefore:
1 = L1 = 1.0733 103 423.93 = 0.455 rad = 26.07
2 = L 1 = 0.8586 0.455 = 0.4036 rad = 23.13
In this case, in order to obtain equal voltages at both ends under no-load conditions,
the reactance of the capacitor bank should be:
cos L 1 cos(49.196) 1
X c = ZC = 311.19 = 266.83
sin 1 cos 2 sin(26.07) cos(23.127)
V. Operation of the transmission line under different loads

(i) Calculate the transmission efficiency for different values of the power transferred
on the line (i.e. 400 MW, 500 MW, 600 MW and 700 MW, and power factor cos = 0.98 ),
and draw the voltage profile along the line for each case. Assume that the voltage at the
receiving-end is fixed and equal to U 2 = U n = 400 kV .
For an active power of 400 MW, the reactive power demanded at the receiving-end
is:
Q2 = P2 tan 2 = P2 tan(arccos ) = 400 tan(11.478) = 81.224 MVAr
then we can calculate the receiving-end current:
(S )
*
P2 jQ2 400 j 81.224
I2 = 2 = = = 0.5774 j 0.1172 = 0.5891 11.478 kA
3 U2 3U2 3 400
In the following we make use of the line coefficients A , B , C and D calculated

previously. The phase-to-neutral voltage at the sending-end is calculated as:
400
V 1 = AV 2 + B I 2 = 0.6571 e j 4.679 + 237.062 e j 85.239 0.5891 e j ( 11.478) =
3
= 190.31 + j 146.47 = 240.146 37.58 kV
The phase-to-phase voltage is then easily calculated by multiplying the above value
by 3 , giving:
U 1 = 3 V 1 = 329.62 + j 253.69 = 415.945 37.58 kV
and the current at the sending-end can be calculated as:

400
I 1 = C V 2 + D I 2 = 2.439 103 e j 87.786 + 0.6571 e j 4.679 0.5891 e j ( 11.478) =
3
= 0.4064 + j 0.5168 = 0.6575 51.82 kA
The complex power is:
S 1 = 3 U 1 I 1* = 3 415.945 37.58 0.6575 51.82 = 473.66 -14.24 MVA
or
S 1 = P1 + jQ1 = (459.12 j116.47) MVA
Therefore, we can calculate the transmission efficiency as:

P2 400
= = = 0.8712
P1 459.12
Table 3.5 gives values for the electrical quantities at the sending- and receiving-end
as well as the transmission efficiency for the four cases considered. We find that the
sending-end receives reactive power from the line for power transfer smaller than the
natural power, and it injects reactive power into the line for power transfer greater than the
natural power. We see also that the power transferred on the line increases, the transmission
efficiency decreases, and the necessary voltage at the sending-end increases as well.
Table 3.5
P2 Q2 U1 u1 P1 Q1 S1
Case
MW MVAr kV p.u. MW MVAr MVA
a. 400 81.224 415.945 1.04 459.12 -116.47 473.66 0.8712
b. 500 101.529 466.129 1.165 574.51 -31.901 575.39 0.8703
c. 600 121.835 518.513 1.296 693.21 +72.687 697.01 0.8655
d. 700 142.141 572.495 1.431 815.23 +197.29 838.76 0.8587
Using the expression:
U ( x) = cosh( x) U 2 + Z C sinh( x) 3 I 2
we can draw the absolute value of U ( x) , where x represents the distance metered from the
sending-end to a certain point on the line. The base voltage is 400 kV.
In Figure 3.32, the variation curves of the voltage along the line are presented for the
four cases. For a power transfer of 400 MW the voltage is within admissible range. Instead,
for the other three cases, voltage values outside the admissible range would be necessary to
obtain 400 kV at the receiving-end, which is not acceptable.
U(L-x) 1.5
Un 1.4 d.
[p.u.]
1.3 c.
1.2 b.
1.1 a.
0.9
0.8
0 200 400 600 800 [km]
L-x
Fig. 3.32. Voltage profile along a transmission line of 800 km length
operating under different loads: a. 400 MW; b. 500 MW; c. 600 MW; d. 700 MW.
(ii) Elaborate the series compensation solution for the four cases from the point (i),
so that the voltage along the line be within admissible range.
To increase the transmission capacity, while keeping the voltage in appropriate
range, the compensation of the inductive reactance of the line can be adopted by installing a
capacitor bank in series with the line.
The matrix equation used to calculate the voltage and current, when series
compensation by means of capacitor banks is performed, is:
for x [ 0, L1 ]
cosh x Z C sinh x
V ( x)
= V 2
I ( x) 1 sinh x cosh x I 2
Z
C
for x L1
cosh ( x L1 ) Z C sinh ( x L1 ) cosh L1 Z C sinh L1

V ( x)
= 1 1 jX 1
1 V 2

I ( x) Z sinh ( x L1 ) cosh ( x L1 ) 0 1 sinh L1 cosh L1 I 2
C Z C
Figure 3.33 illustrates the voltage variation along the line considering a capacitor
bank installed at 200 km away from the receiving-end, which compensates by 40% the
inductive reactance. In this case, when 400 MW are transmitted on the line, the voltage at
the sending-end should be under the nominal voltage, and the capacitor bank should be
disconnected. When 500 MW or even 600 MW are transmitted on the line, an acceptable
voltage level results.
U(L-x) 1.2 d.
Un
[p.u.] 1.1 c.
b.
1 a.
L1
0.9
0.8
0 200 400 600 800 [km]
L-x
Fig. 3.33. Voltage profile for a compensation factor kseries = 0.4
and a power factor cos = 0.98 : a. 400 MW; b. 500 MW; c. 600 MW; d. 700 MW.
Instead, the transfer of an active power of 700 MW cannot be achieved because a

voltage level exceeding the maximum admissible limit would be necessary at the sending-
end. A possible solution to increase further the transmission capacity is to fully compensate
the reactive power at the receiving-end so that cos = 1 ).
Figures 3.34,a and 3.34,b illustrates the voltage variation along the line when only
active power is demanded at the receiving-end ( cos = 1 ), considering that a compensation
of 20% and 40%, respectively, of the inductive reactance of the line is performed.
Analysing the voltage variation curves we may say that it is convenient to install a switched
capacitor bank in series with the line, together with an installation for reactive power and
voltage control at the receiving-end, which contributes to the increasing of the transmission
capacity up to 700 MW (Fig. 3.34,b).
1.2 1.2
d. U(L-x)
Un
[p.u.] 1.1
1.1 c. d.
b. c.
1 1
a. b.
a.
0.9 L1 0.9 L1
0.8 0.8
0 200 400 600 800 0 200 400 600 800
L-x [km] L-x [km]
a. b.
Fig. 3.34. Voltage profile for a power factor cos = 1 and compensation factor:
a. kseries = 0.2 ; b. kseries = 0.4 .
Chapter references
[3.1] Bercovici, M., Arie, A.A., Poeat, A. Reele electrice. Calculul electric (Electric
networks. Electric calculation), Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 1971.
[3.2] Guill, A.E., Paterson, W. Electrical power systems. Volume one (2nd Edition),
Pergamon Press, Oxford, New York, 1979.
[3.3] Weedy, B.M. Electrical power systems. (3rd Edition), John Wiley & Sons,
[3.4] Poeat, A., Arie, A.A., Crian, O., Eremia, M., Alexandrescu, V., Buta, A.
[3.5] Kimbark, E.W. A new look at shunt compensation, IEEE Trans. on Power
Systems, Vol. 102, No. 1, January 1983.
[3.6] Gnen, T. Electric power transmission system engineering. Analysis and design,
John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, New York, 1988.
[3.7] Das, J.C. Power system analysis. Short-circuit load flow and harmonics, Marcel
Dekker, Inc., New York, Basel, 2002.
[3.8] Anderson, P.M., Farmer, R.G. Series compensation of power systems, PBLSH!
Inc., California, USA, 1996.
[3.9] Fallou, J. Les rseaux de transmission dnergie, Gauthier-Villars Editeur, Paris,
1935.
Chapter 4
HVDC TRANSMISSION
4.1. Introduction
HVDC power transmission is relatively a new technology, which had a
modest beginning in 1954. The advent of thyristor valves and related technological
improvements over last 30 years has been responsible for the acceleration of the
growth of HVDC systems.
The HVDC technology is still undergoing many changes due to continuing
innovations directed at improving reliability and reducing costs of converter
stations. Nowadays, the thyristor blocking voltage has reached 8500 Volts, while
the conduction current of the device is up to 3500 Amperes. Converter ratings are
up to 500 kV and 1500 MW for a single 12 pulse valve group. The converters can
be connected in series or in parallel to achieve higher ratings.
Actually, 70000 MW of HVDC transmission capacity is installed all over the
world. For DC, there are two options: conventional high voltage direct current
(HVDC) and voltage source converter (VSC).
Three types of semiconductor devices have established themselves in the
high power segment: thyristors, GTOs (gate turn off thyristors) and IGBTs
(insulated gate bipolar transistors).
The thyristor is the oldest of switching devices in use nowadays. It can be
turned on through gate control. The thyristor returns to its off state only when the
load current goes to zero. In practice, this is accomplished through the
commutation process. On the other hand GTOs and IGBTs can be turned off via
gate signals.
High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) transmission link is advantageous in
the following areas of application [4.1]:
(i) For cables crossing bodies of water wider than 30 km;
(ii) For interconnecting AC systems having different frequencies or where
asynchronous operation is desired;
(iii) For long distance, bulk power transmission by overhead lines, when the
saving in cost of a DC line would more than compensate for the cost of
converter station;
(iv) The DC systems have an inherent short-time overload capacity that can
be used for damping system oscillations;
(v) In congested urban areas or elsewhere where it is difficult to acquire

right of way for overhead lines and where lengths involved make AC
cables impracticable;
(vi) A requirement to provide an intertie between two systems without raising
the short-circuit level appreciably can be met by using a HVDC link.
Thyristors has much lower losses compared to GTOs and IGBTs. Thyristors
are suitable for applications at higher MW ratings.
Line commutated HVDC converters
The first commercial HVDC link using conventional line commutated
converter technology was installed in 1954. That was a 96 km, 20 MW rated,
100 kV submarine cable between the island Gotland and the Swedish mainland.
Since then, conventional technology has been installed in many locations in the
world, primarily for bulk power transmission over long geographical distance and
for interconnecting systems. Some well-known examples for long distance HVDC
links are:
Cross Channel DC Link (France England) 71 km with rating of 2000 MW
at a DC voltage 2 270 kV;
1345 km Pacific Intertie DC link (USA) with rating of 3100 MW at a DC
voltage of 500 kV;
The +/- 500 kV, 4000 MW double bipolar Nelson River HVDC system in
Canada. It provides a bulk transmission link from remote generation to the
load centre;
The 6300 MW Itaipu HVDC link two bipoles each rated 3150 MW at a
DC voltage 600 kV in Brazil (19841987). It plays a key role in the
Brazilian power system;
The 2000 MW Quebec New England link, which is a multi-terminal
HVDC system;
The most powerful HVDC submarine cable to date are rated 600 MW at
450 kV. Typical examples are the 230 km Baltic Cable link between
Sweden and Germany, and the 260 km cable for the SwePol link between
Sweden and Poland;
A major portion of the total generating power (18200 MW), from Three
Gorges hydroelectric power plant, will be carried to Chinas industrialized
coastal areas in Shanghai and Shenzheng by means of four HVDC links
(Fig. 4.1) [4.15]:
Gezhouba Shanghai 1200 MW HVDC bipole, in operation since 1991;
Three Gorges Changzhou 3000 MW bipole, commissioned in May
2003 ( 500 kV, 900 km);
Three Gorges Guangdong 3000 MW bipole;
Three Gorges Shanghai 3000 MW scheduled to be operating by 2007.
HVDC was chosen to transmit power from the Three Gorges plant for several
reasons. Since the central and east China/Guangdong AC networks are not
synchronized an AC transmission scheme would have required coordination, and it
HVDC transmission 241
would have been very difficult to ensure adequate stability margins. HVDC allow
controlled transmission of power between the networks, which also retain their
independence. DC is also more economic in term of construction costs and losses
as well as the right of way.
Left bank + 500 kV, 3000 MW
14x700 MW Three Gorges - Changzhou
Central + 500 kV, 1200 MW East

Three Gorges
China Gezouba - Shanghai China
12x700 MW + 500 kV, 3000 MW
Right bank Three Gorges - Shanghai
+ 500 kV, 3000 MW

Guangdong
Three Gorges - Guangdong
Fig. 4.1. Three Gorges power plant links.
Voltage source converter VSC HVDC

The other DC option, the VSC HVDC technology, is capturing more and
more attention [4.14]. It is marketed by ABB under the name HVDC Light and by
Siemens under the name HVDC Plus. This new technology has only become
possible due to important advances in power electronics, namely the insulated gate
bipolar transistors (IGBT) and the ability to connect individual IGBTs in series in a
similar mechanical valve arrangement similar to thyristors. Pulse width modulation
(PWM) is the common control method of VSC converters.
In VSC, the current can be turned off, which means that there is no need for
an active commutation voltage. Furthermore, the active and reactive power supply
can be controlled independently. This is one of the main reasons why onshore
network companies are usually in favour of VSC HVDC technology. In addition,
it is important to mention that VSC HVDC is by nature bipolar. The DC circuit is
not connected to ground. Therefore, two conductors (cables) are always needed.
The first commercial VSC based HVDC link was installed on the Swedish
island of Gotland in 1999. It is 70 km long with 50 MW at 80 kV. The link was
mainly built in order to provide voltage support for the large amount of wind power
installed in the South of Gotland. In 2000, a link 59 km long with three times
60 MW at 80 kV, was built in Australia between the power grids of Queensland
and New South Wales. A second link is currently being installed in Australia; with
its 180 km, the connection will be the longest VSC based HVDC link in the
world. It will have a capacity of 200 MW at a DC voltage of 150 kV. In the
United States, a 45 km submarine HVDC link is currently being installed between
Connecticut and Long Island. The link will be operated at a DC voltage of
150 kV and will have a capacity of 330 MW.
4.2. Structure and configurations
4.2.1. Structure of HVDC links

An HVDC link can be either long distance or Back-to-Back (BTB). In a long
distance HVDC system the rectifier and inverter stations are connected via an
overhead line or cable or a combination of both. In a Back-to-Back system there is
no HVDC line or cable. The power flow is from rectifier to the inverter. There is
no reactive power exchange between the two stations. The components of an
HVDC link are shown in Figure 4.2.
AC system AC system
Fig. 4.2. The main components of an HVDC link.
HVDC converter units

The important building block of HVDC is the six pulse bridge. It performs
the conversion from AC to DC and DC to AC, and consists of six valves. The
bridge consists of high voltage valves connected in this 6-pulse configuration. A
six pulse is connected to the AC system via a converter transformer (Fig. 4.3,a).
a. b. c.
Fig. 4.3. 6, 12 and 24-pulse converter units.
Two six pulse bridges can be connected in series on the DC side and in
parallel on the AC side through their respective converter transformers. If one
bridge is connected to a Y/Y and the second bridge is connected to a Y/

transform, and due to the phase shift of 30 a 12 pulse operation is obtained. This is
referred to as 12 pulse converter. This is shown in Figure 4.3,b. Most HVDC
systems are configured in a 12 pulse converter.
A 24-pulse converter unit consists of four six pulse bridges connected in
series on the DC side with their respective transformers, producing four three phase
systems with 15 phase difference one from the other (Fig. 4.3,c).
Converter transformer [4.5]
The converter transformer is designed to provide an ungrounded three-phase
voltage source of the appropriate level to the bridge. It may have any winding
connection, as long as the valve side winding is ungrounded. This allows the DC
system to establish its own reference to ground, usually by grounding the positive
or negative end of the valve converter.
Converter transformers are typically equipped with on load tap changer LTC
to allow adequate control over DC voltage levels as AC voltages and DC currents
vary. A typical range for the LTC would be 15% in one to two percent steps.
Most will operate within five seconds of the occurrence of a change to restore
desired conditions. The operation of the LTC is closely coordinated with both
valve-firing controls and switching of reactive power sources in the converter
station. They all work together to limit reactive demands on the AC system.
Converter transformers are exposed to cyclic conduction of direct current in
their windings, which approximate rectangular current pulses of fundamental
frequency. These current pulses may be thought of as being composed of the
superposition of fundamental frequency and several harmonic frequency
components. The harmonic frequency components increase losses. These effects
combined with DC insulations requirements, large reactive power demands and
LTC mechanisms tend to make converter transformers much larger than
conventional transformers of the same rating.
Converter valves [4.5]
The converter valves perform the switching to sequentially connect the line-
to-line voltages of the converter transformer to the positive and negative terminals
of the valve bridge. By controlling the timing of the switching operations, the level
of DC voltage and its polarity can be varied from nearly the positive value of the
peak line-to-line AC voltage to nearly the negative value of that voltage. The
polarity and level of the resultant direct voltage relative to the direct current
determines the direction and level of power transfer on the DC link. Operation of
the converter will be discussed in 4.3.1.
Physically a valve bridge consists of six high voltage valves. The six valves
acts as switches. It is usually convenient to mechanically stack two or four valves
on top of one another with AC and DC connections at intermediate levels. These
are called double valves or quadruple valves, respectively. The quadruple valves
result in compact station design. The valves are constructed using individual
thyristor levels. Each valve consists of thyristor levels connected in series to attain
the desired voltage level. Parallel connection of thyristor levels is not required. The
thyristors in a valve are sub-divided into modules. The modular concept allows
ready access for maintenance and rapid replacement of failed components. Each
module typically contains a firing system for each thyristor and a monitoring
system to indicate failures. In addition to the thyristors the module contains series
saturable reactors to limit current rate-of-change as well as parallel capacitances to
limit voltage rate-of-change. The restrictions on these two quantities are required to
avoid excessive current densities in semiconductor junction areas as conduction
begins.
Valves require a cooling system. Valves may be cooled by circulating air,
water, and oil. Thermal time constants are on the order of second, so sustained
overcurrents cannot be tolerated by valves.
Filters
Converters generate harmonic voltages and currents on both AC and DC
sides. These harmonics can cause overheating of capacitors and nearby generators,
and interferences with telecommunication systems.
There are three types of filters used:
(i) AC filters. These are passive circuits used to provide low impedance,
shunt paths for AC harmonic currents. Both tuned and damped filter arrangements
are used;
(ii) DC filters. These are similar to AC filters and are used for the filtering of
harmonics on DC side;
(iii)High frequency filters. These are connected between the converter
transformer and the station AC bus to suppress any high frequency currents.
Sometimes such filters are provided on high-voltage DC bus converted between the
DC filter and DC line and also on the neutral side.
Reactive power
Converters require reactive power supply that is dependent on the active
power loading. Under steady-state conditions the reactive power consumed is about
50-60% of active power transferred. Reactive power sources are therefore provided
near the converters. For strong AC systems, these are usually in the form of shunt
capacitors. Depending on the demands placed on the DC link and on the AC
system, part of the reactive power source may be in the form of synchronous
condensers or static VAr compensators. Fortunately, part of this reactive power
requirement is provided by AC filters.
Smoothing reactor
A sufficient large series reactor is used on DC side to smooth direct current
and also serves as a buffer between the converters and the DC line. The sizing of
the reactor depends on various requirements: to reduce the incidence of
commutation failure in inverters caused by dips in the AC voltage at the converter
bus; to prevent the consequent commutation failures in inverters by reducing the
rate of rise of direct current in the bridge; smooth the ripple in the direct current in
order to prevent the current becoming discontinuous at light loads; decrease
harmonic voltages and currents in the DC lines [4.7]. The location of the
smoothing reactor can be either at the high voltage terminal or at the ground
terminal. In the latter case, it is also necessary to have a small reactor (510 mH)
on the line side, to protect the converter station from the consequences of lightning
strokes to the line.
DC lines/cables
Selection of DC line/cable voltage is made only in conjunction with converter
rating selection. Going to higher voltages will increase converter costs and
decrease line losses for a given power level. Optimisation of system voltage level is
highly dependent upon both converter costs and line/cable costs. Thus DC lines,
unlike AC lines, may not be designed at an optimum voltage level for a given
power transfer. Converter cost as a function of voltage and current must be
considered before DC voltage is selected. The evaluation should consider different
voltage levels.
Electrode systems
Biplolar DC projects are designed to use the earth as a neutral conductor for
at least brief periods of time unless they are designed as two independent
monopoles. The connection to the earth requires a large surface area conductor to
minimize current densities and surface voltage gradients.
The conductor is termed an electrode. The electrode is usually located several
kilometres from the converter station so that direct currents will not stray into the
stations ground mat or be diverted into AC transmission lines leaving the
converter station. The line connecting station to the electrode is termed an
electrode line. In some designs if ground currents are not allowed at all, a metallic
return conductor is provided. In bipolar systems during monopolar operation one of
the pole conductors is used for metallic return. This requires a metallic transfer
breaker (MRTB) at the low voltage end. This breaker has to commutate the DC
current from the electrode line to the metallic return.
These three elements: electrode, electrode line and metallic return transfer
breaker, constitute the electrode system. Each has unique characteristics which are
discussed in turn.
(i) Electrode [4.5]. Two very different types of electrodes need to be
considered: anode and cathode. The anode is the point at which conventional current
(not electron flow) enters the earth. The cathode is where it leaves the earth. At both
types of electrodes conduction is largely by ion flow in an electrolyte of water and
salts. The major difference between the types of electrodes is that at anode, metal
ions assume positive charges and are carried away from the electrode. At the
cathode, metal ions are deposited. This causes severe corrosion of the anode and
erosion of the metal. The anode is effectively sacrificed to allow current
conduction. The cathode may increase in metallic mass but that in not a problem.
Anodes are more expensive to maintain because of the corrosion effect. To reduce
costs they are usually constructed with low cost conducting material surrounding the
metallic conductors (coke and graphite are frequently used). Cathodes may consist of
just a buried array of metallic conductors, since they are not affected by corrosion, if
at least low currents flow most of time.
In practice it is usually not possible to predict which electrode will be the anode
and which will be the cathode, because the earth return usually carries the
unbalanced current of bipolar system. Electrode construction varies with the
resistivity and moisture content of the earth. Large voltage gradients must be avoided
for safety reasons and because they represent power loss and heating of the earth.
That in turn can evaporate moisture from the electrode area and increase its
resistivity in a thermal run-away.
The most compact electrodes are constructed in ocean locations where
saltwater provides a good conductor and unlimited cooling and moisture. The largest
electrodes are required on land where thousand of meters of buried conductors may
be required. The electrode at the northern end of the Pacific Intertie is constructed as
a large conducting circle with a diameter of 1036 meters [4.5].
An alternative to the surface electrode is the deep electrode. If low resistivity rock or
mineral formations are located below the surface, it is sometimes advantageous to
construct several vertical shafts to connect with those formations. A layer of coal or
iron ore, for example might be used to reduce surface voltage gradients and electrode
costs. Most electrodes are able to reduce earth contact resistance to a fraction of an
ohm using one of these methods.
A major problem with electrodes is that DC earth currents follow paths of least
resistance. Remote from the electrode this will probably be deep within the
conducting mantle of the earth. In the vicinity of the electrode it may include
following low resistance man-made facilities, such as gas or water pipelines or even
transmission lines. Currents in these facilities may create problems, such as
saturation of transformer cores. More likely they will produce corrosion problems
where the currents leave these metal objects and reenter the earth. The corrosion
problems, which affect the anode electrode, are present on a smaller scale anytime
current leaves a metal object by ionic conduction.
Electrodes may be located many kilometres away from the converter station or
other facilities to avoid these kinds of problems. Also cathodic protection can be
applied to force current to leave the buried metals only through sacrifical anodes.
(ii) Electrode line [4.5]. The electrode line requires insulation levels adequate
to withstand the voltage drop along its length. That is usually only a small fraction of
the line-to-ground voltage of the DC system. The electrode line may be carried as an
insulated shield wire on one of the transmission lines leaving the converter station, as
long as it has adequate capacity.
The electrode line has some unique protection problems. Faults are hard to
detect since there will be no change in current, and voltages are very low all of the
time. The effects of grounding the electrode line to a tower or the earth may be very
adverse, however. In either case sever corrosion can occur if high currents are
present. Corrosion of the tower footing can destroy the tower; corrosion of the
electrode line can cause loss of conducting capacity and failure of the electrode line.
Any break in the electrode line can cause DC arcing and severe damage. DC
arcs can be much longer and stable than AC arcs. Any tendency to extinguish is
countered by the inductances of the DC system and recovery voltages which, on

monopolar systems, can be even higher than the pole-to-ground voltage.
(iii) Metallic return transfer breaker (MRTB) [4.5]. The last, and optional,
component of the electrode system is a true low voltage DC circuit breaker. It can
be used to serve either of two functions. It can force current flowing in the earth to
take a higher resistance metallic path to the other end of the link; or it can
momentarily ground the metallic return conductor to help extinguish faults on that
conductor. In either case only one MRTB is required in a DC system, since one end
of the link will always be grounded in both earth and metallic return modes.
In the transfer mode the metallic return conductor is first connected between
the neutrals of the converters at each end of the link. Only a small portion of the
DC return current will flow through it in this connection. The MRTB is located in
series with the much larger earth component of the return current. The MRTB then
interrupts the earth component of the current.
The fault clearing mode of operation of the MRTB could be used if a fault
occurred on the metallic return while it was being used. Closing the MRTB would
bring voltages and currents on the metallic return to nearly zero and may
extinguish the fault. Opening of the MRTB after this represents another transfer to
metallic return mode, which may be successful if the fault is not permanent. For
those cases where MRTB closure does not extinguish the fault because of excessive
arc voltage remaining, the DC link will need to be momentarily deenergized.
Voltage surge protection [4.5]
DC systems require voltage surge protection systems, which are unique. The
need for protection from surges is most important around the valves, especially
thyristor valves. As a result the protection system is quite extensive. It is
complicated by the fact that the valve bridges are only grounded at the electrode,
which may be some distance from the station.
Modern systems use metallic oxide DC arrestors to control overvoltages.
Their non-linear characteristics are especially well suited to DC systems, because
protection levels only slightly higher than the operating voltage are needed. AC
systems must select protection levels above the peak AC voltage levels, rather than
above the rms levels.
These arrestors are generally applied from pole to ground and from neutral to
ground to block incoming line surges. Further protection of the valves is provided
by connection of arrestors across each valve, each bridge and each pole. Arrestors
are even connected from the points between bridges to ground. This protection
system, coupled with the buffer provided by converter transformer and line reactor
impedances and interval valve protection systems, provides defence against valve
damage.
4.2.2. HVDC configurations

The main configurations of HVDC transmission systems are: bipolar lines,
monopolar lines and back-to-back links (Fig. 4.4).
-
Pole I Pole I -
Ground Ground
electrodes electrodes
Pole II Pole II
+ -
a. b.
c. d.
Fig. 4.4. Types of HVDC transmission systems: a. bipolar line; b. two monopolar
transmission lines forming a bipolar system; c. monopolar transmission line with
ground or sea return; d. back-to-back.
Monopolar HVDC systems

Monopolar HVDC systems can be distinguished in monopolar systems with
ground and in monopolar systems with metallic return [4.8].
a) A monopolar HVDC system with ground return consists of one or more
12-pulse converter units in series or parallel at each end, a single conductor and
return through the earth (Fig. 4.5,a) or sea water (Fig. 4.4,c). It could be a cost
effective solution for an HVDC cable transmission and/or the first stage of a
bipolar scheme. At each end of the line, it requires an electrode line and a ground
electrode in continuous operation. Thus, possible interference with other structures,
installations or systems and magnetic field effects may be considered.
Id
Id
F F F
F
Neutral
Id Id conductor
Ground Surge
electrode Id arrester
Cathode Anode
a. b.
Fig. 4.5. Monopolar transmission systems: a. monopolar with ground return; b. monopolar
with metallic return. Reprinted with permission from IEEE P1030.1-2000 IEEE Guide for
specification of HVDC systems 2000 IEEE.
b) A monopolar HVDC system with metallic return consists of one high

voltage and one low voltage conductor, with the neutral tied at the one converter
station to the station grounding grid or to the associated ground electrode and at the
other station through a capacitor or an arrester to its grounding grid (Fig. 4.5,b). It
is generally used either as the first stage of a bipolar scheme, when ground currents
are not allowed during the intermediate period, or when construction of electrode
lines and ground electrodes constitutes an uneconomical solution due to shortness
of the DC line or the high value of the earth resistivity. If this arrangement is the
first stage of a bipolar scheme, the neutral conductor could be insulated from the
high voltage at this stage.
Both configurations require one or more DC smoothing reactors at each end
of the HVDC line, usually located on the high voltage side or even on the low
voltage side, if the resulting performance is acceptable, and DC filters, if the line is
overhead.
Bipolar HVDC systems
A bipolar HVDC system consists of two 12-pulse converter units in series
with electrode lines and ground electrodes at each end and two conductors, one
with positive and the other with negative polarity to ground for power flow in one
direction. For power flow in the other direction, the two conductors reserve their
polarities. It is a combination of two monopolar schemes with ground return, as
Figure 4.6,a presents. With both poles in operation, the imbalance current flow in
the ground path can be held to a very low value.
This is a very common arrangement with the following operational
capabilities [4.8]:
during an outage of one pole, the other could be operated continuously
with ground return;
when one pole can not be operated with full load current, the two poles of
the bipolar scheme could be operated with different currents, supposing that both
ground electrodes are connected;
when construction of electrode lines and ground electrodes constitutes an
uneconomical solution due to shortness of the DC line or the high value of earth
resistivity, a third conductor can be added to give a bipolar metallic neutral system,
as Figure 4.6,b presents. This conductor carries unbalanced current during bipolar
operation and serves as return path, when a pole is out of service. The neutral of
one terminal could be grounded, while the other would float or be tied to the
grounding grid through an arrester or a capacitor. Bipolar, ground midpoint
configuration (Fig. 4.6,c) is one most widely used on existing HVDC systems [4.8].
It is basically two monopolar earth return circuits of opposite polarity operating
between the same terminals on the same tower. In this way the ground return
currents, both DC and DC line harmonics, can be made to largely cancel each other
under normal conditions, greatly decreasing electrode problems and
communication problems that that either one individually would have. The fact that
two power circuits are present provides a substantial improvement in redundancy
to cope with line or converter contingencies. If converter pole paralleling switches
are provided along with bypass switching of sub-pole valve groups, substantially
higher fractions of normal power capabilities can continue during contingencies.
The fact that both poles of a bipolar system are carried on the same overhead tower
offers savings in construction costs similar to those enjoyed by double circuit AC
lines over those of two individual circuits of the same total capacity.
Id Id
+ +
F F F F
Neutral
conductor
F F F F
- -
a. b.
Id
B B
MRTB - metallic return breaker
B - bypass switch to allow
MRTB metallic return mode
B B
Id
c.
Fig. 4.6. Bipolar HVDC systems: a. bipolar system; b. bipolar metallic neutral; c. bipolar,
grounded midpoint configuration (common tower). Reprinted with permission from IEEE
P1030.1-2000 IEEE Guide for specification of HVDC systems 2000 IEEE.
A homopolar link has two or more conductors, all of the same polarity
(normally negative). The return path is represented by ground. If a conductor is
faulty, the entire converter is available for connection to the remaining
conductor(s).
Point-to-point HVDC systems
Point-to-point HVDC overland transmission is a very common application
and a well justified choice in case of power transmission over long distances or
asynchronous interconnection of two power networks. For an evaluation process

the following parts, constituting a point-to-point overland system, may be
considered [4.8]:
converter stations at the two ends of the transmission;
HVDC overland line;
electrode lines, which could be medium voltage insulated overhead lines,
connecting the neutral point of the converter stations with the associated
electrodes. It is noted that, if the route is the same for a certain length,
HVDC line and electrode line could be on the same towers;
electrode stations, which could be located in the ground or sea.
Point-to-point HVDC submarine systems. For sea crossings longer than
certain distance i.e., 50 km, the use of AC cables is virtually impossible, as the
capacitive currents become too high. Thus, in these cases the most common
application worldwide is the HVDC submarine cable transmission. Another similar
application is the use of long HVDC underground cables in densely populated
urban areas. In these areas, construction of overhead lines becomes very expensive
and may face opposition due to environmental issues. The choice of HVDC
underground cables versus the HVAC alternative have the advantage of low losses
and the disadvantage of the space required for the converters stations.
Main possible parts of a point-to-point HVDC submarine system are [4.8]:
converter stations at the two ends of the transmission;
overhead line sections, linking converter stations with the overhead
line/land cable junctions;
land cable sections, linking the overhead line/land cable junctions with the
land/sea cable joint;
submarine cable section, linking the two land/sea cable joints;
electrode lines;
two marine electrodes, one anode and one cathode.
Back-to-back HVDC links
Back-to-back HVDC links are HVDC interconnections, where there is no DC
transmission line and both converters located at the same site. For economic
reasons each converter is usually a 12-pulse converter unit. The valves for both
converters may be located in one valve hall and similarly other items for the two
converters, such as control system, cooling equipment and auxiliary systems, may
be integrated into configurations common to the two converters.
In Figure 4.7 two different circuit configurations, regarding locations of
smoothing reactor and DC system ground are presented.
Generally, the DC voltage rating is typically low and thyristor valve current
rating is high in comparison with HVDC interconnections with overhead lines and
cables. Main reason is that on the one hand, valve cost is much more voltage
dependent, as the higher voltage increases the number of thyristors and thus the
cost and on the other hand, the highest possible current adds very little extra cost in
the price of an individual thyristor. This also permits a low voltage tertiary winding
of the converter transformer to which AC filters and compensation may be

connected. Smaller reactive power switching steps can thus be achieved.
Id Id
a. b.
Fig. 4.7. Back-to-back systems: a. one DC smoothing reactor and one DC system ground;
b. two DC smoothing reactors and one DC system ground.
A large back-to-back HVDC system could be comprised of two or more

back-to-back links and thus, loss of one converter unit will not cause loss of full
power capability. Considering an HVDC transmission between two asynchronous
power systems, the question regarding proper location of the terminal should be
answered. Either an HVDC intertie with overhead lines or a back-to-back link at
the border of two existing grids should be used. Back-to-back links certainly have a
cost benefit regarding terminal costs only. Decision will depend upon the capacity
of the existing grids to handle the new load. If reinforcements are necessary, the
possibility of using a back-to-back link with a long AC feeder must be examined,
too.
AC and DC in parallel
Environmental restrictions are being imposed on the expansion of power
systems and especially on the construction of new transmission lines. As an
alternative to new lines, the enhancement of power transmission capability of the
existing lines may be considered. One way of achieving this is, by converting,
existing AC lines to DC with possible alterations in insulators on the existing
towers.
Pole I Pole II
Pole I Return Pole II Pole I Pole II Pole I

conductor
Fig. 4.8. Solutions for transformation of single or double-circuit lines into DC line
configuration.
For double circuit AC lines, conversion of one AC circuit to a DC leads to a

parallel operation of AC and DC lines on the same transmission towers. Studies
performed for the close coupling of two parallel AC and DC lines running on
conventional AC towers show no adverse effect on the operation of the DC
link [4.8]. In Figure 4.8 possible solutions for single or double-circuit three-phase
lines transformation into a DC line configuration are presented.
In the first case, the centre phase is used as return conductor. An interesting
modification, which allow the doubling of thermal limit and transmission capacity,
consists in using a double number of conductors for the centre phase which is the
pole II, while the outer phases operating in parallel are the pole I. Generally, the
transmission capacity can increase over three times if the AC lines are transformed
into DC ones [4.15].
Multi-terminal HVDC Systems
Multi-terminal HVDC (MTDC) operation is a viable strategy that is already
incorporated into system planning alternatives. Three main possible configurations
are mentioned, the first two referred to parallel connected 12-pulse converter units,
rated for full direct voltage and the last one to series connected 12-pulse converter
units, rated for full direct current.
More explicitly the following classification is given according to Figure 4.9:
Radial MTDC system, where each converter station is connected to a single
DC line and for part of the distance the energy flows through a common
DC line. No part of the DC system can be disconnected without significant
energy flow change between the AC systems;
Meshed or ring MTDC system, where each converter station is connected
to more than one DC lines. Any part of the DC system can be disconnected
without energy flow change between the AC systems;
Series connected MTDC system, where all the converter stations are
connected in series to a common ring shaped DC line. No part of the
common DC line can be disconnected without interrupting energy
exchange between the AC systems.
a. b. c.
Fig. 4.9. Multi-terminal HVDC systems: a. radial connections; b. mesh or ring connection;
c. series connection.
For the first two configurations and for losses lines the DC voltage is equal
throughout the system, whereas for the third one the DC current remains equal in
every part of the system.
HVDC unit connected generators
Several technical and economical reasons strongly suggest that in certain
HVDC applications it may be advantageous to simplify the rectifier station, via a
direct connection of each machine set to a separate converter group with series-
parallel combinations made on the DC side. This arrangement is usually referred to
in HVDC literature as unit connection [4.8]. Unit connection schemes could be
very attractive solutions for applications as electrical generation from remote
sources of power such as hydro and low grade coal fields, pump storage schemes,
wind power station, new large generating stations near their load centre, etc.
The arrangement traditionally used is shown in Figure 4.10,a and termed
conventional scheme [4.24]. The basic feature is that the generating units feed a
common AC busbar at the secondary side of the unit transformers. This busbar also
takes the AC harmonic filters. The modified arrangement is indicated in Figure
4.10,b and termed unit connection scheme. Here the generator transformer and the
AC busbar have been removed. The generators are directly connected to the
converter transformers and, if needed, series-parallel combinations of units are
done at the DC side.
Auxiliar
a.
Fig. 4.10. Schemes for generators connected to HVDC converters:
a. conventional scheme. Reprinted with permission from DC and AC Configurations
(Chapter 3), CIGRE, Johannesburg 1997 CIGRE.
Auxiliar
b.
Fig. 4.10. Schemes for generators connected to HVDC converters:

b. unit connection. Reprinted with permission from DC and AC Configurations
(Chapter 3), CIGRE, Johannesburg 1997 CIGRE.
The small harmonic currents produced by the 12-pulse unit connected

scheme are to be absorbed by the generator, so that the need for AC filters is
eliminated. It is only expected that voltage control can be exercised entirely by the
generator excitation. In this case the transformer on-load top changers would no
longer be needed.
Switching possibilities on DC side
For bipolar systems several possible DC switching arrangements may be
provided, which increase the availability of the overall HVDC interconnections
[4.24]:
capability of connecting any line pole to any converter pole or to neutral
through an arrangement with three DC buses two pole buses and a
neutral bus, as Figure 4.11,a presents;
capability of connecting the two poles in parallel (Fig. 4.11,b). It is noted
that the 12-pulse converter unit of each pole would need to be insulated for
full line voltage;
capability at the junction of overhead and cable sections of a bipolar DC
line to connect any of the overhead line poles to any cable.
Neutral
Pole II
Pole I
DC line
Fully insulated spare
DC bus
a.
DC line
Pole I
Neutral
Pole II
DC switches
DC bus
b.
Fig. 4.11. Switching possibilities on DC side: a. switching of DC line conductors;

b. switching of converter poles. Adapted with permission from ANSI/IEEE Std.
P1030.1-2000 IEEE Guide for specification of HVDC systems 2000 IEEE.
4.3. Analysis of the three-phase bridge converter
4.3.1. Rectifier equations

The most used rectifier within an AC-DC conversion at high voltages, high
powers and industrial frequency is the Graetz circuit or the three-phase bridge
converters (Fig. 4.12). This rectifier is considered as being composed by two three-
phase connections, with median point, with outputs series connected. The cathodes
of the upper group of valves T1, T3, T5 are connected to the anodes of the lower
group. The common potential of the cathodes of these valves is equal to the most
positive anode voltage. The common potential of the anodes of valves T2, T4, T6 is
equal to the most negative cathode voltage.
Id
+
V1 T1 T3 T5
va ia i1 i3 i5
N vb ib N
udr Udr
vc ic
i4 i6 i2
T4 T6 T2
Fig. 4.12. Three-phase bridge arrangement of valves, or Graetz rectifier circuit.
The same transformer secondary windings feed two groups of three thyristor
valves each. The thyristors are in conduction two by two, depending on the voltage
variation in the secondary. With no grid control, conduction will take place
between the cathode and the anode of highest potential. For example, during t0-t1
(Fig. 4.13,a), amongst the thyristors belonging to the upper group (T1, T3, T5) will
be in conduction T1, which has the most positive anode; amongst the thyristors
belonging to the lower group (T2, T4, T6) will be in conduction T6, which has the
most negative cathode. As a consequence, T1 will also remain in conduction during
t1-t2 interval (i.e. as long as va > vb ). At the beginning of t2 t3 period, T3 will enter
the conducting state. Similarly, at the beginning of t1 t2, the thyristor T2, having
the most negative cathode amongst the inferior group of thyristors, will conduce,
while T6 is blocked (T2 remains in conduction during the entire interval t1 t3). The
transformer secondary line-to-neutral voltages are shown in Figure 4.13,a. These
are also the voltages of the anodes of the lower group of valves and the cathodes of
the upper group, all with respect to neutral point N. The difference in ordinates
between the upper and lower envelopes is the instantaneous direct voltage on the
valve side of the smoothing reactor. This is shown in Figure 4.13,b as the envelope
of the line-to-line voltages. It is immediately to be noted that the ripple of the direct
voltage is of frequency 6f and the magnitude of ripple is smaller. Each thyristor is
in conduction a T/3 period, the shape of current wave being rectangular
(Fig. 4.13,c,d,e).
The inverse voltage V1 across valve 1, appearing at the ends of T1 while T3 is
in conducting state, is uab ; during the conduction period of T5 the inverse voltage
is uac (Fig. 4.13,f).
t=0
T1 T1 T3 T3 T5 T5 T1 T1 Upper group
T6 T2 T2 T4 T4 T6 T6 T2 Lower group
v
va vb vc va
Line-to-neutral
voltage -120 0 120 240 a.
-180 -60 60 180 300
t
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7
u Secondary line-to-line voltage
Line-to-line
voltage t b.
uba uca ucb uab uac ubc uba uca

ia
Id
t c.
-Id
T/3 T/6 T/3 T/6 T/3
ib
Id
t d.
-Id
T/6 T/6 T/3 T/6 T/3 T/6
ic
Id
t e.
-Id
T/6 T/3 T/6 T/3 T/6 T/6
V1
uab uac
Inverse voltage
across valve T1 t f.
V1
Fig. 4.13. Voltage and current waveforms for uncontrolled rectifier.
The maximal inverse voltage at thyristor ends is:

Vmax = 3 Vs
where the peak value of instantaneous line-to-neutral voltage is Vs = 2 Vs ( Vs in

the rms line-to-neural alternating voltage) and the line-to-line voltage is U s = 3 Vs .
We consider the three-phase voltages system from the secondary windings of
the transformer supplying the three-phase conversion bridge:
va = Vs cos( t + 120) ; vb = Vs cos( t ) ; vc = Vs cos( t 120)
where it has been chosen as time origin the instant (t=0) when the b-phase
voltage reaches its maximal value (Fig. 4.14,a). Will be examined two cases: the
uncontrolled and the controlled rectifier.
The case of uncontrolled converter. We consider the sequence with the
thyristor T3 in conduction (Fig. 4.14,a); the voltage from transformers secondary
windings is:
vb va = Vs [cos( t ) cos( t + 120)] = 2Vs sin ( t + 60)sin 60
respectively:
uba = vb va = 3 Vs sin ( t + 60) = U s sin ( t + 60) (4.1)
By integrating uba voltage from (4.1) equation on a pulse width ( / 3) we

obtains the surface A0 (Fig. 4.14,a):
3
A 0= u d( t )
0
ba
If one divides this value by the pulse width, obtains a value that approximates
good enough the value of the ideal average direct voltage:
60 60
3 3 3 3
Ud0 = A0 = 3 Vs sin ( t + 60) d( t ) = Vs [ cos( t + 60)]|
0
0
One obtains:
3 3
Ud0 = Vs = 1.653Vs (4.2)

The case of controlled rectifier (with ignition delay). The grid or gate control
can be used to delay the ignition of the valves. The delay angle is denoted by
(Fig. 4.14,b,c); it corresponds to time delay of seconds. The delay angle is
limited to 180 . If exceeds 180 , the valve fails to ignite. In Figure 4.14,b is
detailed the transfer of current from a phase to another.
i3 i3
t t

i6 i6

va vb vc va va vb vb vc va
A0 A A
o
0o 120
60
o o t t
180
va=vb
va>vb va<vb
va va
Us ia1 ia1
t
t=0
a. b. c.
Fig. 4.14. Voltage and current waveforms for the uncontrolled rectifier (a) and controlled
rectifier (b, c).
The average direct voltage is calculated as for the uncontrolled rectifier:

60+ 60+
3 3 3
Ud = 3 Vs sin ( t + 60) d( t ) = Vs [ cos( t + 60)] |

Taking into account the equation (4.2), results:

U d = U d 0 cos (4.3)
A first effect of angle is that the direct voltage is decreased by the factor
cos . Since can range from 0 to 180, cos can range from 1 to 1. As a
consequence, the voltage U d varies between + U d 0 and U d 0 . A firing with an
angle between 0 and / 2 determines the operation as rectifier. For angles
between / 2 and , the polarity of U d is negative, and because the current I d
does not change the direction, one obtains a power transfer in the opposite
direction, form DC towards AC side; the converter acts like an inverter.
For = 90 the voltage waveforms is symmetrical and consequently its value
is zero. For = 0 , the fundamental component of the alternating current from the
secondary winding of the transformer is in phase with the voltage waveform on
that phase. If the firing is delayed by , the current pulses of fundamental
component will be dephased with = as regards the voltage waveform (they are
not centred anymore on the voltage peak value).
The second effect is that the more increases, the more increases angle
between current and voltage waveforms. If the power losses inside the converter
are neglected, than the power entering in the converter on the AC side should be
equal to the power getting out on the DC side, meaning:
3 U s I s1 cos U d I d = U d 0 I d cos (4.4)
where: I s1 is the effective value of the fundamental frequency component of

alternating line current;
Us line-to-line voltage;
cos the power factor,
all being defined on the AC side of the converter.
The fundamental frequency component of the alternating line current can be
determined by Fourier analysis of the current wave shape. The peak value of the
current wave is [4.1]:

3 60
2 2 2 2
2 I s1 = I d cos d = I d sin | = I d [sin 60 sin ( 60)] = 3 Id

60

3
As a consequence:
2 3 6
I s1 = Id = I d = 0.78 I d (4.5)
2
By substituting in (4.4) the values I s1 and U d 0 obtain:
cos cos
meaning that, the closer is to /2, the smaller is the power factor. As a
consequence, the rectifier will consume more reactive power from the AC system.
Commutation process or overlap
Due to the leakage inductance of the converter transformers and the
impedance in supply network, the current in a valve cannot change suddenly and
thus commutation from one valve to the next in the same row cannot be
instantaneous. As a consequence, due to the electromagnetic inertia, the I d value
at the beginning of commutation process, as well as the decrease to zero while
blocking are not instantaneous, the time required is called the overlap or
commutation time. The overlap angle is noted and consequently the overlap time
is / seconds. In normal operation < 60 .
For example, when valve 3 is fired (fig 4.15,a), the current transfer from
valve 1 to valve 3 takes a finite period during which both valves are conducting.
Each interval of the period of supply can be divided into two subintervals. In first
subinterval, during commutation, three valves conduct simultaneously (1,2,3), and
in the second subinterval, between commutations, only two valves are conducting.
A new commutation begins every 60 and lasts for an angle . Thus the angular
interval when two valves conduct is (60 ) . If > 60 , unpleasant phenomenon

may occur (i.e. the current increases to value which may destroy the junctions).
ib
Ld
+ t
T1 T3
va i1 i3
Id va vb vc va
Lk
vb T1 T3 T5
ud Ud A
ud
Lk
vc t
Lk i2
T2
T2 T4 T6
a. b.
Fig. 4.15. Electric circuit for the commutation interval of T1 with T3.
Summarizing, one can write the following conduction sequence of thyristors:

12, 123, 23, 234, 34, 345, 45, 456, 56, 561, 61, 612, etc.
The interval in which valves 1 and 2 conduct ends at t = . Let us suppose
that at the instant t = , T1 start to block and T3 enters in conduction. Within the
lower group, T2 is in conduction, saturated. So, at the instant t = commutation
one has i1 = I d and i3 = 0 , while at the instant t = + commutation results
i1 = 0 and i3 = I d . During this subinterval the direct current is transferred from
thyristor 1 to thyristor 3. The end of the interval is at t = where is called the
extinction angle and is given by = + . For the considered case, the following
relations could be written: ia = i1 , ib = i3 , ic = i2 .
Because of the current variations during subinterval, at thyristors ends
appear voltage drops:
d ib
ud vb = Lk (4.6')
dt
d ia
ud va = Lk (4.6")
dt
where Lk is the transformer secondary inductance.
Taking into account that during the interval exists the relation
i1 + i3 = I d = ct. Differentiating both sides, we obtain:
d ia d ib d I d
+ = =0
dt dt dt
Using this result according to the relations (4.6') and (4.6"), we obtain:
di di
2ud (va + vb ) = Lk b + a = 0
dt dt
or
va + vb
ud = (4.7)
2
Consequently, during interval, the unfiltered direct voltage ud becomes
equal to the half-sum of secondary voltages of the phases in commutation (the
dotted line from Fig. 4.15,b). This situation stops once the overlap (anodic
superposition) disappears. The corresponding diminishing of the direct voltage
caused by the commutation is called commutation voltage drop. Within interval,
the phases a and b of transformers secondary windings are in short-circuit. If in
equation (4.6") one replaces ud from the equation (4.7), results:
d ia di d ib
vb va = 2 Lk = 2 Lk b = 2 X k
dt dt d( t )
where X k = Lk is the commutation reactance.
Therefore, the commutation voltage becomes:

d ib
3 Vs sin t = 2 X k
d( t )
respectively, if I sc 2 is the current in a line-to-line short-circuit on the AC source,
3
I sc 2 = Vs
2X k
then:
d ib = I sc 2 sin t d( t )
By integrating the last equation, one obtains:
di = I
b sc 2 sin t d( t )
meaning:
ib (t ) = I sc 2 ( cos t ) + C = i3 (t )
The integration constant C, is obtained from the boundary condition at the
beginning of commutation interval: t = and i3 = 0 . The result is:
3
C = I sc 2 cos = Vs cos
2X k
Substituting in expression of i3 (t ) , it results:
i3 (t ) = I sc 2 (cos cos t ) (4.8)
The current i3 of the incoming valve during commutation consists of a

constant term ( I sc 2 cos ) and a sinusoidal term ( I sc 2 cos t ) lagging the
commutating voltage by 90o, which is the characteristic of a purely inductive
circuit and has a peak value I sc 2 . The constant term of i3 depends on ; it serves
to make i3 = 0 at the beginning of commutation. For = 0 , it shifts the sine wave
upward by its peak value [4.6].
Imposing the conditions at the end of commutation interval: t = + and
ib = i3 = I d , we obtain from (4.8) the expression of direct current as function of
angles and :
I d = I sc 2 [cos cos(+ )] = I sc 2 (cos cos ) (4.9)
During commutation, the shape of i1 satisfies i1 (t ) = I d i3 (t ) , hence
i1 (t ) = I d I sc 2 (cos cos t ) = I sc 2 (cos t cos ) (4.10)
The current i1 of the outgoing valve has a sine term of the same amplitude as
that of i3 but of opposite phase and its constant term makes i1 = I d at the
beginning.
For nearly equal to 0 (or 180 ), the commutation period or the overlap is
the greatest. The overlap is the shortest when = 90 , since i 3 is associated with
the segment of the sine wave, which is nearly linear. Also, if the source voltage V s
is lowered or if I d is increased, the overlap increases [4.9].
Commutation process effects
a) Voltage reduction due to commutation overlap. The effect of the overlap
on the voltage could be compared to the subtraction of an area A from an area A0
( A0 = U d 0 3 ) at every sixth of a cycle ( / 3 rad ), as shown in Figure 4.16.
=+ +
v +v 3
A = vb a b d( t )= V sin t d( t )
s
2 2
By integrating, we obtain:
+
3 3
A = Vs ( cos t ) | = Vs [cos cos( + )]
2
2
The average voltage drop caused by the commutation overlap is obtained

from:
3 A U d 0
U d = = [cos cos( + )] (4.11)
2
where U d 0 is the ideal no-load voltage given by equation (4.2).

A
va A vb
va+vb
ud= A0
2
/3
0
t
-
2 3
Fig. 4.16. Figure explaining the voltage drop caused by overlap during commutation
from valve 1 to valve 3.
In the case when the commutation process and ignition delay is considered,
the reduction in direct voltage is represented by areas A and A ; the direct
voltage is given by:
Ud0
U d = U d 0 cos U d = [cos + cos(+ )] (4.12)
2
With no overlap ( = ), it results U d = U d 0 cos , which is the same as
before.
b) Taking into account that + < 180 and the fact that could reaches
values up to 2030, we obtain a maximal value of < 150 , fact which reduces
s range of values in inverter operation mode. As a consequence, the control
characteristic for a self-commutated rectifier is operational only up to this value.
c) The commutation process also modifies the shapes of current and voltage
waveforms and consequently their harmonics values, as well as the power factor [4.2]:
1
cos = [cos + cos( + )] (4.13)
2k
where:
k=
[cos 2 cos 2( + )] 2 + [2 + sin 2 sin 2( + )] 2 (4.13')
4[cos cos( + )]
For most practical power flow cases, k is close to 1 and can be assumed to be
constant. When is varied between 5 20 and between 8 22, k varies
between 0.994 and 0.999.
d) As the phase shift is positive (AC current is lagging), the reactive power
Qc absorbed by the converter is positive, i.e. it is absorbed both on the rectifier
side and on the inverter side. For converter bridges operating in normal mode (i.e.
= 15 ) and for a commutation reactance X k = 15% , the consumed reactive
power is about 50% from the transmitted active power.
Equivalent circuit of the rectifier
If in the equation (4.12) we replaces the expressions of bi-phase short-circuit
current I sc 2 and we takes into account (4.2), results a new form of the direct
current:

Id = U d 0 [cos cos( + )] (4.14)
6Xk
If in the expression (4.12) of the direct voltage we replaces cos( + ) from
(4.14), we obtain:
3 X kr I d
U dr = U d 0,r cos = U d 0,r cos Rcr I d (4.15)

where Rcr = 3 X kr = 6 fLk is the equivalent commutation resistance on the
rectifier side (represents the equivalent in DC of transformers leakage reactance).
Note that the overlap angle has been eliminated and its place we have Rc . Based
on the equation (4.15), an equivalent circuit of the bridge rectifier may be
conceived (Fig. 4.17). The direct voltages and current in this circuit are the average
without ripple.
Rcr=6fLk
+
Id
Ud0,r Ud0cos Udr
Fig. 4.17. Equivalent circuit of the rectifier bridge.
4.3.2. Inverter equations

With rectifier operation the output current I d and output voltage U d are such
that power is absorbed by a load. For inverter operation it is required to transfer
power from the direct current to the alternating current systems and as current
can only flow from anode to cathode (i.e. in the same direction as with
rectification) the direction of the associated voltage must be reversed. An
alternating voltage system must exist on the primary side of the transformer, and
grid control of the converters is essential.
If the bridge rectifier is given progressively great delay the output voltage
decreases becoming zero when is 90. With further delay the average direct
voltage becomes negative and the applied direct voltage, from the rectifier, forces
current through the valves against this negative or back voltage. The converter thus
receives power and inverts.
In the hypothesis that the commutation process is neglected, the polarity of
direct voltage U d could change when = 90 . The direct voltage becomes
negative for 90 < < 180 and the converter operates in inversion mode. The
valve current cannot be reversed since conduction occurs in only one direction.
Thus reversal of the direct voltage U d implies a reversal of power.
In reality, due to the commutation process, the angle tr , for which the
switch to inverter operation mode takes place, is smaller. In order to demonstrate
this affirmation, in the equation (4.12) the sum expression will be transformed:
Ud =
Ud0
[cos + cos( + )] = U d 0 cos cos + (4.16)
2 2 2
It can be noticed that, for + 2 < 2 , the converter operates as rectifier,
and for + 2 > 2 as inverter. The limit case tr + 2 = 2 corresponds to
the situation when the converter takes from the network only reactive power. It
results that the delay angle corresponding to start of inversion is tr = 90 2 ,
always smaller than 90.
In Figure 4.18 there are presented the voltage waveforms (b), for the
inversion mode.
va vb vc
Id T4 T6 T2
+
T4 T6 T2 v
a
vb t
Udi By-pass
vc
T3 T5 T1 T3
T1 T3 T5

-

a. b.
Fig. 4.18. Bridge connexion inverter operation (a); Bridge connexion inverter voltage
and current waveforms (b).
In order to obtain the equations describing inverters operation we uses (4.12)

and (4.13), where is the delay angle of the thyristors while operating in rectifier
mode and = + is the extinction angle. Both angles are measured by the delay
from the instant at which the commutating voltage is zero and increasing (t = 0).
Although angles and could have been used in inverters theory, in order
to make a difference, other symbols will be employed. These angles are defined by
their advance with respect to the instant (t = 180 for ignition of valve 3 and
extinction of valve 1) when the commutating voltage is zero and decreasing, as
shown in Figure 4.19. From the figure, we see that: = 180 for the ignition
advance angle, and = = 180 for the extinction advance angle.
Back to rectifiers equation (4.12) we use opposite polarity for direct voltage
and replaces = 180 and = :
U d 0, i U
U di = [cos + cos( + )] = d 0,i [cos(180 ) + cos(180 )]
2 2
If we consider:
cos = cos(180 ) = cos
cos = cos(180 ) = cos
we obtain:
U d 0, i
U di = (cos + cos ) (4.17)
2
Similarly, the equation (4.13) becomes:
I d = I sc 2 (cos cos ) (4.18)
uba
3 Vs Isc2
t
Isc2(cos-cost)
Rectifier Inverter
i1 i3 i1 i3

Fig. 4.19. Relationships between the angles used in converter theory and why the
curvature of the front of a current pulse of inverter differs from that of a rectifier.
Reprinted with permission from IEEE 5191992, Guide for harmonic control and
reactive compensation of static power converters 1992 IEEE.
Similarly, if one replaces cos = cos in the equation (4.17), we obtain a

first equation for converters operation in inversion mode:
U di = U d 0,i cos + Rci I d (4.19)
Because inverters are commonly controlled so as to operate at constant
extinction advanced angle , it is useful to have the relations between U d and I d
for this condition. If we replaces U d 0, i cos from the equation (4.17) in the
equation (4.19), results another form of the equation:
U di = U d 0,i cos Rci I d (4.19')
However it is to be noted that while is directly controllable, is not.
Accordingly to the operation equations (4.19) and (4.19'), two possible
equivalent circuits could be build for the inverter operation (Fig. 4.20,a,b).
Rci -Rci
Id Id
Udi Ud0,i Udi

Ud0,icos Ud0,icos Ud0,i
a. b.
Fig. 4.20. Equivalent circuits of the inverter bridge.
In Table 4.1 there are grouped together the equations necessary to calculate
the parameters of an HVDC link.
Table 4.1
HVDC link equations
Rectifier Inverter
0 1 2
3 2 3 2
Ideal no-load direct voltage U d 0, r = Nik ,rU kr U d 0,i = Nik ,iU ki

Direct voltage with 3 3

commutation overlap and U dr = U d 0,r cos X kr I d U di = U d 0,i cos X ki I d
ignition delay
6 6
Current in the transformer I sr Id I si Id

secondary
I pr = N ik , r I sr I pi = N ik , i I si
Active power on DC line Pdr = U dr I d Pdi = U di I d
Apparent power at AC system
S kr = 3U kr I pr S ki = 3U ki I pi
terminal bus

0 1 2
Active power at AC system Pkr Pdr Pki Pdi
terminal bus
Reactive power at AC system
terminal bus Qkr = S kr2 Pkr2 Qki = S ki2 Pki2
DC line equation U dr = U di + RL I d
Observation: The alternating voltages are phase-to-phase voltages, N ik , r and

N ik , i are the transformation ratio of the transformers supplying rectifier,
respectively inverter bridges.
The parameters of DC lines, at rated voltages ranging from 200 to 500 kV
and rated powers up to 2000 MW, take on the following typical values [4.10]:
for overhead sections: r0 = 0.015 ... 0.020 / km ; l0 = 3 ... 4 mH / km ;
c0 = 0.04 ... 0.05 F / km ;
for cable (chiefly submarine) sections: r0 = 0.04...0.05 / km ;
l0 = 7...10 mH / km ; c0 = 0.8...1F / km .
4.4. Control of direct current link
4.4.1. Equivalent circuit and control characteristics

A DC transmission link with two ends, composed by two transformers,
rectifier, inverter and the electric line might be represented through an equivalent
circuit, where the baseline for all elements is the DC part (Fig. 4.21). Subscript r
and i refer to rectifier and inverter respectively.
Pr+jQr Pi-jQi
Rcr RL -Rci
Id
UAC,r Ud0,r Ud0,rcos Udr Udi Ud0,icos Ud0,i UAC,i
Rectifier DC line Inverter

AC DC AC
Fig. 4.21. Equivalent circuit of the HVDC link.

When the scheme is build, several issues should be considered:

the transformers have variable transforming ratios. The effect of leakage
reactance on DC voltage was included through the commutation resistances
Rcr on the rectifier side, respectively Rci on inverters side;
the DC overhead line is represented only through resistance RL; its capacity
and reactance have been neglected;
harmonics filters and the elements for reactive power generation (capacitor
banks, static or synchronous compensators) have not been included.
A converter can be used to either convert AC power to DC power or vice-
versa. Only the relative DC voltage and current polarities determine the direction
of power flow. A terminal, which supplies power to DC link, is termed the rectifier
terminal; the terminal, which takes power from the DC line, is termed the inverter
terminal. The direction of power flow and therefore the terminology for the
terminals can change in less than a second if the converter voltage levels are
changed by firing angle control.
Power flow on a DC link is always from the terminal with the greater positive
direct voltage to the lesser positive voltage or from the more negative terminal to
the less negative terminal. However, a power direction reversal does not require a
current direction reversal.
The direct current I d , flowing through the line from the rectifier to inverter is:
U d 0, r cos U d 0, i cos
Id = (4.20)
Rcr + RL Rci
where:
3 X kr 3 X ki
Rcr = ; Rci = (4.21)

DC power is simply the product of the current and the voltage at the particular
location. Power transfer on the DC link can be increased by either increasing the
rectifier voltage or decreasing the inverter voltage. Either of these increases the
current and power in the DC link.
The power at the rectifier terminals is:
Pdr = U dr I d (4.22')
and power at the inverter terminal is:
Pdi = U di I d = Pdr (RL + Rcr Rci )I d2 (4.22'')
An essential characteristic of the transmission at direct voltage is the
possibility to rigorously control the transmitted active power, in terms of
magnitude and direction.
The normal mode of power control on a DC link is to hold the inverter
voltage constant and to control the current by changing the rectifier voltage level.
The rectifier direct voltage will usually be between 0% (no load) and 10% higher
than the inverter DC voltage, depending upon line losses and loading level.
The value of the direct current, I d , could be controlled by the change of
U d 0, r and U d 0, i values or by the change of or angles:
the values of U d 0, r and U d 0, i could be regulated by changing the converter
transformer turn ratio N ik with a slow acting control;
the firing angle could be rapidly controlled by gate-control. Usually, both
the rectifier and the inverter are operating with = 12 15 , respectively
min = 18 .
As a consequence, through firing angles control, a converter could operate as
rectifier or as inverter; the power flow direction could be changed. This change
could be obtained by reversal of polarity of the direct voltages at the both ends.
The responsibilities for voltage regulation and current regulation are kept
distinct and are assigned to separate terminals. Generally, in a DC transmission
link, the inverter substations controls the direct voltage U d , keeping it at a constant
value and rigorously dependent on the voltage on AC side. At the other terminal,
the rectifier substation regulates the direct voltage so that I d current corresponds to
the necessary active power Pd .
The ideal voltage-current characteristics are presented in Figure 4.22. The
voltage U d and the current I d forming the coordinates may be measured at the
same common point on the DC line. The rectifier and inverter characteristics are
both measured at the rectifier. The inverter characteristic thus includes the voltage
drop across the line. With the rectifier maintaining constant current, its U d I d
characteristic is a vertical line.
Ud
Operating Inverter
point (CEA)
Rectifier
(CC)
Id
Fig. 4.22. Ideal steady-state U d I d characteristic seen
from the rectifier terminal.
Based on the inverter equation seen from the rectifier
U d = U d 0, i cos + (RL Rci ) I d (4.23)
if the current is constant, also the voltage will be constant.

This gives the inverter characteristic, with maintained at a fixed value. If
the commutating resistance Rci is slightly larger than the line resistance RL , the
characteristic of the inverter has a small negative slope. Since an operating

condition has to satisfy both rectifier and inverter characteristics, it is defined by
the intersection of the two characteristics.
The rectifier characteristic can be shifted horizontally by adjusting the
current command or current order. If measured current is less than the
command, the regulator advances the firing by decreasing . The inverter
characteristic can be raised or lowered by means of its transformer tap changer.
When the tap changer is moved, the constant extinction angle (CEA) regulator
quickly restores the desired . As a result, the direct current changes, which is then
quickly restored by the current regulator of the rectifier. The rectifier tap changer
acts to bring into the desired range (1020) to ensure a high power factor and
adequate room for control [4.9].
The rectifier maintains constant current (CC) by changing . However,
cannot be less than its minimum value (min). Once min is reached, no further voltage
increase is possible, and the rectifier will operate at constant ignition angle (CIA).
Ud
Rectifier (CIA)
A Normal vo Inverter
lt
H B (CEA)
E
Reduced D
A volt G
G B
Rectifier
Inverter (CC)
(CC)
F C
O Id
I0i I0r
Im
Fig. 4.23. Actual steady-state characteristics.
The actual steady-state characteristics, based on the above description, are

showed in Figure 4.23:
(i) the rectifier characteristic consists of the two segments (AB and BC). The
segment AB corresponds to minimum ignition angle and represents the CIA
control mode; the segment BC represents the normal constant current (CC) control
mode. The complete rectifier characteristic at normal voltage is defined by ABC.
At a reduced voltage it shifts, as indicated by A'B'C;
(ii) the inverter characteristic consists of two segments (DE and EF). The
CEA characteristic of the inverter intersects the rectifier characteristic at G for
normal voltage. However, the inverter CEA characteristic (HD) does not intersect
the rectifier characteristic at a reduced voltage represented by A'B'C. Therefore, a
big reduction in rectifier voltage would cause the current and power to be reduced
to zero after a short time depending on the presence of the smoothing inductance.
To avoid this situation, the inverter is equipped with a current regulator, whose
reference I 0i is smaller than the reference I 0 r of the rectifier.
The variables I 0 r and I 0i are called rectifier current order and inverter
current order, respectively, while their difference
I m = I 0 r I 0i
is called current margin and its usual value is I m = 0.1 ... 0.15 p.u. from the rated
current.
Under normal operating conditions, the operating point is G, the rectifier
controls the direct current and the inverter the direct voltage; this is CCR (Current
control performed by the rectifier) operating mode. With a reduced rectifier
voltage, the operating condition is represented by the intersection point G'. The
inverter takes current control and the rectifier established the voltage; this is CCI
(Current control performed by the inverter) operating mode. The change from a
mode to another is referred to as a mode shift.
In most HVDC systems, each converter is required to function as a rectifier
as well as an inverter. Consequently, each converter is provided with a combined
characteristic as shown in Figure 4.24.
Ud
Converter A
(CIA)
Converter B
G1 (CEA)
0 Id
(CC) (CC)
Converter A
G2 (CEA)
Converter B
(CIA)
Fig. 4.24. Combined characteristics.
The characteristic of each converter consists of three segments: constant

ignition angle (CIA) corresponding to min , constant current (CC) and constant
extinction angle (CEA).
The power transfer is from converter A to converter B, when the
characteristics are as shown in Figure 4.24 by solid lines. The operating condition
in this mode of operation is represented by point G1 . The power flow is reversed
when the characteristics are as shown by the dotted lines. This is achieved by
reversing the margin setting, i.e. by making the current order setting of converter
B exceed that of converter A. The operating condition is now represented by G 2 in
the Figure 4.24; the current I d is the same as before, but the voltage polarity has
changed [4.9].
4.4.2. Control strategies of HVDC systems

A DC link constitutes an electric system whose operating state is determined
by means of the values of the electrical quantities associated to the converter
station, called state variables, which are grouped into a vector [ X ] . For a simple
approach of our problem, the one-line diagram (Fig. 4.25) is used:
Id
Uk Ui
+
Nik Xk
() Ud
~
Ik 0 i' Ii 0
k i
Fig. 4.25. The one-line diagram of the converter station.
U k is the alternating voltage at the converter station bus:

U kr r (rectifier) and U ki i (inverter);
U i the fundamental component of the alternating voltage at the
secondary winding of the converter transformer;
I p , I s the fundamental component of the alternating current at the
primary and secondary windings of the transformer;
, the firing angle and extinction angle respectively;
N ik = U i U k the transformation ratio;
Ud the direct voltage at every converter;
Id the direct current.
In order to simplify the expressions of the mathematical model and to

improve the performances of the computation algorithms, the alternating current at
the secondary winding of the transformer is chosen as reference.
These 10 variables defined earlier, of which nine are associated to the
converter and the voltage U k form a possible choice of the vector [ X ] of the
quantities associated to the DC system.
For the solution of the load flow problem with two terminal HVDC systems,
two of ten variables are enough to be chosen as independent variables (the others,
determined in terms of these two independent variables, form the assembly of
dependent or output variables). This choice leads to more complicate expressions
of the other state variables, making difficult their implementation into traditional
load flow programs. Thus, we can use either a vector of 9 independent variables
[X ] = [U dr , r , N ik , r , cos,U di , i , N ik ,i , cos, I d ] t (4.24)
or a vector of 7 independent variables

[X ] = [U dr , N ik , r , cos,U di , N ik ,i , cos, I d ] t (4.24')
If the vector of 7 components is chosen, besides the system of independent

equations corresponding to the rectifier, the inverter and the DC line, four more
equations are added, modelling the control strategy of the link by specifying the
values of 4 independent variables and also the limit values (minimum and
maximum) in terms of which the commutation into a operation mode is performed.
A three position code will be used to identify the control mode. The first
position indicates whether constant power, denoted by P, or constant current,
denoted by I, is used. The second position indicates if the current control is in the
rectifier (R) or in the inverter (I). The number in the third position of the operation
mode code shows in which converter station the transformation ratio N ik is fixed:
PR1 (no station); PR2 (rectifier); PR3 (inverter); PR4 (both stations).
Taking into account the four main strategies PR, PI, IR, II, which are
functions of the four variables chosen for the model, it results a total number of 16
possible operation modes (Table 4.2).
Table 4.2
Possible control modes of a HVDC link
Control Control
Specified variables Specified variables
mode mode
PR 1 U di ; Pdi IR 1 U di ; I d
PR 2 N ik , r ; U di ; Pdi IR 2 N ik , r ; U di ; I d
PR 3 Nik ,i ; Pdi IR 3 Nik ,i ; I d
PR 4 N ik , r ; Nik ,i ; Pdi IR 4 N ik , r ; Nik ,i ; I d
PI 1 U dr ; Pdi II 1 U dr ; I d
PI 2 N ik , r ; Pdi II 2 N ik , r ; I d
PI 3 Nik ,i ; U dr ; Pdi II 3 Nik ,i ; U dr ; I d
PI 4 Nik ,i ; N ik , r ; Pdi II 4 Nik ,i ; N ik , r ; I d
The PR strategy having four operation modes is used, as it can be seen in

Figure 4.26. The direct voltage U di is controlled by the tap changer at the inverter,
and the firing angle is controlled by the tap changer at the rectifier. The variables
in boxes are those that are specified for respective control mode.
The operation mode PR1 corresponds to operation with constant angles and
, ensured by tap changer actions in order to maintain constant the alternating
voltage value applied to the converter station terminals. In this way, the values of
U d 0, r and U d 0,i , and also the current I d on the DC line and the power Pdi at
inverter are maintained constant.
sp max
Udi>Udi Nik,i
PR1 PR3
, , Udi, Pdi , , Nik,i, Pdi
sp min
Udi<Udi Nik,i
<sp >sp <sp >sp
min max
Nik,r Nik,r min
Nik,r max
Nik,r
sp max
Udi>Udi Nik,i
PR2 PR4
Nik,r, , Udi, Pdi Nik,r, , Nik,i, Pdi
sp min
Udi<Udi Nik,i
<sp
min
PI4
, Nik,i, Nik,r, Pdi
Fig. 4.26. Transitions between control modes for a PR strategy.
The modes PR2, PR3 and PR4 correspond to the situation in which at least
one value of the transformation ratios N ik exceed the limits. In such situation,
commutation from one operation mode to another is performed (solid line in
Figure 4.26).
To exemplify, if in the operating mode PR1, the value N ik , r , which ensure a
constant value of , exceeds the minimum ( N ikmin max
,r ) or maximum ( N ik ,r ) limit, then
the variable is replaced by N ik , r taking the value equal to the exceeded limit. The
commutation to the mode PR2 is thus performed (solid line). The returning to the
mode PR1 is performed in function of the specified value of N ik , r and the actual
value of the firing angle (dashed line) if: N ik , r = N ikmin
,r and < sp or
N ik , r = N ikmax sp
, r and > .
It can be seen that the modelling of the control strategy in the calculation of
operating regimes of the DC links is similar with the treatment of the generator
nods in load flow algorithms for AC systems.
4.4.3. Control implementation

A general scheme for implementing the controls in HVDC system is shown
in Figure 4.27.
There are two types of controls for each converter: grid control (very fast)
and OLTC control (very slow). The first control always regulate the firing angle
(also on the inverter side), whilst the second control adjusts the turns ratios ( N r
and N i ). These two controls are complementary but well decoupled; when the first
control takes places, the second is still in the previsious steady-state conditions.
Conversely, when the second control occurs, the first has already reached the new
steady-state conditions.
Converter A Converter B
Line
AC AC
system
Id system
measure measure
desired desired

0 + Id + 0
reference Reg. Reg. reference
Current Current
Current error error
order + +
Power + Im
: Limits
order Iord Current
margin
Auxiliary
signal
Control for converter A Control for converter B
Fig. 4.27. Schematic diagram of control of an HVDC system (Adapted from [4.9]).
Both controls regulate the internal voltages:

U dr = U d 0, r cos
(4.25)
U di = U d 0, i cos
The fast control changes and , whereas the slow control changes U d 0, r and
U d 0,i . Based on the above description the following regulations take place [4.10]:
Rectifier side
fast current regulator, having I ord as reference, in the CCR operating
mode;
slow firing angle regulator, having desired as reference, in the CCR
operating mode;
fast minimum firing angle regulator, having min as reference, in CCI
operating mode;
slow voltage regulator, having U desired as reference, in CCI operating
mode;
Inverter side
fast extinction angle regulator, having 0 as reference, in the CCR
operating mode;
slow voltage regulator, having U desired as reference, in the CCR
operating mode;
fast current regulator, having ( I ord I m ) as reference, in the CCI

operating mode;
slow extinction angle regulator, having desired as reference in the CCI
operating mode.
In the case of slow phenomena or long-term dynamics, grid control may be
assumed to be under steady-state conditions with I = I ord and = 0 in CCR
operating mode, and with I = I ord I m and = min in the CCI operating mode.
The control hierarchy varies from a DC system to another, but general
concept is common. In Figure 4.28 are presented the control hierarchy of a typical
bipolar HVDC system [4.4].
P Overall f1
df/dt system control f2
Telecommunication Telecommunication
link Master to remote HVDC terminal
control
VGC Bridge Id1 VGC

Pole 1
Ides
VGC VGC
VGC VGC
Ides Pole 2
VGC VGC
Id2
Pole Bridge Bridge Pole
controls controls controls controls
Fig. 4.28. Hierarchy of different levels of HVDC system control (Adapted from [4.4] and [4.5]).
The control is divided into four levels: bridge or converter unit control, pole
control, master control and overall control [4.9]:
a) The bridge or converter unit control determines the firing instants of the
valves within a bridge and defines min and min limits. This has the fastest
response within the control hierarchy;
b) The pole control coordinates the control of bridges in a pole. The
conversion of current order to a firing angle order, tap changer control, and certain
protection sequences are handled by the pole control. This includes coordination of
starting up, deblocking, and balancing of bridge controls;
c) The master control unit is usually provided by a power order (P) and other
information relating to the direct line current ( I d ), the direct line voltage ( U d ) and
the filter bus voltage. The master control determines the desired current order
( I des ) and provides coordinated current order signals to the individual valve group
control unit (VGC). It interprets the broader demands for controlling the HVDC
system by providing an interface between pole controls;
d) The overall system control. This includes power-flow scheduling
determined by the control centre, system frequency control and AC system
stabilization.
The control of HVDC system clearly requires communication between
terminals for proper operation. In the case of rapid changes in power level, high-
speed communication is required to maintain consistent current setting at the two
terminals. Change of power direction requires communication to transfer the current
margin setting from one terminal to the other. The starting and stopping of the
terminals require coordination of the operations at the two terminals. Protection may
also require communication between the terminals for detection of some faults.
There are several alternative transmission media available for the
telecommunications: direct wires via private lines or telephone networks, power-
line carrier, microwave systems and fibre optics.
4.5. Reactive power and harmonics
4.5.1. Reactive power requirements and sources

Chapter 4.2 introduced the concept that the reactive power demands of a
converter are directly related to the need for rapid control of DC voltage levels (and
system current) at the rectifier and the need to maintain an adequately large
extension angle at the inverter to prevent commutation failure. Firing delay angles
at the rectifier and extinction angles at the inverter are normally in the 15 to 20
degree range, which gives nearly equal reactive demands at each terminal when
commutation reactance are also nearly equal. Those reactive power demands are
typically 50% 60% of rated real power transfers at full load at each terminal.
The reactive power sources that are used vary from switched capacitors to
static VAr systems. The requirements of voltage control and the costs dictate the
choice of the speed of response of the reactive power control under dynamic
conditions.
The active power supplied on the DC voltage side of the converter is given
by expression (4.22):
Pd = U d I d
Neglecting the power losses into the bridge, it can be considered that the
three-phase power incoming the bridge is equal to the active power outgoing the
converter and incoming the DC line, that is:
PAC = Pd
where PAC = 3Vs I1 cos .
The active and reactive fundamental components of the current are defined as:
I1a = I s1 cos (4.26,a)
I1r = I s1 sin (4.26,b)

The following equality can be written:
3Vs I 1a = U d I d
from where:
Ud Id
I1a = (4.27)
3Vs
By substituting I d from (4.5) and U d from (4.12) into (4.27), and taking into

account that Vs = 2Vs , we obtain [4.11]:
cos + cos( + )
I1a = I s1
2
or
I1a = (, ) I s1 (4.28)
where the following notation has been used:
cos + cos( + )
( , ) = (4.28')
2
In order to obtain a similar expression as (4.28'), for the reactive fundamental
component of the current, we express I s1 from (4.5), where the following
expression of I d is used:
6Vs
Id = (cos cos ) (4.14')
2Xk
obtaining:
6 6Vs 2 +
I s1 = Id = sin sin (4.29)
X k 2 2
Using the expressions (4.5), (4.14') and (4.28) it results:
I1a =
6 6Vs
(cos cos ) cos + cos =
2Xk 2
=
3Vs
2X k
(
cos 2 cos 2 =
3Vs
)
4X k
[cos 2 cos 2( + )]
or
3Vs
I1a = sin sin (2 + ) (4.30)
2X k
If in expressions (4.29) and (4.30) the following notations are used:
3Vs 2 +
A' = ; = ; = (4.31)
2X k 2 2
it results:
I s1 = 4 A' sin sin (4.29')
I1a = A' sin 2 sin 2 (4.30')
According to (4.26,a), (4.29') and (4.30') it can be written:
cos = cos cos (4.32)
If the equality sin = 1 cos 2 is used, the expression (4.31) becomes:
1
sin = cos 2
cos 2 cos 1 cos 2 sin cos (4.32')
cos
where it has been considered that 1 cos 2 1 .
Taking into account (4.32') and (4.29'), the expression (4.26,b) becomes:
( )
I1r I s1 sin cos = 4 A' sin 2 sin cos = 4 A' 1 cos 2 sin cos
= A' sin 2(1 cos 2 )
By using the notations from (4.31) and approximating sin obtain:
I 1r =
3Vs
[ sin cos(2 + )] = 3Vs 2 + sin 2 sin 2( + ) (4.33)
2X k 2X k 2
Expressing Vs from (4.14') and taking into account (4.2) and (4.5), it results:
X k
Vs = I s1
3[cos cos( + )]
By substituting in (4.33) obtain:
1 2 + sin 2 sin 2( + )
I 1r = I s1
4 cos cos( + )
or
I 1r = (, )I s1 (4.34)
where
1 2 + sin 2 sin 2( + )
(, ) = (4.34')
4 cos cos( + )
Using the expressions of (, ) from (4.28') and (, ) from (4.33'), it
results:
tan = (, ) (, )
1 1
or taking into account the equality cos 2 x = + cos 2 x , obtain:
2 2
2 + sin 2 sin 2( + )
tan = (4.35)
cos 2 cos 2( + )
Therefore, the reactive power consumed by the converter is:
Qconv = Pd tan (4.36)
For usual values of = 15 and = 20 from (4.34) and (4.35) obtain:
Qconv 0.5 Pd
From Figure 4.29 it can be noticed that the dependency Qconv = f (Pd )
between the consumed reactive power and the transferred active power Pd is
nonlinear.
Q
Pdn 50 40 30 20 15
0.5
Constant firing angle

Increasing firing angle
Pd
0.5 1.0 Pdn
Fig. 4.29. Variation of consumed reactive power into a conversion substation
in terms of transferred power for different values of the firing angle .
4.5.2. Sources of reactive power

The reactive power requirements of the converter are met by one or more of
the following sources: AC system; AC filters; shunt capacitors; synchronous
condensers; static VAr system (SVS). From voltage regulation, losses and stability
considerations, it is not desirable to draw reactive power from the system except at
low loads [4.7].
SVS
SC
AC
system
Fig. 4.30. Reactive power sources.
The voltage regulation at the converter bus is desirable not only from the
voltage control viewpoint but also from the minimization of loss and stability
considerations. This requires adjustable reactive power source, which can provide
variable reactive power as demanded.
The least expensive sources of reactive power for converters are static
capacitor banks by themselves or as components of filters. Filters typically supply
half or more of the reactive power requirements of a converter (see 4.5.3). If the
AC system is inherently strong enough to stand use of additional switched
capacitors they may be the preferred solution. The preferred location for a DC
terminal is at a point in the system with a high short circuit level. Generating
stations generally provide good locations. If it is not convenient to locate a terminal
at a generating station, addition of synchronous condensers (SC) can be used to
raise short circuit levels and to provide dynamic voltage control. Synchronous
condensers have been widely used on DC links to obtain adequate short circuit
ratio. For very weak systems, such as islands, only rotating machines can supply an
adequate short circuit level. The drawback to use of synchronous condensers is that
they have high operating losses and maintenance requirements.
The static VAr systems (SVS) provide the fastest response following a
disturbance. The configurations normally used are: fixed capacitor, thyristor
controlled, reactor or thyristor switched capacitors.
Thyristor controlled reactors (TCR) perform as variable impedance
reactors by controlling of the amount of time they are switched on during each
half cycle of power frequency. If they are switched on continuously they act as
ordinary shunt reactors. For shorter on times they draw lower amount of reactive
power. They like static compensators, usually operate in parallel with capacitors in
order to provide a system, which can raise or lower voltage levels. For large
installation the capacitors are converted to filters to absorb harmonic components
of the non sinusoidal reactor currents [4.5].
Thyristor switches can provide precisely timed switching of shunt capacitor
banks (TSC). In practice the thyristor switches turn off at a current zero, leaving
the capacitors fully charged. They may then be switched on at another voltage
maximum with negligible transients. Their main disadvantage is that they can only
by switched in discrete blocks of reactive power. Unless many small block are
provided, additional voltage control device are required to provide smooth voltage
control. They have been successfully used in parallel with thyristor controlled
reactors (TSC TCR combination) to provide that smooth control.
TCR, TCC and the static VAr systems (SVC) will be described in the second
volume of the work.
4.5.3. Harmonics and filters

4.5.3.1. Generalities
Converters generate harmonic voltages and currents on both AC and DC
sides. AC filters are invariably used to filter out AC current harmonics, which are
critical. These filters are of band pass (tuned) or high-pass type and also supply
reactive power. DC smoothing reactor along with DC filters perform the function
of filtering DC harmonics.
In this respect, we consider two categories of harmonics [4.7]:
The characteristic harmonics are harmonics of those orders that are always
present even under ideal operation: balanced AC voltages, symmetric
three phase network and equidistant pulses;
The non-characteristic harmonics of the order other then the
characteristic harmonics are due to (i) imbalance in the operation of two
bridges forming a 12 phase converter, (ii) firing angle errors,
(iii) unbalance and distortion in AC voltages and (iv) unequal transformer
leakage impedances.
4.5.3.2. The source of AC harmonic currents

Figure 4.31,a shows the wave shape of the alternating current under the ideal
condition with no commutation overlap, ripple-free direct current, balanced purely
sinusoidal commutating voltages, and equally: spaced converter-firing pulses.
Each pulse would be considered as having 120 degrees duration followed by
60 degrees dead time. One positive pulse, one negative pulse and two dead times
constitute one full cycle.
Although the AC current oscillates at fundamental frequency, its rectangular
form indicates that it is severely distorted from its desired sinusoidal wave shape.
A Fourier analysis of the AC current wave shape would reveal that it is composed
of a fundamental component and many higher frequency components, which are
multiples of the fundamental frequency (harmonics).
For a 6-pulse bridge with transformer connection, the Fourier series
expansion for alternating current is:
2 3 1 1 1 1
i= I d sin t sin 5 t sin 7 t + sin 11 t + sin 13 t ... (4.37,a)
5 7 11 13
180o 300o
0o 120 o
a.
+120+
+180

Rectifier mode
+ +120

b.
+120+
+180

Inverter mode
+ +120
c.
Fig. 4.31. The curve of alternating current.
For a transformer connection, the current is:
2 3 1 1 1 1
i= I d sin t + sin 5 t + sin 7 t + sin 11 t + sin 13 t + ... (4.37,b)
5 7 11 13
The second harmonic and all even harmonics are absent in the above because
there are two current pulses of equal size and opposite polarity per cycle. Since the
current pulse width is one-third of a cycle, third and all triple-q harmonics are also
absent. The remaining harmonics are on the order of n = 6q 1 , where q is any
positive integer, and p = 6 is the pulse number.
In a 12-pulse bridge, there are two 6-pulse bridges with two transformers, one
with connection and the other with connection (Fig. 4.32). The
harmonics of odd values of q cancel out. It results hence
4 3 1 1 1
i= I d sin t + sin 11 t + sin 13 t + sin 23 t + ... (4.38)
11 13 23
The remaining harmonics that have the order 12q 1 (i.e. 11th, 13th, 23rd, 25th,
etc.) flow into the AC system.
When the commutating reactance is considered, the overlap angle during
commutation rounds off the square edges of the current waves, and this reduces the
magnitude of harmonic components.
Figure 4.31,b shows a typical current wave shape in the AC system before
filtering. It consists essentially of series of alternating polarity rectangular current
pulses, with significant transition times caused by commutation reactance.
The magnitude of the AC current harmonics produced can easily be predicted

for the case of the ideal (instantaneous switching) converter. By Fourier analysis it
can be shown that the magnitude of the fundamental and all characteristic
harmonics are related by the following equation:
I1
In =
n
where I n is the magnitude of the nth harmonic current and I1 is the magnitude of
the fundamental current, which is also proportional to the DC power. For example,
the fifth harmonic is 20% of the value of the fundamental, but the eleventh would
be only 9% of the fundamental.
The effect of / transformation on AC harmonic current
A / transformer, when no voltage level change is involved, yields line
currents on the side, which are the difference of two line currents on the Y side,
and vice-versa. A series of ideal plus and minus current pulses is one phase of the
value side of converter transformer are subtracted from those of another phase by
/ transformer to produce the current pattern shown in Figure 4.32,b,c. Analysis
of harmonic content of this current wave shape reveals the same harmonic
frequencies and magnitudes on both side of the transformer. However, the
phase relationships of some of the harmonics have been shifted 180. Specifically
the harmonics of order 5, 7, 17, 19, 29, 31, etc. have been shifted totally out of
phase with their relationship on the other side of the transformer [4.5].
t
b.
ia1
t
ia c.
ia2
t
a. d.
Fig 4.32. The scheme of a 12-pulse bridge (a) and AC converter currents before (b) and
after passage through / transformation (c), twelve-pulse converter current (d).
The fact that some harmonics are phase shifted differently in passing through
a / transformer than in a / transformer provides a means of cancelling on
those harmonics as far as the AC system is concerned. Figure 4.32,d shows the
effect of adding equal amount of two current wave-shapes shown in
Figures 4.32,b,c.
The resulting wave-shapes provide a better approximation to a sine wave,

because the lowest harmonic frequencies cancel each other. The fifth and seventh
harmonic components are not present if cancellation is complete. In fact the only
characteristic harmonics present are those, which would result from a converter
operating on a six-phase system, providing twelve pulse converter operation. Those
characteristic harmonics are determined by the following equation, where n is the
harmonic order and q is any positive integer:
n = 12q 1
This also introduces the concept of increasing the pulse number to reduce
harmonics. The general equation to describe the characteristic harmonic orders
produces by any converter is:
n = pq 1
where quantity p is the pulse number, the number of current switching operations
per cycle.
If the pulse number were increased to 24, one would expect the lowest
harmonic to be the 23rd. Thus increasing pulse number is a very effective method of
suppressing harmonics. The remaining harmonics have the same magnitude relative
to the fundamental, which they have when present in six-pulse operation [4.5].
4.5.3.3. Diminishing of harmonics

Unless measures are taken to limit the amplitude of harmonics entering the
AC network and the DC line, some of the following undesirable effects may occur:
overheating of capacitors and generators, instability of the converter control, and
interference with telecommunication systems, especially noise on telephone line.
These effects may not be confined to the vicinity of the converter station but may
be propagated over large distances. The most difficult of these to eliminate is the
telephone interference.
The principal means of diminishing the harmonic output of converters are:
increase of the pulse number and installation of filters. It is the general opinion that
for HVDC converter the use of filters is more economical than the increase of pulse
number beyond 12. Filters are nearly always used on the AC side of converters. AC
filters serve the dual purpose of diminishing AC harmonics and supplying reactive
power at fundamental frequency.
On the DC side, the reactor diminishes harmonics and, in many converters,
especially those connected to DC cables, no additional filtering is required on the
DC side. DC filters are required, however, on the same overhead DC lines [4.1].
AC filters
A harmonic filter may be designed to allow the flow of a single harmonic or
to allow several harmonic to flow in it. The former termed a series resonant filter
while the latter is a broadband or high-pass filter. The basic configurations of the
filters and their impedance characteristics as a function of frequency are shown in

Figure 4.33.
Z
XC1 400
XC XL1
300
XL R1
200
R XC2 XL2
100
R2 R3
f/fr f [Hz]
1 2
150 250 350 450
a. b.
XC Z XC1
2R
XL
XL R R
R XC2
Zmin
0 f
c. d.
Fig. 4.33. Configuration and impedance characteristics of filters:
a. series-resonant; b. double tuned; c. second order high-pass; d. high-pass C type.
(i) A series-resonant or the single tuned filter is designed to filter out

characteristic harmonics of single frequency (Fig. 4.33,a). It consists of a shunt
connected series combination of an inductor, a capacitor and a low resistance.
The resistance may be just that of the reactor or it may be an additional element.
The filter is designed so that at the harmonic frequency of concern the filter is
series-resonant. The harmonic reactance of the inductor has the same magnitude as
that of the capacitor. The AC system then sees only the filter series resistance as
limiting the flow of harmonic current when the filter is perfectly tuned. For these
conditions to be fulfilled the ratio of the fundamental frequency capacitive
reactance ( X C ) to the fundamental frequency inductive reactance ( X L ) must equal
the square of the harmonic order number. Thus, for an eleventh harmonic filter, the
ratio of fundamental frequency reactance ( X C X L ) must equal 121. At
fundamental frequency the filter appears as a capacitor having nearly the same
impedance as the filter capacitance.
(ii) The double tuned filters are used to filter out two discrete frequencies,
instead of using two single tuned filters (Fig. 4.33,b).
(iii)The second order high-pass filters are designed to filter out the higher
harmonics (Fig. 4.33,c). The tuning of the filters is not critical. The losses at the
fundamental frequency can be reduced by using a C type filter where the capacitor
C2 in series with L, provides a low impedance path to the fundamental component
of current.
A typical filter system for a 12-pulse converter terminal is shown in Figure 4.34.
The filter impedance is minimum at the 11th and 13th harmonics resulting from the
two series-resonant tuned branches. The high-pass filter maintains a low
impedance for higher harmonic frequencies [4.9].
AC bus
11 th
13th
High pass
filter
Branches tuned for

th th
11 and 13 harmonics
Fig. 4.34. Typical filter system configuration.
All the filter branches appear capacitive at fundamental frequency and supply
reactive power.
DC filters
The harmonics in the DC voltage across the converter contain both
characteristic and non-characteristic orders. These harmonics result in current
harmonics in the DC lines and cause noise in the telephone circuits. The harmonic
current generated in the line can be computed if the harmonic voltage source at the
converters, smoothing reactor, DC filter and line parameters is known. The
harmonic current varies with the distance, from the converter station along the line.
The DC filters are also of single or double tuned type to filter out 6th and
th
12 harmonics and a high-pass filter for higher order harmonics.
In literature [4.18], a modern system with active filter for harmonics
attenuation generated by the converter is presented (Fig. 4.35). The basic idea of
series active filters (Fig. 4.35,a) is to generate a harmonic voltage, equal to, but in
phase opposition with the harmonic voltage generated by the converter. The
selection of passive or active filters is performed by switching the circuit breakers
1 or 2.
A prototype active filter was installed, in 1991, on the Konti-Skan 2 link
(Sweden Denmark). Figure 4.35,b, illustrates the simplified scheme for hybrid
solution passive and active filters on the DC side of the converter station from
Lindome (Sweden).
Smoothing reactor DC line
AC 1 1
System
1 2
Active
Filter
Passive
Filters
a.
Smoothing Harmonic current
reactor transducer DC line
ih if il
Passive DC Optic fiber
filter insulator
and cable
Active DC filter
Control
unit
HVDC
converter Trafo
By-pass
switch
Power
amplifier
Surge arrester
Electrode line
Neutral
bus filter
b.
Fig. 4.35. Active filters for harmonics attenuation. Reprinted with permission from Zhang,
W., Asplund, G. Active DC filter for HVDC systems, IEEE Computer Applications in
Power, January 1994 1994 IEEE.
A smoothing reactor is always installed on the DC side to reduce the ripple in

the direct current ih and additional a DC filter connected in short-circuit is used
to reduce the level of harmonic currents il in the DC overhead line. The active
filters will eliminate the reminder of harmonic currents. In this regard, by means of
a transducer and an optic fibre system, a signal proportional to the harmonic
current il is transmitted toward the control system (for signal processing). The
strength part of the active filter consists of a high-frequency transformer and a
power amplifier. The power amplifier controlled by means of the control system
acts as harmonic voltage source. This generates harmonic currents in phase
opposition with the harmonics generated by the conversion valve bridge,
compensating on this way the harmonic currents in the AC line.
In Table 4.3 the rated powers for harmonic filters installed on the AC side are
given for some HVDC systems. As common features, the equipments operating
with 6 pulses require filters for harmonics 5, 7, 11, 13 and a high-pass filter for the
17th harmonic and above. The HVDC equipments operating with 12 pulses require
only filters for the 11th and 13th harmonics respectively a high-pass filter for the
23rd harmonic and above.
Table 4.3
Systems of AC filters
Filters rated power [MVAr]
HVDC systems
5 7 11 13 high-pass
Skagerrak (500 MW):
Denmark - - 220 220 180
Norway - - 220 220 245
Inga-Shaba (560 MW):
Inga - - 210.1 27.2 219.9
Kolwezi - - 228.1 220.4 217
Pacific Intertie (1350 MW):
Oregon 155.8 127.8 228.2 221 280
California 230 214.6 228.2 220.1 292
Konti-Skan (250 MW):
Denmark 119 119 117 112 113
Sweden 113 17 112 19 140
Some systems like Cross-Channel link are designed to operate only with
high-pass filters. Although HVDC systems, given in Table 4.3, do not operate with
6 pulses, reduced size filters are yet used for the 5th and 7th harmonics during the
unavailability of one conversion bridge of the two series connected.
The number and size of the reactive power compensation equipments in the
HVDC systems are high rated in comparison with the transferred active power.
Two examples are considered:
For the ACDC Itaipu (Brazil) system, 6300 MW rated, the following
equipments was designed:
harmonic filters provide 1451 MVAr at 500 kV on the rectifiers AC side
and 2483 MVAr at 345 kV on the inverters AC side;
capacitor banks, with 588 MVAr installed capacity, on the 345 kV AC
side;
synchronous condensers, with 1200 MVA installed capacity, in the
inversion station.
For the Cross-Channel link between France and England, having a
maximum rated power of 2000 MW:
8 harmonic filters (11, 12, 13, 14, 21, 22, 23, 24) of 150 MVAr apiece in
the 400 kV Mandarins (France) station;
8 harmonic filters of 120 MVAr apiece and two static compensators in
the 400 kV Sellindge (England) station.
4.6. Load flow in mixed AC-DC systems

As has been shown in chapter 2, the steady state mathematical model of an
AC system consists of the system of equations expressing the balance of nodal
powers:
f Pi ( [U ], [] ) = Pgi Pci Pi = Pi sp Pi = 0, i e
(4.39)
f Qi ( [U ], [] ) = Qgi Qci Qi = Qisp Qi = 0, i nc
where Pi sp and Qisp are the specified active and reactive powers.
The load flow problem is solved by applying the iterative Newton-Raphson

method, which consists of linearization of the system of equations (4.39) obtaining:
P
Q = [J ] U U (4.40)

where: Pi = Pi sp Pi is the active power mismatch;
Qi = Qisp Qi the reactive power mismatch;
[J ] =
H N
the Jacobian matrix.
M L
When the AC system includes a HVDC link, the equations of power balance
at the terminal buses k of the AC system are modified by including the powers at
the converter stations. Taking into account that Pkrdc , Qkrdc , Qkidc are consumed
powers and Pkidc is injected power, the equations of the power mismatches at the
terminal buses, given also in (4.39), get the following form:
Pkr = Pkrsp Pkrac ( [], [U ] ) Pkrdc ( U kr ,U ki , [X ] )
Pki = Pkisp Pkiac ( [], [U ] ) + Pkidc ( U kr ,U ki , [X ] )

(4.41)
Qkr = Qkrsp Qkrac ( [], [U ] ) Qkrdc ( U kr ,U ki , [X ] )
Qki = Qkisp Qkiac ( [], [U ] ) Qkidc ( U kr ,U ki , [X ] )
where: Pkrsp , Qkrsp , Pkisp , Qkisp are the specified active and reactive powers at the
terminal buses corresponding to rectifier and inverter respectively;
Pkrac , Qkrac , Pkiac , Qkiac the powers transferred from/to the AC system
through the terminal buses (rectifier or inverter) given by
expressions:
n
Pi ac = U U [G
k =1
i k ik cos (i k ) + Bik sin (i k )]
n
Qiac = U U [G sin( ) B cos( )]
k =1
i k ik i k ik i k
U kr , U ki the voltage magnitudes at the rectifier and inverter buses;

[X ] the vector of independent variables of the HVDC system.
Taking into account the introduction of the vector of unknowns [X] into the
system of equations (4.40), supplementary equations describing the DC link
operation and control strategy are added:
Ri ( U kr , U ki , [X ] ) = 0 , i = 1, 2, K, nx (4.42)
where nx denotes the number of independent variables chosen for the HVDC
system, either 9 or 7. The system of equations (4.42) consists of rectifier, inverter
and line equations as well as the equations corresponding to control strategy.
The methods for load flow calculation of a mixed AC-DC system can be
grouped on the following categories [4.27]:
the simultaneous solving method of the nonlinear system of equations that
defines the operation of the AC system and the DC link, known as the
extended variable method;
the sequential solving method based on the diakoptics principle where the
DC systems is treated separated by the AC one;
the eliminated variables method of the DC system.
The extended variables method
In the frame of this method are used the classical Newton-Raphson
algorithm, for simultaneous solving of the two systems of equations (4.39) and
(4.41) of the mathematical model, and the vector of independent variables [X]
having nine components. Vector [X] is added to the vector of independent variables
associated to the AC system (magnitudes and angles of nodal voltages) resulting a
set of extended variables [4.4].
In order to have a complete system of equations, to relations (4.43) that
describes the operation of rectifier, inverter and DC line:
3 2 3
R1 = U dr N ik ,rU kr cos + X kr I d = 0

3 2 3
R2 = U di N ik ,iU ki cos + X ki I d = 0 (4.43)

R3 = U dr U di RL I d = 0
two more equations are added

3 2
R4 = U dr k N ik , rU kr cos r = 0

(4.43')
3 2
R5 = U di k N ik , iU ki cosi = 0

corresponding to the independent variables r and i as well as a set of four
equations describing the control strategy.
Relationships (4.43') have been obtained by replacing the expression
1
[cos + cos( + )] from relation (4.12) into relation (4.13).
2
The reactive powers withdrawn at the converter stations are given by:
3 2 3 2
Qkr = k N ik , r I d U kr cos r ; Qki = k N ik ,i I d U ki cosi

Concluding, the nonlinear systems of equations use in the load flow
calculation of mixed systems by using the extended variable method are:
Pi sp Pi ( [U ], [] ) = 0 i n \ t ,i e
Pi sp Pi ( [U ], [], [X ] ) = 0 i t
Qisp Qi ( [U ], [] ) = 0 i nc \ t (4.44)
Qisp Qi ( [U ], [], [X ] ) = 0 i t
Ri ( [U t ], [X ] ) = 0 i = 1, 2, K, 9
where: [U t ] = [U kr ,U ki ] t is the vector of nodal voltages at rectifier and inverter

respectively;
t is an assembly of pairs of two elements which contains the indices of
the buses of the terminal stations;
e slack bus;
nc load buses.
Based on the system of equations (4.44), the classical Newton-Raphson
algorithm involves the iterative solving of the matrix equations:
[P ] 0 []
[P ] H N A [t ]
t
[Q ] = 0 [U U ] (4.45)

[Qt ] M L C [U t U t ]
[R ] 0 0 0 D E [X ]
The extended variable method represents a purely mathematical approach for

solving a non-linear system of equations corresponding to a steady state of a mixed
AC-DC system. It presents the disadvantage that the expanding of the Jacobian
matrix (which modifies its structure substantially), makes difficult its introduction
into existing load flow programmes for pure AC systems.
The sequential method
The sequential method constitutes a solving approach based on the diakoptics
method, which allows the analysis of complex systems by the analysis of
independent subsystems, corresponding to isolated operation by each other. In
order to apply this method, the mixed system is divided into an AC subsystem and
a DC subsystem. The separation of the DC link is modelled by introducing at the
terminal buses of the AC system consumed or injected powers.
After each iteration, the operating state of the DC link is calculated to decide
possible commutation from one operating mode to another, if the independent
variables of the vector [ X ] exceed their specified limits.
This method presents the advantage that does not necessitate supplementary
steady state calculation of the DC link after each AC iteration. The implementation
into existent programs is easy but its disadvantage results from the fact that, in
certain situations, convergence problems can appear [4.4].
The eliminated variables method
A way of keeping the modularity and the advantages of the sequential
method without affecting the mathematical accuracy is to eliminate the vector of
DC variables [ X ] , having 7 independent variables (4.24'), from the system of
equations (4.41) [4.27]. In this regard, from the system of equations [4.46] that
describes the DC link operation:
Ri ( [U t ], [X ] ) = 0 i = 1, 2, K, 7 (4.46)
the vector [ X ] is determined in terms of the terminal voltage magnitude [U t ]

resulting:
[X ] = f ( [U t ] ) = f (U kr ,U ki ) (4.46')
By physical considerations, one solution of (4.46) type exists for each from
the control strategies defined in Table 4.2. Taking into account this aspect and that
the nodal voltage angles of the AC system do not appear in the expression of the
active and reactive powers consumed respectively injected through the converter
station at the terminal buses it results:
Pkr = Pkr (U kr ,U ki )
Qkr = Qkr (U kr ,U ki )
Pki = Pki (U kr ,U ki )
Qki = Qki (U kr ,U ki )
and the equations (4.41) expressing the nodal power mismatches at the terminal
stations becomes:
Pkr = Pkrsp Pkrac ( [], [U ] ) Pkrdc (U kr ,U ki )
Pki = Pkisp Pkiac ( [], [U ] ) + Pkidc (U kr ,U ki )
Qkr = Qkrsp Qkrac ( [], [U ] ) Qkrdc (U kr ,U ki )
Qki = Qkisp Qkiac ( [], [U ] ) Qkidc (U kr ,U ki )
Concluding, under steady state conditions, the conversion stations are seen as
loads for the AC system, having the static characteristics dependent on the voltage
of the terminal buses.
Then, the application of the classical Newton-Raphson algorithm for the
steady state calculation is simply reduced to solving, at each iteration, the system
of linear equations:
P H N
Q = M
L U U

In this matrix equation, the Jacobian is the matrix from relationship (4.40) but
with a modification of the terms that contains the partial derivatives of the powers
with respect to voltage magnitudes corresponding to the terminal station (rectifier
or inverter).
Concluding, by the analytical elimination of the DC variables from [ X ] , the
implementation of a DC link into an existent power flow program based on
Newton-Raphson method, require a minimal computation effort, given by the
modification of more 8 elements of the Jacobian matrix. Moreover, if the
modification is performed only on the sub-matrices [N] and [L] of the Jacobian
matrix, the method can be easily adapted to fast decoupled based power flow
programs. In this case, the matrix [B'] remain unchanged, like in the case of pure
AC systems; only the matrix [B''] is changed.
After each iteration, the values of the DC variables form [ X ] are calculated
to verify the appearance of possible commutation between the possible operating
modes of the DC link.
4.7. Interaction between AC and DC systems
4.7.1. AC systems stabilization

Significant improvements of the power systems operation are provided by
DC links, especially by controlling the active power flow on the interconnection lie
lines between strongly meshed AC systems. A DC link behaves, mainly, as a load
for the sending terminal and as a power source for the other terminal of the link.
The transferred power on the DC link can be modified and even changed as sign,
very fast, as the AC systems requires. The DC link can be used, for example, to
transfer active power toward any of the two AC systems with lack of generation,
after a generator outage or changing of the transferred power between the AC
systems so that to damp power oscillations into the AC systems.
The capability of the DC links to transfer power independent of the frequency
and voltage of the interconnected AC systems makes it very useful in their
interconnecting. Outages occurrences into joint AC systems do not influence the
powers exchange. The DC link operating into AC meshed systems can also control
the power flow on the AC lines operating in parallel with this one. The propagation
of the disturbances effects occurring in different parts of the AC interconnected
systems can be limited by the DC link connecting them. By using a suitable
controlling system, the power flow on the DC link can be controlled during the
disturbances occurrence, so that to improve the stability of the AC system and to
diminish the risk of overloading the AC interconnection lines. In such ACDC
mixed links, in order the interconnection to remain stable, it is very important the
difference = 1 2 between the equivalent internal angles of the two AC
systems not to exceed a critical limit value. This critical value can be reached, for
instance, at the sudden load variation in one of the AC systems or at the
unavailability of an interconnection AC line (Fig. 4.36).
Furthermore, the stability is improved by means of automatic control of the
power flow on the DC link, counteracting and damping the low-frequency electro-
mechanic oscillations from the AC system.
PAC [MW] PAC [MW] PDC

2740 2740 40
2720 2720 20 PAC
2700 2700 0
PDC
2680 2680 -20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 t [s] 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 t [s]
a. b.
Fig. 4.36. Example of oscillations damping into the mixed AC-DC system Pacific-Intertie.
The stability of the interconnected AC systems can be improved also by

voltage control at the inverter station, when the DC link provides the extinction
angle regulation. In this case, the reactive power exchange between the converter
station and the AC system is performed continuously by maintaining an optimum
voltage level. The reactive power changing by means of angle regulation is
performed until the limit of 5% from the transferred active power through the
converter station is reached.
The DC links have, generally, the advantage of no influencing the short-

circuit currents for some faults into the AC system. Exception from this rule are the
transformers from the converter station, having the windings delta connected, in
case of short-circuits into the AC systems.
4.7.2. Influence of AC system short-circuit ratio

The interactions nature of mixed AC-DC systems and the associated
problems are high dependent on the strength of the AC system (short-circuit power
S sc ) relative to the transmission capacity Pd of the DC link. The AC system can be
considered as weak in two cases, such as: when the short-circuit impedance is high
and the mechanical inertia is low, respectively. The short-circuit ratio is defined in
order to compare different AC systems (Fig. 4.37).
S sc
K sc =
Pd
where: S sc is the short-circuit power of the AC system, MVA;
Pd the converter power rating, MW.
Ksc Ksc,ef
Zth = 1
Y Pd
AC system
impedance
harmonic filters
Yc and
capacitor banks
Fig. 4.37. Additional scheme for defining the ratios

of short-circuit powers.
The short-circuit MVA is calculated by using a Thevenin equivalent:
2
U AC
S sc =
Z th
where: U AC is the commutation bus voltage at rated DC power;
Z th the Thevenin equivalent impedance of the AC system, seen from
the connection bus of the DC link.
From the HVDC operating point of view is required that, in calculation of
short-circuit ratio, the influence of equipments on the AC side associated with the
DC link: harmonic filters, shunt capacitor banks, etc. to be considered. The
harmonic filters, at fundamental frequency, behave practically as shunt capacitors
(injecting reactive power). The capacity of the harmonic filters and capacitor banks
will increase the equivalent impedance at fundamental frequency of especially
inductive AC systems. Consequently, the effective short-circuit ratio is calculated
as:
K sc , ef =
(
S sc Q f + Qbc )
Pd
where: Q f is the reactive power provided by the harmonic filters, at fundamental
frequency, MVAr;
Qbc the capacitive rated power of the capacitor banks connected
supplementary to the converter station terminals, MVAr.
The following values of the short circuit ratio can be use to indicate
approximately the strength of an AC system relative to the DC power infeed:
robust power system, K sc , ef > 4 ;
intermediate power system, 2 < K sc , ef < 4 ; voltage support may have to be
provided at the AC terminals of the converter station, by for example, static VAr
compensators;
weak power system, K sc , ef < 2 ; synchronous condensers or static VAr
capacitors may have to be use to strengthen of the AC system. These compensation
devices, for the inversion station case, alongside generation/absorption of reactive
power, are used on the AC side to reduce the temporary overvoltages after load
shedding.
Figure 4.38 illustrates the characteristics Pd I d of an inverter feeding an
AC system by infinite impedance (commutating reactance at 20% for = 18
fixed).
Pd
1.2
1.0 3
1.6 Ksc
0.8 1 Fig. 4.38. Pd I d characteristics
0.6 of an inverter in terms of short-
circuit ratio.
0.4
0.2
0 Id
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Such classification of the AC system strength gives a preliminary evaluation

of potential interactions between AC and DC systems. Also, the AC-DC interaction
is influenced by the phase angle of the Thevenin equivalent (of the impedance
Z th ); this is also called damping angle and its value has significant influence on the
DC system control stability.
4.7.3. Effective inertia constant

The capability of the AC system to maintain the required voltage and
frequency depends on its rotational inertia. For satisfactory performance, the AC
system should have a minimum inertia relative to the size of the DC link [4.9]:
total rotational inertia of AC system, MW s
H dc =
MW rating of DC link
For a normal operation, an effective inertia constant H dc of at least 2.0 to 3.0

seconds is required. Synchronous condensers have to be use in order to increase the
AC system inertia.
4.7.4. Reactive power and the strength of the AC system

It should be noted that because the AC systems are largely inductive, the
reactive power exchange is mainly responsible for the effect of converter behaviour
on the AC network voltage side. Many schemes in the past were designed with
transformer reactance of the order of 20% or even more to limit the thyristors fault
currents. On the other hand, the reduction of the transformer reactance has some
advantages, such as:
the reduction of the consumed reactive power at the converter Qc ;
the AC system filters and any additional shunt capacitors are normally
designed to supply at least all converter reactive power. By reducing the total
reactive power Q f + Qbc the cost of the equipments decreases while K sc , ef
increases;
temporary overvoltages will be reduced, due to smaller shunt capacitors;
The bigger the reactive power consumed by any converter is, the transferred
power increase. As it has been shown, for angles and in the range of 15 to 18
and a commutating reactance X k = 15% , a converter consumes 50% to 60%
reactive power. The reactive power necessary for converters operation is mainly
provided by the capacitors from the filters constitution and by the capacitor banks.
Since the consumed reactive power varies with the transferred DC power Pd ,
capacitors must be provided in appropriate sizes of switchable banks, so that the
voltage is maintained in acceptable range at all load levels. The voltage level is
influenced, also, by the short-circuit ratio of the AC system. Generators, if located
near the DC terminals, can provide some of the required reactive power to maintain
the voltage in acceptable range.
For weak AC systems, it may be necessary to provide reactive power by

means of static VAr compensators or synchronous condensers.
Furthermore, at the operation of HVDC system when connected to a weak
AC system, other problems appear [4.9]:
Dynamic overvoltage, when sudden interruption of the transferred power
Pd through the DC link occurs. With sudden decrease of consumed reactive power
of converter station the voltage increase suddenly due to shunt capacitors and
harmonic filters.
Reduction of voltage stability reserve. For a HVDC link connected to a
weak AC system, the alternating as well as direct voltages, especially on the
inverter side are very sensitive to changes in DC line loading. Therefore, an
increase in direct current is accompanied by a decrease in alternating voltage. In
such cases, the voltage control and recovery after faults presents problems; the DC
system behaviour can contribute to reduction in stability reserve or even to AC
system collapse.
Voltage flicker due to the temporary switching off the capacitors and
reactors. Also, the harmonic resonance at low frequency appearance are due to
parallel resonance between capacitors and harmonic filters, on one hand, and the
inductive components from the AC system; consequently, dangerous overvoltages
can appear.
4.8. Comparison between DC and AC transmission

Normally, with bulk power transmission interconnections there is a choice
between AC and DC, and the determination may in some cases be a matter of
economics. In the case of DC a large investment is required in terminal equipments
for conversion, and this is mostly independent of the length of transmission.
However, the DC overhead lines are cheaper than AC lines for the same power
transfer and DC lines losses are less than those for AC lines. Recent trends indicate
that the costs of overhead lines are increasing at a higher rate than the costs of
terminal equipment.
Generally, the construction cost of AC lines, for the same transmitted power
and the same insulation is higher than direct current technology. This is due, on one
hand, to the fact that for the same rated voltage of the line, the insulation level is
greater at AC than DC and, on other hand, the transmitted power, for the same per
unit power losses, at AC is half from the power transmitted at DC [4.6].
Case I: Consider a single-circuit three-phase line and a bipolar DC line, in
different assumptions (Fig. 4.39).
a) For the same transmitted power and the same pick voltage to neutral, the
ratio of power losses at AC to the ones at DC is 1.33.
The active power on the three-phase line is:
PAC = 3Vs I AC
where Vs = Vmax, s 2 ( Vmax, s = Vs being the peak voltage to neutral of the AC

line); the power factor cos = 1 has been considered.
AC AC
AC
a.
AC AC
+
+
DC
b.
Fig. 4.39. One line diagrams of a single-circuit three-phase line (a)
and of a bipolar DC line (b).
The active power on the bipolar DC line is:

Pd = U d I d
where U d 2 = U max, d for the DC line.
Assuming that PAC = Pd obtain:

3Vs I AC = U d I d (4.47)
or in other form
(3 2 ) V max, s I AC = 2U max, d I d
Assume also the insulators withstand the same peak voltage to neutral in both
cases, Vmax, s = U max, d , it results:
(
I d = 3 2 2 I AC ) (4.48)
Power losses for the two cases are given by:
2
PAC = 3 I AC R ; Pd = 2 I d2 R
where R = Rd = RAC is the ohm resistance of one phase.
Taking into account (4.48) it results the ratio of power losses as:
2
PAC 3 1
= = 1.33
Pd 2 1.06
b) For the same transmitted power and considering the same power losses
and the same conductor cross-sectional area, the insulation level at direct current
is only 87% with respect to the one at alternating current.
The power losses for the two cases are:
2
PAC = 3 I AC R ; Pd = 2 I d2 R
Equating the expressions of power losses obtain:
Id = ( 3 )
2 I AC = 1.225 I AC (4.49)
From (4.47) and (4.49) it results:
U d = 3 2 Vs (4.50)
Assuming the discharge voltage of DC insulators is equal to the peak value of
the alternating voltage that generates the discharging, it results: insulation level in
AC line is k1 2 Vs and k 2 (U d 2 ) in DC line respectively, where k1 and k 2 are
multiplication factors. To simplify, assume k1 = k2 ; the ratio of insulation levels in
DC and AC will be:
DC insulation level U d 2
= (4.51)
AC insulation level 2 Vs
For the chosen case, taking into account (4.41), it results:
DC insulation level 3
= = 0.87
AC insulation level 2
We can conclude the DC line is more economic, besides it having only two
conductors compared with AC line that has three conductors and presents an
insulation level of 87% from the AC one.
c) If y stand for the ratio of DC and AC power losses:
y = Pd PAC
for Rd = RAC , obtain:
Id 3y
=
I AC 2
For cos = 1 and assuming the transmitted power is the same for DC and AC
as well, we can write:
3Vs I AC = U d I d
By compounding the last two equations it results:
Ud 3 2
=
Vs y
The ratio of the two voltages given by relationship (4.51) becomes:
DC insulation level U d 2 3 0.87
= = =
AC insulation level 2 Vs 2 y y
This latter dependency is provided graphically in Figure 4.40.
DC insulation level
AC insulation level
Fig. 4.40. Dependency between

the ratio of insulation levels and
the ratio of power losses for the
same transmitted power [4.6].
Pd
y
PAC
Case II: Double-circuit three-phase line transformed into three DC circuits,

having the same insulation level.
The transmitted power through the double-circuit AC line ( cos = 1 ) is:
PAC = 2 3 Vs I AC
The double-circuit AC line is transformed into three DC circuits, each one
having two conductors on the polarities (+) and (-) respectively, and the potential
U d 2 referred to ground.
The power transmitted through the three DC circuits is:
Pd = 3U d I d
a) For the case I AC = I d and considering the same voltage level

U d 2 = 2Vs , the ratio of transmitted powers should be:
Pd 3U d I d 2 2 Vs
= = = 2
PAC 2 3 Vs I AC 2Vs
The ratio of percentage powers is:

DC power losses % Pd PAC
=
AC power losses % Pd PAC
or taking into account the above mentioned
Pd [%] 3 2 R I d2 1
= = 0.71
PAC [%] 2 3 R I AC
2
2
that is
Pd [%] = 0.71 PAC [%]
b) If consider the same percentage power losses and the same insulation level
Pd PAC Ud
= ; = 2 Vs
Pd PAC 2
it results
3 2 R I d2 2 3 R I AC
2
2I d U d
= or =
3U d I d 2 3Vs I AC I AC Vs
that is
I d = 2 I AC .
In this case the ratio of the transmitted powers will be:
Pd 3 Ud Id
= =2
PAC 2 3 Vs I AC
that is:
Pd = 2 PAC
From the above it results that for the same rated voltage the DC lines leads to
lower investments, respectively softer constructions than AC ones: with less
conductors and insulators and softer electric towers (Fig. 4.41) [4.25].
40.5 m
40.1 m
Fig. 4.41. Comparison between

towers sizes of 800 kV AC and
500 kV DC, having the same
transmission capacity (2000 MW).
For efficient utilization of the area occupied, a line operating at alternating

current of rated 220 kV with transmission capacity of 480 MVA can be
transformed into a line operating at direct current of rated 380 kV, obtaining on
this way a triple transmission capacity (Fig. 4.42). The AC three-phase line with
double conductor on phase is converted into a DC bipolar line with triple conductor
on pole.
480 MVA 1440 MVA
Unchanged tower
body and
foundations
220 kV AC 380 kV DC
Fig. 4.42. Transformation of a tower operating at 220 kV AC voltage

into a one operating at 380 kV DC.
The DC transmission lines have a bigger transmission capacity for the same
right of way (Fig. 4.43).
10000
Transmitted power [MW]
HVDC HVAC
Fig. 4.43. Transmission power
vs. right of way for HVDC 1000
and HVAC.
30
30 40 50 60 70 80
Right of way [m]
The costs of terminal conversion substations being higher than of AC ones,

the total costs become comparable around the equilibrium distances (Fig. 4.44). The
costs of overhead lines for powers bigger than 100 MW and transmission distances
of 500 800 km have the same size for DC and AC as well. The transmission
distance increases the DC links will be more efficient. The cost advantage of HVDC
increases with the length but decreases with the capacity of a link.
st Fig. 4.44. Total investments for an OEL and

l co
ta cost a DC link in terms of transmission distance.
to DC total
C
A
DC line
DC terminal AC line
cost
AC terminal cost
Break even distance Distance

OEL 800 km
UEL 50 km
A comparison between the transmission capacities of some AC and DC lines,

based of technical-economic considerations, is given in Table 4.4 [4.16].
Table 4.4
Transmission capacities of some AC and DC lines
Economic loading of a Equivalent DC line
AC line The same insulation level The same right of way
[kV] [MW] [kV] [MW] [kV] [MW]
230 240 200 400 300 900
345 580 300 900 500 2500
500 1280 400 1600 700 4500
765 2700 600 3600 1000 8000
These costs can be used to explore development options but confirmatory

figures obviously need to be obtained from manufacturers. Each power system is
different with respect to voltage, system strength, harmonic and reactive power
limits. Each owner has different requirements concerning overloads, availability,
reliability, etc. Each HVDC scheme is therefore unique and caution is needed when
utilizing the DC turnkey costs and additional facility cost variations discussed
above for competing options. It is extremely important to consider all options on
the same relative cost basis and also on approximately the same system scope basis
(same capacity, dynamic performance, reliability, loss analysis, etc.).
The 177 kilometres long Murraylink underground high voltage interconnection,
uses HVDC Light technology, is the worlds longest [4.23]. The project of ABB
connects the electricity grids in the states of Victoria and South Australia, allowing
power to be traded directly between the two states. Underground cables were used
because a large proportion of terrain between the two states is made up of national
parks with sensitive wildlife, as well as large privately owned agricultural areas. In
addition to the visual and environmental impact, underground cables offer
protection against Australias traditional causes of power outages, such as lightning
and damage caused by wildlife or bush fires.
In Table 4.5, the cost values, given in 1998 US$/kW/bipole (both ends), for
one converter per pole, are presented.
Table 4.5
Historical HVDC turnkey cost division [4.8]
Back-Back
250 kV 350 kV 500 kV 600 kV
200-500
500 MW 1000 MW 2000 MW 3000 MW
MW
$/kW % $/kW % $/kW % $/kW % $/kW %
Valve
38 19 50 21 42 21 35 22 33 22
groups
Converter
45 22.5 50 21 44 22 35 22 33 22
transformers
DC
switchyard 6 3 14 6 12 6 10 6 9 6
& filtering
AC
switchyard 22 11 25 10 19 9.5 14 9 13 9
& filtering
Control /
Prot / 17 8.5 19 8 16 8 13 8 12 8
Comm.
Civil /
Mech. 26 13 33 14 28 14 21 13.5 20 13.5
works
Auxiliary
4 2 6 2.5 5 2.5 5 2.5 4 2.5
power
Project eng.
42 21 43 17.5 34 17 27 17 26 17
& admin.
Total per
$200 100 $240 100 $200 100 $160 100 $150 100
kW
3.8. Application on HVDC link

Let us consider the DC bipolar line from Figure 4.45, having the following
characteristics:
The rated power and voltage values are 1200 MW and 300 kV , respectively;
The conversion stations consists of four bridges 6-pulse configurations, each of
them having the commutation reactance X kB ,r = X kB ,i = 6 ;
The total resistance of the line is RL = 15 ;
The converter transformers are equipped with on-load tap change mechanisms to
provide an appropriate level of the three-phase voltage to the valve bridge. This
aims to restore, after disturbances, the values of the angles and in intervals
appropriate to the normal operating state ( [15, 21] and [18, 21] ,
respectively). The rated transformation ratio has the same value at both the
rectifier and inverter stations ( Nikrated rated
, r = N ik ,i = 0.320 ) and may vary in the
interval from Nikmin min max max

, r = N ik ,i = 0.256 to N ik , r = N ik ,i = 0.384 , corresponding to
the interval (0.8...1.2), in per unit, with increasing step of 0.01 p.u., in order to
maintain the ignition angle in appropriate range in normal operating state and
the inverter voltage in the range 2.5% of the rated voltage ( U di [585, 615] kV ).
The minimum value of the ignition delay angle is min = 6 ;
The current margin is set to I m = 15% ;
Under normal operating conditions the link operates in control mode 1, so that:
the rectifier controls the current (mode CC), operates with = 18 and provides
the power at terminals Pdr = 1260 MW ;
the inverter controls the voltage level, operates with constant extinction angle
(mode CEA) = 19 and has the terminal voltage U di = 600 kV ;
the transformation ratio values are Nik ,r = Nik ,i = 0.32 ;
RL/2
400 kV 400 kV
+300 kV
-300 kV
Rectifier (r) RL/2 Inverter (i)
Fig. 4.45. Bipolar line.
Id
Ukr r Uir r Uii i Uki i
Nik,r Xk,r Xki Nik,i
Ud,r Ud,i
Ikr 0 ir ii Iki 0
Iir 0 Iii 0
kr ir ii ki
Fig. 4.46. Equivalent circuit of the bipolar line.
I. Determine for normal operation:

(i) rectifier voltage U dr and direct current I d ;
(ii) overlap angles r and i ;
(iii) phase-to-phase voltages values U kr and U ki , and currents I kr and I ki ,
respectively, at high voltage terminals of the conversion stations;
(iv) active, reactive and apparent powers as well as the power factor at high
voltage terminals of the conversion stations ( S kr , Pkr , Qkr and cos r ,
respectively Ski , Pki , Qki and cos i ).
II. Considering that the AC voltage at rectifier decrease by U = 10% with respect
to the voltage in normal operating state and the AC voltage at inverter remains unchanged,
and the voltage control by means of tap changing is inactive, determine:
(i) control strategy and the new value of the direct current I d ;
(ii) rectifier and inverter voltages U dr and U di ;
(iii) extinction angle and the overlap angles r and i after the grid control
system acts;
respectively Ski , Pki , Qki and cos i ) before the control system of the tap-
change position at transformer is activated;
(v) transformation ratio value Nik ,r necessary to restore the normal operating
conditions.
III. Supposing that, with respect to the normal operating state, the AC voltage at
inverter, increase by 2.5%, and the AC voltage at rectifier remain unchanged, under the
hypothesis that the voltage control by means of tap changing is activated, determine:
(i) rectifier and inverter voltages U dr and U di and the direct current I d before
the grid control system acts;
(ii) ignition delay after the grid control system acts;
(iii) transformation ratio values Nik ,r and Nik ,i after the action of the control
system of tap-changer position;
respectively Ski , Pki , Qki and cos i ) under the new operating conditions.
Generally, for the operating state analysis of a bipolar DC link the equivalent
monopolar circuit is used (Fig. 4.46). Let us denote by nBr the number of rectifier bridges,
and by nBi the number of inverter bridges and knowing that these are series connected on
the DC side and parallel connected on the AC side, then the calculation relationships of the
monopolar link, given in Table 4.1, get the form given in Table 4.6.
Table 4.6.
Operating equations of a bipolar line equivalated through a monopolar line
Rectifier Inverter
0 1 2
3 2 3 2
U d 0, r = nBr Nik ,rU kr U d 0,i = nBi N ik ,iU ki (A1)

3 3
U dr = U d 0,r cos nBr X kB , r I d U di = U d 0,i cos nBi X kB ,i I d (A2)

Table 4.6. (continued)

0 1 2
U d 0, r U d 0,i
U dr = cos + cos ( + r ) U di = cos + cos ( + i ) (A3)
2 2
6 6
I kr nBr N ik , r I d I ki nBi N ik ,i I d (A4)

Skr = 3U kr I kr Ski = 3U ki I ki (A5)
Pkr Pdr = U dr I d Pki Pdi = U di I d (A6)
Qkr = Skr2 Pkr2 Qki = Ski2 Pki2 (A7)
Pkr Pki
cos r = cos i = (A8)
Skr Ski
U dr = U di + RL I d (A9)
Solution
I. Normal operating state
(i) Calculation of rectifier voltage U dr and direct current I d .
From relation (A6) we express the direct current as:
Pdr
Id =
U dr
which is substituted in relation (A9) resulting the second order equation:

2
U dr U diU dr RL Pdr = 0 (A10)
having the solutions:
U di U di2 + 4 RL Pdr
U dr =
2
Of the two solutions of equation (A10), the one with positive + sign is kept
because for the no-load conditions ( I d = 0 and Pdr = 0 , respectively) this provides the
value U dr = U di which is physically correct.
Thus
600 + 6002 + 4 15 1260

U dr = = 630 kV
2
and
Pdr 1260
Id = = = 2 kA
U dr 630
(ii) Calculation of the overlap angles.

From relation (A2) we determine:
3 3
U dr + nBr X kB ,r I d 630 + 4 6 2
U d 0, r = = = 710.62 kV
cos cos18
and
3 3
U di + nBi X kB ,i I d 600 + 4 6 2
U d 0,i = = = 683.05 kV
cos cos19
respectively.
Taking into account relation (A3) it results:
2U dr 2 630
cos( + r ) = cos = cos18 = 0.822
U d 0,r 710.62
2U di 2 600
cos( + i ) = cos = cos19 = 0.811
U d 0,i 683.05
and
r = arccos 0.822 18 = 16.71
i = arccos 0.811 19 = 16.81
(iii) The AC phase-to-phase voltages U k ,r and U k ,i at the terminal buses are

determined using the relation (A1), from which it results:
U d 0, r 710.62
U kr = = = 411.09 kV
3 2 nBr N ik , r 3 2 4 0.32
U d 0,i 683.05
U ki = = = 395.14 kV
3 2 nBi Nik ,i 3 2 4 0.32
(iv) The active, reactive and apparent powers as well as the power factor on the AC
sides are determined in the following.
From relation (A4) it results:
6 6
I kr = nBr Nik , r I d = 4 0.32 2 = 1.996 kA

6 6
I ki = nBi Nik ,i I d = 4 0.32 2 = 1.996 kA

Next, using the relations (A6), (A7), (A8) and (A9) we proceed to the calculation of:
Apparent powers:
Skr = 3 U kr I kr = 3 411.09 1.996 = 1421.21 MVA

Ski = 3 U ki I ki = 3 395.14 1.996 = 1366.07 MVA
Active powers:
Pkr Pdr = U dr I d = 630 2 = 1260 MW
Pki Pdi = U di I d = 600 2 = 1200 MW
Power losses on the DC line:
PDC = Pdr Pdi = RL I d2 = 15 22 = 60 MW
Reactive powers absorbed at the terminal buses:
Qkr = Skr2 Pkr2 = 657.45 MVAr
Qki = Ski2 Pki2 = 652.80 MVAr

Power factors:
Pkr
cos r = = 0.887
Skr
Pki
cos i = = 0.878
Ski
II. Analysis of the disturbed state caused by the decrease in voltage by U = 10%
on the AC side of the rectifier terminal.
(i) The control strategy and direct current I d .
Due to the decrease in voltage at the terminal bus, the rectifier voltage decreases. In
order to maintain the current at the specified value, the control system of the link will
trigger, in a first stage, the decrease of the ignition angle in order to increase the voltage
U dr . Subsequent, the angle will be brought in the normal operating range by changing
the transformation ratio (shifting the tap-changer position).
In this section, the operation of the HVDC link will be analysed for the time interval
before to activation of the control system of the tap-changer position.
Assume that the HVDC link will keep on operation in normal conditions with:
rectifier on CC control with I d = 2 kA and inverter on CEA control with U di = 600 kV .
Therefore, the ignition angle should be changed so that:
U dr = U di + RL I d = 600 + 15 2 = 630 kV
From relation (A2) written under the form
3 2 U 3
U dr = nBr Nik , r 1 + U kr cos nBr X kB , r I d
100
where U stands for the percent voltage variation at the terminal bus with respect to the
value corresponding to the normal operating state, we determine:
3
U dr + nBr X kB ,r I d
cos =
3 2 U
nBr N ik , r 1 + U kr
100
For U = 10% it results:

3
630 + 462
cos = = 1.057 > 1
3 2
4 0.32 (1 0.1) 411.09

Therefore, the normal operating conditions cannot be fulfilled, and the shift in the
control mode is chosen: rectifier on CIA control mode with = min = 6o and inverter on
CC control mode with:
I d = I dsp I m = (1 0.15) I dsp = 0.85 2 = 1.7 kA
where I dsp = 2 kA is the direct current value under normal operating conditions.
(ii) The rectifier and inverter direct voltages now are:
3 2 U 3
U dr = nBr N ik , r 1 + U k ,r cos min nBr X kB ,r I d =
100
3 2 3
= 4 0.32 0.9 411.09 cos 6 4 6 1.7 = 597.09 kV

U di = U dr RL I d = 597.09 15 1.7 = 571.59 kV
(iii) The angles , r and i

Taking into account that the new AC rectifier voltage value is U kr = 0.9 411.09 kV
(reduced by 10%) and that the AC inverter voltage remained unchanged
( U ki = 395.14 kV ), from relation (A1) it results:
3 2 3 2
U d 0, r = nBr Nik ,rU kr = 4 0.32 0.9 411.09 = 639.55 kV

which is 0.9 of the normal operating state value, while the inverter voltage remained
unchanged, U d 0,i = 683.05 kV .
Next, from relations (A2) and (A3) we determine:
3 3
U di + nBi X kB ,i I d 571.59 + 4 6 1.7
cos = = = 0.894
U d 0,i 683.05
that is = arccos 0.894 = 26.64
2 U dr 2 597.09
cos( min + r ) = cos min = cos 6 = 0.873
U d 0,r 639.55
2 U di 2 571.59
cos( + i ) = cos = cos 26.64 = 0.780
U d 0,i 683.05
and
r = arccos 0.873 6 = 23.191
i = arccos 0.780 26.64 = 12.10
respectively.
(iv) The active, reactive and apparent powers as well as the power factors at the
terminal buses are determined in a similar manner like at the point (iv) from the
case I.
It results:
Currents at the terminal buses:
6 6
I kr = nBr Nik ,r I d = 4 0.32 1.7 = 1.697 kA

6
I ki = nBi Nik ,i I d = 1.697 kA

Apparent powers:
Skr = 3 U kr I kr = 3 0.9 411.09 1.697 = 1087.48 MVA
Ski = 3 U ki I ki = 3 395.14 1.697 = 1161.43 MVA
Active powers:
Pkr Pdr = U dr I d = 597.09 1.7 = 1015.05 MW
Pki Pdi = U di I d = 571.59 1.7 = 971.70 MW
Reactive powers:
Qkr = Skr2 Pkr2 = 390.24 MVAr
Qki = Ski2 Pki2 = 636.18 MVAr
Power factors:
Pkr
cos r = = 0.933
Skr
Pki
cos i = = 0.837
Ski
Observations:
a) The transmitted power (the power at the inverter terminal) decreases by:
1200 971.70
P = 100 19%
1200
with respect to the power transmitted in normal operating state.
b) the decrease in absorbed reactive power and the increase in power factor at
rectifier terminal are due to the decrease of the ignition delay angle up to the value
min = 6 .
c) the reduction of the power factor at the inverter terminal bus is due to the increase
of the extinction angle .
(v) In order to restore the normal operating conditions, the change of the
transformation ratio Nik ,r is required, so that for = 18 the voltage U dr to
(n)
restore to the value U dr = 630 kV .
From relations (A1) and (A2) it results that the normal operating state is restored if:
3 2
U d( n0,) r = (n)
nBr Nik ,r 0.9 U kr

where the superscript (n) designate the values corresponding to the normal operating state.
The new value of the transformation ratio is:
U d( n0,) r 710.62
Nik ,r = (n)
= = 0.356
3 2 nBr 0.9 U kr 3 2 4 0.9 411.09
respectively
0.356
Nik ,r = = 1.1125 p.u.
0.320
III. Analysis of the disturbed state caused by the increase in voltage by U = 2.5%
on the AC side of the inverter terminal.
(i) Because the inverter operates in mode CEA ( = ct. ) and the control system of
the tap-changer is not activated (this will act after a certain period of time which
is of the seconds order), the increase in AC voltage at inverter terminal bus will
determine an increase in inverter voltage U di .
Therefore:
3 2 U ( n ) 3 2
U d 0,i = nBi Nik ,i 1 + U ki = 4 0.32 1.025 395.14 kV = 700.12 kV
100
and thus:
3 3
U di = U d 0,i cos nBi X kB ,i I d = 700.12 cos19 4 6 2 = 616.14 kV

This change in voltage U di will results in change of the direct current I d because
(n)
the operating conditions at rectifier remained unchanged ( U dr = U dr = 630 kV ).
The new value of the direct current is:
(n)
U dr U di 630 616.14
Id = = = 0.924 kA
RL 15
(ii) Detecting this decrease in current, the grid control system will trigger the
decrease of the ignition angle so that the current will restore to the normal
operating state value I d( n ) = 2 kA .
The new value of the angle is determined as it follows:
The voltage necessary at rectifier is calculated as:

U dr = U di + RL I d( n ) = 616.14 + 15 2 = 646.14 kV
From relation (A2) it results:

3 3
U dr + nBr X kB , r I d 646.14 + 4 6 2
cos = = = 0.974
U d( n0,) r 710.62
and = 13.09 , respectively.

(iii) After a period of time (seconds) from the disturbance occurrence, the control
system of the transformer tap-changer will be activated. In this way, the
rectifier transformer tap-changer acts to hold between 15 and 21 while the
inverter transformer tap-changer acts to hold U di between 585 kV and 615 kV.
Maintaining the current on the DC line at the value I d = I d( n ) = 2 kA , according to
relations (A1), (A2) and (A9), the voltages U dr and U di fulfil the following relations:
3 2 (n) 3
U dr = nBr Nik , rU kr cos nBr X kB , r I d =

(A11)
3 2 3
= 4 Nik , r 411.09 cos 4 6 2 = 2220.67 Nik , r cos 45.84

3 2 3
U di = nBi Nik ,i 1.025 U ki( n ) cos nBi X kB ,i I d =

(A12)
3 2 3
= 4 1.025 395.14 Nik ,i cos19 4 6 2 = 2068.67 N ik ,i 45.84

U dr U di = RL I d = 30 kV (A13)
Analysing the expressions (A11), (A12) and (A13) we see that in order to restore the
normal operating conditions, the increasing of the ratio Nik ,r and angle , and the
decrease of ratio Nik ,i , respectively, are necessary.
In Table 4.7 the ignition angle values and the voltages U dr and U di for the
analysed case, are presented, where the transformation ratio Nik ,r increase from Nikrated
, r to
Nikmax rated
, r , and the transformation ratio N ik ,i decrease from N ik ,i to Nikmin
,i .
Table 4.7
Voltages U dr and U di angle variations in terms of the and transformation ratio
Nik ,r Nik ,i U dr U di
- - kV kV []
0 1 2 3 4
0.320 0.320 646.13 616.13 13.15
0.323 0.317 639.51 609.51 17.27

0 1 2 3 4
0.326 0.314 632.89 602.89 20.54
0.330 0.310 626.28 596.28 23.32

0.374 0.266 533.60 503.60 45.82
0.378 0.262 526.98 496.98 46.91
0.381 0.259 520.36 490.36 47.97
We see that the shift in tap-changers with one position in increasing direction of
Nik ,r and decreasing direction of Nik ,i , respectively, will restore the operation of the link
with values of and U di in admissible range, that is = 17.17 [15, 21] and
U di = 609,51 kV [585, 615] kV.
Appendix 4.1
HVDC SYSTEMS IN THE WORLD
Line Year Power Voltage Length [km] Main reason for choosing
Over- Under-
[MW] [kV] HVDC system
head ground
a. Mercury-arc valve systems
Kashira - Moscow 1950 30 200 115 - -
1954- Long sea crossing; frequency
Gotland - Sweden I 20-30 100-150 - 96
1970 control
7+ Sea crossing; asynchronous link
France - Great
1961 160 100 - 50+ 50/60Hz, out of service since
Britain I
8 1984
Volgograd -
1964 750 400 475 - Long distance
Donbass
Asynchronous link, rapid
Sakuma (Japan) 1965 300 2125 - -
control, low losses (ASEA)
Konti - Skan Sea crossing; asynchronous link
1965 250 250 86 87
(Denmark-Sweden) (ASEA)
New-Zeeland 1965 600 250 575 42 Long line including sea crossing
Sardinia - Corsica - The first multi-terminal link
1967 200 200 290 116
Italy (SACOI-1) (English Electric, ASEA)
The first line operating in
Vancouver, 1968/
312 +260 41 28 parallel with an AC circuit;
Pole I (Canada) 1969
undersea cable (ASEA)
Pacific - Intertie I, 1970 1600+ Long line in parallel with two
(Columbia River- 1985 400+ 500 1360 - AC lines; fast control (General
Los Angeles) 1989 1100 Electric, ASEA)
Nelson - River 1973- Long distance; stability
1620 450 890 -
Bipole I (Canada) 1977 (GEC ALSTOM)
Appendix (continued)
b. Thyristor valve systems
Eel River
1973 320 280 - - Back-to-back link
(Canada)
Skagerrak I...III 1974/ 500 Sea crossing
(Norway - 1977/ ... 250 85+28 127 (ASEA, ABB)
Denmark) 1993 1500 DC active filter
Square - Butte
1977 500 250 749 - Long distance; stability
(USA)
Cabora Bassa -
Apollo 1977-
1930 533 1420 Long distance
(Mozambique 1979 -
South Africa)
Skin - Shinano
1977 300 2125 - - Frequency converter 50/60 Hz
(Japan)
Vancouver
1978 792 260 41 32 -
Pole II (Canada)
Nelson - River 1978 - 900 - +250 940
Long distance
Bipole II 1992/ 2000 500 -
(ABB/Siemens/AEG)
Bipole III(Canada) 1997 1500 500 930
Hokkaido-Honshu 27 Sea crossing;
1979 300 250 44
(Japan) +97 finally 600MW (Hitachi)
Acaray Asynchronous link
1981 50 26 - -
(Paraguay-Brazil) 50/60 Hz
Vyborg (Russia -
1982 1070 385 - - Back-to-back link
Finland)
Inga Shaba (Rep. Long distance,
1982 560 500 1700 -
Congo) finally, 1120 MW
Durnrohr Back-to-back link,
1983 550 145 - -
(Austria) out of service since 1996
Gotland - Sweden 1983- Undersea cable, asynchronous
130 150 7 96
II/III 1987 link
The highest transmitted AC
Itaipu, Bipole I 1985- 3150+ 785+
2600 - power at long distance (18432
and II (Brazil) 1987 3150 805
thyristors), (ASEA)
Chateauguay Back-to-back link (ABB /
1984 2500 2140.6 - -
(Canada) Siemens)
Blackwater(USA) 1985 200 56.8 - - Back-to-back link (ABB)
Highgate (USA) 1985 200 57 - - Back-to-back link (ABB)
18 Undersea cable; asynchronous
Great Britain -
1986 2000 2270 - +46 link 60/50Hz; peak load
France II
+6 (CGEE ALSTHOM / GEC)
Intermountain
1986 1920 500 785 - Long distance (ASEA)
(USA)
Ekibastuz - Centre
1987 6000 750 2400 - The biggest overhead DC line
(Russia)
Back-to-back link between East
McNeil (Canada) 1989 150 42 - - and West weak sub-systems
(ALSTOM)
Fenno - Skan Monopolar line,
1989 500 400 33 200
(Finland - Sweden) sea crossing (ASEA)
Back-to-back link between
Vindhyachal 1989/
2250 270 - - North and West sub-systems
(India) 1990
(ASEA)
Long distance;
Gezhouba -
1991 1200 500 1000 - stability benefits
Shanghai (China)
(ABB/Siemens)
Rihand - Delhi Long distance; stability
1990 1500 500 814
(India) (ABB)
New Zeeland 1991/ Long distance including sea
560 -350 575 42
DC Hybrid link 1992 crossing (ABB)
Qubec - 22000
1990- Long distance, asynchronous,
New England +
1992 450 1480 - with 5 terminals (ABB)
(Canada) 2690
South Vienna Back-to-back link,
1992 550 145 - -
(Austria) out of service since 1996.
Etzenricht
Back-to-back link,
(Germany 1993 600 - - -
out of service since 1996.
-Tchquie)
Baltic Cable The biggest undersea link of
(Sweden - 1994 600 450 12 250 high capacity for a single cable
Germany) (ABB)
Kontek
Sea crossing; asynchronous
(Denmark- 1995 600 400 - 170
system (ABB)
Germany)
Chandrapur-Padge DC link in parallel with an AC
1998 1500 500 753 -
(India) line; stability (ABB)
Haenam - Cheju Undersea cable; asynchronous
1998 300 180 - 101
Island (Korea) link (GEC ALSTOM)
Chandrapur
Back-to-back link between West
Ramgundam 1998 1000 205 - -
and South systems (ALSTOM)
(India)
Back-to-back link between the
Vijayawada -
1999 500 205 - - East and North systems.
Gajuwaka (India)
ALSTOM)
Leyte - Luzon Long distance,
1999 880 350 22 440
(Philippine) undersea cable (ABB)
53/
Shin - Shinano Three terminal BTB
1999 53/ 10.6 - -
(Japan) 60/50/50 Hz
53
Minami -
1999 300 125 - - Asynchronous link (BTB)
Fukumitsu (Japan)
Ecosse-North
2000 250 250 - - Undersea cable
Ireland
Malaysia - 300/ Thyristor 8 kV, 1 kA
2000 300 110 -
Thailand 600 (Siemens)
Rihant - Sasaram Back-to-back link between East
2000 500 - -
(India) and North systems
Kii Channell
2000 2800 2500 51 51 Thyristor 8 kV, 3500 A
(Japan)
Tian - Guang DC link in parallel with an AC
2000 1800 500 986 -
(China) line (Siemens)
Higashi-Shimizu 300/ Asynchronous link between
2000 125 - -
(Japan) 600 50Hz and 60Hz systems
Undersea cable; asynchronous
Greece-Italy 2001 500 400 105 163
line (ABB)
Three Gorges -
Guangdong 2001 3000 500 890 - Long distance
(China)
NorNedkabel Link 600/ Undersea cable; asynchronous
2002 - - 570
(Norway-Holland) 800 line
Bangalore-Talcher
2003 2000 500 1450 - The biggest DC line from Asia
(India)
Argentina-Brazil 2003 1000 70 - - Back-to-back link (ABB)
Sarawak - 2500 Undersea DC link (ABB)
2003 1500 660 670
Malaysia 4+400 (Project cancelled)
SWEPOL Long distance and sea crossing
2003 600 450 - 230
(Sweden - Poland) (ABB)
Undersea cable; asynchronous
Eurokabel 2002 2600 600 -
line
Vikingcable 540
Undersea cable;
(Norway- 2003 2800 600 -
asynchronous line
Germany)
Three Gorges -
Changzhou 2003 3000 500 - - Long distance
(China)
c. Systems HVDC in construction or in designing
Three Gorges -
2007 3000 500 - - Long distance
Shanghai (China)
IbValley-Jaipur
3000 600 1500 - Long distance
(India)
Karamsad-Korba
(India)
Dehang-Bareilly
(India)
Balipara-
Ballabhgarh 5000 600 1500 - Long distance
(India)
Pancheswar
(Nepal)- 5000 600 1100
Vadodra (India)
Karnali - Vadodra
5000 600 1000
(India) - Multi-terminal system
Vadodra - Pune
3000 600 900
(India)
Pune - Madras
3000 600 1050
(India)
East - West High
Power Link 2010 4000 500 2000 - Long distance, asynchronous,
(Russia-Germany) with 5 terminals
Chapter references
[4.1] Kimbark, E.W. Direct current transmission, Vol. I, John Wiley and Sons Inc.,
New York, 1971.
[4.2] Uhlmann, E. Power transmission by direct current, Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
1975.
[4.3] Weedy, B.M. Electric power systems, Third Edition, John Wiley & Sons,
[4.4] Arrillaga, J. High Voltage direct current transmission, Peter Peregrinus, London,
1983.
[4.5] EPRI Methodology for integration of HVDC links in large AC systems, Phase I:
Reference manual. Final Report El-3004, RP 1964-1, Prepared by Ebasco Services
Incorporated, New York, March 1983.
[4.6] El-Hawary, M.E. Electrical power systems. Design and analysis, Reston
Publishing Company, 1983.
[4.7] Padiyar, K.R. HVDC Power transmission systems. Technology and systems
interactions, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1991.
[4.8] CIGRE Working Group 14.20 Economic assessment of HVDC links, Electra
revue, No. 196, June 2001.
[4.9] Kundur, P. Power systems stability and control, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York,
1994.
[4.10] Marconato, R. Electric power systems. Vol.1. Background and basic
components, CEI Italian Electrotechnical Committee, Milano, 2002.
[4.11] Eremia, M. Tehnici noi n transportul energiei electrice. Aplicaii ale
electronicii de putere (New techniques in electric power transmission. Power
electronic applications), Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 1997.
[4.13] IEEE Std. P1030.1-2000 IEEE Guide for specification of HVDC systems.
[4.14] Linder, S. Power semiconductors. At the centre of a silent revolution, ABB
Review, No. 4, 2003.
[4.15] England, L., Lagerkvist, M., Dass, R. HVDC superhighways for China, ABB
Review, Special report, 2003.
[4.16] *** Comparison between AC and DC transmission systems, Report CIGRE no.
37-94, WG 12-06, June 1994.
[4.17] *** AC/DC Transmission-Interactions and comparisons, CIGRE Symposium,
Boston, September 1987.
[4.18] Zhang, W., Asplund, G. Active DC filter for HVDC systems, IEEE Computer
Applications in Power, January 1994.
[4.19] Adamson, C., Hingorani, N.G. High voltage direct current power transmission,
Garraway Limited, London, 1960.
[4.20] Cory, B.J. High voltage direct current converters and system, Mac Donald,
London, 1965.
[4.21] Miller, T.J.E. Reactive power control in electric systems, John Wiley and Sons,
1982.
[4.22] Gnen, T. Electric power systems engineering. Analysis and design, A Wiley
Interscience Publication, 1986.
[4.23] Asplund, G. et al. HVDC Light DC transmission based on voltage sourced
converters. ABB revue, No. 1, 1998.
[4.24] *** DC and AC Configurations (Chapter 3), CIGRE WG 14.20, Johanesburg,
1997.
[4.25] *** High voltage direct current transmission, Technical Reports, AEG-
Telefunken.
[4.26] IEEE Std. 519-1992 IEEE Guide for harmonic control and reactive
compensation of static power converters.
[4.27] Smed, T. Interaction between high voltage AC and DC systems, PhD thesis,
Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden, 1991.
Chapter 5
NEUTRAL GROUNDING
OF ELECTRIC NETWORKS
5.1. General considerations

The neutral grounding of electric networks is one of the earliest concerns of
power engineers; this is due to the effects of an accidental touch between a phase
and the ground. Neutral grounding is intended to quickly and safely eliminate the
electric arc that occurs during phase-to-ground faults, in order to avoid the network
disconnection and to prevent the incident from turning into a breakdown of
insulation (short-circuit between two or three phases and ground). The neutral
grounding of electric networks is consequently one of the factors that condition the
supplied power quality.
The electric neutral point of a balanced positive- or negative-sequence three-
phase system corresponds to the gravity centre of the equilateral triangle formed by
the phase-to-phase voltages of the network (Uab, Ubc, Uca) (Fig. 5.1).
The connection point between the windings of a generator with star
connection or secondary windings of a transformer with star or zigzag connection
represents the physical neutral point. It is possible to provide the neutral to the
terminals or to distribute it or neither of these. When distributed, a neutral
conductor is wired to it.
a
Fig. 5.1. Defining the U ca Va U ab

neutral point N for a
three-phase network. N
Vc Vb
c b
U bc
In terms of the situation of the neutral point with respect to the ground, the
Standards give the classification of the following types of networks (Fig. 5.2):
isolated neutral networks;
solidly grounded neutral networks and impedance (resistor or reactance)
grounded neutral networks;
resonant grounding neutral networks (arc suppression or Petersen coil).
N N N
ZN= ZN XN
Ground Ground Ground
a. b. c.
Fig. 5.2. Neutral grounding of electrical networks: a. isolated neutral network; b. solidly
and impedance grounded neutral network; c. resonant grounded network.
Actually, the term Neutral Grounding designates a much general situation

and it takes into consideration the neutral situation even in the case when there is
no physical impedance between the ground and the neutral point.
If the star-point is not available at transformer, an artificial neutral point
can be created by means of a Bauch transformer, a special coil for neutral
grounding or the primary winding of an auxiliary services transformer.
The neutral grounding raised many discussions during the evolution and
development of the electric networks because of the large number of factors to be
considered when applying a solution, and the implications of that particular
solution.
As far as the network is concerned, the following factors should be
considered [5.1, 5.2]:
fault current magnitude;
overvoltage magnitude;
technical-economic characteristics of the grounding device;
voltages induced in the neighbourhood of the faulty line;
constructive design of the line;
selective fault location;
automatic fault clearance;
while in terms of the consumers supplied by that network the considerations are:
uninterrupted supply;
compatibility with the supply for the industrial processes of other
consumers.
The experience gained in operation and the tradition should also be added to
the above-mentioned factors.
In order to specify the grounding degree of the network in a certain point, the
grounding coefficient of a three-phase network is used. For a certain network
configuration, this coefficient, denoted by KG [5.16], represents the ratio between
the networks highest rms voltage measured between a healthy phase and the
ground, in the considered area, during one (or more) phase-to-ground fault, and the
rms phase-to-phase voltage, that could be measured in the same section without
fault.
Neutral grounding of electric networks 327
Generally speaking, this coefficient shows the grounding conditions of a

network seen from the considered location, regardless of the networks operating
voltage in that location. This coefficient can be determined in terms of the network
and generator characteristics.
5.2. Basic electric phenomena

in grounded neutral networks
The first phenomenon associated to a phase-to-ground fault occurring in
electric networks is the insulation breakdown (or flashover), a phenomenon not
depending on the neutral grounding method. The phenomena following the
insulation failure depend on the neutral grounding and influence the magnitude
potential of the network neutral relative to ground, the value of the ground fault
current, the voltages of the faulty phase and of the sound phases, the duration of the
electric arc forming the ground fault, the restoring conditions to steady state, etc.
5.2.1. Network neutral potential relative to ground

The phase potential of the network can be measured relative to the neutral of
the network or to the ground. In the first case, the phase-to-neutral voltages (Va, Vb,
Vc) are supplied by the power source: a synchronous generator or the secondary
winding of a supply transformer (Fig. 5.3,a). These voltages are practically equal
in magnitude and assure a symmetrical positive-sequence system (Fig. 5.3,b). The
neutral potential relative to ground depends on the admittances-to-ground of the
line: Y 0 = G0 + jC0 .
a
a
N b
U ca Va U ab
c N
Vc Vb
ZN G0c G0b G0a
C 0c C0b C0a
ZN
c b
U bc
Ground
a. b.
Fig. 5.3. Symmetric network with grounded neutral point operating in steady state:
a. the emphasizing of line admittances-to-ground; b. the phasor diagram of the phase
voltages relative to the neutral.
If the network is symmetrical and operates under steady state conditions, the
three admittances-to-ground are equal, i.e. Y 0 a = Y 0b = Y 0c or G0 a = G0b = G0 c and
C0 a = C0b = C0c . Notice that, in the neutral grounding of electric networks theory
and ground fault current calculation, the phase-to-phase capacitances are neglected.
Consequently, the neutral potential relative to ground is:
V a Y 0 a + V b Y 0b + V c Y 0c Y 0 (V a + V b + V c )
VN = = =0 (5.1)
1 1
Y 0 a + Y 0b + Y 0c + 3Y 0 +
ZN ZN
Therefore, the neutral potential of the networks operating under normal
symmetrical conditions is zero (identical with the ground potential) regardless of
the neutral grounding method (i.e. the value of the impedance ZN).
The symmetry, as the one shown above, is seldom met in practice because,
usually, there are some differences between the admittances of the line phases. The
term non-symmetry degree has been introduced to describe this situation. It is
defined as follows [5.9]:
C0 a + a 2C0b + aC0c
u= (5.2)
C0 a + C0b + C0c
where a = exp(j2/3) is the complex rotation operator.

For single-circuit MV overhead electric lines, the u value is about 1 5%,
while for the double-circuit lines this value is up to 20%. On the other hand, for
underground cables, the non-symmetry degree value is less than 0.5% [5.9].
Considering that a ground fault occurs on a certain phase (Fig. 5.4), the
admittance corresponding to that phase becomes zero and the neutral potential
relative to ground depends on the grounding neutral impedance ZN rating.
a
N b
c
G0b
ZN G0c G0a
C0c C0b C0a

Ground
Fig. 5.4. Three-phase network with single-phase-to-ground fault
If this impedance has high rating or does not exist ( Z N = ), then the neutral
potential takes the value of the phase voltage supplied by the power source, and if
the impedance ZN is low or zero, the neutral potential value is also low or zero. In
the first case, the potential of the sound phases increases to the phase-to-phase
voltage value overstressing the network insulation; in the second case, a high short-
circuit current occurs overloading the network current paths.
In terms of the magnitude and character (inductive or capacitive) of the

impedance ZN, the neutral point N (representing the neutral potential) can move to
any position inside the triangle abc, and its potential of the neural point can take
any value between 0 and the phase-to-neutral voltage V. The same situation could
happen if we consider Z N = and the admittances-to-ground Y 0a , Y 0b , Y 0c
could take different values. Therefore, it can be said that under steady state
conditions as well as during a phase-to-ground fault caused by a partial or complete
failure of the insulation at one or more points, the neutral potential is not identical
to that of the ground.
5.2.2. Single-phase-to-ground fault current

Let us consider that the network from Figure 5.4,a, with ground fault
occurring on phase c, can be schematically drawn as in Figure 5.5, where and
designate the terminals where the electric arc appears. Under normal operating
conditions the circuit is considered opened (not-loaded) while during the ground
fault, the arc impedance ZF (fault impedance) is superposed between terminals
and .
IF IF 0 IF
V =0 V =0 ZF V =0 ZF
ZF
Z Z V Z V

Fig. 5.5. Determination of the single-phase-to-ground fault current IF:

the decomposition of the real network into an active network and a passive one.
If the superposition and ideal voltage source (Thvenin) theorems are

applied, the real network can be decomposed into two fictive networks: an active
one with voltages forced by the supply source, with a zero current through the fault
impedance between terminals , and a passive one with zero forced
electromotive voltages but with a ground fault current flowing through the fault
impedance. The following relation can be written for the last case:
V
IF =
Z + Z F
where: V is the open circuit voltage at terminals and , when the network
operates under normal consitions; the current through the fault
impedance is zero for the active network because an ideal voltage
source of electromotive voltage -V has been introduced on the path
of arc from phase to ground;
Z the impedance of the passivized network seen between terminals

and . For its calculation, assume that the impedances of the
transformer windings are much smaller than those corresponding to
the capacitances to ground.
Unsymmetrical operation due to various faults on the transmission system,
such as short-circuits, phase-to-ground faults, phase-to-phase faults, open
conductors are studied by means of method of symmetrical components, introduced
by Fortescue in 1918.
Under normal operating conditions, the generator is designed to supply
balanced three-phase voltages and therefore only the positive-sequence exists. The
positive-sequence network consists of a positive-sequence impedance in series with
an e.m.f. designated by V.
The single-phase-to-ground fault is an unsymmetrical phase to ground
operation that can be analyzed using the method of symmetrical components. In this
respect, the real network can be decomposed into three sequence networks:
positive, negative and zero (Fig. 5.6).
+ +
Z I ZF
Ia=0
a V ~ V
+
Ib=0 ZF
b Z I
Ic V
c
Z0 I0 ZF
V0
V c = 0 ; Ia = 0 ; Ib = 0 3 ZN
a. b.
Ib+ Ia Ia
0
Ic Ic+ Ic
+ + Ib0
Ia+ Ib Ic0
c.
Fig. 5.6. The main circuit used for the calculation of the ground fault current by means
of the method of symmetrical components: a. fault representation; b. sequence networks
connection; c. decomposition of capacitive currents system into sequence
components.
Upon a ground fault occurrence, zero-sequence currents flow only if a return

path exists, that is, if there is a connection between the neutral point and ground. If
the neutral point of the network is grounded via resistor or reactor, an impedance
3Z N must be also inserted in the zero-sequence network, in series with the zero-
sequence impedance. The zero-sequence voltage, which has as reference the
ground potential at the point of interest in the system, is applied at the zero-
sequence network terminals.
In order to balance the sequence networks, the negative-sequence network
has to be defined, which is, in fact, the passivized positive-sequence network.
The equations between phase and sequence voltages are given below:
+ 0
V a = aV + a 2 V + V
+ 0
V b = a 2 V + aV + V
+ 0
V c =V +V +V
therefore:
+
(
V = a 2 V a + aV b + V c ) 3
= ( aV )

V a + a2V b + V c 3
V = (V a + V b + V c ) 3
0
where the equations are referred to the reference phase c. A similar set of equations
can be written for phase and sequence currents.
+ 0
Knowing that the three sequence currents are equal, I = I = I , the fault
current (on the phase c) can be inferred from:
+ 0 + 3V
IF = I + I + I = 3I = + 0
(5.3)
Z + Z + Z + 3Z N
+
or, if the fault impedance Z F is taken into account and knowing that Z = Z , the
expression (5.3) becomes:
3V
IF = + 0
(5.4)
2 Z + Z + 3Z N + 3 Z F
where: V is the equivalent electromotive force corresponding to the fault
section, without fault. In other words, it is the phase-to-neutral
voltage of the phase c;
+
Z equivalent impedance of the positive-sequence network, seen from
the fault section;

Z equivalent impedance of the negative-sequence network, seen from
the fault section;
0
Z equivalent impedance of the zero-sequence network, seen from the
fault section.
For the sequence voltages, the following relations can be written:

0 0 0
V = Z I
+ + +
V =V Z I (5.5)

V = Z I
from where it results the phase-to-neutral voltages in the faulty section:
+ 0 0
Z Z
+
V a = aV + a 2 V + V = V a + 0
2 Z + Z + 3Z N + 3Z F
+ 0 0
Z Z
+
V b = a 2 V + aV + V = V a 2 + 0 (5.6)
2 Z + Z + 3Z N + 3Z F
3V Z F
Vc = ZF IF = + 0
2 Z + Z + 3Z N + 3Z F
Obviously, one of the most important problems in calculating the fault
current I F is the forming of the sequence networks but mostly, the zero-sequence
network.
Healthy feeder
Transformer
HV MV
YH0 0
ZTL0 1/Y

I0
Faulty feeder 3ZN
ZN
3ZF
ZF IF b.
0 YF0
ZTL
a.
Fig. 5.7. The calculation circuit of the single-phase-to-ground fault current, in a MV
network: a. three-phase circuit; b. zero-sequence equivalent single-phase circuit.
Therefore, for the network in Figure 5.7,a, the three-phase and single-phase
equivalent circuits can be drawn. The zero-sequence impedance can be calculated,
from Figure 5.7,b, using the expression:
Z
0
0
(3 Z N +
0
Z TL
Y
)
1
0
3 Z N + TL

3 3
Z = = =
1 1
+ 0 3Y 0 Z + Z TL + 1 3Y +
0 0 0
3 Z N + Z TL 0
Y N 3 Z
Z N + TL
3
0 0 0
where: Z TL = Z T + Z L is the zero-sequence impedance of the network;
0
Z T zero-sequence impedance of the transformer;
0
Z L zero-sequence impedance of the line;
0
Y zero-sequence admittance of the line. It consists of two terms:
0 0 0 0 0
Y = Y H + Y F ; where Y H corresponds to the healthy line and Y F
corresponds to the faulty line.
Denoting by:
1 0 1 + +
Z NT = Z N + Z TL , Y NT = , Z = 2 Z = 2 Z TL
3 Z NT
the expression (5.4), of the fault current, becomes:
3V V
IF = =
3 Z 1
Z+ 0
+ 3Z F + 0
+ ZF
Y NT + 3Y 3 Y NT + 3Y
To the above expression, the equivalent circuit from Figure 5.8 can be attached.
This circuit shows us that the fault current has two components: one due to the
0
admittance to ground Y of the network, and another one due to the neutral
admittance Y NT .
IF Z 3

Fig. 5.8. Equivalent circuit for

the calculation of the single-
phase-to-ground fault current.
~ YNT 3Y 0
ZF

It should be mentioned that the currents flowing through the network

elements are obtained by adding up the corresponding currents from the active and
passive network. The currents in the active circuit are exactly the currents from the
steady state because the current through the fault impedance is zero.
Each solution for the neutral grounding will be analyzed in the following
sections, considering the following issues:
the current flow through the faulty network;

the magnitude of the ground fault current;
the displacement of the neutral point;
the voltages of the faulty phase and of the healthy phases;
the design of the system grounding;
the connection to the network of the grounding device when the star-point
does not exist;
the line influence on the neighbouring circuits during the fault;
the faulty line detection and fault clearance;
the modern trends in promoting the solution;
5.3. Isolated neutral networks

Let us consider the isolated neutral network from Figure 5.9. Assume that the
capacitances to ground are equal on each phase, C0 a = C0b = C0 c = C0 , while Il,a,
Il,b and Il,c designate the load currents, that form a symmetrical system, situation
similar for the charging capacitive currents flowing through the natural
capacitances to ground, Ic,a, Ic,b, Ic,c. For easier understanding of the phenomena, the
line conductance G0 is further not represented in the one-line diagrams. Therefore,
the neutral potential VN of the network will be identical to that of the ground (Fig.
5.10, the diagram drawn with solid line). If a ground fault occurs on one of the
phases, for instance the phase c (Fig. 5.9), the voltage and current values will
change. It can be seen that the capacitance to ground of the faulty phase is short-
circuited by the fault and the resulting unbalance causes capacitive currents to flow
into the path of fault via sound phases, then through phase capacitances to ground.
a
Il, a
b
N Il, b
c
Il, c
V=-Vc ZF C0 C0 C0
Ic,c=0 Ic,b Ic,a
Ground
IF
Fig. 5.9. Isolated neutral network.

a
V
Va Va
N
V
Vb
N G b
Vc c
Vb V
V Fig. 5.10. Phasor diagram of the
c networks voltages from Figure 5.9.
b
In order to determine the new values, the Thvenins theorem is applied.
Thus, considering the passive network with an electromotive force V = Vc
included on the phase-to-ground path -, the potential of the phase c becomes
equal to that of the ground, and the network neutral point changes its position to N'
(Fig. 5.10), having practically the voltage V relative to the ground.
In practice, it slightly differs from that value by the voltage drop due to the
capacitive currents flowing through the transformer windings and the impedance to
ground of phase c.
Likewise, the voltages of the sound phases (a, b) change their positions with
the same value with respect to ground, getting the values Va and Vb. The
magnitudes of these voltages are equal to 3 V , where V is the phase-to-neutral
voltage under steady state conditions. Therefore, the value of the grounding
coefficient is:
Va ' V 3V
KG = 100 = b ' 100 = 100 = 100%
Un Un Un
The currents flowing through the passive network, due to the voltage V = Vc,
are closing through the capacitances to ground of the line phases, through the
transformer windings and through the ground fault path (the path of these currents
was drawn with dashed line in Fig. 5.9). These are sine currents and charge the
transformer with a zero-sequence charge therefore resulting in non-symmetry
between voltages and currents. Overlapping on these zero-sequence currents the
capacitive and load currents from the normal operating conditions determines the
currents flowing through the ground-fault network. If the load currents are
neglected, the phasor diagram of the network currents can be drawn (Fig. 5.11,a).
a
IC IC
Va Va
Ic, b -Ic, c Ic, b
Ic, a
Ic, b
30 Ic, b
Ic, a -Ic, c Ic, a
N G N
Ic, a Ic, c N Vb
Vc -Ic, c
Ic, c Vb
c b
a. b. c.
Fig. 5.11. Capacitive currents position before and after ground fault on the phase c;
phasor diagram: a. normal operating conditions; b. ground fault conditions; c. capacitive
currents
composition during ground fault conditions.
Figure 5.11,b shows the composition of the zero-sequence (ground fault)

capacitive currents I c ,c due to the voltage V with those from the normal
operating conditions ( I c ,a and I c ,b ), obtaining thus the capacitive currents from
' '
the state of ground fault on phase c, I c ,a and I c ,b . The ground fault current I F is
obtained by composing the last two currents. The magnitude of this current is
determined as follows:
3
I F = I C = 2 I c' cos30 = 2 ( 2 I c cos30 ) = 3I c
2
where Ic is the capacitive current of one phase under normal operating conditions.
Its value is rendered below:
I c = V C 0
where C 0 = C0 is the zero-sequence capacitance (relative to ground) of all lines

connected to the transformers secondary of the substation.
The same result can be obtained in two ways:
by composing the capacitive currents corresponding to the sound phases
(Fig. 5.9,c);
by sticking to Thvenins theorem and neglecting the impedances of the
line and transformer windings for the passive network where voltage V
exists. Having the three capacitances C0 in parallel connection, the
equivalent capacitance is 3C0 and the additional capacitive ground fault
current is I F = V 3C 0 .
The last method is the most handy because it allows selection of three
components within the ground fault current, as follows: one component due to the
voltage existing at the fault location (V), another one due to capacitance to ground
of each phase and the last one due to the load currents.
Approximate relations can be used for informative purposes [5.9]:
UnL U L
I FOEL = [A], I FUEL = n [A]
300K 500 2K10
where Un is the nominal voltage of the line, in kV, and L is the length of the
network lines, in km. The per kilometre ground fault current values for various
categories of lines are given in tables and charts. For underground electric lines the
higher values of the ground fault current correspond to the polychloride vinyl
insulation and the smaller ones correspond to the polyethylene insulation.
The analysis of the above expressions reveals that the ground fault current
'
values are relatively low. The currents I c are in the same situation, remaining
much smaller than the load currents of the network.
The change in phase-to-neutral voltage will therefore be insignificant and the
network will continue to operate, supplying the consumers in satisfactory
conditions, even with one faulty phase.
Although the phase-to-neutral voltages remain appreciatively the same as in
the case of the network without fault, the potential of the sound phases with respect
to the ground changes. Therefore, the phase-to-ground voltage of the faulty phase
is zero, while the phase-to-ground voltage of the healthy phases increase by 3
becoming equal to the phase-to-phase voltage.
Upon ground fault occurrence, an electric phase-to-ground arc forms, through
which the resulting capacitive current flows. The electric arc extinguishes at each
zero crossing of the current. Depending on the intensity of the current, the arc can
re-strike after the current has passed through zero and when the current reappears,
the arc may extinguish and re-strike successively, thus creating an intermittent arc
(arcing fault). This can result in dangerous overvoltages on the sound phases that
can be 3 4 times higher than the phase-to-neutral voltage.
If the intermittent electric arc and the associated overvoltages persist for a
high number of periods, the insulation can breakdown causing the phase-to-ground
fault to turn into a double-phase- or three-phase-to-ground fault. For this reason,
protective measures must be taken to avoid the intermittent arc. The researches
performed in Romania showed that the intermittent arc emerges when the current
intensity from the fault location is higher than 5 10 A. For values smaller than 5
A, the arc is extinguished at the first zero crossing and the network resumes to
normal operation [5.19]. Based on these remarks it can be said that the overhead
lines with nominal voltages up to 35 kV are able to operate with isolated neutral.
The 6 10 kV underground cables can operate with isolated neutral if the
current does not exceed 10 A at the fault location.
To limit the ground fault current in MV networks with isolated neutral, the lines
are galvanically separated by sectionalising the busbars from the supplying
substation, a certain number of lines, respectively a certain line length, being assigned
to each busbar. This assures an admissible level for the capacitive current.
From the above-mentioned, it results that the isolated neutral networks have
the great advantage that the immediate disconnection of the line is not necessary in
case of a single-phase-to-ground fault, assuring thus the continuity in supplying of
the symmetrical consumers. Moreover, during failure (phase-to-ground fault) these
lines have low influence on the telecommunication lines located in the
neighbourhood.
The disadvantage of these networks is that the increase by 3 of the voltages
of the sound phases during a ground fault can cause the breakdown of the
insulation on the sound phases. Also, if the capacitive current exceeds the
admissible limit, the electric arc space is no longer deionised during the zero
crossing of the current and can persist for a longer time, thus causing dangerous
overvoltages.
Application
Determine the maximum length of the 10 kV overhead lines that can be supplied
from a distribution substation, so that to have the network neutral isolated from the ground,
given that c0 = 5 109 F/km.
The ground fault current is: I F < 5 A ; I F = 3 I c = 3Vn b0 l = 3 U n c0l ;

It results:
5 5
l< = = 183 km
3 U n c0 3 10 314 5 109
4
5.4. Grounded neutral networks

In the case of grounded neutral networks two situations can be observed in
terms of the grounding factor:
solidly grounded neutral networks, where the grounding factor does not
exceed 80%;
impedance (ZN) grounded neutral networks, where the grounding factor is
greater than 80%.
From the analysis of unbalanced fault conditions it has been seen that the
connection of the transformer and generator neutral to the ground greatly influence
the fault currents and voltages. During normal operating conditions, the situation of
the neutral point of the grounded neutral network is similar to that of the isolated
network. If a ground fault occurs, a very high fault current appears, called short-
circuit current. In order to limit this current, the neutral point of the network is
connected to the ground via impedance. This impedance can be a resistance or an
inductive reactance. Their values are established in terms of the fault current.
5.4.1. Solidly grounded neutral networks
Concerning the solidly grounded neutral networks, it should be mentioned

that due to this rigid connection, the neutral potential is maintained strictly at
ground potential (in reality a slight displacement of the neutral occurs, as a result of
the voltage drop due to the short-circuit current on the grounding connection and
the soil impedance), and the voltages of the sound phases during stationary fault
state do not exceed the value of the phase-to-neutral voltage under steady state.
However, the ground fault current is limited only by the arc and stray return-path
impedance that are small resulting in a high fault current. Since the three-phase-to-
ground faults are symmetrical, only the positive sequence impedance is taken into
account, so that the ratio I sc1P / I sc 3 P depends on the ratio of the positive-sequence
impedance to the zero-sequence impedance. Therefore, the three-phase-to-ground
current has the following expression:
V
I sc ,3 P = +
(5.7)
Z + ZF
In most cases, the phase-to-ground short-circuits occurring on lines are
transitory and automatic re-closing system is used to eliminate them; this system
clear the short-circuit by disconnecting the faulty phase of the line and after a dead
time it reconnects it back. The dead time must be long enough to assure the
extinction of arc, but not as long as to jeopardize the network safety and the system
stability. If the zero-sequence impedance of the network is smaller than the
positive-sequence impedance, the single-phase-to-ground short-circuit current
becomes higher than the three-phase-to-ground one.
This situation can be rendered by means of an example, as shown in Figure 5.14.
In this case, the short-circuit current Isc flowing through ground between the fault
location and the grounded neutral N1 has two components, determined by the
phase-to-neutral voltage Vc. The first component closes through the faulty phase
winding of the transformer T1, through the phase to ground path of the arc, and
then through ground. The second component closes through two equal and parallel
sound phase windings of the transformer T1, through the two sound conductor
wires, through the transformer T2, through the phase to ground path of the arc, then
back through ground.
Va T2 c b a
T1 electric line
Vb
N1 N2
Vc

Isc V=-Vc

Fig. 5.14. The single-phase-to-ground short-circuit current

flowing through a three-phase network with a solidly grounded neutral.
The following formula can be written for the total short-circuit current Isc
passing through ground:
V V V 2
I sc = + 2 = 1 + (5.8)
X T1 X T 1 + 3 X T 2 X T 1 1 + 3 ( X T 2 / X T 1 )
where, for the sake of simplification, the circuit resistances through ground and the
line resistances have been neglected and their reactances have been included in
those of the transformers.
If the transformer T2 has a rated power smaller than the power of T1, or if the
line is disconnected at this end, then X T 2 >> X T 1 and Isc tends toward V / X T 1 .
Otherwise, if the transformer T2 has a relatively high rated power, then X T 2 < X T 1
and I sc = 3V X T 1 = 3 I sc3 P , I sc3 P being the value of the three-phase-to-ground short-
circuit current. This situation is not appropriate and therefore, in order to reduce the
value of the single-phase-to-ground short-circuit current the star-points of some
transformers are not grounded.
The single-phase-to-ground short-circuit current charge the network
asymmetrically causing a significant voltage decrease. If the thermal and dynamic
stresses of the current paths are added to these, a relay protection is obviously
necessary to disconnect the faulty outgoing line.
An advantage of the solidly grounded neutral is that, during the fault period,
the parts of the transformers windings located in the vicinity of the neutral will
have a potential of value almost equal to that of the ground. For this reason, the
insulation level of these windings is possibly lower than that of the windings from
the vicinity of the higher voltage terminals of transformer.
The main disadvantage of the solidly grounded neutral is the generation of
disturbances on the telecommunication lines and radio transmissions during phase-
to-ground faults. Furthermore, due to erroneous operation, protection will trigger
the tripping of the line so that the consumer will be disconnected.
From the phase-to-neutral voltages point of view, during the occurrence of a

short-circuit the symmetry is assured only if the ground electrode resistance is zero.
In practice, the symmetry cannot be assured because of the resistance of the mesh
ground electrode, although is very low, it is passed by a high intensity current that
causes a displacement of the neutral point, thus altering the phase-to-neutral
voltages symmetry; the voltages of the sound phases increase slightly.
5.4.2. Resistor grounded neutral networks
In order to limit the phase-to-ground short-circuit current, the network neutral

can be connected to ground via a limiting resistor. This method of grounding has
the advantages of both the ungrounded and effectively grounded system, while
eliminating most of their disadvantages. For example, the potentially dangerous
system overvoltages caused by arcing-type ground faults are suppressed by
dissipating the energy in the resistor. Safety to personnel and system stability are
significantly improved. The mitigation of the ground faults damaging effects and
resulting hazards to personnel are even more pronounced when compared to solid
grounding. A useful rule of thumb: the energy released and the damage done by the
fault are approximately proportional to the square of the fault current multiplied by
the fault duration. If the fault current is reduced form 10000 A with solid
grounding to 100 A with resistive grounding, the magnitude of the fault is reduced
by a factor of 10000 [5.17].
The resistance value of the limiting resistor is determined by imposing a
certain value for the short-circuit current in order to have acceptable thermal and
electrodynamic stresses.
+
Expressing the sequence impedances in complex form, Z = R + + jX + and
0
Z = R 0 + jX 0 , the single-phase-to-ground fault current from (5.4) can be written
under the form:
3V
I sc =
( )
2 2
3 ( RN + RF ) + 2 R + + R 0 + 2 X + + X 0

and
2
1 3V
( ) ( 2R )
2
RN =
+
2X + X
0 +
+ R 0 RF
3 I sc

In order to emphasize some qualitative issues of the calculation of single-
phase-to-ground fault currents, the capacitance to ground and the resistance of the
line, as well as the resistance of the supply transformer can be neglected with
respect to the limiting resistor. Taking into account that 3RN 3RF + 2 R + + R 0
and X + X 0 = X , the expression of the short-circuit current written above

becomes:
V
I sc (5.9)
RN + X 2
2
where X is the inductive reactance of the whole circuit passed by the short-circuit
current and RN is the resistors resistance.
Under these conditions, the neutral potential relative to ground is:
VN = I sc RN (5.10')
or
2
V 2
VN = I sc X (5.10")
I
sc
If RN = 0 , the single-phase-to-ground short-circuit current corresponding to
the solidly grounded neutral I sc is maximum, that is:
V
I sc , max = (5.11)
X
and VN from the formulae (5.10') and (5.10") is divided to the phase-to-neutral
voltage, the following relation can be obtained:
2
VN I
= 1 sc
V I sc , max

or
2
VN I sc
2
+ =1 (5.12)
V I sc , max
The expression (5.12), represented in the quarter circle diagram from Figure
5.15, allows us to determine the neutral potential versus the decrease of short-
circuit current. When reduced to half of its maximum value, the neutral potential
becomes:
VN = 1 ( 0.5 ) V = 0.867 V
2
Besides the reduction of the neutral potential, the introduction of a resistance

in the circuit makes it easier to interrupt short-circuit current and to return to
normal operating conditions, because of the significant attenuation of transient and
resonance phenomena.
VN / V
1
0.75
Fig. 5.15. The neutral potential variation
in terms of the single-phase-to-ground
0.5
short-circuit current in the case of the
neutral grounding via resistor.
0.25
0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 Isc / Isc, max
Three issues should be observed related to the limiting resistor: the

determination of the resistance value, the constructive design of resistor and its
connection to the network when the network neutral point is not available.
a) The resistor sizing is set up in terms of the value of the single-phase-to-
ground short-circuit current desirable to appear at a fault occurrence in the
network, Isc. If the voltage VN from (5.10') is replaced in (5.12) the expression of
the resistance can be obtained:
1 1
RN = V 2
2 (5.13)
I sc I sc , max
More restrictions can be added to this requirement, as follows:

minimization of the overvoltage factor;
assurance of protection sensibility for zero-sequence overcurrent for the
lines and transformers;
assurance of sensitivity for the differential protection;
assurance of protection sensitivity for overcurrents when emerges in the
limiting resistor;
limitation of the step and touch voltage.
In Romania, the resistance value of the limiting resistor is established
according to the data from Table 5.1 [5.19] (the resistances are given in ).
Table 5.1
Limiting resistors for MV networks
Nominal voltage of
the network [kV]
Maximum single- 6 10 15 20
phase-to-ground
fault current [A]
1000 3.4 5.8 8.7 11.6
600 5.8 9.7 14.4 19.3
300 11.6 19.3 28.8 38.5
Application
Calculate the resistance value of the resistor used to ground the star-point of a
transformer that supply a 20 kV underground cable so that the single-phase-to-ground short-
circuit current to be reduced to 400 A.
Using the expression (5.13) knowing the Isc, max = 600 A and V = 20000 3 V, we
obtain:
20000 1 1
RN = 2
= 21.517
3 400 600 2
b) Constructively, the resistor may be built in the shape of rolled angle or

chromium nickel tapes and wires. The grids are series connected, forming the so-
called resistor banks. The banks are mounted on angle iron metallic frames, and the
support insulators provide the necessary insulation. These installations contain
measuring and protection systems, and their metallic parts are grounded.
A much cheaper solution is the manufacturing of the grounding resistor in a
special shape ground electrode separated from the mesh ground electrode of the
substation in which it is embedded. It is manufactured in a metallic board shape
buried at a suitable chosen depth. The board is embedded in concrete, which is
essential to assure the thermal stability of the mesh ground electrode, to decrease
the leakage resistance of the metallic board and to assure a resistance of value as
constant as possible.
c) For resistor connecting, when there is no star-point available for
connection to ground, the artificial neutral coil (ANC) or the primary of an
auxiliary service transformer with zigzag connection (TZC) are used (Fig. 5.16).
These elements are connected to the medium voltage busbars; the ANC coils can
be also connected directly to the supply transformer terminals, operating together.
The most useful ANCs have a zigzag connection. In this case, the value of the zero-
sequence impedance is very low, so that when a single-phase-to-ground fault
occurs, the entire phase-to-neutral voltage is distributed on the resistance connected
to the neutral. The core coil is lighter; the windings and the core coil are designed
to withstand only the phase-to-neutral voltages.
ANC TZC
RN RN
a. b.
Fig. 5.16. Connecting schemes of the artificial neutral:

a. artificial neutral coil; b. transformer with zigzag connection.
The limiting resistor used for neutral grounding via resistor is one of the
solutions implemented in the last period (20 25 years) in Romania, and it seems
to be useful enough especially in underground MV networks, since it turns the
ground fault occurring in isolated or grounded neutral networks via a relatively
high impedance into a controlled short-circuit, limiting the transient phenomenon
and the accompanying overvoltages, preventing such that the evolution of the fault
into double or extended faults.
The neutral grounding via resistor has been improved by employment of a
special measuring and protection transformer SMPT [5.10] or a shunt circuit
breaker SCB. The first solution (Fig 5.17) is used for shorter underground cables
where there is no star-point available. Usually, in Europe, the SMPT has two
secondary windings, one of 100 3 volts and other one of 500 3 volts or
greater voltage, which are series connected forming an open triangle where the
resistor R is connected.
Consequently, during a single-phase-to-ground fault occurring on an
outgoing feeder, the circuit forces an additional active current, determined by the
value of R, which triggers the opening of the circuit breaker CB, and therefore the
disconnection of the faulty feeder. After the fault clearance, the circuit breaker CB
will be re-closed, and the network resumes the normal operation.
The second solution, the one with the shunt circuit breaker, repeats the phase-
to-ground fault that occurred on an outgoing feeder, by connecting a single pole of
the circuit breaker SCB after a short delay, which connects the respective phase to
the ground electrode of the supply substation (Fig. 5.18) [5.14].
Fig. 5.17. Usage of a

special measuring and
protection transformer
for neutral
grounding
via resistor.
Measurement SMPT
R CB
breaker coil
This method has been used in France since 1975, by EdF, with very good
results. The current at the fault location is practically cancelled, the fault
disappearing without disconnecting the faulty feeder, and the network returns to
normal operation after the opening of the shunt circuit breaker. The shunt circuit
breaker should meet certain requirements:
upon the occurrence of a phase-to-ground fault it connects only the
corresponding pole of the circuit breaker;
it provides phase selection logic and shunt locking system for multiple
faults;
it does not allow repeated operation (shunting) if the fault did not
extinguish after the first opening of the circuit breaker.
RN SCB
Fig. 5.18. Usage of a shunt circuit breaker

in networks grounded via resistor.
The advantages of the shunt circuit breaker are:

transient faults do not trigger the disconnection of the outgoing feeders;
the phase-to-phase voltages remain unchanged during the circuit breaker
operation;
the electric arc is not eliminated by disconnection but by shunting;
shunting duration can be increased up to the thermal stability limit (about 5
seconds);
it is a simple and economical solution.
The operation of shunt circuit breaker was also investigated for islanded MV
networks within the context of dispersed generation [5.25].
5.4.3. Arc-suppression coil grounded networks

(resonant grounding)
5.4.3.1. General considerations
The neutral point grounding via coil aims to compensate the capacitive fault
currents. The particular case of this method is the grounding of the neutral point via
arc-suppression (Petersen) coil of an appropriate chosen reactance tuned at
resonance. This solution is applied for MV overhead lines or short underground
cables.
Thvenins theorem can be applied for the determination of the additional
currents that emerge during phase-to-ground fault (e.g. phase c, Fig. 5.19),
considering only the passive network and the voltage V applied at the ground
fault location.
a
N b
c
Ic,b
Ic,c=0 Ic,a
ZN IL
V C 0
C 0
C0
IC
Ground
Fig. 5.19. Grounded neutral network via arc-suppression coil.
Two currents emerge as consequence of the voltage V :

a capacitive charging current I C , corresponding to the capacitances to
ground of the line. This current closes through these capacitances to
ground and through the transformer windings;
an inductive current IL, which represents the sum of the currents of the
parallel arc-suppression coils, forced through the faulty phase.
The two currents, one of them leading the voltage and the other lagging
behind the voltage V by almost 90, overlap each other at the ground fault
location, resulting thus the fault of residual current Ir (Fig. 5.20):
I F = Ir = IC + I L (5.14)
or neglecting the active components of the currents, we obtain:
V
I r jV 3C 0 + (5.15)
j L
The expression (5.15) is written taking into consideration only the reactances
of the two circuits.
Fig. 5.20. The phasor diagram of the

currents from the circuits of the passive
network from Figure 5.19.
Ir IL
IC
The residual current has the following features:

its value is much smaller than that of the capacitive fault current, therefore
all its effects will be very much diminished;
its phase shift with respect to the voltage is small, favouring the
instantaneous extinguishing of the arc at the ground fault location; due to
the improvement of the extinguishing conditions, the residual current can
have much higher values (20 30 A), avoiding the danger of arc re-
striking.
To gain a maximum advantage, that is a low residual current, the coil will be
chosen so that:
V
+ jV 3C 0 = 0
jL
resulting
1
L = X N = = Xc (5.16)
3C 0
The expression (5.16) indicates the resonance condition for the equivalent
parallel circuit formed by the two branches: the reactance of the arc-suppression
coil and the capacitances to ground, at the frequency f = 2 .
It should be observed that due to the various elements (resistances and
reactances) of the circuit, a total compensation of the capacitive current cannot be
achieved and therefore I r 0 . This can also be seen from the analysis of Table 5.2
[5.9] where the ratio between the active (real) and capacitive (imaginary)
components of the ground fault current is shown.
Table 5.2
The ratio between the active and capacitive components of the ground fault current
Overhead electric lines:
Insulation state
Normal wet or polluted insulation
Line type
Underground cables: aged insulation
15 35 kV 5% 10%
Overhead electric lines
60 110 kV 3% 10%
Underground cables: aged insulation 2 4% 10%
The equivalent circuit of the network from Figure 5.19 is represented in

Figure 5.21,a, where LN and RN denote the inductance and the resistance of the coil,
while G0 and C0 are the zero-sequence conductance and capacitance to ground of
the line. Figure 5.21,b shows the phasor diagram of the voltages and currents of the
line.
IL IC a b
Va Vb
N
Ir Va Vb
Vc
0 0
LN RN V 3C 3G Ic,b I L=V YN
V
0 c IL= jL
IC=j3C V
Ic,c
a. b.
Fig. 5.21. Network neutral grounded via arc-suppression coil:
a. the equivalent one-line diagram; b. the phasor diagram for voltages and currents.
In reality, because the arc suppression coil is not 100% inductive, the current
flowing through it I 'L , is shifted with respect to the voltage V c by an angle smaller
than 90.
In the case of resonance tuning of the coil, the residual current consists only
of the active (real) components of the two currents:
I r = Re{I C } + Re{I L } , where Re{I C } = 3G 0V and Re{I L } = V R (5.17)
The expressions (5.16) and (5.17), corresponding to the resonance tuning, are
valid only for the fundamental harmonic. In practice, the ground fault current can
have higher harmonic components, mainly odd series (the order of 3, 5, 7, etc.) that
inhibit the extinguishing of the electric arc even when the resonance ideal tuning is
achieved. In this case, the residual current had the expression:
I r2 = (Re{I r }) + I 32 + I 52 + I 72 + ...
2
(5.18)
where, Re{I r } denotes the active component of the residual current on the
fundamental harmonic.
By the same token, it is worth mentioning that in many practical situations,
significant values of the residual current were due not only to the active component
but also to the higher harmonics.
5.4.3.2. Arc-suppression coil issues

The issues concerning the arc-suppression coil are the following: a)
the establishing of the coil reactance value; b) the construction of the arc-
suppression coil; c) the coil connection to the network when the star-point does not
exist; d) the detection of the faulty outgoing feeder.
The establishing of the coil reactance value
The value of the coil reactance XN is determined by taking into consideration
the failure conditions of the network (phase-to-ground fault) and the normal
operating ones (steady state). From the failure operating state point of view it is
desirable to have a value as small as possible for the residual current, theoretically
zero. The necessary condition for this to happen is I L = I C , that is, the parallel
resonance condition [5.11]. Nevertheless, under normal operating conditions,
because of the inequality of the capacitances (especially for overhead electrical
lines), the uneven dirty deposition on insulators, the asymmetric installing of the
measuring transformers, etc., a slight displacement of the neutral potential relative
to ground takes place, generating a voltage source in the series circuit: the coil, the
secondary winding of the transformer and the capacitances to ground (zero-
sequence) of the line. This phenomenon causes the emergence of very high
currents in the network when the tuned arc-suppression coil is connected. This is
due to the series resonance phenomenon (knowing that the parallel resonance
condition coincides with that of the series resonance). For this reason, the value of
XN is set so that I L I C ( I C = 3I c ). In fact, the network can operate with either
under-compensation, i.e. I L < 3I c , or over-compensation I L > 3I c . An over-
compensation by 1015% is preferred in Romania because adopting under-
compensation can result in reaching the resonance condition after the disconnection
of a line. It is not the case for the underground cables where the non-symmetry
degree is too low. In this situation the network can operate very close to resonance.
The coil tuning to the resonance or to a certain value is established taking
into account the voltage emerging at the coil terminals under normal operating
conditions due to non-symmetry of its capacitances. Therefore, if we consider for
one phase (e.g. phase a) that Ca0 = C 0 + C , and for the other phases
Cb0 = Cc0 = C 0 , and taking also into account the line conductance G 0 , the
expression of the voltage applied at the coil terminals is [5.20]:
V N =V
(
j C 0 + C + a 2C 0 + aC 0 ) (5.19)
( 0
) 0
j 3C + C + 3G + 1/ jL
or expressed in absolute value and referred to the phase-to-neutral voltage:
VN n
= (5.20)
V (3d )2 + (3v + n )2
C
where: n = is the network non-symmetry degree;
C0

d = G0 C 0
the damping factor of the compensated network; it
takes values in the interval 12 %;
IL
v =1 k =1 the off tuning degree of the coil.
IC
The relation (5.20) can be graphically plotted as in Figure 5.22.

VN /V
n1 > n2 > n3
n1
Fig. 5.22. Variation of the neutral
point displacement voltage in terms of n2
parameters n and v.
n3
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 V [%]
One can notice that the voltage on the coil is practically at its peak during
resonance. Accordingly, the value of the current flowing through the coil (and thus
the total capacitive current) can be established in practice for the resonance
situation.
Some errors appear in reality due to both the measuring system and the
maximums shifting relative to the tuning situation, and also due to the very low
value of the voltage at the coil terminals, especially for underground cables. One of
the solutions is to artificially increase the non-symmetry between phase
capacitance by introducing an additional coil during the measurement.
Recently, automatic adjustments assured the increase of the arc-suppression
coil efficiency. The following automation systems can be mentioned:
a system using the resonance curve of the zero-sequence circuit: coil
zero-sequence capacitances;
a system that monitors the magnitude and the phase angle of the zero-
sequence voltage;
the GENEPI system.
Application of the GENEPI system. The GENEPI system aims to identify the
impedance value of the zero-sequence circuit, without handling the coil [5.1, 5.2, 5.4,
5.21]. In this respect, a current is injected into the neutral grounding circuit for few seconds
(Fig. 5.23). By measuring the injected current and the zero-sequence voltage, before and
during the injection, the system is able to determine the parameters of the zero-sequence
circuit and thus the total capacitive current. Accordingly, the coil is switched on the tuned
position. GENEPI has the advantage of a fast tuning, its action being also compatible with
a fault occurrence during the measurements.
0 0 0
VN (V ) L
0
C C C
Ii
Fig. 5.23. The tuning system of the coil GENEPI.
Construction of the arc-suppression coil

The arc-suppression coil has a similar design to a single-phase transformer
having the primary winding placed on an iron core introduced in a metallic tank
cooled by transformer oil.
In order to linearize the voltage-current characteristic of the coil, the core is
provided with air gap sections and the coil is sized for the magnetization curve
bend portion. A current density much greater than the economic one is adopted for
the winding because the coil operates a reduced number of hours and
intermittently. The core position is variable in order to modify the reactance value
of the coil, and sometimes the winding is tapped. An additional winding used for
relay protection is provided on the coils core. It will indicate the presence of a
zero-sequence component of the current.
Connection to the network of the arc-suppression coil
Special arrangements with ANC and TZC should be used when a star-point
does not exist at transformer and also when a resistor is employed.
The neutral grounding via arc-suppression coil is not efficient in large
networks, especially for underground cables with high active power losses (6 or 10
kV networks with polyvinyl chloride insulation) or during ground faults with high
fault impedance.
In the recent years, the improvement of the performances of neutral grounded
MV networks via arc-suppression coil has been experienced; some of them being
designed for accurate selection of the faulty outgoing feeder while others for
efficiently compensation of the ground fault current. The coil resistor mixed
grounding is another often used solution.
The detection of the faulty outgoing feeders

As regards the detection of the faulty outgoing feeders, the systems promoted
by Electricit de France, namely WHAT and DESIR, should be mentioned [5.13].
The WHAT and DESIR approach may also be used, in a restricted way and with
less accuracy, in networks grounded via limiting impedance [5.2, 5.11]. The
WHAT system consists in zero-sequence protective relays, while the DESIR
system is used for resistive fault detection.
Application of the WHAT system. One of the major advantages of neutral
compensation is to achieve the self-extinguish of the arc. Unfortunately this makes certain
faults more difficult to detect when re-striking faults occur. The current in the faulty feeder
is not sinusoidal and the fundamental frequency component is sometimes rather small.
Therefore, the voltage waveform presents amplitude variations (Fig. 5.24). The WHAT
system is based on analysis of common mode energy transfer between the fault and the
remainder of the network (Fig. 5.25) [5.1, 5.13].
Extinguished fault voltage
Neutral point displacement voltage
20000
Present fault voltage (RF IF)
15000
10000
Voltages [V]
5000
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 Time [s]
-5000
-10000
-15000
-20000
Fig. 5.24. Voltages during a re-striking ground fault. Reprinted with permission from Griffel,
D., Leitoff, V., Harmand, Y., Bergeal, J. A new deal for the safety and the quality on MV
networks, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 12, October 1997 IEEE 1997.
20000
Healthy feeder
Energy in the last 20 ms [J]
Faulty feeder
10000
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 time [s]
-10000
-20000
Fig. 5.25. Energy transfer during a restriking ground fault. Reprinted with permission from
Griffel, D., Leitoff, V., Harmand, Y., Bergeal, J. A new deal for the safety and the quality
on MV networks, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 12, October 1997 IEEE 1997.
In the fault absence the zero-sequence circuit formed by the capacitances to ground
of the electric line, the coil inductance and resistance is unloaded. When the fault occurs,
the energy is transferred from the fault to the zero-sequence circuit, which is charged with
electric and magnetic energy through the fault resistance. The energy transfer direction on
the healthy feeders is positive, and on the faulty feeder it is negative (Fig. 5.26,a). At the
fault extinction, this energy charged in the line capacitances and coil inductance is released
over the resistance of the grounding coil. Therefore, the energy transfer on the healthy
feeders changes the direction (Fig. 5.26,b). The reactive power exchanged between the
neutral point coil and the zero-sequence circuit capacitance adds some oscillations.
E>0 E<0
HV/MV Healthy HV/MV Healthy
E>0 feeders E<0 feeders
E<0 E<0 Faulty E<0 E<0 Faulty

feeder feeder
a. b.
Fig. 5.26. Energy transfer direction: a. during the fault; b. after the fault.
The WHAT system measures the zero-sequence energy on a 20 ms timeframe, then

compares it with a threshold. The direction indicates the fault location, either upstream or
downstream the detector. It can be seen that sound feeders restore an active energy at the
time of fault clearance. This phenomenon must be taken into account to avoid untimely
tripping of sound feeders at that time. This can be obtained by an inhibition of the outputs
by the zero-sequence voltage.
This principle has been combined with classical wattmetric detection, based on
fundamental system frequency signals, in a protective relay capable to detect both
restriking and arcing faults.
Application of the DESIR system. Besides the usage as indicator for overloading or
direction of power flow on the interconnection lines, the wattmetric relays are used to
indicate the direction in which a fault occurs [5.18]. The wattmetric protection systems use
the product of zero-sequence voltage multiplied by residual current as input. When a phase-
to-ground fault or a low resistive fault occurs, the induced zero-sequence voltage and
current values being high, and these protection systems give good results. However, when
high resistive faults occur this is no longer the case. Zero-sequence voltage V 0 ( = V N ) is
low and the residual current Ir is also low. The devices limits in terms of sensitivity are
quickly reached. These resistive faults are caused by the contact between line and ground:
downed lines, internal faults in MV/LV transformers, or contact with a pole with no or high
resistance ground connection. The voltage profile is not significantly modified nor large
amounts of current are produced yet such faults are nonetheless dangerous, often causing
high voltage to be present on equipment accessible to the public. As these faults are not
easily to detect by protection systems they can persist for several hours. In networks
grounded via compensation coils, overcurrent protective devices cannot be used since they
do not provide adequate sensitivity.
The DESIR system (Selective detection using residual current), was designed to
solve the inconveniences of the WHAT system [5.2, 5.7]. A simple network with one
healthy and one faulty outgoing is given in Figure 5.27,a to demonstrate the detection
principle, which consists in using as input signals, only the active component of all residual
currents flowing in the outgoing feeders supplied by the HV/MV transformer. It does not
need any zero-sequence voltage measurement or special sensor. The detection principle is
based on the well-known fact that only residual current flowing in the faulty feeder
contains an active component. Notice that the residual current is measured as a zero-
sequence current.
Faulty feeder
a b c
Ic,a1
Ic,b1 0
V
(Ic,a +Ic,b)
reference
T IL 0 axis
C1
XN
Ic,a2 Ir Re{Ir1}
Ir1
Ic,b2
Ir2
Re{Ir2}
Healthy 0
feeder C2
a. b.
Fig. 5.27. The DESIR system: a. currents flow in medium voltage network;
b. phasor diagram of the residual currents.
The following notations has been used in Figure 5.27: I c ,a capacitive current of
phase a; I c ,b capacitive current of phase b; IL arc suppression coil current; XN arc
suppression coil reactance; Ci0 zero-sequence capacitance of the feeder i; i is the feeder
number (for our case, i = 1 for the faulty outgoing, and i = 2 for the healthy outgoing);
V 0 zero-sequence voltage of the network; T HV/MV transformer.
All the zero-sequence currents, purely capacitive, flowing through the sound
outgoing feeders lead the zero-sequence voltage by /2. The zero-sequence current flowing
through the faulty feeder has an active component in phase with the zero-sequence voltage.
If all zero-sequence current values are projected to an axis, perpendicularly to their sum
(Ir), it is found that the faulty feeder current projection is equal and opposite to the sum of
the sound feeder current projections.
In every outgoing feeder, unbalances cause phase variations that may result, for
sound feeders, in components presenting the same sign as those of the faulty feeder. In
addition, the faulty feeder unbalance can induce a component that will be subtracted from
the component generated by the fault resistance. For these reasons, the principle is applied
for zero-sequence current variations [5.4]. Thus, a very high sensitivity level (up to 100
k) can be obtained. This system is very fast; it is capable of detecting a fault in
approximately 1 second.
Application of the EPSY system (admittance method). In the last years in Europe,
the digital system for ground fault detection (EPSY Ground fault Protection System
Electronic Components) has been also promoted, which detects the faulty outgoing feeders
using the admittance method [5.15].
The method is based on the permanent knowledge of zero-sequence admittances of
every feeder under normal operating conditions, for which it can be built the maximum
admittance Ymax circle (Fig. 5.28,a) [5.20].
If a fault appears on one of the feeders, a fault admittance YF is added to the
'
admittance-to-ground Y0, resulting the admittance Y 0 = Y 0 + Y F > Y max (Fig. 5.28,b).
Under these conditions, the digital protection will trigger correctly. Notice that the
admittance evaluation is performed by means of a digital relay that meters the zero-
sequence voltage and current on each outgoing. This relay has a reference voltage provided
by the measuring systems from the MV busbars, e.g. Uab.
Y1
Ymax
Ymax
Y1
Y1
0 0
a. b.
Fig. 5.28. Geometric locus of the zero-sequence admittances of the feeders:
a. normal operation; b. faulty conditions.
Of the advantages of the neutral grounded via arc-suppression coil the

following should be mentioned:
in the case of transient ground fault, the continuous supply of the
consumers is assured;
the current at the fault location (residual current) is reduced; it has a value
of a few percents of the network capacitive current;
improvement of operation conditions for the circuit breakers in the sense
that the tripping number is much lower;
the voltage gradient in the fault location proximity is relatively low, thus
assuring favourable protection conditions against touch and step voltages;
much reduced influences on the telecommunication lines than in isolated

neutral networks.
The main disadvantages of this system are:
the cost of insulation and additional equipment is high;
in transient state the voltage of the sound phases is relatively high (2 2.5 of
V);
the fault turns from single-phase fault into poly-phase fault;
difficulties to extinguish the electric arc in large networks, especially in
cables with high active power losses (the case of cables with polyvinyl
chloride insulation);
the raise in cost for installations with automatic adjustment of the reactance
value;
difficulties in selecting the faulty outgoing feeder (especially for ground
faults of high fault impedance);
the complication of relay protection schemes.
A mixed solution can be also mentioned where the neutral point is grounded
via arc suppression coil in normal conditions and during the first moments of a
ground fault, and then including a resistor in parallel with the coil, when the fault
persists. This combination has he main advantage of the grounding via arc-
suppression coil, namely maintaining the continuous supply of the consumer
during simple ground faults (Fig. 5.29,a,b) [5.10]. As mentioned above, the
disadvantage of this solution consists mainly in the appearance of overvoltages and
the insulation overstressing on the sound phases. A large number of ground faults
are transient, extinguishing themselves by means of an arc-suppression coil
correctly tuned. The network usually operates with the neutral grounded via arc-
suppression coil, tuned to resonance.
N N
CB
CB
XN XN
R
R
a. b.
Fig. 5.29. The resistor coil mixed neutral grounding: a. resistor connected directly to
the ground; b. the resistor is connected to a special winding of the coil.
When a simple ground fault occurs and the coil does not eliminate it, the
resistor is introduced in parallel with the coil after a few tenths of a second, leading
to an increased fault current and the fault is quickly cleared (Fig. 5.29,a). The
classical alternative of this solution includes the resistor within a special winding of
the coil manufactured especially for this purpose (Fig. 5.29,b). The problem is thus
simplified, only one medium voltage cell for the artificial neutral creation and
grounding resistor are sufficient.
Application
Let us consider the network from Figure 5.30 operating at 20 kV, which supplies the
transformer stations of an urban district (L1, L2, L3) and a few neighbouring rural areas
(L4, L5, L6), given that the neutral point is grounded via arc-suppression coil (ASC).
Determine:
a) the capacitive currents flow and of those produced by the arc-suppression coil
(ASC) when a ground fault occurs on phase c;
b) the value of the ground fault capacitive current;
c) the arc-suppression coil reactance and the residual current values for a 15 % over-
compensation.
L1 5 km
L2 10 km
Underground cables
L3 12 km
220 kV Y0/d L4 10 km
L5 15 km
Overhead electrical lines
L6 18 km
Auxiliary 20 kV
transformer
ASC ZN
Fig. 5.30. The one-line diagram of a medium voltage network.
The solutions to the problems raised are given in the following.

a) Only two outgoing feeders are considered: a faulty (F) feeder (with ground fault on
phase c) and a healthy (H) one. The capacitive currents flow and that of the currents forced
by the arc-suppression coil are illustrated in Figure 5.31.
b) The ground fault current calculation is performed by taking into account the zero-
sequence capacitances of all feeders galvanically connected to the windings of the supply
transformer. Therefore:
I C = I COEL + I CUEL = 3 U n c0OEL l OEL + 3 U n cUEL
0 l
UEL
If we consider c0OEL = 5 109 F/km, and c0UEL = 150 109 F/km we obtain the
following value for the ground fault current:
(
I C = 3 20 43 9 109 + 37 150 109 314 = 48.484 A )
220 kV/20 kV
H F
I c, b+I c, b + IL 3
H F
Ic, a +Ic, a + IL 3 IC + 2IL 3
H
Ic ,a IL 3
a
IcH, b IL 3
b IL 3
c
Healthy Faulted IL 3 IL 3 IL 3
outgoing outgoing
IcH,a F
I c, a
IcH, b F IL
Ca0,H C0b
F I c, b TZC
H F
I C=I C+I C=
Cb0,H C0b
F H
=I c, a+I cH, b+
IL
+I Fc, a+IcF, b
Cc0,H
.
ZN
Fig. 5.31. The capacitive currents flow and those generated

by the arc-suppression coil, for two outgoing feeders.
The corresponding reactive power is:

Un 20
Qc = IC = 48.484 = 557.28 kVAr
3 3
c) The value of the arc-suppression coil reactance for a 15 % over-compensation is:
(1 0.85) U n 0.85 20
XN = = = 201.44
3 IC 3 0.0485
The expression of residual current (5.14) gives:
I r = I C + I L = I C I L = I C 1.15 I C = 0.15I C = 0.15 48.484 = 7.27 A
that is a current low enough for the extinguishing of the electric arc at the first zero crossing.
5.5. Neutral point situation in the electric networks

The neutral grounding is one of the most complex problems of design (strategy)
for the electric networks, particularly for distribution networks. This is due to the
large number of parameters taken into account. The consideration of one grounding
solution or another has great influence on the power supply safety for consumer.
Some remarks concerning the situation abroad and in Romania will be
emphasized in the following section.
5.5.1. Neutral grounding abroad

In the beginning of power systems development, the problem of neutral
grounding was solved for overhead electrical lines. The appearance and
development of underground cables imposed the necessity of solving the problem
for this situation also. The applied solutions are different from country to country,
and they are based on the power systems features and the economy of each
country. The same solution was implemented in low and high voltage networks:
solidly grounded neutral. Two directions were followed for medium voltage
networks in the beginning: the first one with solidly grounded neutral and the
second one with isolated neutral. A transition from the second solution to
impedance (coil or resistor) or arc-suppression coil grounded neutral networks
(resonant grounding) has been followed. Mixed solutions were also adopted later:
arc-suppression coil in addition to limit resistor. The resistor is commutable or is
permanently connected. Anyway, the neutral grounding in the medium voltage
networks does not present a unique solution abroad. The following solutions can be
emphasized:
the solidly grounded neutral; this solution has been adopted in Great
Britain, Canada, Australia and the United States and it is also called the Anglo
Saxon solution; in the last three countries the network neutral is distributed by
means of a ground wire. In the recent years, this solution started to be applied also
in the Community of the Independent States, especially in Russia;
the isolated neutral is applied in Japan, Italy, Germany, Romania, etc;
the neutral grounded via arc-suppression coil is applied in the majority of
Eastern European countries, Northern Europe, Germany and the Former USSR
Countries;
the impedance (especially resistor) grounded neutral is applied in France,
Spain, areas from Germany, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria and
Romania. This solution is widely applied for urban underground cables due to the
overvoltage decrease and the selective operation of protections. In this respect,
Table 5.3 gives the highest values for the overvoltage factor expressed in per unit
(the overvoltage is referred to the nominal phase-to-neutral voltage). It should be
mentioned that the shunt circuit breaker is used in France to ensure the extinguish
of the electric arc even when the neutral is grounded via arc-suppression coil. The
existence of an active component or strong distorted waveform of the residual
current make possible the extinguish of the arc.
The analysis of the data from Table 5.3 shows that the highest overvoltage
level is obtained for underground cables while the lowest one is obtained for
networks grounded via resistor.
Table 5.4 362
Grounding analysis in MV networks in some countries in the world [5.13, 5.23, 5.24]
Treatment Grounded via limiting
Grounded Combination resistor- coil
method resistor
Limiting Resonant
Isolated Resistor
impedance grounding In a single Switchable Permanent
Distributed Resistor with shunt
Comparison point resistor resistor
breaker
criterion
Italy, Germany, USA, France,

France, Great France, France,
Widely spread Japan, Sweden, Canada, Spain, Romania
Spain Britain Romania Switzerland
Ireland Norway Australia Romania
Single-phase-to-ground Very Middle-

Good Good Bad Bad Middle Good Good
fault current good good
Very Very
Protections quality Middle Very good Bad Good Good Good Very good
good good
Insulation level
3 V 3 V 3 V V V 3 V 3 V 3 V 3 V
required
Overvoltages level in
Middle Small Very high High High Small Small Very high Small
the network
Installations and human Very
Good Very good Bad Good Bad Middle Bad Very good
protection good
Very Very
Supply quality Good Middle Good Good Good Middle Good
good good
Very Good Very
Voltage quality Very good Bad Bad Good Good Very good
good good
Very Very Very
Faults detecting Good Good Very bad Bad Bad-middle Very good
good good good
Investments and
Small Middle Very high High High Middle Small Very good Middle
exploitation costs
Basic computation
Table 5.4 presents the analysis of neutral grounding in MV networks in some

countries in the world and Romania [5.13, 5.23, 5.24].
Table 5.3
The highest values for the overvoltage factor [p.u.] [5.16]
The situation of the neutral Underground Overhead electrical lines or mixed
cables
Isolated 3.8 2.3
Solidly grounded 3.6 2.2
Arc-suppression coil grounded 2.9 2.5
Resistor grounded 2.4 2.0
5.5.2. Neutral grounding in Romania

As previously shown, the simplest solution for neutral grounding is its
isolation. This solution has the advantage that during single-phase-to-ground fault
the consumers remain supplied but its disadvantage is that the sound phases and
neutral voltages increase, rendering the strengthening of their necessary insulation.
The solidly grounded neutral has the advantage that the insulation of the phases
and the neutral of the transformers are not overstressed during breakdown, instead the
high short-circuit currents overstress thermically and electrodynamically the current
paths, imposing the fault clearance. Therefore, the consumers supply is cut. The
short-circuit currents passing through the loop consisting of the network and the
return path through ground determine dangerous electromagnetic inductions in the
neighbouring lines with unfavourable consequences.
As a consequence, considering the above mentioned, the neutral is grounded
in our country as follows:
at high voltage level, where the insulation distances are large and the
insulation oversizing would be too expensive, the neutral is solidly grounded;
at medium voltage level, where there are no special problems concerning
the insulation distances, the neutral is isolated (for networks with overhead
electrical lines where the fault current is up to 1A/km) or grounded via arc-
suppression coil or limiting resistor. In networks with the neutral grounded via coil
there is a displacement of the neutral and therefore of the voltages of the sound
phases, behaving like the networks with isolated neutral. In resistor grounded
neutral networks the displacement of the neutral potential and of the sound phase
voltages during single-phase-to-ground faults is much reduced but the short-circuit
current has a high value and as a result the behaviour of these networks is similar to
solidly grounded neutral networks;
at low voltage level, the neutral is solidly grounded for the safety of the
personnel authorized to access this type of installations.
The efficiency of the neutral-to-ground connection is the concern for high
voltage solidly grounded neutral networks. The efficiency degree of the grounding
results as a compromise between two aspects: one that takes into consideration the
network neutral and line insulation stress, requesting a connection as solidly as
possible, and the other one considering the magnitude of the single-phase fault
current I sc1P and the possibility of becoming greater than the three-phase fault
current I sc 3 P , requesting the following condition:
I sc1P < I sc 3 P (5.21)
The best solution is to design an operational scheme that will not allow an
exaggerated displacement of the network neutral and simultaneously will maintain
the single-phase-to-ground fault current at the level of the three-phase one.
In order to assure the inequality (5.21) the ratio of the sequence reactances
must be higher than 1, that is:
X0
1 (5.22)
X+
In order the sound phase voltages not to exceed 0.8 of V during a single-
phase-to-ground fault, the ratio of sequence reactances must be smaller than 3, that
is:
X0
3 (5.23)
X+
As a result, the above expressed conditions can be fulfilled if
X0 R0
1 3 and <1 (5.24)
X+ X+
Since the introduction and development of 220 kV and 400 kV networks, the
percentage of networks with grounded neutral has considerably increased. A
stiffening of this connection was noticed, and the single-phase fault currents
became greater than the three-phase ones. This tendency was amplified by using
autotransformers in the network, whose neutrals are compulsory grounded (the
autotransformers operation with isolated neutral leads to unacceptable voltage
increases on the medium voltage side when a fault occurs in the high voltage
network). As consequence, in practice, the neutral-to-ground connection of some
transformers is disconnected in order to assure a ratio X 0 / X + < 3 and K G 0.8 in
every point. The practical measures are:
the neutrals of all transformers and autotransformers where the
manufacturer requests ground connection or gives no indication, are solidly
grounded;
in high voltage substations where a number of transformers operate in
parallel, only one of them is grounded, namely on the high voltage side;
in substations with many busbars, every busbar system is provided with
grounded neutral transformer;
in the case of the generator transformer groups from power plants,

operating in parallel, only one block-transformer and one auxiliary services
transformer are grounded.
It should be noticed that the removal of systems grounding of some
transformers and autotransformers from the high voltage network does not alter the
character of that network, namely the character of a network with grounded neutral,
because the maintaining of a sufficient number of grounded neutrals is still assured.
Concerning the main criteria that should be taken into account when
establishing a solution for neutral grounding of medium voltage distribution
networks, the regulations adopted in Romania, in the last period of time, stipulate
the following issues [5.19]:
the network characteristics: rated voltage, type (overhead electrical lines,
underground cables or mixed), the network architecture (possibilities to
provide meshed configuration), the value of the capacitive current, the
technical state of the insulation, the values of the ground electrode
resistances and the environmental conditions that affect the operation of
overhead electrical lines (pollution, vegetation, climate);
the consumers exigencies concerning the continuity and the quality of the
electric power supply service, and also the elimination of short-term
interruptions;
the assurance of the network security during exploitation, limitation of the
overvoltages and fault currents to the lowest possible values; fast and
selective fault detection, with a minimum number of switching; automatic
fault clearance;
the reduction of the influence of electric networks on the neighboring
networks: on telecommunication lines, on railways and on low voltage
networks;
the assurance of an efficient protection against accidents by maintaining
the touch and step voltage under admissible limits;
economic aspects (minimum present total discounted costs), also
considering the further development of the network.
When special consumers, which do not admit electric power supply
interruptions, are connected to the network, the solution for neutral grounding
should allow, in case of single-phase-to-ground fault, the operation of the network
on a limited period of time, necessary for consumers to take appropriate measures
to eliminate the possible consequences of the interruptions. Accordingly,
depending on the value of the short-circuit current, there are two options to be
taken into consideration: isolated neutral or arc-suppression coil grounding.
If the ground fault capacitive current does not exceed 10 A, the network can
operate with isolated neutral. On the other hand, if the ground fault capacitive
current exceeds 10 A, the solution of neutral grounding via resistor or arc-
suppression coil can be adopted.
The resistor grounded neutral solution is mainly used for underground cables,
but also for overhead electrical lines or mixed configurations, when the ground
fault capacitive current exceeds 10 A. The resistors should assure a fault current to
a value that allows quickly and selectively disconnection of the lines affected by
single-phase-to-ground faults.
In order to increase the quality of power supply service for consumers in
resistor grounded neutral networks, with overhead lines or mixed configurations
(with preponderance of overhead lines), the solution with shunt circuit breaker can
be used. This solution will eliminate the transitory single-phase-to-ground fault,
without disconnecting the consumers.
START
YES NO
1 IC >10 A ?
Mixed Cables
Line type Any
NO generator YES
connected?
As for OEL or UEL Overhead
in terms of the Resistor
lines Isolated
lines prepondarence
neutral
YES Insulation NO NO YES
state is IC >5 A ?
good ?
Isolated 1
NO Is there neutral
YES
any coil in
YES The consumers NO circuit?
accept
interruptions?
Resistor Resistor + shunt

Grounding YES
circuit-braker NO
electrode
state is good ?
Coil+permanent Coil+switchable
resistor resistor
Fig. 5.32. Algorithm for neutral grounding in MV networks in Romania.
The arc-suppression coil grounded neutral solution is mainly used in case of

overhead electrical lines or mixed networks (with preponderance of overhead
lines), where the fault capacitive current exceeds 10 A, and the consumers admit
interruptions due to switching of outgoing feeders performed to detect the fault
location. The arc-suppression coil should provide continuous control, so that the
compensated current should not exceed 10 A. Moreover, during the suppression of

the electric arc, the touch and step voltages must not exceed certain values at the
ground electrode. In order to avoid the permanent single-phase-to-ground faults to
turn into double phase-to-ground faults, proper relay protection and automation
systems should be used. An automation system is the one that connects a resistor in
parallel with the coil.
If the coil is equipped with an automatic tuning system, it will operate close
to resonance, subject to the neutral potential should not exceed 1015% of the
phase-to-neutral voltage. Because the resonance is hard to be obtained, the coil is
sized to operate in overcompensation of maximum 10%.
If local generators are connected into an isolated neutral network, the fault
capacitive current should not exceed 5 A. Otherwise, the solution with neutral
grounding via resistor or arc-suppression coil should be adopted.
In practice, however, there are various other solutions for the neutral
grounding, most of them being combinations of the above mentioned ones that
have proved their efficiency in certain operation conditions. In this respect, it is
worth mentioning the neutral grounding solution with arc-suppression coil and
permanently connected resistor.
Everything that has been explained so far can also be seen in the chart-flow
from Figure 5.32.
Chapter references
[5.1] Griffel, D., Leitoff, V., Harmand, Y., Bergeal, J. A new deal for the safety and
the quality on MV networks, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 12, pp.
14281433, October 1997.
[5.2] Leitloff, V., Pierrat, L., Feuillet, R. Study of the neutral-to-ground voltage in a
compensated power system, ETEP4, No.2, pp. 145153, 1994.
[5.3] Lindahl, S., Messing, L., Olsson, B., Petterson, A., stlund, E. Dispositif de
protection contre les dfauts rsistants dans les rseaux de distribution moyenne
tension, 11me CIRED, Vol.1, pp. 2.9.12.9.8, 1991.
[5.4] Leitloff, V. Etude, conception et ralisation dun automate de gestion de
reseaux MT compens, Ph.D. Thesis, Institute National Polytechnique de
Grenoble, France, 1994.
[5.5] Berthe, L., Clement, M., Leitloff, V. MV neutral control: New products for a
wider choice, 13th CIRED, Vol. 1, pp. 4.27.14.27.6, 1995.
[5.6] Leitloff, V., Bergeal, G., Feuillet, R., Pierrat, L. Messung der parameter eines
kompensierten netzes durch injection eines stromes in den sternpunkt,
Elektriziettswirtschaft, Vol. 93, No. 22, pp. 13711376, 1994.
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ber, 1997.
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solution francaise, NMT 95, Mulhouse, pp. 1721, November 7-8, 1995.
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811, June 2000.
Chapter 6
ELECTRICAL POWER QUALITY
6.1. Introduction
Electric power quality has emerged as a major area of the electric power
engineering. At present, both electric utilities and users of the electric networks are
concerned about the quality of the electric power. The term power quality has
become very frequently used in the last two decades. It represents a wide concept
for a multitude of disturbances occurring into the system.
In technical literature, the concepts of electric power quality or power
quality are usual. Each of the two idioms is made-up of two concepts: electric
power or electric energy and quality [6.2]. These seem relevant to us in a
certain context: the quality as a set of properties and characteristics of an object or
process. The object is the electrical energy and the process is the electrical power
supply.
In power systems operation, situations that fall under these concepts are not
necessarily new. What is new is that the engineers are now attempting to deal with
these issues with a systems approach rather than as individual problems.
There are major reasons for the growing concern [6.1 *]:
The load equipment of nowadays includes more electronic based
components such as computers and microprocessor-based controllers,
which are sensitive to power quality related disturbances than most other
electric equipment.
The improvement of the power system performances is accomplished by a
continued growth of manufacturing power electronic based devices. These
devices, such as adjustable-speed motor drives and shunt capacitors for
power factor correction and losses reduction, can affect the power quality
increasing the harmonic level into the system, and the consumer should
take appropriate measures to mitigate it.
Utility customers are becoming better informed about disturbance effects
on electrical equipments and manufacturing processes that are challenging
the utilities to improve the quality of power delivered.
*)
Reprinted with permission from Dugan, R.C., McGranaghan, M.F., Santoso, S., Beaty,
H.W. Electrical Power Systems Quality, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill 2003 McGraw-Hill
Companies, All rights reserved.
The power quality can have completely different definitions for power
systems, depending on ones frame of reference. The utilities may define power
quality as reliability and show statistics demonstrating that the system is 99.98%
reliable [6.1]. The manufacturers of electrical equipment may define the power
quality as those characteristics of the power supply that enable the equipment to
work in a satisfactory manner. However, the power quality can be defined as being
the main parameter to which both the utilization and delivery of the electric power
affects the performance of electric equipment. In this chapter, the power quality
problem refers to any phenomenon manifesting in voltage, current or frequency
deviations that results in failure or misoperation of customer equipment.
Following the increasing complexity of systems and customers, power
quality problems may be related to hardware, software or control system
malfunctions. Electronic components can degrade over time due to repeated
transient voltages and may eventually fail due to a relatively low-magnitude event.
Thus, it is sometimes difficult to associate a failure with a specific cause. Control
software may not have anticipated a particular occurrence.
In fact, the power quality is difficult to quantify, like the quality in other
goods and services, because it is not a single concept of power supply service [6.1].
There are many idioms used in standards such as voltage quality, current
quality, quality of supply or quality of consumption [6.3].
Voltage quality concerns the deviation of the voltage waveform from the
ideal shape, which is defined as a sinusoidal waveform of constant magnitude and
frequency. Voltage quality involves the performance of the power system with
respect to the load.
Current quality is a complementary term of voltage quality. It concerns (like
the voltage) the deviation of the current waveform from the ideal shape (sinusoidal
waveform). Current quality involves also the performance of the load with respect
to the power system.
Under these conditions, power quality is the combination of current quality
and voltage quality, involving the interaction between the system and the load.
Quality of supply covers the technical issues involved in voltage quality, plus
all non-technical issues related to the performance of utility with respect to the
customer, while the quality of consumption is a complementary term to quality of
supply, covering the current quality plus the performance of customer with respect
to the utility.
While not having a strict basis of measurement, terms like poor power
quality generally mean there is sufficient deviation from norms in the power
supply to cause equipment misoperation or premature failure. Good power
quality, conversely, means there is a low level of such deviations or
misoperations. Because the sensitivity to such deviations varies from one piece of
equipment to another, what may be considered poor power quality to one device
may be perfectly acceptable power quality to another.
Alternating current power systems are designed to operate with a sinusoidal
voltage of a given rated frequency and magnitude. Any significant deviation in the
Electrical power quality 369
magnitude or frequency from the ideal sinusoidal voltage waveform can be

regarded as a potential power quality problem.
Obviously, there is always a tight relationship between voltage and current in
any power system. Even if the generators may provide a near-perfect sine wave,
the current passing through the impedance of the system can cause a variety of
disturbances to the voltage.
The root mean square (rms) magnitude of an alternating current is the value
of equivalent direct current that would produce the same amount of heat in a fixed
resistive load. The amount of heat produced in a resistor by an alternating current is
proportional to the square of the instantaneous current, averaged over a full cycle
of the waveform. In other words, the heat produced is proportional to the mean of
the square, so the current value is proportional to the root of the mean of the square
or rms (the polarity is irrelevant since the square is always positive) [6.4].
For a perfect sinewave, such as that seen in Figure 6.1,a, the rms value is
0.707 times the peak value (or the peak value is 2 , or 1.414, times the rms
value). In other words, the peak value of 1 amp rms pure sinewave current will be
1.414 amps. If the magnitude of the waveform is simply averaged (inverting the
negative half cycle), the mean value is 0.636 times the peak, or 0.9 times the rms
value.
But, pure sinewaves do not exist in the real world of an electrical installation.
Figure 6.1,b illustrates a waveform drawn by a personal computer, where the rms is
still 1 amp, but the peak value is much higher, at 2.6 amps, and the average value is
much lower, at 0.55 amps.
There are two ratios that refer to the current waveform: the peak factor,
which is the ratio of the peak value to the rms value, and the form factor, which is
the ratio of the rms value to the mean value.
i [p.u.] Peak value = 2.6

3 Crest or Peak factor = 2.6
i [p.u.] Form factor = 1.82
Form factor = 1.11
Peak value = 1.414 2 True rms value = 1.0
1 Averaging rms = 1.0 1 Averaging rms = 0.61
True rms value1.0 Mean value = 0.55
0 0
0 3 2 t 0 3 2 t
-1 2 2 -1 2 2
-2
-3
a. b.
Fig. 6.1. Example of current waveform: a. sinusoidal shape; b. distorted shape [6.4].
Nowadays, increased productivity is based on a continuous operation process

and just-in-time production, which depends on an uninterrupted and reliable power
supply, hopefully free of disturbances [6.3]. This is why the quality of power
usually has a direct economical impact on industrial customers. Any incident
resulting in the temporary stoppage of the process can represent significant
production and raw material losses, because of the need to clean the machines,
restart the process in the proper sequence and recalibrate the production line to
meet the required product specifications. At present, there are concerns for a great
emphasis on revitalizing industry with more automation and more modern
equipment, which are usual electronically controlled.
Table 6.1 gives classification of the main aspects related to the electric power
quality [6.5].
Table 6.1
Main aspects of electric power quality
Harmonics
Unbalances
Modelling Stochastic methods
Modelling and Voltage support
analysis Software
Time domain
Analysis Frequency domain
Network methods
Metering
Instrumentation Measurement
Waveform analysis
Electric
Converters
Power
Pulse modulated methods
Quality Sources
Flexible AC transmission
Grounding
Passive filters
Static wave compensators
Solutions Static VAr compensators
Active filters
Adaptive compensators
Fundamental Standards
concepts Definitions
User issues
Effects
Protection
Another European Standard, IEC 61000-4-30 [6.6], defines power quality as

the characteristics of the electricity at a given point on an electrical system,
evaluated against a set of reference technical parameters. The related parameters
might in some cases relate to the compatibility between electricity supplied by a
network and the loads connected to that network.
This chapter presents various issues of power quality and its impact on the
distribution network and utilities and their customers and includes aspects
concerning: voltage dips and interruptions, transients and overvoltages, harmonics,
long-duration voltage variations and voltage unbalance.
Before approaching these aspects, it is necessary to show that the term power
quality is applied to a wide variety of electromagnetic phenomena on the power
system. The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) classified the
electromagnetic phenomena into the groups shown in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2
Principal phenomena causing electromagnetic disturbances
as classified by the IEC [6.7] and fields of interest of this work
Conducted low-frequency phenomena
Harmonics, interharmonics
Voltage unbalance
Voltage fluctuations (flicker)
Signal systems (power line carrier)
Voltage dips and interruptions
Power frequency variations
Induced low-frequency voltages
DC in AC networks
Conducted high-frequency phenomena
Inducted continuous-wave voltages or currents
Unidirectional transients
Oscillatory transients
Radiated low-frequency phenomena
Magnetic fields
Electric fields
Radiated high-frequency phenomena
Magnetic fields
Electric fields
Electromagnetic fields
Transients
Continuous waves
Electrostatic discharge phenomena (ESD)
Nuclear electromagnetic pulse (NEMP)
The main aspect of power quality is related to voltage quality, and this is the
reason why the voltage events are of great interest. But, the phenomena, which
contain voltage problems, are of two principally different types [6.3]. The so-called
variations are deviations always present into the system, such as the small
differences between the nominal voltage and the actual ones. The other type, the
so-called events are the occasional larger deviations, such as voltage dips and
interruptions. A voltage magnitude event is defined as a significant deviation from
the normal voltage magnitude for a limited duration.
Some standards [6.8] gives classification of voltage disturbances that
influence the supply reliability of consumer (Table 6.3), as well as the main voltage
characteristics and admissible deviation ranges of voltage magnitude in the point of
common coupling (PCC) of the public low (LV) and medium (MV) voltage
electric distribution systems under normal operating conditions. The main causes
of these disturbances are also presented.
Table 6.3
Classification of the voltage disturbances.
Characteristics
Category Rise time Disturbance
Duration Magnitude
frequency waveform
0 1 2 3 4
Transient overvoltages caused by lightning strike or switching events
impulse ns to ms (50ns, 1ms) 0 10 p.u.
1kHz to
oscillatory (1s, 50ms) 0 6 p.u.
10MHz
Short duration variation short circuit, start-up of large motors, electric arc furnace
interruption collapse (10ms, 3s) 100%
fundamental (0.5cy, 0.1 0.9

dip (sag)
frequency 50cy) p.u.
fundamental (0.5cy, 1.1 1.8

swell
frequency 50cy) p.u.
flicker or
fundamental 0.3 1.1
fluctuations >30 ms
frequency p.u.
Long duration variation close faults, false tripping, load shedding
interruption collapse (3s 1min) 100%
undervoltage fundamental 0.8 0.9

> 1min
(dip) frequency p.u.
overvoltage fundamental 1.1 1.2

> 1 min
(swell) frequency p.u.
Waveform distortion non-linear load, resonance, transformer saturation, single phase load
0 40th
harmonics continuous 0 25%
harmonic

0 1 2 3 4
notching broadband continuous 0 10%
voltage fundamental
continuous < 3%
unbalance frequency
The common Standards that manufacturers use for computer equipment are
the ITIC (Information Technology Industry Council) curve (Fig. 6.2,b), which is an
updated version of CBEMA (Computer Business Equipment Manufacturers
Association) (Fig. 6.2,a) and SEMI (Semiconductor Equipment and Materials
International Group 1998) (Fig. 6.2,c) [6.9]. The ITIC curve indicates the withstand
capabilities of computer equipments in terms of the magnitude and duration of the
voltage disturbance. Disturbances occurring in the outer of withstand area might
cause a malfunction of equipment. It may be necessary to check carefully which
Standards are applicable when considering equipment susceptibility to voltage
disturbances. Notice that, the ITIC curve is applicable to 60 Hz frequency and 120 V,
120 V / 208 V and 120 V / 240 V nominal voltages only.
200 250
Percentage of nominal voltage
180
160 affected by disturbance 200
140 affected by disturbance
120 150
withstand to
80 disturbance 100 withstand to disturbance
60
40 affected by disturbance 50
20 affected by disturbance
0 0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Duration of disturbance [s]
a. b.
140
120 disturbance area

in which equipment
100 should operate
80
60
40
20
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
c.
Fig. 6.2. Equipment susceptibility curves: a. CBEMA; b. ITIC; c. SEMI.
6.2. Short-duration voltage variations. Voltage dips

and interruptions
The IEC Standard 61000-2-8 [6.10] defines the term voltage dip as a
temporary reduction in rms voltage at a particular point in the electric system
below a threshold following to current increases caused by the occurrence of short-
circuits, starting of large motors or energization of large inductive loads. The
alternative name for this phenomenon used in the U.S. Standards is voltage sag. A
short interruption is a particular kind of voltage dip and represents a temporary
reduction of the voltage on all phases at a particular point in the electric system
below a threshold. This phenomenon is the result of the actions taken by utilities to
clear transient faults in the system. The interruptions of longer than 1 minute (or 3
minutes in the case of some reclosing schemes) are usually due to permanent faults.
The interest in voltage dips is due to the problems they cause on several types
of equipment essential in computer systems, commercial and industrial installations.
The expansion of digital computers and other types of electronic devices is the
substance of the matter. Computer controllers tend to lose their memory and the
processes that are being controlled also tend to be more complex taking much more
time to restart. Another important aspect of voltage dips and interruptions is that
they are hard to mitigate. Many long interruptions can be prevented via simple,
although expensive measures in the local distribution network. Voltage dips at
equipment terminals appear due to locally short-circuit faults or due to distant
short-circuit faults.
6.2.1. Origins of dips and interruptions

Voltage dips and interruptions are caused by disturbances occurring into the
distribution network or at the end-user. When a short-circuit occurs on an electric
line, the impedance at the fault location becomes low and consequently a large
current flows from the source toward the fault that, in turn, gives rise to large drops
in the impedances of the supply system. A similar situation is met when a motor
starts, when a current 5~10 times larger than the rated current is absorbed into the
motor that causes large increase in voltage drop resulting therefore in a voltage dip.
These decreases in voltage lead to tripping of sensitive loads such as
computers, process-control equipment and adjustable-speed drives. For instance,
the data-processing equipment may admit an overvoltage of 5 times the rated
voltage during 100 s, and an overvoltage of only 20% of the rated voltage during
10 ms. Concerning the undervoltages, a voltage interruption may be accepted up to
20 ms, while for 100 ms the retained voltage should not be less than 70% of the
rated voltage.
In terms of the voltage level where the incident occurs, the area affected will
be more or less spread. A short-circuit occurring into the high voltage network will
affect a more wider area, including the lower voltage level networks supplied by it,
while a short-circuit occurring into the medium voltage network will be less
experienced by the high voltage network because of the series impedances of the
transformers and lines.
Let us consider the distribution network from Figure 6.3, where the numbers
1, 2 and 3 indicate the fault positions and the letters C1, C2, C3, C4 indicate the
loads. A fault in the transmission line (position 1) will cause dip for both
substations bordering the faulted line. This dip is propagated toward all customers
fed from these two substations (i.e. C1, C2, C3, C4). The consumer C1 will
experience the largest voltage dip because the faulted line feeds it.
1
C1
transmission line
2 distribution network
C2
transformers
C3 C4
Fig. 6.3. A simple distribution network with fault locations.
A fault at position 2 will not cause much voltage drop for customer C1. The
impedance of the transformer between the transmission and the sub-transmission
system are large enough to considerably limit the voltage drop on the high-voltage
side of the transformer. The fault at position 2 will cause a deep dip in all
distribution network supplied by the distribution transformer and thus for all
consumers fed from there (C2, C3, C4).
A fault at position 3 will cause a short or/and long interruption for the
consumer C3 when the protection clears the fault. Consumers C1, C2 and C4 will not
experience any significant drop in voltage due to faults 3.
6.2.2. Voltage dips characterization and classification

Voltage dips are random occurrence phenomena having different causes.
These can be symmetrical or non-symmetrical depending on the way the three
phases are affected. Dips characteristics are used for disturbance classification
criteria in order to obtain general statistics and information of power quality. The
standard dip characterization uses two parameters: magnitude and duration. The
dip magnitude is the difference between the supply voltage before disturbance
occurrence and the retained voltage. The retained voltage is the lowest rms voltage
value below a threshold, measured on a 10 ms period during the dip, and the dip
duration is the time-difference between the beginning and the end of the
disturbance. Figure 6.4,a shows the voltage profile of a voltage dip, together with
the associated definitions.
A factory, where a large number of motors operate, can experience multiple
dips (Fig. 6.4,b) due to simultaneous large load variations.
Vrms Vrms
Vmax Vmax
Vmin Vmin
Dip magnitude Dip magnitude
Dip duration
Dip duration
Retained voltage Retained voltage

Interruption Interruption
Time Time
a. b.
Fig. 6.4. Voltage dip profile [6.11].
A typical example of voltage dip can be seen in Figure 6.5 [6.3], where the
instantaneous voltage versus time, as obtained from a power quality monitor, is
illustrated. The voltage amplitude drops to a value of about 0.2 p.u. of its pre-event
value for about two cycles, after which the voltage recovers. The magnitude of
voltage dip is determined from the rms voltage. The rms voltage for the dip in
Figure 6.5 is shown in Figure 6.6.
1 1
0.8
Rms voltage, in p.u.
0.6
0.4 0.8
Voltage, in p.u.
0.2 0.6
0
-0.2
-0.4 0.4
-0.6
-0.8 0.2
-1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time in cycles Time in cycles
Fig. 6.5. Example of voltage dip. Fig. 6.6. Rms voltage versus time for the
voltage dip shown in Figure 6.5.
The rms voltage is typically calculated over a one-cycle window [6.3]:

1 i=k
Vrms (k ) =
N i = k N +1
v(i ) 2 (6.1)
where: N is the number of samples per cycle,

v(i) the sampled voltage in time domain.
The rms voltage as shown in Figure 6.6 does not immediately drop to a lower
value, but takes one cycle for the transition. This is due to the finite length of the
window user to calculate the rms value.
The rms voltage measured on the substation busbars during a disturbance that
causes a dip could have different shapes in terms of the disturbance type.
Four fundamental types of dips affecting the three-phase loads are presented
in [6.12]: one caused by three-phase faults (type A) and others caused by single
phase-to-ground faults (type B) and phase-to-phase faults (types C and D).
An unbalanced dip (i.e. dips due to non-symmetrical faults) results in a
characteristic voltage of the event, denoted by V, which is a generalized version of
the retained voltage for balanced dips, and a second characteristic voltage, referred
to as PN-factor, or denoted by F, which is the voltage of the not faulted phase. The
PN-factor is close to unity for dips due to phase-to-ground and phase-to-phase
faults. Instead, for double-phase-to-ground faults, the PN-factor is significantly
smaller than unity.
The phase-to-neutral voltages diagrams representing the four types of dips
are presented in Figure 6.7. A retained voltage V = 0.5 p.u. and PN-factor F = 1
p.u. are considered. The voltage expressions are presented below the diagrams. It
should be mentioned that these definitions are valid only for solidly grounded
neutral networks.
The main problem is that the so-called post-fault dip will affect the dip
duration. When the fault is cleared, the voltage does not recover immediately. This
is mainly due to the reenergizing and reaccelerating of induction motors, which
take high currents from the system, or due to saturation of transformers upon
voltage recovery. This post-fault dip can last several seconds, much longer than the
actual dip. Therefore, the dip duration as defined earlier, is no longer equal to the
fault clearing time.
In transmission systems the faults are cleared faster than the faults occurring
in distribution systems [6.2]. Here, the critical fault-clearing time is rather small.
Also, transmission and sub-transmission systems are normally operated as a grid,
requiring distance protection or differential protection, both of which allow for fast
clearing of the fault. The main type of protection in distribution systems is over
current protection. This requires a certain amount of time grading, which increases
the fault-clearing time. An exception is constituted by systems in which current-
limiting fuses are used. These have the ability to clear a fault within a half-cycle. In
overhead distribution systems, the instantaneous trip of the re-closer will lead to short
dip duration, but the clearing of a permanent fault will give dips of much longer
duration.
Vc
Vc
Va Va
V 3 F 3
V V
Vb
Vb
Va =V Va =V
1 3 1 3
Vb = V j V Vb = F j F
2 2 2 2
1 3 1 3
Vc = V + j V Vc = F + j F
2 2 2 2
a. b.
Vc Vc
Va Va
F V
Vb Vb
Va = F Va =V
1 3 1 3
Vb = F j V Vb = V j F
2 2 2 2
1 3 1 3
Vc = F + j V Vc = V + j F
2 2 2 2
c. d.
Fig. 6.7. The basic type of three-phase balanced and unbalanced dips:
a. type A; b. type B; c. type C; d. type D.
Voltage dips due to faults can be shown in a plot, as well as dips due to motor
starting and even long and short interruptions. Different load types cause dips of
different origin in the magnitude-duration plane (Fig. 6.8) [6.2].
transmission
network
45-100%
local MV
fuses network motor starting and interruptions
45-60 % 40-70% 80-100% 0-20%
0 0.1 1 10 100 Duration, sec

Fig. 6.8. Dips of different origin in a magnitude [%] vs. duration plot [sec].
6.2.3. Voltage dips calculation

Dips characteristics can be obtained directly from measurements or considering
the basic electric circuits theory. Another approach, analysing basic fault types,
considers an ideal system in which only the four fault types may occur.
In order to calculate the dip magnitude in radial networks, using the basic
electrical circuit theory the voltage divider model shown in Figure 6.9 can be used
[6.2, 6.13].
V ZLF Fault
E ZS
Fig. 6.9. Voltage divider model
~ Load 1 for voltage dips.
PCC Load 2
Let us denote by ZS the source impedance at the point of common coupling

(PCC), ZLF the impedance between the PCC and the fault, and E the supply voltage.
The PCC is the point from which both the fault and the load are fed. In the voltage
divider model the load current before as well as during the fault is disregarded.
Therefore, for a symmetrical fault, which is the three-phase fault, the retained
voltage of the dip (i.e. the voltage during the dip) at the PCC has the following
approximate expression:
Z LF
V =E (6.2)
Z S + Z LF
The reasoning behind the approximation varies, but the basic assumption is
always that the current through the faulted feeder is the main cause of the voltage
drop and thus, of the voltage dip.
The dip is usually seen as a voltage drop on one phase, but for a better
interpretation is useful to consider it as a three-phase phenomenon.
From equation (6.2) we see that the dip becomes deeper for faults electrically
closer to the PCC (when Z LF becomes smaller), and for weaker systems (when
Z S becomes larger).
In order to explain how the distance to fault influences the voltage dip, the
simple case (Fig. 6.9) of a medium voltage substation that feeds one radial line is
considered. There are considered three levels of system strength, which reflects in
system impedance value, together with distances between the PCC and the fault up
to 20 p.u.. Figure 6.10,a illustrates the variation of the retained voltage, measured
at the PCC, in terms of the distance to fault, while Figure 6.10,b illustrates the
magnitude of the dip. It can be seen that the nearer the fault is to the busbar, the
higher the voltage dip will be experienced.
1 ZS 2ZS 3ZS 1
rms retained voltage (p.u.)
dip magnitude (p.u.)

0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
ZS 2ZS 3ZS
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Distance to fault ZLF (p.u.) Distance to fault ZLF (p.u.)
a. b.
Fig. 6.10. Dip characteristics vs. the distance to fault:
a. rms retained voltage; b. dip magnitude.
6.2.4. Mitigation solutions

A short-circuit will always cause a voltage dip for some customers. If the fault
takes place in a radial part of the system, the protections intervention for the fault
clearing will also lead to an interruption. If there is sufficient redundancy present, the
short circuit will lead to only voltage dip. If the resulting event exceeds a certain
severity, it will cause an equipment trip. Based on this reasoning, several possible
mitigation methods and ways of their application are distinguished [6.1, 6.2, 6.3]:
Reducing of the number of short-circuit faults:
replace overhead lines with underground cables;
use special wires for overhead lines;
implement a strict policy of tree-trimming;
install additional shielding wires;
increase maintenance and inspection frequencies;
Reducing the fault clearing time:
use current limiting fuses;
faster protection algorithms making use of communication between
relays;
introduce static circuit breaker;
Changing in the supply network:
installation of generator near the sensitive load;
split the busses from substations in the supply path to limit the number
of feeders in the exposed area;
install current-limiting coils in strategic places of the system in order to
increase the electrical distance to the fault;
feed the bus with sensitive equipment from two and more substations;
Installing mitigation equipment:
uninterruptible power supply system (UPS):
static transfer switch;

superconducting storage device (SSD);
ferroresonant constant-voltage transformer (CUT-S);
dynamic voltage restorer (DVR);
motor-generator sets and rotary UPS.
To remark different events, various mitigation strategies are applied. For
example, the dips due to short-circuit faults into the transmission and distribution
networks are characterized by a short duration, usually up to 100 ms. These dips
are very hard to mitigate at the source and improvements in the system are seldom
feasible. The ways these events are mitigated consist in improvement of
equipments or installation of new mitigation equipment.
In low voltage related utilities, because of economic constraints, protection
system is applied only to the most critical loads. The critical load can be resolved
by few electronic controllers, computers, and commonly available uninterruptible
power supply systems can be employed to handle the problem. A block diagram of
a typical UPS is shown in Figure 6.11 [6.1]. Another solution has resulted in the
development of high-energy storage devices, such as the superconducting storage
device, and fast transfer switches that can switch to an alternate feeder within a few
milliseconds, such as dynamic voltage restorer.
bypass
System
bypass
supply Static Load
switch
Battery
Fig. 6.11. Block diagram of the UPS system.
Voltage with Restored voltage

dip
Converter
DC storage
Fig. 6.12. Block diagram of the DVR system.
The DVR, shown schematically in Figure 6.12 , turns a distorted waveform

including voltage dips, into the required waveform. This device injects the suitable
amount of voltage by means of a series-connected transformer into the distribution

line, between the power supply and the load. The DVR is similar to STATCOM
(static synchronous compensator), consisting of a transformer, a converter and a
storage element, except that the transformer is connected in series with the busbar
feeding the sensitive load. The compensation is provided in both directions,
mitigating the voltage dips and reducing the overvoltage. The response is very fast,
about a few milliseconds. The value of the DC storage capacitor determines the
compensation duration, provided for individual voltage dips, which can be a few
cycles or seconds long. To enhance the load support capability, a storage battery
with a booster electronic circuit can be connected in parallel with the capacitor.
6.3. Transients and overvoltages

The transient overvoltages are increases in the supply voltage with duration
less than one cycle, sometimes much less. Usually, the term of transient has been
used in the analysis of power system variations to denote an event that is
undesirable and momentary in nature [6.1, 6.2].
The transient phenomena can be classified into categories as impulsive and
oscillatory. These terms reflect the wave shape of a current or voltage transient.
A typical example of impulsive signal is shown in Figure 6.13.
voltage
amplitude
time
duration
Fig. 6.13. Impulsive transient.
An impulsive transient is a sudden, non-fundamental frequency change in the

steady-state condition of voltage, current, or both, that is unidirectional in polarity.
Sources of impulsive transients includes lightning, poor grounding, the normal
operation of electronic loads, switching inductive loads and fault clearing by utility
system protective device .
An oscillatory transient is a sudden, non-fundamental frequency change in
the steady-state condition of voltage, current, or both, whose instantaneous value
changes polarity rapidly. This disturbance is characterized and recognized as
usually having a decaying oscillation.
An overvoltage is an increase in the rms AC voltage greater than 110% at the
fundamental frequency for duration longer than 1 minute. It represents a usual
result of the load switching. The overvoltages result because the system is either
too weak for the desired voltage regulation or the voltage control systems are
inadequate.
6.3.1. Sources
There are two main sources of transient overvoltage in utility systems:
capacitor switching and lightning. Some power electronic devices generate
significant transients when they switch.
6.3.1.1. Capacitor switching *)

Capacitor switching is one of the most common switching events on utility
systems. Capacitors are used to provide reactive power to improve (correct) the
power factor, to support the voltage on the system and to filter the harmonics by
combinations of passive filters. They represent very economical solutions for
distribution and utility systems.
One drawback to capacitors is that they can interact with the inductance of
the power system to yield oscillatory transients when switched. Some capacitors
are energized all the time (a fixed bank) while others are switched according to
load levels. For example, in distribution feeder with industrial loads, capacitors are
frequently switched by time clock in anticipation of an increase in load with the
beginning of the working day and then after the end of the working day.
Figure 6.14 shows the one-line diagram of a typical capacitor-switching
situation. When the switch is closed, a transient similar to the one in Figure 6.15
may be observed upline from the capacitor, at the monitor location.
The magnitude of overvoltage will generate a transient in the range from 1 to
2 p.u. depending on the system damping. Utility capacitor switching transients are
generally in the range from 1.3 to 1.4 p.u., but have also been observed near the
theoretical maximum.
The transient overvoltage propagates into the local power system and will
generally pass through distribution transformers into customers load facilities by
nearly the amount related to the turns ratio of the transformer. While such brief
transients up to 2 p.u. are not generally damaging to the system insulation, their
occurrence can often cause misoperation of electronic power conversion devices.
Controllers may interpret the high voltage as a sign that there is an impending
dangerous situation and subsequently disconnect the load to be safe. The transient
may also interfere with the gating of thyristors.
~
Fig. 6.14. One-line diagram of a Monitor
capacitor-switching operation.
*)
Reprinted with permission from Dugan, R.C., McGranaghan, M.F., Santoso, S., Beaty,
H.W. Electrical Power Systems Quality, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill 2003 McGraw-Hill
Companies, All rights reserved.
v [p.u.] Fig. 6.15. Typical electric

utility capacitor-switching
. transient, observed upline
from the capacitor. Reprin-
ted with permission from
Dugan, R.C., McGranaghan,
. M.F., Santoso, S., Beaty,
H.W. Electrical Power
Systems Quality, 2nd Edition,
. McGraw-Hill 2003
McGraw-Hill Companies,
All rights reserved.
.
Magnifications of the transient overvoltage at the end user bus it possible for
certain low-voltage capacitor and step-down transformer sizes.
Controlling the transient overvoltage at the utility capacitor is sometimes
possible using synchronous closing breakers or switches with preinsertion resistors.
To limit the transient voltage magnitude, high-energy surge arresters can be applied
at the customer bus. It is important to note that the arresters can only limit the
transient to the arrester protective level. This level is typically 1.8 times the normal
peak voltage, but may not be sufficient to protect sensitive electronic equipment
that might only have a withstand capability of 1.75 p.u.
Other measures of limiting the voltage magnification transients are to convert
the end-user power factor correction banks to harmonic filters. A reactor in series
with a capacitor bank will decrease the transient voltage at the customer bus to
acceptable levels. This solution benefits of providing correction for displacement
power factor, controlling harmonic distortion levels within the facility and limiting
the concern for magnified capacitor-switching transients.
6.3.1.2. Lightning
Lightning is a potential source of impulsive transients. Overvoltages will be
caused by direct or indirect lightning strokes. This paragraph will focus on direct
lightning strokes, and how lightning causes transient overvoltage to appear on
power systems [6.2].
A direct stroke is defined as lightning stroke when it hits either a shield wire,
a tower or a phase conductor. Direct and indirect strokes are shown in Figure 6.16.
The voltage induced on a line by indirect lightning stroke has four components:
the charged cloud above induces bound charge on the line while the line
itself is held electrostatically at ground potential by the neutrals of
connected transformers and by leakage over the insulators;
the charges lowered by the stepped leader further induce charges on the
line. When the stepped leader is neutralized by the return stroke, the bound
charges on the line are released and thus produce travelling waver similar
to that caused by the cloud discharge;
the residual charge in the return stroke induce an electrostatic field in the
vicinity of the line and hence an induced voltage on it;
the note of change of current in the return stroke produces a magnetically
induced voltage on the line.
Shield wire
Phase Indirect
conductor stroke
Fig. 6.16. Example of direct and indirect lightning strokes. Adapted from Grigsby, L.L.
The electric power engineering handbook CRC Press 2000.
The magnitudes of the voltage induced by the release of the charge bound
either by the cloud or by the stepped leader are small compared with the voltage
induced by the return stroke. Therefore, only the electrostatic and the magnetic
components induced by the return stroke are frequently considered in analysis. The
initial computations are performed with the assumption that the charge distribution
along the leader stroke is uniform, and return stroke current is rectangular.
The inducing voltage is the voltage at a field point in space with the same
coordinates as a corresponding point on the line conductor, but without the
presence of the line conductor. The inducing voltage at different points along the
length of the line conductor will be different. The overhead line being a good
conductor of electricity, these differences will tend to be equalized by flow of
current. Therefore, the actual voltage between a point on the line and the ground
below will be different from the inducing voltage at that point. This voltage, which
can actually be measured on the line conductor, is defined as the induced voltage.
Notice that, the inducing voltages are more important in MV overhead lines.
6.3.2. Mitigation methods

The main protective methods for load equipment against overvoltages are:
Limit the voltage across sensitive insulation;
Divert the surge current away from the load;
Block the surge current from entering the load;

Bond grounds together at the equipment;
Reduce, or prevent, surge current from flowing between grounds;
Create a low-pass filter using limiting and blocking principles.
These methods are presented in detail in [6.1].
6.4. Long-duration voltage variations

Long-duration variations encompass rms deviation at fundamental frequency
for larger than one minute, defined in U.S. Standards, or longer than 3 minutes,
defined in European Standards. In most countries, the standards (ANSI in US and
IEC elsewhere) specify the steady-state voltage tolerances expected on a power
system. Long-duration variations can be either overvoltages or undervoltages. They
are not the result of system faults, but are caused by load variations on the system
and system switching operations. Such variations are typically displayed as plots of
rms voltage versus time [6.16.3].
The European Standard EN 50160 [6.14] defines voltage variation as an
increase or decrease of voltage due to variation of the total load of the distribution
system or of a part of it [6.14]. These variations include: short interruption (3 sec
up to 3 min), undervoltages (0.80.9 p.u.), overvoltages (1.11.2 p.u.). The most
dangerous variations are the interruptions that can lead to voltage collapse.
6.4.1. Origin and effects

The voltage value generally differs from one node of the power system to
another, having a variation in space and time. For a better understanding of the
voltage variations causes, the simple two-nodes system from Figure 2.2,a is
considered. If the voltage V A at the source is known, and neglecting the line
capacitance, the voltage V B at the consumer can be expressed as follows:
V B =V A ZI (6.3)
or:
PB R + QB X
V B V A
VA
where PB and QB represent the single-phase powers absorbed at the node B.
Analysing the relation (6.3), we can draw the conclusion that the variations of
the voltage VB take place due to the following issues:
a) the modification of the withdrawal power at the node B, due to the
variation of the load curve;
b) the modification of the network parameters values (R, X); this is due
either to the transformer/line connection/disconnection to ensure an
economical operation of the power system, or to revisions, repairs or
breakdowns;
c) the modification of the voltage VA ; the transformer taps or generator
terminal voltage modifications, according to the operating conditions, are
included in this category.
It should be mentioned that the term QB X VA has the main influence on the
voltage drop and consequently on the voltage variation because the network
elements (especially the transmission network) are generally characterized by
X >> R . Therefore, it can be said that the voltage level into the power system
nodes is mainly due to the reactive power flow.
From the time variation point of view, the voltage variations can be
predictable or not predictable (disturbance). The following issues can be included
in the first category:
the periodic variations determined by the periodic modification of the
power consumption from one day to another, between the morning and the
night peak or the night off-peak hours;
the slow variations determined by the slow modification of the
consumption according to the daily schedule.
Practically, these variations are difficult to separate but they are predictable
and therefore can be prevented by some appropriate actions. In fact, the
unpredictable variations represent voltage disturbances manifesting themselves
through:
sudden variations for short time caused by some receivers connection or
disconnection or by same network elements connection or disconnection
following a breakdown. They are generated all the time so that these
variations are practically permanent and are superposed on the slow
variations in the form of a random component. As duration they can be
instantaneous, 10 600 ms with 0.1 1.8 p.u. magnitude, or momentary,
0.6 2 s with 0.1 1.4 p.u. magnitude;
voltage dips, which are sudden voltage decreases with a duration less than
one second and the magnitude up to 90%. They can be caused by the
connection of very high loads or by transient disturbances into the system.
The voltage variation has unfavourable effects both on the network elements
and receivers. The exaggerated increases of voltage into a network lead to the
overstressing of equipments insulation and its early ageing. The voltage decrease
causes the current increase and the thermally overloading of equipments; the losses
increase and the power transmission and distribution efficiency decrease; the static
and transient stability limits decrease, the operation safety also decreases.
The asynchronous motors can be countered among the sensitive receivers
with the voltage variation. For instance, a voltage modification of 10% results in a
modification of almost 20% (in the same direction) of the active torque. The sliding
currents and productivity are modified accordingly.
The troubles caused by the voltage variation with respect to the rated value
have imposed that its admissible derivations to be set to relative reduced values.
But the rms values of derivations depend on the operation particularities of the
considered system element. Thus, at the transmission network level, the upper limit
is imposed by the insulation level, resignation risk on the breakers and some
crosscut element overloading (capacitor bank, reactance coils, etc). The lower limit
is imposed by the breaking capacity value of the circuit breakers, and by some
devices and equipments sensitivity (relaying, capacitor banks, etc.).
At the distribution network level, the insulation level of the devices and the
afferent equipments impose the upper limit. The lower limit is imposed by the
allowable decreasing of the asynchronous active torque, by the efficiency of the
energy transformations taking place in the receivers connected to the network.
Thus, the allowed voltage deviations from the transmission network will be
higher (up to 10%) while they are lower into the distribution network (up to 5%).
But, there is an energy transfer between the low and the high voltage level
networks and therefore the voltage deviations should be correlated during
operation. Thus, if the high level has an increased voltage and the low one a
decreased voltage, an exaggerated power transfer toward the low level will exist.
By contrary, if the high level has a decreased voltage and the low one has an
increased voltage, the necessary power transfer toward the low level cannot be
done. Depending on these considerations the normal acceptable ranges for the
voltage variations results.
6.4.2. Voltage level assessment

In a power system node the voltage values are time varying, i.e. V(t). The
voltage variation in this node, called also voltage deviation, is defined by the
following expression [6.15]:
V (t ) Vn
V (t ) = 100 [%] (6.4)
Vn
where Vn stands for the nominal voltage.
The Standard EN 50160 defines the declared supply voltage Vc as the voltage
applied at the load terminals established through an agreement between the
supplier and the consumer, being different from the nominal voltage.
Considering a certain monitoring time interval T, where Vmax and Vmin are
the maximum and minimum voltages measured at a particular point, the voltage
variation can be defined as:
Vmax Vmin
Vmax = 100 [%] (6.5)
Vn
The relation (6.4) gives the voltage deviation in a node with respect to the
nominal voltage. But, is the nominal voltage the optimum one for all nodes? To
answer this question, an analysis of the optimum voltage meaning for the
consumption nodes should be performed.
The experimental determinations proved that the voltage deviation in a node,
with respect to the optimum voltage (almost equal to the nominal voltage), is a
random variable that obey to a normal distribution law defined by the density of
probability:
f =
1 V V
exp
( )
2
(6.6)
2 2 2
where the following characteristic quantities are emphasized:

the mean value of the voltage deviation V in the T interval:
T
1
V =
T 0
Vdt (6.7)
the dispersion 2 with respect to the mean value:

T
(V V ) dt
2 1 2
= (6.8)
T 0
The dispersion 2 and the standard deviation , respectively, allow us to

determine the probable time when the voltage deviation in a point is within certain
limits. These quantities show the dispersal degree of the voltage deviations around
the mean deviation.
In statistic analysis, of interest is also the mean of the square deviation or
irregularity:
T
1
IRR = V 2 =
T 0
V 2 dt (6.9)
In literature, the weighted power irregularity is also defined in terms of the

power P(t) absorbed at the instant t, having the expression:
T
V (t )
2
P (t )dt
IRRP = 0
T
P(t )dt
0
2
The quantities IRR, V and , called also statistic indices, are used to
estimate the voltage quality into the electrical networks. It was demonstrated that
they verify the relationship:
( )
2
IRR = 2 + V (6.10)
Notice that, if IRR 1% the voltage quality is considered very good, if

1% < IRR 20% the voltage quality is good, if 20% < IRR 50% the voltage
quality is middle, whilst for IRR 100% the voltage quality is bad.
Of the statistic indices, the irregularity IRR expresses in the best way the
voltage quality, being directly connected to the value of the damage produced by
the voltage variation. The mean value V denotes the mean voltage deviation into
a network without giving complete information on the voltage quality.
6.4.3. Mitigation solutions for the voltage regulation
By voltage regulation, the voltage drop across the system impedance is

modified (Fig. 2.2,a) in order to keep the supplying voltage at the customer into the
desired range. Voltage regulation is performed through the following methods [6.1,
6.2]:
the variation of the voltage VA , by means of voltage regulators;
the variation of the reactive power flow through the system impedance, by
means of shunt capacitors;
the reduction of the system inductive impedance by adding series
capacitors;
the reduction of the system resistance by increasing the conductors cross
sectional area;
the changing of the operating diagram of the parallel connected
transformers;
the installation of static VAr compensators, for rapidly changing loads.
The voltage regulation devices used by the utility and industrial power
systems are:
tap-changing transformers;
galvanic isolation devices with separate voltage regulators;
impedance compensation devices, such as capacitors.
There are two types of tap-changing devices: mechanical and electronical.
The mechanical devices are used for the slow-time changing loads while the
electronic ones are used for fast voltage variations.
Galvanic isolation devices include UPS systems, ferroresonant transformers
(with constant voltage) and the like [6.1]. The main purpose of these devices is to
ensure a galvanic isolation of the load from the source while performing an energy
conversion of the same type but at different parameters. In certain conditions these
devices can maintain constant voltage at the customers terminals. The
disadvantage of these devices is that they introduce losses and harmonics in the
power supply system.
The shunt capacitors maintain the voltage by reducing the inductive current.
In order to maintain the voltage constant, the capacitors can be switched according
to the load variation, sometimes in small incremental steps to follow the load
variation more closely.
The series capacitors are relatively rare, and they are used for long
transmission lines, ensuring a better voltage repartition along the line. They are
also very useful in certain system conditions, mainly with rapidly changing loads
that cause excessive flicker phenomenon. The series capacitors compensate the
network inductance. If the load is highly inductive this method prove to be very
useful. But, if the load presents a dominant resistive component, the series
compensation is not needed anymore. The series compensation with capacitor
banks is an efficient way of increasing the power transfer capability and reducing
the power losses into the electrical network.
Concerning the series capacitive compensation of the lines, three problems to
be solved are posted:
establish the place where the capacitor bank should be installed;
determine the reactance of the capacitor bank;
establish the way in which the bank will be connected to the network.
The criterion used to solve the first and the second problem, depends on the
line destination (transmission or distribution) and also on the load location (at the
sending or at the receiving end of the line). For medium voltage lines, the main
purpose of the series compensation is to improve the voltage level along the lines,
but at the same time, the power transfer capability. The criterion of optimal voltage
adjustment into the radial distribution networks uses successfully the integral
indices for voltage quality, establishing the value of the optimal voltage in the
feeding buses, for the case when the power absorbed by consumers can be
expressed by stochastic variables.
Based on this idea, some series compensation approaches employ an
optimisation algorithm. The objective function is the irregularity of the voltage in
the consumption buses. Two situations will be analysed: (i) radial line supplying a
single load; (ii) radial line supplying multiple loads;
(i) In the case of a radial line supplying a single load, the objective is only to
determine the value of the capacitive reactance. In this regard, one impose that the
irregularity of the voltage in the consumption bus to be minimum, under the
condition of providing some restrictions as:
in any line section the voltage is within the admissible range both in the
normal operation and during short-circuit event (a three-phase fault occurring
behind a capacitor bank);
the overloading of the capacitor bank during the short-circuit conditions is
less than or equal to the admissible value;
the sub-synchronous resonance or ferromagnetic resonance are avoided.
Therefore, under sinusoidal and symmetrical conditions, the expression (6.9)
becomes:
T 2
1 V1 p20 R + q20 ( X X C )

2
V = 1 dt = min (6.11)
T 0 Vn Vn2
where XC is the reactance of the capacitor bank.
Differentiating the objective function with respect to XC, and equating to
zero, the optimal value of the capacitive reactance XC is:
p20 q20 Vn (V1 Vn )
XC = X + R q20 (6.12)
2 2
q20 q20
where q20 is the average value of the reactive power absorbed at the load bus;
2
q20 the mean square deviation of the reactive power:
( )
2
2
q20 = q20 + q220 ;
q20 the dispersion with respect to the average value of the absorbed
reactive power;
p20 q20 the mean value of the product between the active and reactive
power calculated by:
p20 q20 = p20 q20 + p20 q20 rp20 q20
rp20 q20 the correlation ratio between the random quantities p20 and q20
and the index 0 stands for the single-phase value.
(ii) In the case of radial line supplying multiple loads, we assume that, during
the time period T, dispersed consumers are supplied with active p j and reactive
q j power (j = 1m; see Fig. 6.17); all consumers are supposed to have the same
daily load curve.
The purpose is to determine the installing place of the capacitor bank, used
for the series capacitive compensation, and the value of its reactance. In this regard,
the real line is replaced by a fictive equivalent line that supplies a load absorbing
the power p j and
q j [6.15, 6.16]. The line parameters, the resistance R and
reactance X, respectively, can be calculated knowing the value of the voltage in the
fictive bus Vf, and the ratio R/X.
V V1 V2 Vj Vm-1 Vm
p1, q1 p2, q2 pj, qj pm-1, qm-1 pm, qm
Fig. 6.17. Line with distributed consumers.
The fictive voltage is given by the expression:

m m

j =1
pjR + q X
j =1
j
Vf V
Vn
In order to determine the fictive voltage Vf, we must enforce the condition
that the mean square derivation of the voltage Vj (j = 1m), afferent to the real
network, has to be equal to the mean square derivation of the fictive voltage,
meaning that:
T T 2 2
1 1 V j (t ) Vn
m
1 V f Vn
m
j =1 T 0 Vn

dt =
T 0 Vn
dt
From the above equations, it results the line reactance of the fictive line, and
knowing that X = x0l , x0 being the per kilometre reactance, we can easily obtain
the length l.
Application
Let us consider a rural distribution overhead line, of 20 kV and 38 km long, that
feeds 6 transformer stations (mention that the phase-to-phase voltages are used). The line
sections lengths and the maximum active and reactive three-phase powers absorbed by the
transformer stations are given in Figure 6.18. The conductors are of ACSR type and have a
cross sectional area of 70 mm2.
8 km 5 km 6 km 8 km 7 km 4 km
p1=0.45 MW p2=0.5 MW p3=0.62 MW p4=0.55 MW p5=0.57 MW p6=0.6 MW

q1=0.16 MVAr q2=0.178 MVAr q3=0.22 MVAr q4=0.191 MVAr q5=0.202 MVAr q6=0.213 MVAr
Fig. 6.18. The rural distribution test network.
We also consider that the consumers obey to identical daily active and reactive load
curves shape, as shown in the Figure 6.19. The voltage at the sending end of the line is
considered to be 21 kV, and the line sections have the ratio between resistance and
reactance of R X = 1.274 (for x0 = 0.343 / km ).
p [p.u.] 1.2
q [p.u.]
1
0.8 p
0.6 q
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 t [h]
Fig. 6.19. Active and reactive daily load curves.
Using the relations written above, we obtain the length of the fictive line as
L = 20.388 km . This corresponds to the installation place of the capacitor bank. Taking
into account that the capacitor bank should be placed in a transformer station, it results that
the closer transformer station is the third one. Rewriting the expression (6.12) for phase-to-
phase voltages and three-phase powers, it results:
PQ U n (U1 U n )
XC = X + R Q
Q2 Q2
where R and X correspond to a line length of 19 km, allows us to determine the optimal
value of the capacitor bank reactance to X C = 6.98 .
In Figures 6.20 and 6.21 the voltage variations in case of maximum and minimum
load, respectively, for the electrical distribution network, are represented, where the
capacitor bank is placed in different transformer stations.
U[kV]21.5
No compensation
transformer station 1
21 transformer station 2
20.5 transformer station 5
20
19.5
19
18.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Station
Fig. 6.20. Voltage variation for maximum loading of the network.

U [kV]
21.2 No compensation
Transformer station 1
21
20.8 Transformer station 3
20.2
20
19.8
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Station
Fig. 6.21. Voltage variation for minimum load.

If we consider the admissible voltage range from 19 to 21 kV, we find that, for the
limit operating states taken into consideration (maximum and minimum load), the voltage
remains within the limits in every bus of the network only for certain values of the
capacitive reactance XC and for certain installing places of the capacitor bank.
The following observations it results:
The profile of the voltage changes along the line is dependent on the installing
place of the capacitor bank. The most advantageous variants correspond to the
cases when the bank is placed into the transformer stations 3 and 4, but mostly into
the substation 3;
The limit voltages Umin and Umax, corresponding to the minimum and maximum
load, depend on the installing place of the capacitor bank, and for a certain place,
the value of the capacitive reactance has a small influence on them;
The sum of the mean square deviations of the voltage is minimum in the
neighbourhood of the third substation. The irregularity value is around 1%.
Therefore, it is not possible to obtain simultaneously the minimum of both voltage
drop and active power losses, which is natural if we take into account the linear dependence
of the voltage and the square dependence of the power losses on the load. However, it can
be mentioned that the difference between the active power losses in these two cases is not
too significant, being around 4.45%.
6.5. Harmonics in power systems
Conventional alternating current power systems are designed to operate with

sinusoidal voltage and current. However, non-linear and electronically switched
load will distort the steady-state AC voltage and current waveforms. Periodically
distorted waveforms can be studied by examining the harmonic components of the
waveforms.
6.5.1. Sources
For non-linear devices the current is not proportional to the voltage applied at
the terminals, but it follows a characteristic according to the load structure. Figure
6.22 shows such case in which the voltage could be perfectly sinusoidal, instead,
due to the non-linear dependence between voltage and current at the resistor, the
current will be distorted. Mention that a pure sinusoidal voltage curve can be
provided only by an infinite power source. Increasing the voltage by a few
percents, the peak value of the current may increase significantly and take a
different wave shape [6.1].
High-voltage direct current stations have been a major focus area for the
study of power system harmonics due to their rectifier and inverter stations.
Today, electric devices that can handle several kW up to several MW became
commercially viable and reliable products. This technological advance in
electronics has led to the widespread use of numerous converter topologies, all
which represent non-linear devices (elements) in power systems.
i
i(t)
v
v(t)
v
Fig. 6.22. Current distortion caused by non-linear resistance.
Although, the power semiconductor converter is mainly responsible for the

large-scale interest in power system harmonics, other types of equipment also
present a non-linear characteristic to the power systems.
In conclusion, loads that produce harmonics can be grouped into three main
categories covering:
arcing loads;
semiconductor converter loads;
loads with magnetic saturation of iron cores.
Arcing loads, like electric arc furnaces (in steady-state) and fluorescent
lamps, generate harmonics across a wide range of frequencies, with a generally
decreasing relationship between harmonic level and frequency. Semiconductor
loads, such as adjustable-speed motor drives, generate certain harmonic patterns
with relatively predictable amplitudes at known harmonic level. Saturated magnetic
elements, like over-saturated transformers, also generate certain characteristic
harmonics. Semiconductor converter and saturated magnetic generate harmonics
with levels that generally decrease with the frequency increase.
6.5.2. Fundamental concepts

In the real situation of power system operation the electrical current is not
constant and thus the voltage is no longer periodical (sinusoidal) into the networks
nodes. But, for practical applications the voltage is considered periodical on time
intervals.
Any periodic distorted waveform can be expressed as a sum of pure sine
waves of different amplitudes where the frequency of each sinusoid is an integer
multiple of the fundamental frequency. The voltages and currents measured at a
frequency that is an integer multiple of the fundamental supply frequency are
called harmonics. Harmonic frequencies fh are integral multiples of the
fundamental supply frequency (50 Hz or 60 Hz). On the other hand, the voltages
and currents measured at a frequency that is not an integer multiple of the
fundamental supply frequency are referred to as interharmonics. Correspondingly,
the non-integer multiple of the fundamental supply frequency is known as
interharmonic frequency. Interharmonics, always present in the power system, have

recently become of more importance since the widespread use of power electronic
systems results in an increase of their magnitude. The summation of sinusoids is
possible only when the waveform is identical from one cycle to the next. The sum
of sinusoids is referred to as Fourier series, after the mathematicians name who
discovered the concept. The advantage of using Fourier series to represent distorted
waveforms is that it is much easier to find the system response to a sinusoidal input
[6.1]. Conventional steady-state analysis techniques can be also used. The system
analysis is separately performed for each harmonic. The outputs at each frequency
are then combined together to form a new Fourier series, from which the output
waveform can be computed, if desired. Often, only the magnitudes of the
harmonics are of interest.
6.5.2.1. Signal measurement and power quality indices
Any sine wave, of a certain period, can be expressed as an infinity of

exponential complex functions. The fundamental theory of spectral analysis
assumes that the analysis is performed over a time interval from to + , by
means of the complex Fourier Transform:
+
f (t ) = F () exp( jt )dt

A distorted wave f(t) can be also decomposed, by means of Fourier series

expansion, in individual waves, which represents the fundamental wave plus the
harmonics, by means of formula:

f ( t ) = c0 + ch =1
h sin ( h1t + h ) (6.13)
where: f(t) is the instantaneous value of distorted wave;

c0 a possible DC component of the function f(t);
h the ordinal number of harmonic related to the frequency basis
( f1 = 1/ T1 )
ch the amplitude of the harmonic component with frequency f h ;
1 the angular frequency of the fundamental harmonic;
t the time;
h the phase angle of the hth harmonic component when t = 0 .
The coefficients ch, representing the voltage or current, and the phase angles
h for the hth harmonic are given by the following relations:
ch = bh + jah = ah2 + bh2 (6.14,a)
h = arctan ( ah bh ) if bh 0 (6.14,b)
h = + arctan ( ah bh ) if bh < 0 (6.14,c)
while
T
2
ah =
T f ( t ) cos ( ht ) dt
0
(6.15,a)
T
2
bh =
T f (t )sin ( ht ) dt
0
(6.15,b)
T
1
c0 =
T f ( t ) dt
0
(6.15,c)
where T is the period of the function f(t).

The rms value of the function f(t) is defined as:
hmax 2
c
rms = c02
+ h
h =1 2
(6.16)
The deviation of voltage or current waveform at some load types requires the
definition of indices that will allow the estimation of distortion and their
comparison with the admissible limits, which are imposed by some sensitive
receivers. The following indices are defined:
(i) Harmonic frequency, which is the integer multiple of the fundamental
frequency, representing the individual decomposed wave:
f h = h f1
(ii) Harmonic order, which is the ratio of the harmonic frequency to the
fundamental frequency:
f
h= h
f1
(iii) rms value of individual harmonic component, having a certain harmonic
frequency, given by:
c
Ch = h (6.17)
2
(iv) Individual harmonic distortion level:
C
TFh = h (6.18)
C1
where C1 = c1 2 , and c1 represents the amplitude of the fundamental component
with frequency f 1 .
(v) Total harmonic distortion factor of individual harmonics:

hmax 2 hmax
Ch 1
THD = =
h = 2 C1 C1
C
h=2
2
h (6.19)
which represents the ratio of the rms value of the sum of all the harmonic
components Ch up to a specified order hmax (according to the CEI Standards, the
maximum harmonic taken into account is hmax = 40 ) to the rms value of the
fundamental component C1.
The rms value of a distorted waveform is the square root of the sum of the
squares. The THD is related to the rms value of the waveform as follows:
hmax 2
ch c1
rms =
h =1 2
=
2
1 + THD 2 (6.20)
(vi) Total demand distortion:

hmax
1
TDD =
C1
C
h=2
2
h (6.21)
where C1 is the peak or maximum value measured at the fundamental frequency.

The term distortion factor is more appropriate when the summation in the
equation above is taken over a selected number of harmonics.
(vii) Weighted distortion factor:
hmax
1
C=
C1
h C
h =14
2 2
h 100 (6.22)
Notice that this factor is used to emphasize the superior order harmonics.
(viii) Weighted sum of individual harmonic components:
hmax
k h Ch
C=
h =2 C1
100 (6.23)
where: kh is a weighting factor which takes the following values:

kh = 1, in the case of total harmonic distortion;
kh = 1/h, in the case of rotating machines, without taking into account
the skin effect;
kh = h in the case of capacitors.
In European practice, the infinite sum in equation (6.13) is reduced to about
2540 terms since the superior order harmonics are very low, and they usually are
not damaging to the system equipment. The measurement instruments give reports
in the form of a tabular listing of harmonic magnitudes and angles or in the form of
magnitude and phase spectrum. In each case, the information provided is the same
and can be used to reproduce the original waveform by direct substitution into
equation (6.13) with satisfactory accuracy.
The European Standard IEC 61000-3-6 [6.17] suggests, under normal
operating condition, during each period of one week, 95 % of the 10 min, the mean
rms values of each individual harmonic voltage shall be less than or equal to the
value given in Table 6.4.
Table 6.4
Indicative values of planning levels for harmonic voltages (in percent of the fundamental
voltage) in MV, HV and EHV power systems [6.17]
Odd harmonics Odd harmonics
Even harmonics
non-multiple of 3 multiple of 3
Harmonic Harmonic Harmonic
Harmonic voltage Harmonic voltage Harmonic voltage
order % order % order %
h HV- h HV- h HV-
MV MV MV
EHV EHV EHV
5 5 2 3 4 2 2 1.8 1.4
7 4 2 9 1.2 1 4 1 0.8
11 3 1.5 15 0.3 0.3 6 0.5 0.4
13 2.5 1.5 21 0.2 0.2 8 0.5 0.4
17 1.9
17 21 10 10 10
17 0.25 0.19
h h 1.2 <h 0.2 0.2 h h h
h
49 0.2 45 50 +0.22 +0.16
Because the time domain analysis of signals can lead to large errors, the
frequency domain analysis, based on DFT (Discrete Fourier Transform) and FFT
(Fast Fourier Transform) techniques, is preferred. Therefore, the analysed wave is
modelled through a number of samples.
Consider a window Tw, with Tw = NT1 the width of the time window, where N
is the number of fundamental periods within the window width. If the fundamental
harmonic of frequency f1 corresponds to the spectral component of order N, then
harmonics of order n correspond to the spectral components of order m = N n ,
where m is the ordinal number (order of the spectral line) related to the frequency
basis ( f w = 1/ Tw ). Therefore, relation (6.13) becomes [6.18]:

m
f ( t ) = c0 + c
m =1
m sin 1t + m
N
(6.24)
where:
cm = bm + jam = am2 + bm2 (6.25,a)
m = arctan ( am bm ) if bm 0 (6.25,b)
m = + arctan ( am bm ) if bm < 0 (6.25,c)
while
T
2 m
am =
T f ( t ) cos N t dt
0
(6.26,a)
T
2 m
bm =
T f (t )sin N t dt
0
(6.26,b)
T
1
c0 =
T f ( t ) dt
0
(6.26,c)
where the time window Tw is that time span of a time function over which the
Fourier transform is performed.
The analysis performed for a reduced number of periods requires a suitable
choice of the time window and the number of samples within the window. Standard
[6.18] suggest a method of interharmonics measurement based on the concept of
the so-called grouping. Its basis is the Fourier analysis performed in a time
window equal to 10 cycles of the fundamental frequency (50 Hz), i.e.
approximately 200 ms. Sampling is synchronized with the power supply frequency
by means of a phase-locked loop. The result is a spectrum with 5 Hz resolution
[6.19]. The standards define the method of processing individual 5 Hz lines in
order to determine the so-called harmonic or interharmonic group, to which
recommendations of standards and technical reports are referred (Fig. 6.23).
harmonics interharmonics
Cm
DFT
output
n n+1 n+2 n+3

Fig. 6.23. Frequency spectrum of DFT [6.18].
A harmonic group is a set consisting of a harmonic and the spectral

components adjacent to it within the time window (Fig. 6.24). The resulting
harmonic group of order n (corresponding to the centre line in the hatched area) has
the magnitude Gg ,n .
harmonic harmonic interharmonic interharmonic

subgroup group group subgroup
Cm n n+2 n+3 n+4
DFT
output
n n+1 n+2 n+3 n+4 n+5

Fig. 6.24. Illustration of harmonics and interharmonics groups and subgroups [6.18].
The rms value of the harmonic group is the square root of the sum of the
squares of the amplitudes of a harmonic and the spectral components adjacent to it
within the observation window, that is:
Cm2 5 4
C2
Gg2,n =
2
+
i =4
Cm2 + i + m + 5
2
(6.27,a)
A harmonic subgroup is a set consisting of a harmonic and the two spectral

components adjacent to it. The resulting harmonic subgroup of order n has the
magnitude Gsg , n . The rms value of a harmonic subgroup is the square root of the
sum of the squares of the amplitudes of a harmonic and the two spectral
components immediately adjacent to it, that is:
1
Gsg2 ,n = C
i =1
2
k +i (6.27,b)
For the signal processing, interharmonic groups and interharmonic centred

subgroups may be defined.
The rms value of an interharmonic group is the rms value of all
interharmonic components between two successive harmonic frequencies, that is:
9
Cig2 ,n = C
i =1
2
k +i (6.27,c)
The rms value of an interharmonic centred subgroup is the rms value of all
interharmonic components in the interval between two consecutive harmonic
frequencies, excluding frequency components directly adjacent to the harmonic
frequencies, that is:
8
2
Cisg ,n = C
i=2
2
k +i (6.27,d)
Processing of yielded data on a window of 10 periods of the signal (voltage

or current) leads to a spectrum of instantaneous values of the non-sinusoidal state
indices. They are used to calculate: very short terms values (3 seconds), short term
values (10 minutes), long term values (2 hours), values for days or weeks. Based
on the DFT output data, cumulative probability curves and corresponding 95% and
99% probability values are obtained on the observed time.
Data yielded from the DFT output on a synchronised rectangle window with
10 periods permit calculation of the following indices:
(i) Total harmonic distortion:
hmax 2
Gn
THD =

n = 2 G1
(6.28)
(ii) Total harmonic distortion of a group:

2
Gg , n
hmax
THDG =

n = 2 Gg1

(6.29)

(iii) Total harmonic distortion of a subgroup:
2
Gsg ,n
hmax
THDS =

n = 2 Gg 1

(6.30)

(iv) Partial weighted harmonic distortion:
hmax 2
G
PWHD = n n
n = hmin G1
(6.31)
More detailed information concerning this concept of measurement can be

found in the Standard 61000-4-7 [6.18].
Although the Fourier transformation is the most popular method of spectral
analysis of a signal, the DFT or its variant FFT, may introduce unexpected spectral
components of the analysed signal [6.19]. This effect occurs because DFT and FFT
operate over a finite number of samples, i.e. on a portion of the real signal.
The representation of a distorted wave in this way leads itself to a
quantitative approach by using mathematical techniques and offers the following
advantages:
in a linear network, each harmonic component can be considered
separately, thus simplifying the investigation of problems;
a meaningful comparison can be performed between distorted voltage or
current waveforms under different load and system conditions;
all the possible information about the distortion is given, that is about the
deviation of the complex wave with respect to a pure sinusoidal waveform;
compatible with accurate and comprehensive measurements using modern
instruments;
limits of individual harmonic amplitude and of total distortion can be
easily expressed.
6.5.2.2. Power and power factor definitions

Consider a single-phase one-port circuit consisting of a source supplying a
sinusoidal voltage:
v(t ) = 2 V1 sin 1t (6.32,a)
and generating a sinusoidal current when connected to a linear load:
i (t ) = 2 I1 sin ( 1t 1 ) (6.32,b)
where: V1 is the rms value of the fundamental voltage;

I1 the rms value of the fundamental current;
1 the phase angle between the fundamental voltage and the
fundamental current;
1 the angular frequency 2f1 ;
f1 the fundamental frequency;
t the time.
Therefore, for sinusoidal quantities, the instantaneous power p (t ) delivered
to the load is given by [6.20]:
p (t ) = v(t )i (t ) = p a + p q (6.33)
where pa is the instantaneous power produced by the active component of the

current:
p a = V1 I 1 cos 1 [1 cos 21t ] = P1 (1 cos 21t ) , with P1 = V1 I 1 cos 1 (6.34,a)
and pq is the instantaneous power produced by the reactive components of the

current:
p q = V1 I 1 sin 1 sin 21t = Q1 sin 21t , with Q1 = V1 I 1 sin 1 (6.34,b)
In non-sinusoidal operation, when the source is connected to a non-linear

load, the voltage v(t ) and the current i (t ) are given by the following Fourier series
[6.20, 6.21]:

v(t ) =
h =1
2 V h sin ( h1t + vh )

(6.35)
i (t ) =
h =1
2 I h sin ( h1t + ih )
where: Vh is the harmonic component of the voltage;

I h the harmonic component of the current;
vh the phase angle between the harmonic voltage Vh and the
fundamental voltage V1 , which is taken as reference;
ih the phase angle between the harmonic current I h and the
fundamental voltage V1 .
Note: In equation (6.35), the DC components have been neglected since they are rarely
present in AC power systems.
The real or active power, for non-sinusoidal conditions, represents the
average power delivered to the one-port circuit in steady-state, being given by:
T1 hmax
1
P=
T1 p (t )dt = V I
h =1
h h cos ( vh ih ) (6.36)
0
In analogy with linear circuits with purely sinusoidal operation it is common

to define the reactive power *) for non-sinusoidal operation [6.23] as:
hmax
Q = QB = V I
h =1
h h sin ( vh ih ) (6.37)
The apparent power (volt-ampere) can be defined as:

hmax hmax
S= Ih =1
V h2
h =1
2
h (6.38)
Furthermore, we have an additional term, the distortion power D, in the

powers triangle (Fig. 6.25):
S 2 = P2 + Q2 + D2 (6.39)
where P and Q are the active and reactive components of the apparent power S,
while D represents the additional contribution due to harmonics, being calculated
with the relation [6.23, 6.24]:
hmax
D2 =
k ,l =1
V k2 I l2 + Vl 2 I k2 2V kVl I k I l cos( l k )

k l
where k and l are harmonic orders, with h = k and h = l , while l and k are the
phase angles between harmonic voltages and currents, with l = vl il and
k = vk ik .
D
S
Fig. 6.25. The components of the
apparent power. Q y
0
P
x
Although a definition of the reactive power is possible, in reality, of interest

is the value obtained from expression (6.39).
The power factor under non-sinusoidal state is defined as:
*)
The term reactive power has been introduced by academician Constantin Budeanu,
professor at the University Politehnica of Bucharest, in 1927, by the work Puissance
reactives et fictives. Editura IRE, Bucureti [6.22].
P P
PF = = (6.40)
S P + Q2 + D2
2
Many controversial discussions take place regarding the definition of the

power factor. They are generated by two reasons [6.25, 6.26]:
the dependence of this factor on the harmonic components of the supply
voltage;
the lack of consensus with respect to the meaning of apparent power.
A new theory in the definition of the power factor regarding the power flows
in non-sinusoidal conditions has been developed. The approach is based on the
systematic application of the conservation theorems as results also from Tellegens
theorem expressed in terms of conservative quantities.
In this respect, we consider a simple case (Fig. 6.26) in which there are ideal
generators of zero internal impedance and sinusoidal e.m.f. supplying through a
linear network, denoted by N, a linear load, denoted by LL, and a non-linear load,
denoted by NL, operating in parallel. The steady-state operation is assumed.
NL
Network
LL
Fig. 6.26. Power systems supplying a linear and a non-linear load.
But, the presence of a non-linear load generates the harmonic currents;

therefore, we are interested in the analysis of the active and reactive power flows.
The balance equations for each harmonic are:
Pg1 = PN 1 + PNL1 + PLL1 , h =1
0 = PNh + PNLh + PLLh , h 1
(6.41)
Qg1 = QN 1 + QNL1 + QLL1 , h =1
0 = QNh + QNLh + QLLh , h 1
The generator, being assumed ideal, can generate active and reactive powers
only on the fundamental harmonic. The linear passive elements of this system, the
network and the linear load, can only receive active and reactive powers since they
are inductive.
Therefore, the following relations are obvious:
PNh > 0 , PLLh > 0 and Q Nh > 0 , Q LLh > 0 for h
Under these conditions, the balance equations imply:
PNLh < 0 , QNLh < 0 , for h 1
In other words, the supply of active and reactive powers on the higher
harmonics represents the non-linear load. The total active and reactive powers for
this load are:

PLL = PLL1 + PLLh > PLL1 ; QLL = QLL1 + QLLh > QLL1
h=2 h=2

(6.42)
PN = PN 1 + PNh > PN 1 ; QN = QN 1 + QNh > QN 1
h=2 h=2
where PN and QN are supplied by the generator.

Therefore, the non-linear load receives from the generator active and reactive
powers only on the fundamental harmonic, which are higher than necessary.
The differences are reinserted into the network on the higher harmonics,
supplying the linear load, which receives more power than it needs from the
generator:

PN + PLL = PN 1 + PLL1 + ( PNh + PLLh ) = PN 1 + PLL1 PNLh
h=2 h=2

(6.43)
QN + QLL = QN 1 + QLL1 + ( QNh + QLLh ) = QN 1 + QLL1 QNLh
h=2 h=2
With the above equations we can easily represent the diagram of the power
flows (Fig. 6.27).
The fact that in a system with sinusoidal generators the sources of the higher
harmonics are the non-linear loads has been known for long time. In the above
theory, this idea is taken further to estimate the powers supplied by the non-linear
loads.
PLL1 Linear PLLh

QLL1 load QLLh
Pg1 PN1 PNh

Network
Qg1 QN1 QNh
PNL1 PNLh
Non-linear
QNL1 load QNLh
Fig. 6.27. The power flows in the power systems from Figure 6.26.
Under these circumstances, pragmatic reasoning suggests the following

definition for the power factor:
P P
kp = = (6.44)
S1 P12 + Q12
where P is the total active power absorbed by the load and S1 = V1 I1 is the apparent
power at the fundamental harmonic.
6.5.2.3. Practical definitions for powers in systems with

non-sinusoidal waveforms *)
In the US Standards, the classical definitions of power have been changed
even for the sine wave shape of voltage or current. Thus, for sinusoidal operation,
the active power P is defined as mean value of the instantaneous powers measured
during the observation time interval from to +NT1.
+ NT1
1
P=
NT1

pdt (6.45,a)
where N is an integer number, T1 = 1 f 1 is the fundamental period, and is the

moment when the measurement starts.
The reactive power Q is the amplitude of the oscillating instantaneous power
pq , that is:
+ NT1 + NT1
1 1 1 di 1 dv
Q=
2 vdi =
2 id v =
NT1

v dt =
dt NT1

i
dt
dt =
(6.45,b)
+ NT1 + NT1

= 1
NT1

v ( )
id t d t = 1
NT1

i ( vd t ) d t = V I
1 1 sin 1
The reasoning followed in [6.20] and [6.27] was to separate the main
product, the fundamental power terms, from the pollution, the non-
fundamental components and their cross-terms. This approach recognizes the
following issues:
utilities generate and distribute nearly perfect fundamental sinusoidal
voltage;
the consumer expects fundamental sinusoidal voltage;
in almost all cases, more than 99% of the total active power flowing in the
network is fundamental active power.
This approach has the advantage of allowing the fundamental power terms to
be treated in the classical way. At the same time, it provides convenient measures
of the level of harmonic pollution present in the network.
*)
Reprinted with permission from Std. IEEE 1459/2000 IEEE Standard definitions for the
measurement of the electric power quantities under sinusoidal, nonsinusoidal, balanced, or
unbalanced conditions 2000 IEEE [6.20].
Under steady-state conditions, a non-sinusoidal instantaneous voltage or

current has two distinctive components: the fundamental frequency components v1
and i1 and the remaining terms vH and iH that contains all integer and noninteger
number harmonics:
v1 = 2 V1 sin(1t + v1 ) ; i1 = 2 I 1 sin(1t + i1 ) (6.46,a)
hmax hmax
vH = 2
h=2
V h sin( h1t + vh ) ; i H = 2 I
h=2
h sin(h1t + ih ) (6.46,b)
From the above relations it can be defined the rms square voltage and current.
Separating the fundamental components V1 and I1 from the harmonic components
VH and IH, we obtain:
V 2 = V12 + VH2 and I 2 = I12 + I H2 (6.47)
where
hmax hmax
VH2 =
h=2
Vh2 = V 2 V12 and I H2 = I
h=2
2
h = I 2 I12
From (6.46), the apparent power S gives:
S 2 = (VI ) = (V1 I1 ) + (V1 I H ) + (VH I1 ) + (VH I H ) = S12 + S N2

2 2 2 2 2
(6.48)
or S N = S 2 S12
where: S1 is the fundamental apparent power, which consists of the fundamental
active power P1 and the fundamental reactive power Q1, i.e.:
S12 = (V1 I1 ) 2 = P12 + Q12 where P1 = V1 I1 cos 1 and Q1 = V1 I1 sin 1 ;
SN the nonfundamental apparent power which consists of three
components:
S N2 = (V1 I H ) + (VH I1 ) + (VH I H )

2 2 2
(6.49)
The first component is the product of fundamental rms voltage and harmonic
rms current. Usually this is the dominant term. Even in the ideal case when the
voltage is perfectly sinusoidal this term exists if I H > 0 . This term, V1 I H , may be
called current distortion power, designated by DI. The second term, VH I1 , is the
product of the fundamental rms current and the harmonic rms voltage. It may be
called voltage distortion power, designated by DV, and represents a reflection of the
voltage distortion at the observed bus. The third component may be called
harmonic apparent power SH, and can be further divided as follows:
S H2 = (VH I H ) = PH2 + N H2 .
2
hmax
where PH = V I
h=2
h h cos(vh ih ) is the total harmonic active power, and the
remaining component N H is the total harmonic nonactive power.

Then, it results:
S N2 = DI2 + DV2 + S H2 .
It should be recognized that, while the direction of flow may be assigned to
P1 and Q1, no direction of flow might be assigned to the three components of SN.
They are only formal products; unlike such terms as active power, they have no
physical meaning. Nevertheless, such formal components can serve as useful
indicators of the operation of a network. This usefulness becomes clear when S N2
from (6.49) is divided by S12 :
2 2 2 2
S N I H VH VH I H
= + +
S1 I1 V1 V1 I1
or, writing as a function of the total harmonic distortions of the voltage VTHD and
current ITHD, respectively:
2
SN
= (I THD )2 + (VTHD )2 + (I THDVTHD )2
S1
For ITHD > 20% and VTHD < 5% it is possible to write:
SN
ITHD (6.50)
S1
The error of the approximation in (6.50) is less than 1% for ITHD greater than
40%. An even better approximation is obtained with the expression:
SN
( ITHD )2 + (VTHD )2 (6.51)
S1
The normalized harmonic apparent power S H S1 is easy to calculate:
S H VH I H
= = ITHDVTHD (6.52)
S1 V1 I1
However, separating P1, Q1 and S1 from the nonfundamental power makes it
easy to follow the unaffected fundamental power flow of the electric energy, and
makes easier the application of engineering economic techniques. For this reason
the displacement power factor DPF:
P1
DPF = = cos 1 (6.53)
S1
remains a significant value for this concept where the fundamental powers are
monitored separately from the nonfundamental.
The total power factor can be defined as:
P P + PH ( P / S )[1 + ( PH / P1 )] [1 + ( PH / P1 )] DPF
PF = = 1 = 1 1 = (6.54)
S 2 2
S1 + S N 1 + ( S N / S1 ) 2 2
1 + VTHD 2
+ ITHD 2
+ VTHD 2
ITHD
6.5.3. Effects of harmonic distortion

Harmonic disturbances generated in the network elements have their origin in
non-linear components, e.g., generators, transformers and thyristor-controlled
capacitors or reactor banks used to control the network stability and reactive
power. Different loads connected to the medium voltage network can be thyristor-
controlled installations, steel works, induction furnaces and electric railway
systems [6.2].
The main effects of harmonic distortions on the power systems components
are [6.20, 6.28]:
additional losses into the lines conductors, cables, transformers, capacitor
banks, rotating machines;
decreasing value of the power factor at the customers receivers;
increasing electrical stress on the networks elements due the parallel and
series harmonic resonance;
increasing voltage value of the neutral conductor in three phase low
voltage network in a wye-connected circuit;
malfunction of signalling systems of the control devices, protective relays
and metering systems;
disturbance of telecommunication systems, telephone interference and
others.
6.5.3.1. Additional losses in conductors

Under non-sinusoidal conditions, the rms value of current is:
(
I 2 = I12 + I H2 = I12 1 + ITHD
2
)
The active power losses produced by the periodic non-sinusoidal current in a
series circuit element of resistance R are:
(
Pi = RI 2 = RI12 1 + ITHD
2
)
Assuming that the resistance R does not vary with the frequency, and the DC
component is zero, it results:
( 2
Pi = Pi1 1 + ITHD )
> Pi1 (6.55)
where Pi1 = RI12 is the active power losses by Joule effect at the fundamental
frequency, in the series elements.
A more accurate expression of the power losses is given by
( 2
)
Pi = Pi1 1 + ITHD , with > 1, because the effect of increasing harmonic
resistance Rh, of harmonic order h, has to be taken into account.
For electrical rotating machines Rh = h R1 [6.30], where R1 is the
resistance at fundamental frequency.
Similarly, the losses produces by the periodic non-sinusoidal voltage in a
shunt circuit element of conductance G are:
(
Pv = GV 2 = GV12 1 + VTHD
2
)
Assuming that the conductance G does not vary with the frequency, and the
DC component is zero, it results:
( 2
Pv = Pv1 1 + VTHD )
> Pv1 (6.56)
where Pv1 = GV12 is the active power losses at fundamental frequency, in the
shunt elements.
If the increasing effect of the conductance Gh, due to the harmonics presence,
(
the expression (6.56) becomes Pv = Pv1 1 + VTHD 2
)
, where > 1 for overhead
lines and cables, and < 1 for transformers and reactors.
6.5.3.2. The decrease of power factor at consumer

In order to emphasize the influence of the non-sinusoidal operation on the
power factor, we take benefit of the fact that PH / P1 1 so that equation (6.54) can
be rewritten under the form:
DPF
PF (6.57)
1 + ( S N / S1 )
2
from where it results that PF < DPF , which shows the decrease of the power
factor.
6.5.3.3. Harmonic resonance in electrical networks with non-linear loads

The electric networks are complex circuits including inductive and capacitive
elements, where oscillations of different frequencies may occur [6.24].
The resonance phenomena may amplify during faults occurrence or lower
loads leading to an increasing electrical stress on the network elements: capacitor
banks, transformers and others.
The harmonic resonance may be series or parallel. Series resonance occurs

especially when there are non-sinusoidal sources in the network, very rare
situation. A more frequent situation is the current harmonic resonance caused by
the harmonic sources of the non-linear loads. The parallel resonance may occur in
the case of pollutant consumers at low loads, when the capacitor bank is connected
to the supply busbar (Fig. 6.28,a). The Figure 6.28,b presents the equivalent circuit
for the hth harmonic of the network from Figure 6.28,a.
S
ICBh
jLS1h
T Ih j
RLL jLLL
CCB 1h
jLT1h
Ih
NL LL CB
a. b.
Fig. 6.28. Harmonically polluted network:
a. one-line diagram; b. equivalent circuit for the hth harmonic.
Besides the usual symbols found in Figure 6.28, we add Ih, which designates
the rms value of the hth harmonic current generated by the non-linear load NL, LL
represents the linear load, CB represents the capacitor bank, while T represents the
transformer.
The harmonic representation of the load is based on a common harmonic
equivalent circuit (see section 6.5.5.1.).
The parallel resonance occurs on the hr harmonic if the following condition is
met:
1
hr = (6.58)
2f1 Le C
where: C is the equivalent capacitance of the network and of the capacitor bank;
Le the equivalent inductance of the circuit, given by:
LLL (LS + LT )
Le =
LLL + LS + LT
and
LS the system inductance;
LT the transformer inductance;
LLL the linear load inductance;
Taking into account the following definitions:
U n2 U2 Q
LLL = ; ( LS + LT ) = n ; C = 2
Ql S sc Un
the equation (6.58) becomes:
S sc LS + LT S sc Ql
hr2 = 1 + = 1 + (6.59)
Q LLL Q S sc
where: Ssc is the short circuit apparent power of the supply system;
Q the capacitive reactive power delivered on the fundamental frequency
by the capacitor bank and the capacitances-to-ground of the line;
Ql reactive power on the fundamental frequency absorbed by the linear
load.
Analyzing the relation (6.59) we see that the increase in reactive power
delivered by the capacitor bank and the decrease in the inductive load, leads to
decrease in the resonance frequency and therefore the possibility of reaching
dangerous harmonic range (h<13) occurs.
The current ICBh absorbed by the capacitor bank on the hth harmonic has the
following expression:
Ih
I CBh = 2 2
(6.60)
h 1 CLe 1 1
j
h 2 12CLe RLL h1C
If the following equality is met on harmonic resonance hr:
hr2 12CLe 1 = 0
the current through the capacitor bank is given by:
S sc Q
I CBh = jI h RChr 1 = jI h RC 1 1 +
r r r Qc S sc
S sc Q
Usually, the term RC 1 1 + 1 , therefore I CBhr I hr , being
Qc S sc
possible that the capacitor banks to be damaged.
6.5.3.4. The increase in neutral voltage

Special care in the non-sinusoidal regimes analysis is given to the neutral
conductor and the neutral point in low voltage three-phase networks, with wye
connection. Due to the 3rd order harmonics generated by the single-phase receivers,
the sum of currents on the three phases is different by zero so that current flows
always exist into the neutral conductor. For this reason, in modern low voltage
networks, the neutral conductor should be able to carry the same current as the
phase conductors.
In order to analyse this issue it is thus necessary to consider the wye-
connected circuit of a three-phase system for the case of balanced non-sinusoidal
voltages. Assuming that the voltages do not have DC components and every triplen
harmonic has the same initial phase and equal to 0, 2 / 3 and 2 / 3 . The
fundamental harmonic voltages may be described by de following relations:
va1 = 2V1 sin 1t ; vb1 = 2V1 sin ( 1t 2 / 3) ; vc1 = 2V1 sin ( 1t + 2 / 3)
The hth harmonics of the phase-to-neutral voltages are:

vah = 2Vh sin ( h1t + vh ) ; vbh = 2Vh sin ( h1t h 2 / 3 + vh ) ;
vch = 2Vh sin ( h1t + h 2 / 3 + vh )
where vh represents the phase angle between the voltage at the hth harmonic and
the fundamental voltage.
For h = 3 p , where p is a integer number, the phase-to-neutral voltages
becomes:
vah = 2Vh sin ( 3 p1t + vh )
vbh = 2Vh sin ( 3 p1t 3 p 2 / 3 + vh ) = 2Vh sin ( 3 p1t + vh )
vch = 2Vh sin ( 3 p1t + 3 p 2 / 3 + vh ) = 2Vh sin ( 3 p1t + vh )
In wye-connected circuits, the phase-to-phase voltages are equal to the

difference between the corresponding phase-to-neutral voltages. Since the phase-
to-neutral voltages of triplen harmonics are equal and in phase, their differences are
zero. An interesting conclusion is that the phase-to-phase voltages do not contain
triplen harmonics, therefore U V < 3 .
When the wye-connected load circuit (Fig. 6.29) is provided with neutral
wire [6.24], the third harmonic and other triplen harmonics of the current add into
the neutral conductor harmonic currents with the same order, giving rise in current
flowing through he neutral conductor:
I 0,3 p = 3 I 2
3p = 3 I 32 + I 62 + I 92 + K
Va Ia Z
a
Vb Ib Z N
b
VN
Vc Ic Z
c
Fig. 6.29. Wye-connected

Z0 I0
three-phase system with
neutral wire.
Taking the phase a as reference, for the configuration in Figure 6.29, the
following relations can be written for the 3rd harmonic:
I 0,3 p = 3I a ,3 p (6.61,a)
( )
V a ,3 p = Z a ,3 p + 3Z 0,3 p I a ,3 p (6.61,b)
V N ,3 p = Z 0,3 p I 0,3 p = Z 0,3 p 3I a ,3 p (6.61,c)
From (6.61,b) we may write the expression of current on the phase a:

V a ,3 p
I a ,3 p =
Z a ,3 p + 3Z 0,3 p
and replacing it in the second equality of (6.61,c), we obtain the expression of the
neutral-to-ground voltage:
V a ,3 p
V N ,3 p = (6.62)
1 + Z a ,3 p / 3Z 0,3 p
where: Z a ,3 p is the value of the impedance of the phase a on the 3p harmonic;

Z 0,3 p the value of the neutral conductor impedance on 3p harmonic;
I3 p current passing through the Z 3 p impedance.
When the load circuit is without neutral wire, the sum of the currents will
always be zero. The conclusion is that the currents and the phase-to-neutral
voltages at the consumer do not contain triplen harmonics. Each triplen harmonic
of the phase-to-neutral voltages leads to neutral voltage displacement at the
consumer; therefore, the neutral voltage of the consumer is the sum of triplen
harmonic voltages, that is:
VN ,3 p = 3 V32 + V92 + V152 +K .
6.5.3.5. Measurement of power, energy and power factor

for non-linear loads
Correct measurements of power, energy and power factor is of interest for
consumers, as well as for utilities. These measurements are currently performed
using electronic devices that estimate the electric powers and the power factor
using algorithms based on the physical definitions of the active, reactive and
apparent power and of the power factor. The sinusoidal (for single-phase circuits)
and balanced sinusoidal (for three-phase circuits) operation gives no measurement
problem; instead, in non-sinusoidal or non-symmetrical operation, much confusion
regarding the measurement manner of the reactive power and power factor appear,
leading to significant errors especially for the consumers using power electronics
based devices. The software implemented into the digital measurement devices
should be based on appropriate calculation algorithms of power and power factor
according to standards.
Thus, the reactive power (or its equivalent N) in single-phase circuits can be
calculated using the relations:
hmax
Q= V I
h =1
h h sin h , N = S 2 P 2 , Q1 = V1 I1 sin 1
and the power factor is given by:

P P P1 P1 P P
PF = = ; DPF = = ; kP = .
2
P +Q + D 2 2 S P12 + Q12 S1 P1 + Q1 S1
2 2
Practical applications consider [6.31] non-linear loads (e.g. thyristor

controlled resistor) where the current curve is distorted while the voltage is
practically sinusoidal (Fig. 6.30,a). The current and voltage outputs from the digital
measuring device are given in Figure 6.30,c. The phase shift between the
fundamental voltage and current is about 8 degrees, which gives a DPF of 0.99. On
the other hand, the reactive power according to Budeanu is zero, while the non-
active power is equal to the harmonic distorted power, while the total power factor
recorded is PF = 0.78 << DPF .
The conclusion is that, concerning the PF value, the consumer should be
penalized, but concerning the DPF value, the consumer should be congratulated.
Frequency 49.97 Hz
v [V] i [A] Voltage Current
rms 232.7 9.44
500 v Peak 324.6 19.79
250 25 THD 2.3 61.22
i
0 0 rms
t [s]
-250 -25 THD 2.3 77.43
-500
fund
Crest 1.39 2.10
Phase 8 deg
a.
DPF 0.99
Ih [A] PF 0.78
12
Power kW 1.71
8
S kVA 2.20
4 D kVAd 0.23
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 h Q kVAr 0
b. c.
Fig 6.30. Measurement of power and PF in circuits with non-linear loads [6.31]:
a. voltage and current waveforms; b. harmonic spectrum of current; c. device output.
6.5.3.6. The effects of distortions on the measuring apparatus and

protection relays
Measurement and protection relays equipments that control the peak voltage
and current values are affected by the voltage and current waveforms [6.24].
Protection relays used in zero-sequence protection systems can operate for a certain
distortion level of the voltage and/or current waveforms although no non-
symmetrical faults occurs. This is the case of wye-connected measurement
transformers where the triplen harmonics have zero-sequence behaviour.
The measurement transformers and protection equipments connected to the
secondary of these transformers are influenced by the distorted waveforms of the
measured voltage and current. In this way, errors due to the distortion in signal
transferring through the measuring transformer are added to the erroneous
operation of the measurement equipment or protective relays under distorted
regime. An interesting situation occurs for a delta connected current transformer
(Fig. 6.31):
a b c
i2a
i2b Measurement
i2c system
Fig. 6.31. Delta-connected

current measurement
transformer.
i2a i2b i2c
i1a i1b i1c
The relationship between the harmonic currents, on the phase a, in the

primary (denoted by 1) and secondary (denoted by 2) of the measurement
transformer is:
I
I 2 a ,h = 1a , h exp j (ih h )
k
where: I1a , h is the magnitude of the hth order harmonic current on the phase a, in
the primary of transformer;
I 2 a , h the magnitude of the hth order harmonic current on phase a, in the
secondary of transformer;
k = N 2 N1 nominal turns ratio of the current transformer, where N1 and
N 2 are the number of turns in the primary and secondary windings
of the transformer;
ih the phase shift of the hth harmonic current, on the phase a, with
respect to the reference axis;
h the phase shift between the hth order harmonic currents in the
primary and secondary windings of the transformer. It is mentioned
that, for inductive load this value is negative.
From Figure 6.31 it can be seen that the current measured on the phase a in
the secondary of the transformer is:
i2' a = i2 a i2b
where i2 a and i2b are the currents flowing through the windings of phases a and b
of the current transformer.
Expressing in complex form, for the hth harmonic, the above relation
becomes:
' I1a , h 2h
I 2 a ,h = I 2 a ,h I 2b ,h = exp j (ih h ) 1 exp j .
k 3
'
For h = 3 p it results that I 2 a ,h = 0 and for h = 3 p 1 we obtain that:
I 1a ,3 p 1
I 2' a ,h = 3 exp j ih h m
k 6
Therefore, the rms value of the current in the secondary of the transformer is:

3 3
( I1a,1 ) + ( I )
2 2
I 2' a = 1a ,3 p 1 < I1a , rms
k 2 p =1 k
where: I1a ,1 is the fundamental current magnitude on the phase a ;

I1a ,3 p 1 the current magnitude for h = 3 p 1 on the phase a;
I1a , rms the rms value of the current in the primary of the transformer.
6.5.4. Modelling and analysis

6.5.4.1. Harmonic modelling of the electric network
Choosing a model depends on the accuracy desired, the availability of data
and the range of the frequencies considered.
Electric lines
The classical simple equivalent circuit, with R-L series, and C shunt
elements is usually sufficient. A more exact model is presented in detail in Chapter 3.
In order to take into account the skin effect, a line of l km length is
considered, firstly for an overhead line, having the per length reactance
X 1 0.4 / km , then for a cable, having the per length reactance X 1 0.1 / km .
The value of the resistance Rh [] at any harmonic number h is then deduced

from its 50 Hz value R1 [] as follows [6.30]:
( )
Rh = Rdc 0.035 x 2 + 0.938 , for x 2.4
Rh = Rdc ( 0.35 x + 0.3) , for x > 2.4
where
R1 0.004398 l h
Rdc = [] and x = 0.3545 []
0.938 Rdc l
The above relations are valid for belted cables. In order to take into account
the effect of the current flows in short-circuited screens of a single-core cable or
individually screened three-core (H type) cables some requirements have been
recommended in the same work.
Transformers
The parameters of the classical models need to be modified in order to take
into account the frequency dependence. As the internal resonant frequencies of
high-voltage power transformers occur well above the range of interest for
harmonic penetration studies, the inter-winding capacitances and capacitances to
ground of transformers have very little effect on the accuracy of the results. The
frequency dependence of the resistance accounts for the increased transformer core
losses with frequency due to the skin effect.
Assuming that the transformers are not operated in saturation, various
representations have been suggested in literature to replace the leakage inductance
(Fig. 6.32,a,b) [6.32].
Xh
Rh Xh
Rh
Rh = 80 X 1 Rh = 0.1026 khX 1 ( J + h )
X h = hX 1 X h = hX 1
a. b.
RS Xh
Rp
Rs = X 1 tan , R p = 10 X 1 tan , X h = h X 1
tan = exp 0.693 + 0.796 ln Sn 0.0421 ( ln Sn )

2

c.
Fig. 6.32. The transformer harmonic models: a. parallel connection;
b. series connection; c. series-parallel connection.
In Figure 6.32,c, h is the harmonic order; Sn is the rated power of transformer,

in MVA; X1 is the fundamental frequency leakage reactance of transformer; J is the
ratio of hysteresis to eddy current losses, taken as 3 for silicon steel; k = 1 ( J + 1) .
Considering the wide range of models, further more work is clearly needed in
this area to provide more specific information to particular transformer ratings and
characteristics.
Whenever the effect of transformer magnetic nonlinearity is considered
relevant, the magnetising current harmonics must be calculated and represented as
current-injecting sources.
Synchronous generators
At harmonic frequencies, the machine is represented by its subtransient
reactance X d'' and by a resistance supposed equal to R1 = 0.1 X d'' , corresponding to
a subtransient time constant of 32 ms. For any harmonic order h, the reactance is
[6.30]:
X h = hX d''
and the skin effect is taken into account by considering:
Rh = hR1
Capacitors
The reactance XC of the capacitor bank at the hth harmonics is given by the
formula:
1
XC =
h1C
Loads
When carrying out harmonic penetration studies in transmission systems, it is
not usual to represent the system from generators right through individual
consumer loads. At some point down the network the elements are aggregated into
an equivalent circuit. Typically, equivalent circuits are used at the points of supply
to distribution authorities, which ensure power to individual consumers within the
load centres.
Various models have been proposed for consumer loads, some of them
related to individual components and others as component aggregated models.
Various suggested combinations of the active and reactive power demand at
fundamental frequency are shown in Figure 6.33 [6.32, 633].
Models a and b [6.32] can be considered as common practice models and are
very easy to use. They are unable to distinguish the static from the rotating part of
the load. Both models c and d, being considerably more complex, provide an
explicit differentiation by using a factor that represents the fraction of the rotating
part of the load.
Ph+jQh Ph+jQh
Xh Rh Vh Xh Rh Vh
2
V12 ; X = hV1 ; k = 0.1 h + 0.9 V12 ; hV 2
Rh = h Rh = Xh = 1
kP1 kQ1 P1 Q1
a. b.
P1+jQ1 P1+jQ1
Xs Xs Xa
Xp Vh
Vh
Rs Rs Ra
V12 ; X S = hRS (Q1 / P1)

RS =
P1 (1 q )
V12
X s = 0.073 hRs ; Rs =
P1 [
Ra = Rm 1 + k (hf1 )0.5 ]
X p = hR (6.7 (Q1 P1 ) 0.74 ) Xa =
V12
X lr h 2 ( hf1 )

P1 q
c. d.
Fig. 6.33. The load harmonic models [6.32, 6.33].
The following symbols have been used in Figure 6.33:

V is the fundamental voltage at the load bus;
P1, Q1 active and reactive powers absorbed by the load at fundamental
frequency;
h harmonic order;
f1 fundamental frequency;
Rm equivalent series resistance at fundamental frequency;
Xlr locked rotor mean equivalent reactance at fundamental frequency;
q factor of the rotating load;
, k parameters of the proposed model.
The model c, of semi-empiric origin, assumes constant the resistance and

inductance values in terms of frequency. The model d provides empirically based
variation laws for the resistance and conductance versus frequency concerning the
rotating part of the load (Ra and Xa). These variation laws should take into account
the skin effect that occurs in the rotor bars of induction machines when frequency
increases [6.33].
6.5.4.2. Harmonic impedance determination

The harmonic impedance of an electric network, seen from any node, is the
positive-sequence impedance, which is dependent on the frequency seen in that
node. The impedances of the elements of a system at harmonic frequencies are
determined on the basis of their value at fundamental frequency.
The complete system can never be described in full into the harmonic studies.
It is therefore necessary to limit the dimensions of the system for some parts using
the equivalent impedances representing its behaviour to harmonic disturbance.
These impedances vary to a great extent over time and from one point of the
system to another. They depend, among other things, on the short circuit power of
the systems, the length of lines, the presence of capacitor banks for reactive energy
compensation and the load level of the system.
Either an experimental or a digital simulation method or a combination of
both can be used to estimate these impedances.
Measurement methods
The basic principle of measuring the harmonic impedance is to make use of
(inter) harmonic currents Ih injected at the point where the (inter) harmonic Z h
impedance is to be measured, then using Ohms law [6.30]:
Zh =V h / Ih (6.63)
assuming that no (inter) harmonic voltage was represented in the network prior to
the current injection (Fig. 6.34). Where pre-existing harmonic source was
represented, the quantities Vh and Ih must be replaced by Vh and Ih:
Z h = V h / I h
network Ih source
Zh Vh Yh Jh
Fig. 6.34. Harmonic impedance measurement without

taking into account the pre-existing harmonic voltage.
A synthesis of possible measuring methods of the harmonic impedance is

shown in Table 6.5.
Table 6.5
Some measurement methods of the harmonic impedance.
Non-linear loads as
unique harmonic
Use of harmonic current sources
currents from existing Making use of pre-
non-linear installations existing harmonic
sources
Switching of capacitor
The banks
Switching transients or
measurement Switching of
natural variations
method of transformers
harmonic Natural variations
impedance Electric railways
Low voltage
Special use of
capacitor and
equipment as harmonic
Direct injection of MV/LV transformer
current generators
harmonic currents Saturated
transformer
Use of interharmonic
current generators
One measurement method of the harmonic impedance is based on the natural

variations of the currents and voltages. The concept may be explained by using the
Figure 6.35. A network is characterized by an admittance Yh and a harmonic
current source Jh, which is connected to the remaining system characterized by its
harmonic impedance Zh and a harmonic voltage source Eh.
Zh Ih
Eh Vh Yh Jh
Fig. 6.35. Equivalent circuit for a feeder and the remaining system
The output voltage Vh (t ) and the input current I h (t ) may be sampled at

regular interval, e.g. every minute. Assuming a stationary process and especially a
weak correlation between disturbing voltage Eh (t ) and the input signal I h (t ) , the
output signal Vh (t ) is mainly caused by I h (t ) . The time-depending system-
impedance Z h is gained by the inverse Fourier Transformation from:
Ghiu ( f )
Z h ( f ) = Z h ( f ) e j ( f ) =
Ghii ( f )
where: Ghii ( f ) is the spectrum of the complex auto-correlation function of the
input I h (t ) ;
Ghiu ( f ) the spectrum of the complex cross-correlation function between
input and output functions I h (t ) and Vh (t ) , respectively.
Equipments switching results in serious distortions of voltage and current
waveform. Switching a capacitor bank is approximately equivalent to causing an
instantaneous short-circuit, resulting in a current in which the FFT gives a very rich
spectrum. Recording the voltage and current signals in a time window including
the transient phenomenon will then allow the assessment of the system harmonic
impedance, as seen from the connection point of the capacitor bank.
Another case is the transformers switching. Immediately after the switching
process, a transformer will reach saturation depending on the remanence and on the
switching moment. Transient inrush current different on the three phases are
then characterized by a high aperiodic component, a rich spectrum content and a
great value (order of magnitude I h ), during some seconds. They can be used for
harmonic impedance measurement.
As given in Table 6.5, various measurement methods of harmonic impedance
are recommended, more or less accurate. For each (inter) harmonic order, Vh (t )
and I h (t ) may be obtained from the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) of the voltage
and current time domain records: the first one divided by the second one gives the
impedance (FFT Method). In presence of noisy signals, the accuracy of the
calculations can be improved by applying the correlation analysis in conjunction
with the FFT (Power Spectral Method).
Calculation issues of harmonic impedance
To calculate the harmonic impedance, various methods are used. i.e.: the
worst case impedance curves approach, IEC recommendations, computer
programs, etc [6.30].
(i) The worst case impedance curves approach is based on compressive site
measurements (this method has been defined in the UK). If calculations using these
curves indicate that a load can be connected, this may be done with minimum risk.
However, if these calculations give results somewhat outside the limit, a more
refined approach should be used.
At low voltage, the worst case impedance curve is derived from the fault
level and is taken as varying directly with the harmonic number in a straight line
relationship, i.e. formula Z h = h Z 1 is applied.
(ii) The IEC recommendations concerning Network impedances for
calculation of harmonic propagation and evaluation of harmonic voltage
components have been issued as a draft. In the context of industrial and other non-
public network, they are summarized hereafter.
a) Zh directly proportional to frequency. In simple installations, with no large

capacitors for power factor correction and no large cable networks, resonance
conditions are not likely to occur for frequencies up to 13th harmonic. In such
cases, Zh can be considered to be mainly inductive, and approximated as:
Z h = h Z 1 . This approach can be used with a reasonable accuracy (normally better
than 20%) if:
The medium voltage bus is fed through a transformer of which reactance
X T is high compared to the reactance of the high voltage supply X S :
- X T X S > 10 if resonance in the high voltage supply is possible in the
studied frequency range;
- X T X S > 4 if resonance in the high voltage supply is unlikely in the
studied frequency range;
The total capacitance connected to the secondary system is low so that the
resonance frequency is at least 2.5 times the highest studied harmonic frequency.
The resonance frequency is calculated as f r = 1 / 2 LC , where L is the
inductance per phase corresponding to Z1 if the capacitance is omitted, and C is the
total capacitance per phase, with both power factor capacitors and cable
capacitances taken into consideration.
b) Zh with single resonance. If the total capacitance is higher than what is
stated above, but all capacitive components can be regarded as connected to the
same electrical point, the resulting value of Zh can be calculated as L in parallel
with C, L and C being defined above.
Close to resonance point, however, this method gives a far too high value of
the resulting impedance. In order to calculate the correct value, the resistive
component of the network impedances must be taken into consideration.
(iii) Computer programs. The calculation of the harmonic current distribution
and the harmonic voltages in the network requires the definition of the impedances
that describes the behaviour at the harmonic frequencies of each network
component. Several computer programs have been developed for the purpose of
those calculation possibilities, such as [6.1]:
the harmonic impedance seen from a given node of the network;
a prediction of current and voltage harmonics propagation origin from
given non-linear loads;
a prediction of network changes influence on the existing harmonics;
a prediction of ripple control signals propagation.
In practice, the assessment method to be chosen depends on several factors,
mainly the kind of power system, the kind of disturbing load and the available
method.
6.5.4.3. Harmonic sources representation

Harmonic sources can be divided schematically into two categories
depending on their origins: they can be intrinsic to systems or due to the nature of
the connected loads.
Although, system lines do not introduce harmonics and often act as filters
reducing distortions, other components contribute intrinsically to the deformation
of the voltage wave. The generators, which, despite the optimised construction, do
not provide perfectly sinusoidal voltage, and mainly transformers, which act as
harmonic sources during their operation in saturated conditions, can be given as
example.
Load with non-linear current-voltage characteristics connected to the system
and fed by a practically pure voltage absorb non-sinusoidal currents. These currents
cross the Thevenin impedance of the system and generate voltage. These voltages
are more deformed and more intense and higher than the currents. Among all these
loads, a distinction can be drawn between two broad categories [6.34]:
loads such as arc furnaces;
loads supplied with power from devices including semiconductors such as
power converters and electrical domestic appliances.
Arc furnaces
Arc furnaces are the most difficult to study as their power can reach
extremely high values. It is nevertheless possible to determine experimentally
empirical models of harmonic injections produced by these loads. The arc furnace
is modelled according to the equivalent circuit diagram in Figure 6.36.
R
Ih Fig. 6.36. Equivalent circuit of an arc
furnace.
X
The source of harmonic current Ih is defined by [6.34]:

even order h:
Ih =
Sn ( 0.15 + 3.5exp ( 0.4 ( h 2) ))
3U n 100
odd order h:
S n (0.15 + 7.5 exp( 0.45(h 3)))
Ih =
3U n 100
where Sn is the apparent power of the furnace and Un is the rated phase-to-phase
voltage.
Load supplied by semiconductor-based devices

The main reason for the success of semiconductors lies in the non-linearity of
their current-voltage characteristics. This special feature allows them to perform
basic functions such as rectifying or even dynamic power and velocity control.
These harmonic current producing devices are classified into two categories as a
function of the power of the loads they feed: power converters and electro-
domestic loads [6.34].
Power converters
This category comprises all equipment which perform the industrial system-
load interface. Their power levels are high and their applications manifold: electric
traction, electrolysis, induction rolling mill, etc.
All these applications require electronic switches (diodes, thyristors) as
shown in the configuration in Figure 6.37.
Id
i(t)
Load
Fig. 6.37. Supply of a DC load via a Gretz three-phase rectifier bridge.
Figure 6.38 presents the shape (a) and spectrum (b) of the current absorbed
by a conversion bridge.
i Ih 100
Id I1 80
[%] 60
law 1/h (for = 30 )
0 40
2 t
20
0 h
1 5 7 11 13
a. b.
Fig. 6.38. Shape over time (a.) and spectrum of the current absorbed (b.)
of a six-pulse rectifier.
For example, let us take a static converter of apparent power Sn, with rated
phase-to-phase voltage Un and pulse order p (6 or 12). Such a converter can be
modelled by a source of harmonic currents Ih, such that:
for instant switching of thyristors:
Sn
Ih = , with h = pk 1 , k = 1, 2, ..., n
3U n h
for non-instant switching of thyristors:

Sn
Ih = 1.2
, with h = pk 1 , k = 1, 2, ..., n
5
3U n h
h
Electro-domestic loads
All electrical household devices (television sets, video recorders, etc.),
connected in millions of units to the low voltage distribution system, contribute to
the greatest extent to harmonic pollution of the system. The first supply step of
these appliances is formed of a diode bridge followed by capacitive filtering; other
appliances are motorized via an electronic controller (in general a triac switch) or
use discrete power regulation from a single diode placed in series. They all
generate substantial harmonic currents and contribute to a large extent to the
voltage wave distortion.
For example, Figure 6.39 presents the spectrum of the current absorbed by a
computer monitor.
Fig. 6.39. Spectrum of the current absorbed by a computer monitor.
These loads produce high harmonic currents. In addition, despite the

advantage of these appliances of being low power units, the drawback is their
substantial number distributed throughout the system. Due to their extremely
variable characteristics, they appear and disappear from the system at random. The
great variation of these loads and lack of information on their numbers lead to their
representation not with current sources of given amplitude, but with harmonic
current sources which are statistically defined by density laws.
6.5.4.4. Techniques for harmonic analysis

The problem of harmonic analysis can be mathematically evaluated as
solution of a network equations set at fundamental and harmonic frequencies. The
network equations can be formulated in an admittance matrix form or in a power

flow equation form. The model used can be simple or more complex as the data are
more or less available. An important consideration in harmonic analysis is to use a
method to commensurate the input data accuracy [6.21].
Frequency scan is the simplest and the most commonly used technique
for harmonic analysis. The input data requirements are minimized. It calculates the
frequency response of a network seen at a particular bus or node. Typically, a one
per unit sinusoidal current (or voltage) is injected into the bus of interest and the
voltage (or current) response is calculated. This calculation is repeated using
discrete frequency steps throughout the range of interest. Mathematically, the
following network equation, at frequency h f 1, have to be solved:
[Y h ] [V h ] = [I h ] (6.64)
where [Ih] is the known current vector (for current injection scan) and [Vh] is the
nodal voltage vector to be solved.
The current has a magnitude determined from typical harmonic spectrum and
rated load current of the harmonic-producing equipment under study:
Ih = Irated Ihspectrum I1spectrum (6.65)
where h is the harmonic order and the subscript spectrum indicates the typical
harmonic spectrum of the element. Equation (6.65) is then solved only for the
harmonic frequency.
The load flow computer programs, which model the harmonic-producing
devices as constant power loads, calculate the fundamental frequency current
injected from the load toward the system. Assuming that the current has a phase
angle of i1, the phase angle of the harmonic current ih corresponding to the non-
linear element can be determined by:
(
ih = ih spectrum + h i1 i1h spectrum ) (6.66)
where ih-spectrum is the typical phase angle of the harmonic source current spectrum.
This approach is very efficient for analysing the power system with power
electronic devices. The fundamental frequency load flow solution is also beneficial
for providing more accurate information such as base voltages that can be used for
distortion index calculations.
Harmonic iteration method is another used method [6.35]. In this
method, a harmonic-producing device is modelled as a supply voltage-dependent
current source:
I h = F (V1 ,V2 ,...,VH , c) ; h = 1, ..., H (6.67)
where (V1, V2, ...., VH) are the phase harmonics of the supply voltage and c is a set
of control variables such as converter firing angle or output power. This equation is
first solved using an estimated supply voltage. The results are used like the current
sources in equation (6.64), from which nodal harmonic voltages are then obtained.
The voltages are used to calculate more accurate harmonic current sources from
equation (6.67). This iterative process is repeated until convergence is achieved.
The Newton based method takes into account the voltage-dependent nature
of non-linear devices to solve simultaneously the systems of equations (6.64) and
(6.67). This method generally requires that the device models to be available in a
closed form where its derivatives can be efficiently computed. An important step of
this method is the formulation of the system equation. In [6.36], the equation (6.64)
is formulated as a power flow equation and the control variables (firing angles) are
solved based on the converter specifications.
Furthermore, the phase-shifting effects of transformers on harmonics can be
easily represented using three-phase modelling.
Besides the frequency-domain methods described above, others techniques
have also been developed for harmonic analysis in the time-domain [6.37]. The
simplest approach is to run a time simulation until a steady-state is reached.
Electromagnetic transient programs such as EMTP have been used as such a tool.
Complex techniques, such as the shooting method, have been proposed to
accelerate the convergence to steady-state. One of the main disadvantages of the
time-domain based methods is the lack of load flow constraints at the fundamental
frequency.
The state variables analysis is another method used for study of
harmonic disturbances [6.38, 6.39], which is based on the network admittance
matrix inversion technique.
The variable analysis as a concept, which was initially introduced in
automatics, has been soon extended to many other domains. It supposes that the
development of a linear system depends on its past and on the input signals applied
at a given moment. The introduction of a number of variables judiciously selected
allows the future of the system to be forecasted using these data only. Its
application to power networks allows to effectively analyse their frequency
behaviour by trying to find the series (zeroes of the system) and parallel (poles of
the system) resonance frequencies.
In the framework of the state variable method, the system behaviour is
described by the classical equations:
x& = A x + B j (6.68')
u =C x (6.68")
where: A is the state matrix of the system, with dimension nn;
B the control matrix, with dimension nq;
C the output matrix, with dimension mn;
x the state vector, with dimension n;
u the output vector, with dimension m;
j the control vector, with dimension q;
Besides the equations (6.68), the initial values of the quantities xi (i = 1, n)
and ji (i = 1, q) are known.
In the case of an electric distribution network, harmonically polluted, the

components of the above-defined matrices are determined as follows:
the state variables: the independent harmonic currents through the series
inductance ( iij ) or shunt inductance ( ii , i = 1, nl ) from the equivalent circuits of the
consumers, lines and/or transformers, as well as the harmonic voltages at the
capacitors terminals ( vi , i = 1, nc ). Assumes that capacitor banks, used for power
factor correction and/or filtering, are installed into the systems nodes. The choice
of the state variables is performed by taking into account that the resonance
harmonic frequencies are calculated in terms of the values of the capacitances and
inductances of the equivalent circuit; obviously, the state variables are the currents
through inductances and the voltages at the capacitors terminals;
the control variables: the harmonic currents injected in each node of the
network ji (i = 1, q) ;
the output quantities: the harmonic voltages resulted in each node of the
network ui (i = 1, m) . The matrices A and B can be written based on the Kirchhoffs
theorems for the considered network. Thus, for the network section between nodes
i and j (Fig. 6.40), we may write:
dui ui
ii + ji = Ci dt + R + iij
i
dii
ui = Li (6.69)
dt
u u = L diij + R i
i j ij
dt
ij ij

or
dii 1
= ui
d t L i
diij Rij 1 1
= iij + ui u j (6.70)
dt Lij Lij Lij
dui 1 1 u 1
= ii iij i + ji
dt Ci Ci Ci Ri Ci
iij Lij Rij
i ui uj
ii j
Ci Li Ri ji
Fig. 6.40. Example of network section.

Therefore, the matrices A, B and C have the following structure:

nl m 8
64748 64 4744
R 1
terms L terms nl
L
A= (6.71)
terms 1 terms
1
C RC m

nl m
6474 8 64447444 8
1
0 L 0 C 0 L 0
1

M L M 1
0 L 0
B= C2 q

M L M M 0 L M

0 L 0 1
0 0 L
Cm
nl m 8
6474 8 644744
0 L 0 1 0 L 0

C = M L M 0 1 L 0 m

M L M M 0 L M
0 L 0 0 0 L 1
Applying the Laplace transform to the equation (6.68'), it results:

s X ( s) = A X (s) + B J ( s) (6.72)
or, if we denote by IN the unity matrix of order n, the equation (6.72) becomes:
X ( s ) = ( sI N A) 1 B J ( s ) (6.73)
Using the Ohms low, the relation between the harmonic nodal voltages ui
and the injected currents ji, is:
U ( s) = Z (s) J ( s) (6.74)
where Z ( s ) is the Laplace plane impedance matrix of the network.
Replacing the expression (6.74) in (6.68"), we obtain:
adj( sI N A)
Z = C ( sI N A) 1 B or Z = C B (6.75)
det ( sI N A)
The Laplace plane equivalent impedance seen from a node k is represented
by the diagonal term from the position k+nl of the matrix Z, nl being the number of
currents flowing through inductances considered as state variable. Therefore, if Ak
is the matrix obtained from A by eliminating the line and the column k+nl, it
results:
1 det ( sI N 1 Ak )
Z k ( s) = (6.76)
C k det ( sI N A)
Analysing the expression (6.76) we see that the poles of the system
correspond to the eigenvalues of the matrix A, and the zeroes of the system seen
from the node k correspond to the eigenvalues of the matrix Ak.
The equivalent impedance seen from any node of the network will therefore
have n poles and n-1 zeroes.
In most cases the injection of the harmonic disturbance is modelled as a
current source, the presence of impedance peaks (poles) at frequencies multiple of
f1 generate high harmonic voltages at these frequencies. However, too low
impedance at the frequency that corresponds to the tariff setting remote control
signals may give raise to certain problems. The impedance, in fact, seen from the
nodes of the network must be high enough to ensure the proper propagation of the
signals. From these remarks, we can infer three rules for placing the impedance
poles and zeroes: a pole must be set far away from the harmonic frequencies if it is
blocked by a zero; the zeroes must be set close to each harmonic frequency or to
poles so as to compensate them; the case of the central remote control frequency
must be taken into consideration.
Application
As a practical application of the above-presented method, one of the most frequently
study network is considered. Passive filters for harmonics cancellation are installed on the
medium voltage bus from a transformer station, supplying a harmonic polluted distribution
network (Fig. 6.41). These filters have a double role: to absorb the corresponding harmonic
currents and to compensate the reactive power on the fundamental frequency up to the
desired level.
S j kL1
u1 i1 1
1 110 kV
j kL12 j1 1/j kC 1
T i12
R12
2 20 kV 2 u2
i2
j kL 2 R2 j kL j2 1/j kC 2
23
j kL24
NL LL Lf Lf i23 i24
3 u3 u4 4
3 4
Cf5 Cf7 j3 1/j kC 3 j4 1/j kC 4
Fig. 6.41. Simple distribution network Fig. 6.42. Harmonic equivalent circuit
(LL linear load; NL non-linear load). of the network.
The filtering-compensation device contains a resonant circuit for the 5th and 7th
harmonics, present in the current absorbed by the non-linear component of the load. The
sizing criteria used for the filters components leads to the same inductance for the two
filters.
Table 6.6 presents the rated parameters of the networks elements and the
corresponding equivalent parameters (referred to 20 kV), while Figure 6.42 shows the
equivalent electrical circuit, used for writing the state equations and the matrix A.
Table 6.6
Rated parameters and equivalent parameters of the networks elements
Network
Rated parameters Equivalent parameters
elements
SSC = 1000 MVA XS = 0.4 LS =1.27310-3 H L1 =LS
System
US = 110kV
Sn = 25 MVA RT = 0.101 R12 = RT
Transfor- Psc = 130 kW XT = 2.13
mer Un MV = 22 kV LT = 6.77910-3 H L12 = LT
usc = 11 %
Pc
Qc [MVAr] Rc [] R 2 = Rc Xc = 100
[MW]
Linear a 4 100 Lc = 0.318 H L2 = L c
load b 6 66.667
4
c 8 50
d 10 40
Qk1 [MVAr] Lf [H] L23 = L24 = Lf Cf5 [F] Cf7 [F]
Filtering/ a 2.833 0.028 14.43 7.362
Compen-
b 2.25 0.035 11.46 5.847
sation
devices c 1.667 0.048 8.488 4.331
d 1.083 0.073 5.517 2.815
The active load, corresponding to the linear load, supplied from the medium voltage
bus of the substation is considered by its four values (ad cases). In order to obtain the
desired value of the power factor (0.96), the necessary values for capacitances and
inductances of the passive filters are determined.
The connection points between the coils and capacitors of the two filters are
considered buses of the equivalent network (numbered by 3 and 4 in Fig. 6.42); therefore,
the filters coil can be considered series connected and the capacitors can be considered
shunt connected. In each of the networks buses a current source (even fictive because the
state matrix does not change) and a capacitor (even of fictive value C1 = C2 = 10 10 F ) are
connected.
For this application, this consideration is not necessarily, so that by applying the
Kirchhoffs laws on the equivalent circuit, we obtain the following state matrix of the
network:
1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Ls

0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lc
R12 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0
L12 L12 L12
0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0
L23 L23
1 1
A= 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
L24 L24
1 1
C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
C1
1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0
C2 C2 C2 C2 C2 R2
1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
C3
0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
C4
The frequencies corresponding to the networks poles are obtained by dividing by 2

the imaginary positive parts of the complex conjugate eigenvalues pairs of the matrix A.
The frequencies corresponding to the networks zeroes seen from the four buses are
obtained applying the same procedure, but to the four matrices Ak obtained from matrix A
by removing by turn the pairs line-column corresponding to the indices from 6 to 9.
The results corresponding to the four cases are presented in Table 6.7. The values of
the frequencies of the networks poles and zeroes are determined based on the frequency
dependence between the diagonal elements of the inverse of the network admitance matrix
the classical method.
Table 6.7
The frequencies of the networks poles and zeroes.
Frequencies poles [Hz] Frequencies zeroes [Hz]
state classical method state variables method classical method
Case
variables bus number bus number bus number
method 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
216.4 214 216 216 215 221.2 250 226.6 222 250 227
a
324.3 323 324 325 324 326.4 350 317.4 327 350 316
223.2 220 223 223 221 227.0 250 230.2 228 250 231
b
327.5 325 327 329 328 329.5 350 322.7 331 350 319
230.3 226 229 230 227 233.1 250 234.5 235 250 235
c
331.6 328 331 333 332 333.5 350 328.9 335 350 324
237.5 233 236 238 234 239.2 250 239.4 240 250 240
d
337.0 332 336 338 337 338.4 350 335.9 340 350 330
Each the four cases, the frequency dependence of the impedances seen from the
networks buses, determined with the classical method, is presented in Figure 6.43.
Zk1[] Zk2 []
4 100
a
3.33
a 80
2.67 b b
c 60
2
d c
40
1.33 d
20
0.67
0 0
150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400
f [Hz] f [Hz]
a. node 1 b. node 2
Zk3 [] Zk4 []
4000 7000
d
3200 5600
a
2400 4200
c
1600 b 2800
a b
c
800 1400 d
0 0
150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400
f [Hz] f [Hz]
c. node 3 d. node 4
Fig. 6.43. Frequency dependence of the impedance seen from the networks buses.
By analysing the obtained values, the following conclusions can be drawn:

the values of the frequencies of the parallel and series harmonic resonances that
can appear into the considered network, obtained by means of the state variables
method, are almost identically with those obtained by means of the classical
method, for all the four cases of the load and filtering-compensation devices
connected;
the zeroes seen from the bus 2, where the filtering-compensation devices are
installed, are obtained on the frequencies of 250 Hz and 350 Hz, meaning that the
passive filters are correctly sized in order to absorb the 5th and 7th current
harmonics injected by the pollution source;
in the presence of the filtering-compensation devices, there is no risk of causing
any parallel resonance because the networks poles are positioned at non-
dangerous frequencies.
6.5.5. Mitigation solutions to controlling harmonics

Basically, the harmonics can be significantly present under the form of
strongly distorted voltage or current waveform becoming a problem if [6.1]:
the harmonics generated by some devices are greater than a tolerable
threshold;
there is no controlling device to mitigate the harmonics so that a spread
network area is affected by the distorted voltage;
the system can magnify one or more harmonics generated by the loads to a
non tolerable level.
The possible mitigation solutions of the harmonics are:
add filters to correct the current waveform to a sinusoidal shape;
use of delta or zigzag connected transformers to block the triplen
harmonics;
modify the frequency response of the system by filters, inductors and
capacitors.
6.5.5.1. Reducing the harmonic currents at the consumers

Usually, the power supply utility imposes the level of harmonic current
distortions produced by the load. This level should not be greater than the
thresholds recommended by standards for the point of common coupling. In order
to reduce the harmonic distortion level special methods are used in terms of non-
linear load type [6.1]:
for rectifiers, supplementary reactors at the AC entrance or bridges with
increased number of pulses should be used;
for PWM inverters, reactors at the entrance circuit are recommended;
for arc furnaces, high reactance transformers or series reactors to increase
the short-circuit impedance can be employed, only as long as this method
will not affect the furnace operation;
for residential consumers, supply transformers with delta connection on the
MV side can be used. Delta connected transformers can block the flow of
zero-sequence harmonics (3rd order harmonics) from the line. Zigzag and
grounding transformers can shunt the triplen harmonics.
The international standard IEC 61000-3-2 [6.40] recommend limits for the
harmonic emissions produced by non-linear consumer equipments. Tables 6.8 and
6.9 gives admissible limits for equipments operating with a current lower than 16 A.
Accordingly, the devices are classified in four classes:
A class: three-phase balanced devices and all other equipments not
included in B, C, and D classes;
B class: portable devices;
C class: lightning devices, including the setting-up lamp current devices;
D class: devices absorbing rectangular shape currents having a power
lower than 600 W.
Table 6.8 Table 6.9

Maximum admissible limits for harmonic Maximum admissible limits for harmonic
currents of the devices supplied by the public currents of the devices supplied by the
LV networks: A, B, D classes public LV networks: C class
Harmonic
Device Harmonic Device Harmonic order current
Harmonic order h current I [A] Ih
Type h Type h
[%]
I
3 2.3 2 2
4 0.43 3 30 PF
5 1.14 5 10
6 0.30 C class 7 7
7 0.77 9 5
8 h 40 11 h 39
1.84/h 3
h even number h odd number
9 0.4
11 0.33
13 0.21
15 h 39
2.25/h
h odd number
The above value
B class
multiplied by 1.5
A class 2 1.08
Like A class, but only
D class for odd number
harmonics
6.5.5.2. Filtering harmonic distortion

When the measures taken, concerning the equipment structure and its
operating states as well as the connection configurations, are not sufficient to bring
the harmonics at an allowable level, special filters for harmonics cancelling should
be installed. In principle, the filters are installed for each harmonic to be limited.
They are connected to the busbar common with the disturbing load.
There are three general classes of filters: passive filters, active filters and
hybrid filters.
(i) The passive filters are a combination of inductors, capacitors, and resistors
designed to block the flow of harmonic currents toward the distribution system.
However, their performance is limited to a few harmonics, and they can introduce
resonance in the power system.
The passive filters are usually custom designed for the application. The shunt
filter is the most common filtering application in use due to economical reasons
and its advantage of smoothening the supplied voltage. The series filter can be also
used to limit the harmonic currents but they have the disadvantage of distorting the
supply voltage, and also being difficult to insulate.
Figure 6.44 shows several types of common filtering circuits.
R C1
Fig. 6.44. Common passive
R L R
shunt filter configuration:
a. single-tuned; b. first order L R L
high pass; c. second order high
pass; d. third order high pass. C C C C2
a. b. c. d.
The single-tuned filter is the most common shunt filter in use. Its main
characteristics on the 5th harmonic, when connected to low voltage inductive load,
are shown in Figure 6.45,a, while Figure 6.45,b presents a typical frequency
response of the filter connected to the network.
Zh Zh
[p.u.] [p.u.]
0.6 capacitive 0.6
inductive
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 h 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 h
a. b.
Fig. 6.45. Typical frequency response of notch filter: a. filter alone; b. filter and sysyem.
The frequency response of the filter is just the harmonic impedance seen at
its terminals. Examination of the filter response reveals the following
characteristics [6.41]:
its harmonic impedance has a very low value at the frequency for which it
is tuned;
when the source impedance is inductive, there is a resonance peak, which
always occurs at a frequency lower than the frequency for which the filter is tuned;
there is a sharp increase in impedance below the tuned frequency due to the
proximity of the resonant frequency;
the impedance increase with frequency for frequencies above that at which
the filter is tuned.
The filter in question can be characterized by impedance and quality factor.
The filters impedance is given by the following relation:
Z = R + j ( L 1/ C )
where R, L and C are the filters parameters, i.e. resistance, inductance and
capacitance.
At resonance, the imaginary part is equal to zero, and the impedance Z

becomes a resistance given by the value of R.
The quality of the filter, q, is a measure of the sharpness of tuning.
Mathematically, the factor q is defined as:
L / C r L 1/ r C
q= = =
R R R
were r L and 1/ r C are the reactances at the resonance frequency. The
following problems concerning the factor q for single-tuned filters are of interest:
a) the value of q is seldom taken into account at filtering action. This is due
to the fact that the values of R usually result in a significant increase in losses
within the filter;
b) the higher the value of q, the more pronounced is the valley at the tuned
frequency;
c) typically the value of R is given only by the resistance of the coil. In this
case, q is equal to R times the X/R ratio of the tuning reactance.
When the shunt filter is connected to a node of the system, due to the
systems impedance Ls, the resonance frequency of the equivalent filter (filter-
system) has a small displacement, having the expression:
1 1
fr =
2 ( Ls + L)C
I1
Load
Xs
V1
VC,1
Fig. 6.46. Shunt filter.
The value of the capacitance C of the filter is established taking into

consideration the following two cases: a) the filter is used only for harmonic
filtering; b) the filter provides both filtering and reactive power supply.
In the first case, the goal is to minimize the size of the capacitance C but
chosen from a range given by the manufacturer. In this respect, we start from the
expression of the reactive power:
I h2
Q = Q1 + Qh = 1CVC2,1 +
1hC
where: Q1 is the reactive power provided at the fundamental frequency;
Qh the reactive power provided on the hth harmonic;
VC ,1 the voltage at the banks terminals at the fundamental frequency;

I h the current absorbed by the filter at the hth harmonic;
1 = 2f1 and f1 are the angular frequency and fundamental frequency,
respectively.
From Figure 6.46, we can write the relationship between the voltage VC ,1 and
the voltage V1 , applied at the filters terminals:
V1 V V1 VC ,1
= C ,1 or =
X C ,1 X L ,1 X C ,1 1 1
1 L
1C 1C
At resonance, for r = 1 LC , the last equation becomes:
V1 h2
VC ,1 = or VC ,1 = V1
1 12 r2 h2 1
Differentiating Q with respect to C and equating to zero, and taking into

account the latter expression, it results the minimum value of the capacitance:
1 (h 2 1) I h
Cmin = (6.77)
h h2 V11
In the second case (b), we start from the condition that, at the fundamental
frequency, the reactive power Q1 provided by the filter should be equal to the rated
value QCn . Therefore:
V12 V 2 C h2
Q1 = QCn = = 1 21 = 2 V12 1C (6.78)
X C ,1 X L ,1 1 1 LC h 1
From the latter relation it results the value of C, and from the resonance
condition at the hth harmonic, we can obtain the value of L.
For multiple parallel single-tuned filters ( h = 5, 7, 11, ... ), establishing the
capacity Cn of the capacitor bank is performed based on the following two
conditions:
the total reactive power of the capacitor bank should be minimum:
2 I h2
Q1 = VC ,11Ch +
h = 5,7,... h1Ch
= min
the reactive power at fundamental frequency should have the average value
QCn , therefore:
h2
QCn =
h =5,7,... h 2
1
V12 1C
The Lagrange method allows us to solve the above equations.

One important side effect of adding a filter is that it creates a sharp parallel
resonance point at a frequency below the notch frequency. This resonant frequency
must be safely away from any significant harmonic. Filters are commonly tuned
slightly lower than the harmonic to be filtered to provide a margin of safety in case
there is some change in system parameters. For this reason, filters are added to the
system starting with the lowest problem harmonic [6.1].
(ii) Active filters are relatively new types of devices used for the elimination
of harmonics [6.1]. They are based on power electronics and are much more
expensive than passive filters. They have the distinct advantage that they do not
resonate with the system. They can also address more than one harmonic
simultaneously and combat other power quality problems such as flicker. They are
particularly useful for large, distorting loads fed from relatively weak points of the
power system. The basic idea is to replace the portion of the sine wave that is
missing in the current in a non-linear load. Figure 6.47 presents this concept. An
electronic control monitors the line voltage and/or current, switching the power
electronics very precisely to track the load current or voltage and force it to be
sinusoidal.
As shown, there are two fundamental approaches: one that uses an inductor
to store up current to be injected into the system at the appropriate instant and one
that uses a capacitor. Therefore, while the load current is distorted to the extent
demanded by the non-linear load, the current seen by the system has a much more
sinusoidal shape.
+
il
is Non-linear
load
~ Ls
Iaf Control
Fig. 6.47. Application of a filter at a non-linear load.
Active filters can be classified in a number of ways [6.42]:

application: AC or DC systems, AC or DC side of converters, transmission
or distribution systems;
connection to the system: shunt (Fig. 6.47 and Fig. 6.49), series (Fig. 6.48)
or series/shunt (Fig. 6.50,a) and shunt/series (Fig. 6.50,b);
type: active only or hybrid, i.e. combination of active and passive (Fig. 6.50);
function: harmonic mitigation, reactive power compensation, voltage
regulation, flicker compensation;
topology: voltage source or current source converter.
Active filters are fundamentally static power consumers configured to
synthesize a current source (Fig. 6.47) or a voltage source (Fig. 6.48).
It should be noted that the active filter must satisfy the basic laws of
association of current and voltage sources; for example, in Figure 6.48, the active
filter current is defined by the network, and can therefore be controlled only in
voltage.
Vaf
Non-linear
~ load (Electronic)
Control Active filter
Fig. 6.48. The active filter as a voltage source.

is il
~ ~ Non -linear load
(Rectifier)
iaf
~ Reactive
element
Active filter
Fig. 6.49. Implementation of shunt connected active filter
V af
~
iaf Load bus
~ Reactive
element ~
a.
V af
~
Load bus
iaf ~ Reactive
element ~
b.
Fig. 6.50. Connection type of active filter: a. series/shunt; b. shunt/series.
The basic active filter module consists of:

a power converter, or matrix of switches, the more common being a three-
phase bridge converter, in either a current or, more often, a voltage source
converter;
a DC bus having a reactive element, an inductor or a capacitor as a storage

component. In this configuration, the energy is only stored for a short
period and the DC bus reactive element essentially absorbs the ripple
produced by the converter operation. However, energy storage elements,
capable of storing significant amounts of energy have been suggested.
A shunt active filter is connected in parallel with the non-linear load, to
detect its harmonic current and to inject into the system a compensating current. A
series active filter is connected in series with a supply source and the load. It
presents high impedance for the harmonic current, blocking their flow from load to
source and from source to load.
Regarding the active filter classification, a comparison of shunt active filters
and series active filters is presented in Table 6.10.
Table 6.10
Comparison of shunt active filters and series active filters.
System configuration Shunt active filter Series active filter
Basic operating principle Current source Voltage source
Inductive, current-source Capacitive, voltage-source
Non-linear load type loads or harmonic current loads or harmonic voltage
sources sources
Independent on the source
Independent on Zs, and/or ZL
impedance Zs, or current-
Compensation for voltage loads, but
source but dependent on Zs
characteristics dependent on ZL when the
when the load impedance ZL
load is current source type
is low
A low impedance shunt branch
Injected current flows into the
(e.g. a shunt passive filter or a
load side and may cause
Application considerations capacitor bank) is needed when
overcurrent when applied to a
applied to an inductive or
capacitive or voltage source
current source load
Current harmonics filtering,
Load on the current unbalance, reactive Current harmonics,
Solutions to AC supply current compensation, voltage reactive current
power flicker
quality
problems AC supply on Voltage unbalance, distortion,
flicker, notching, interruptions
the load
reactive current, dips, swells
In addition, the active filters can be combined with passive filter to enforce
filter effectiveness and reduce active filter rating.
Taking into account the advantages and the disadvantages of active and
passive filters a mixed solution can be used. In Figure 6.51, the block diagram
using an active series filter and a shunt passive filter with three branches is
presented: two branches tuned on the 5th and 7th harmonic orders and a high-pass
filter. This filter mitigates parallel harmonic resonance between the passive filter
and the supply system, blocking the access into the filter or load of the existing
harmonics; this implies low cost operation.
iaf iL
Non-linear
if load
Active
filter
h=5 h=7 high-pass

filter
Fig. 6.51. Hybrid filter: active series and passive shunt.
6.5.5.3. Modification of the system frequency response

The system frequency response is very important in the problem of reactive
power compensation in non-sinusoidal conditions, with capacitor banks. Thus, all
circuits containing capacitances have one or more self-resonance frequencies.
When one of those frequencies lines up with a frequency that is being produced
into the power system, the resonance can develop the voltages and current at that
frequency persistent at very high values.
The system frequency response can be modified by different methods [6.1]:
(i) Adding a shunt filter. Introducing a shunt filter could change the system
response;
(ii) Adding a reactor to detune the system. Harmful resonances appear
generally between the system inductance and shunt capacitors used for power
factor correction. The reactor must be added between the capacitor and the system.
One method is to simply put a reactor in series with the capacitor, to remove the
system resonance without actually tuning the capacitor to create a filter;
(iii) Changing the size of the capacitor. This is one of the less expensive
options for both utilities and industrial customers;
(v) Removing the capacitor and simply accepting the increase of losses, the
decrease of voltage, and the power factor penalty. If technically feasible, this is
occasionally the best economic choice.
6.6. Voltage unbalances

According to the IEC, the expression unbalanced voltage is defined as a
phenomenon caused by the differences of voltage deviation between the phases in a
point of a multiphase system. In some papers, inbalance is used instead of
unbalance.
A balanced three-phase power system presents equal voltage magnitude on

each phase, the voltages being separated by the same phase-shift value. The voltage
at the terminals of the generator is balanced and sinusoidal in shape. If the
impedance of the various system components is linear and equal for each phase and
all loads are balanced on the three phases, the voltage at the terminals components
of the system remain balanced.
Single-phase load currents and unbalanced three-phase loads currents
determine unequal voltage drops on the three phases of the supply system.
Consequently, the phase-to-neutral voltages within the supply system will be
unbalanced because the system voltage at any point is the difference between the
generated voltage and voltage drops due to the load current.
The unbalanced voltages can be represented by the sum of three sets of
symmetrical voltage components, namely:
the positive-sequence voltage component, consisting of three phases all
equal in magnitude and symmetrically spaced, at 2 / 3 intervals in time-
phase, their phase order being equal to the phase order of the system
generated voltages;
the zero-sequence voltage component, consisting of three phases, all equal
in magnitude and phase;
the negative-sequence voltage component, consisting of three phases, all
equal in magnitude and symmetrically spaced, at 2 / 3 intervals in time-
phase, their phase order being the reverse of the positive sequence phase-
order.
6.6.1. Unbalance indices

Voltage unbalance is defined in the U.S. Standards as the maximum
deviation from the average of the three phase voltages, divided by the average of
three phase-to-neutral voltages expressed as a percentage [6.1]:
Vmax
100 [%]
(
max V V )
100 [%]
Vaverage V
where:
( ) ( )(
max V V = max Va V , Vb V , Vc V
)( )
In sinusoidal operation or for harmonics analysis, the voltage unbalance

factor uV is defined by the ratio of the negative sequence voltage V to the positive
+
sequence voltage V :
V = uV exp ( V )
+
uV = V
and is usually expressed as a percentage, given by:
uV = V V + 100 [%] (6.79)
where V is the phase shift between the two voltages.

Alternatively, simultaneous measurement of the three rms phase-to-phase
voltages can be also used to calculate the unbalance factor, for isolated neutral
networks:
1 3 6
uV = 100 [%] (6.80)
1 + 3 + 6
where:
4
U ab + U bc4 + U ca
4
=
(U 2
ab + U bc2 + U ca
2
)
2
U ab being the voltage between phases a and b at the fundamental frequency.

Another unbalance index is the voltage nonsymmetry factor u0, defined by
+
the ratio between the zero-sequence V 0 and the positive-sequence V component:
V0
u0 = 100 [%] (6.81)
V+
The voltage unbalance due to any load connected between two of the three
phases of the line or between one phase and the neutral, at the point of connection
of the load, can be evaluated by the following factor [6.43]:
S
uV' = (6.82)
S sc
where S is the load power, in MVA, and Ssc is the three-phase short circuit power
level at the point of connection of the load, in MVA.
The voltage unbalance occurring at the point of common coupling due to a
combination of unbalanced three-phase loads or phase-to-phase loads also
calculated in terms of the negative-sequence current I is:
3 I U
uV'' = (6.83)
S sc
Likewise, the unbalance current factor is defined as the ratio of the
fundamental negative-sequence current to the fundamental positive-sequence
current component:
I1
iV = 100 [%] (6.84)
I1+
Note that, in practice, determination of the factors uV, u0 and iV is possible
only after the determination of the harmonics spectrum.
6.6.2. Origin and effects

An electrical power system is expected to operate in a balanced three-phase
condition, but some causes that produce voltage unbalance exist. These causes can
be split in two components. The first component results from the own unbalance
structure of the network (lines, transformers, capacitor bank, etc.) and has a
constant value; the second component has a fluctuating value due to temporary
unbalance fluctuating loads. Some of the most common causes of the unbalanced
voltage are:
unbalanced incoming utility supply;
unequal transformer tap setting;
large single-phase distribution transformers in the system;
faults or grounds in the power transformer;
a blown fuse in a three-phase capacitor bank for power factor improvement;
unequal impedance in conductors of the power supply wiring;
unbalanced distribution of single-phase loads such as lightning;
heavy reactive single-phase loads such as welders.
The most common symptoms of unbalanced voltages are the damaging
effects on electric motors, power supply wiring, transformers and generators.
Unbalanced voltages at motor terminals cause phase current unbalance ranging
from 6 to 10 times the percent voltage unbalance for a fully loaded motor. As an
example, if the voltage unbalance is 1%, then the current unbalance could be
anywhere from 6% to 10%. This causes motor overcurrent resulting in excessive
heat that shortens the motor life, and hence, eventual motor burnout.
The Figure 6.52 shows the typical percentage increases in motor losses and
heating for various levels of voltage unbalance.
Other effects on motors are that locked rotor stator winding current will be
unbalanced proportional to the voltage unbalance, full load speed will be slightly
reduced, and the torque will be reduced. When a motor continues to operate with
unbalanced voltages its efficiency is reduced as well. Both increased current and
resistance, due to heating, cause the reduction of efficiency.
150
effect of motor heating
unbalance
[%] 100
motor losses
50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
voltage unbalance [%]
Fig. 6.52. Increase in motor heating and losses in terms of voltage unbalance.
The increase in resistance and current stack-up contribute to the exponential

increase in motor heating. Essentially, this means that as the resulting losses
increase, the heating intensifies rapidly. This may lead to a condition of
uncontrollable heat size, called terminal runaway, which results in a rapid
deterioration of the winding insulation concluding with failure of the winding.
Under normal operating conditions, during each period of one week, 95% of
the 10 minute mean rms value of the negative phase sequence component of the
supply voltage shall be within the range 0 to 20% of the positive phase sequence
component [6.14].
6.6.3. Voltage unbalance and power flow under

non-symmetrical conditions
In order to establish the power flows in three-phase networks operating under
sinusoidal conditions, but with unbalanced load, let us consider a simple power
system, where an ideal three-phase supplier, having the emf of positive sequences,
supplies, through a balanced network LN, a balanced load BL connected in parallel
with an unbalanced load, UBL (Fig. 6.53) [6.25]. The presence of the unbalanced
load in the system is, evidently, the cause of the non-symmetric operation of the
system.
BL Fig. 6.53. A power system in which

Linear Network an ideal generator supplies through
G
LN a linear network a balanced
UBL load and an unbalanced load.
The active and reactive powers balance is satisfied for each sequence,
separately:
Pg+ = PLN
+ +
+ PBL +
+ PUBL

0 = PLN + PBL + PUBL
0 0 0
0 = PLN + PBL + PUBL
(6.85)
Qg+ = QLN
+ +
+ QBL +
+ QUBL

0 = QLN + QBL + QUBL
0 0 0
0 = QLN + QBL + QUBL
The network and the balanced load being passive loads, absorb positive
active power on each sequence, and thus:
+ 0 +
PUBL = PUBL + PUBL + PUBL PUBL (6.86)
+
Consequently, this load absorbs from the supplier an active power PUBL ,
which is greater than it would need, uses PUBL and reinjects the difference into
the balanced load causing supplementary losses:
+
PLN + PBL = PLN
+ PLN 0
+ PLN +
+ PBL
+ PBL 0
+ PBL +
= PLN +
+ PBL
PUBL( 0
+ PUBL ) (6.87)
These relations suggest the power flow diagram given in Figure 6.54.
0
PBL + PBL
BL
PBL , QBL QBL + QBL0
0
Pg , Qg PLN , QLN PLN + PLN
G LN
QLN + QLN0
PUBL , QUBL 0
PUBL + PUBL
UBL 0
QUBL + QUBL
Fig. 6.54. The power flow diagram under non-symmetrical conditions

of electrical power systems.
The fact that the unbalanced loads are the sources of negative- and zero-
sequence powers, although intuitively known, has not been explicitly stated before.
The complex, active and reactive powers are conservative for each sequence (+, -,
0) separately. Generally, the negative- and zero-sequence active powers reinjected
in the network by the unbalanced load represents supplementary losses.
In all this reasoning the analogy with the non-sinusoidal conditions is
evident. The flow of reactive power can be similarly interpreted; this produces a
supplementary reactive load on the generator and the balanced loads. All these
considerations clearly show that the positive-, negative- and zero-sequence power
flows must be separated and distinctly accounted.
Under these conditions the power factor of a balanced or unbalanced load can
be defined as the ratio between the total active power absorbed by the load and the
apparent power of symmetry:
P P+ + P + P0 P
kp = +
= +
= cos + + U+ = k p+ + k pn (6.88)
S S S
where: S + is the apparent power of symmetry (positive sequence);
0
PU = P + P the real power of the unbalance (non symmetry);
k p+ the power factor of symmetry;
k pn the power factor of the unbalance (non symmetry).
6.6.4. Practical definitions of powers in system with

non-sinusoidal waveforms and unbalanced loads *)
In [6.20] and [6.27], definitions for power terms that are practical and
effective when voltage and/or currents are distorted and/or unbalanced are
proposed.
Unbalanced systems may be analysed using the approach of equivalent
apparent power, that is:
S e = 3Ve I e
For a four-wire system, the equivalent voltage is:
Va2 + Vb2 + Vc2

Ve = (6.89,a)
3
and the equivalent current is:
I a2 + I b2 + I c2
Ie = (6.89,b)
3
where Va , Vb and Vc are the phase-to-neutral rms voltages.
For a three-wire system, the equivalent voltage Ve may be calculated using
the relation:
2
U ab + U bc2 + U ca
2
Ve =
9
where the rms voltages U ab , U bc and U ca are measured from phase to phase. The
equivalent current I e is calculated in terms of the rms currents I a , I b , I c .
For a four-wire system the above relation becomes:
Ve =
1
18
(
3 Va2 + Vb2 + Vb2 + U ab
2
)
+ U bc2 + U ca2

(6.90,a)
and
I a2 + I b2 + I c2 + I 02
Ie = (6.90,b)
3
*)
Reprinted with permission from IEEE Standard 1459-2000 Definition for the
measurement of electric power quantities under sinusoidal, non-sinusoidal, balanced or
unbalanced conditions IEEE 2000, and IEEE Working Group on Non-sinusoidal
Situations: Effects on meter performance and definitions of power Practical definitions
for powers in systems with non-sinusoidal waveforms and unbalanced loads: A discussion,
IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 79 87, January 1996 IEEE 1996.
where I0 is the neutral rms current.

Similarly to the single-phase case, the equivalent voltage and current may be
separated into two components:
Ve2 = Ve21 + VeH
2
and I e2 = I e21 + I eH
2
where the index 1 marks the fundamental rms components:

Va21 + Vb21 + Vc21 I2 + I2 + I2
Ve21 = ; I e21 = a1 b1 c1
3 3
and the index H marks the totalised non-fundamental rms components:
Vah2 + Vbh2 + Vch2 I ah
2 2
+ I bh 2
+ I ch
2
VeH =
h 1 3
2
; I eH =
h 1 3

The equivalent apparent power is separated into two components: the
fundamental apparent power S e1 and the non-fundamental apparent power:
S e2 = S e21 + S eN
2
= S e21 + DeI2 + DeV
2 2
+ S eH
where: DeI = 3Ve1 I eH is the current distortion power;
DeV = 3VeH I e1 the voltage distortion power;
2 2
SeH = 3VeH I eH = PeH + QeH the apparent harmonic power.
The ratio between the squares of SeN and Se1 can be written:
2
SeN
= ( ITHDe ) + (VTHDe ) + ( ITHDe VTHDe )
2 2 2

Se1
where:
VeH I eH
VTHDe = and I THDe =
Ve1 I e1
In the case of unbalanced systems, the definition of another power
component becomes inevitable. The unbalanced loads convert part of the
fundamental positive-sequence active power into fundamental negative- and zero-
sequence active power. This is true for reactive power also.
The unbalance degree in the fundamental apparent power S e1 can be divided
into two terms:
2
S e21 = S1+ + Su21
where: S1+ = 3V1+ I1+ is the positive-sequence fundamental apparent power;

V1+ , I1+ the rms values of the positive-sequence fundamental voltage
and current;
S u1 the unbalanced fundamental apparent power.
This approach of decomposing the apparent power, Se, has the following
useful features:
conveniently separates the fundamental apparent power and its active and
reactive components from the non-fundamental apparent power;
provides a useful measure of the degree of harmonic pollution in the
normalized ratio S N Se1 ;
provides a useful measure of the degree of unbalance pollution in the
normalized ratio Su1 Se1 .
The IEEE standard 1459-2000 [6.20] defines an arithmetic apparent power,
vector apparent power and Budeanus apparent power.
The per phase apparent powers are given by:
S a = Va I a ; Sb = Vb I b ; Sc = Vc I c
and
S a2 = Pa2 + Qa2 ; Sb2 = Pb2 + Qb2 ; Sc2 = Pc2 + Qc2
The arithmetic apparent power is:
S A = Sa + Sb + Sc
and the vector apparent power is:
SV = P 2 + Q 2 = (Pa + Pb + Pc ) + j (Qa + Qb + Qc ) = P + jQ (6.91)
A geometrical interpretation of SV is presented in Figure 6.55.
SV
Sc Qc
Sb Pc
Qb
Sa Pb
Qa
0 Pa SV SA
Fig. 6.55. Arithmetic and vector apparent powers under sinusoidal conditions.
Reprinted with permission from IEEE Standard 1459-2000 Definitions for the
measurement of electric power quantities under sinusoidal, nonsinusoidal,
balanced or unbalanced conditions IEEE 2000.
The definition of the arithmetic apparent power is an extension of Budeanus

apparent power resolution for single-phase systems. Thus, for each phase the
apparent power is given by:
S a = Pa2 + Qa2 + Da2 ; S b = Pb2 + Qb2 + Db2 ; S c = Pc2 + Qc2 + Dc2
and for the three-phase system, the total apparent power is:
S A = S a + S b + S c or SV = P 2 + Q 2 + D 2 (6.92)
with
P = Pa + Pb + Pc ; Q = Qa + Qb + Qc ; D = Da + Db + Dc
where: Pa, Pb, Pc are the per phase active powers;
Qa, Qb, Qc per phase reactive powers, according to Budeanu;
Da, Db, Dc per phase distortion powers, according to Budeanu.
Additional to the already defined power factor, due to the unbalance in
voltage, other definitions should be given: the effective power factor PFe = P Se ;
the arithmetic power factor PFa = P S A ; the geometric power factor PFV = P SV ;
and the positive-sequence power factor PF+1 = P1+ S1+ , where S1+ is the fundamental
positive-sequence apparent power and P1+ is the fundamental positive-sequence
active power.
SA
SV
Dc
SV Sc
Sb Pc Qc
Db
Sa
P Qb
Da b
0
Pa Qa
Fig. 6.56. Arithmetic SA and vector SV apparent powers: unbalanced non-

sinusoidal conditions. Reprinted with permission from IEEE Standard 1459-2000
Definition for the measurement of electric power quantities under sinusoidal,
non-sinusoidal, balanced or unbalanced conditions IEEE 2000.
The major drawback of the power factor definition stems from the difference
between the quantities [Qa + Qb + Qc ] + [ Da + Db + Dc ] and S A2 P 2 (Fig. 6.56).
2 2
6.6.5. Mitigation solutions to the unbalanced operation

Because the voltage and current unbalances are mainly due to the non-
symmetrical loads, appropriate measures are taken to balance the current on the
three phases.
One of the measures for preventing the unbalances is the natural
symmetrizing. Two methods can be mentioned [6.45]:
equaly repartition of the single-phase loads on the three phases of the
supply system. This is the case of urban consumers, and mostly the low
voltage supplied loads;
connecting the unbalanced loads to an superior voltage level, which results
in the increase of the short-circuit power. This is the case of industrial
consumers, of high rated power (few MVA or tens of MVA induction
furnace, welders, electric traction, etc.), which are fed via own
transformers. In these conditions, the nonsymmetry degree will decrease
proportional with the short-circuit power (Fig. 6.57).
MV MV
PCC
LV LV
single-phase single-phase
loads loads
Fig. 6.57. Mitigation of unbalance generated by single-phase loads.
Considering that the system provides pure sinusoidal voltages, some

measures for limiting the unbalances are mentioned:
symmetrization configurations with single-phase transformers (Scott
connection, V connection);
Steinmetz symmetrization circuit;
reactive power compensation systems.
The Scott connection consists in connecting two single-phase transformers
' '
(Fig. 4.58,a), which provides two voltages U 1 and U 2 in the secondary of
transformers, of equal magnitudes but phase shifted by /2 (Fig. 6.58,b). The two
transformers have identical secondary, but their primary has different number of
turns. If the load is connected only to the secondary terminals of the transformer
T1, the three-phase electric network is loaded only on two phases, i.e. b and c in the
example from Figure 6.58,c, and if the load is connected only to the secondary of
the transformer T2, all the three phases of the network will be unequally loaded
(Fig. 6.58,d).
a c
c
b
VcN
c
M M N VaN a
M
N/2 N/2 N 3/2 U2 a
c b a
T1 T2 U1
U1 U2 VbN
b b
c b M a
a. b.
a a
b b
c c
Ia Ib Ic Ia Ib Ic
M M
I I/ 3 I/ 3 2I / 3
T1 T2 T1 T2
I1=I I2=I
c. d.
a a
b b
c c
Ia Ib Ic Ia Ib Ic
M M
T1 T2 T1 T2
I I1=I2=I I1 I2
C C1 C2
L R L1 R1 L2 R2
e. f.
Fig. 6.58. The Scott connection for single-phase load supply.
In practical situations, the Scott connection is used to supply a single load

(Fig. 6.58,e) or for two loads (Fig. 6.58,f). The equivalent circuits of the loads are
represented through the series impedance Z = R + jL in parallel with the
capacitor bank C, used for power factor correction.
For the case of a single-phase linear load, the currents absorbed from the
network, determined by superposing the currents from Figures 6.48,c and 6.48,d,
results:
2 1 1
Ia = I , I b = 1 + I and I c = 1 I
3 3 3
When two loads are considered (Fig. 6.48,f), for which reactive power is
'
provided by the capacitor bank for full power factor correction (the phasors I 1 and
' ' '
I 2 are orthogonal), and denoting I 2 I 1 = , it results:
2 1
Ia = I 2 , I b = I 1 I 2 and I c = I 1 I2
3 3
or in absolute values:
2 2 2
Ia = I1 , I b = I1 1 + and I c = I1 1 +
3 3 3
The V connecting of two identical single-phase transformers (Fig. 6.59) and
the supply of single-phase loads with voltage obtained by cross-connecting the
secondary of transformers allows loading all the three phases of the supply
network. The currents are thus given by:
I a = I ; I b = 2 I and I c = I
a
b
c
Ic 2I Ib Ia
I I
T1 T2
I C I
L R
Fig. 6.59. The V connection for single-phase load supply.
The load supply by means of single-phase transformer configurations,

although it does not provide equal loading of the three-phase network, allows in
many cases to limit the unbalances at an acceptable level.
The loads balancing by reactive power compensation is based on the
Steinmetz connection (Fig. 6.60). Consider that the transformer T, connected
between phases a and c, provides the power P, at lagging power factor, to the
industrial load. A capacitor bank C1, sized so that to provide a unity power factor
(Ica is in phase with Uca), is connected in parallel with the secondary of the
transformer T that supplies the two-phase load (e.g., arc furnace or welder). The
symmetrizing circuit (Fig. 6.60) consists of the capacitor bank C2 and the coil L2.
These devices are sized so that the three currents I a , I b and I c form a symmetrical
system (of equal magnitudes but shifted in time by 2/3) and are in phase with the
phase-to-neutral voltages (resistive behaviour).
a b c Vc Uca
Ia
Ia a Ica T Iab
Ic Ica
C2 Iab Ib Va
Ib two-phase
b C1 Ibc
load N
L2 Ibc Ubc
Ic Vb
c Ica Uab
a. b.
Fig. 6.60. The Steinmetz circuit for loads balancing.
If the system of voltages is considered symmetrical, with equal voltages on

the three phases U ab = U bc = U ca = 3 V (where V is the phase-to-neutral voltage),
and the current is sinusoidal, the phasor diagram (Fig. 6.60,b) for the circuit in
Figure 6.60,a can be drawn.
In order that the three currents absorbed from the network Ia, Ib, Ic to form a
symmetrical system, the negative-sequence component has to be zero, so that:
I a = I b = I c = I ab = I bc = I ca 3
Knowing that:
3V 3V P
I ab = , I bc = and I ca =
X C2 X L2 3V
it results:
3V 3V P
= =
X C2 X L2 3V
where X C2 is the capacitive reactance of the capacitor bank C2, and X L2 is the
inductive reactance of the coil L2.
We then obtain:
1 P P
= and C2 =
L2 3 3 V 2
3 3V 2
or:
BL = G 3 and BC = G 3
where G, BL and BC are the admittances corresponding to R, X L2 and X C2 (given
that B > 0 for lagging load, and B < 0 for leading load, respectively).
The capacitance value necessary for power factor correction to unity is:
P tan
C1 = or BC1 = BLoad
3V 2
where tan corresponds to the natural power factor of the two-phase load.
Practical cases show that the active power P is variable in time. In order to
ensure the adaptive symmetrization of the load, the capacitor banks C1 and C2 and
the coil L2 should provide self-regulation of their parameters according to the load.
The Steinmetz connection provides very good symmetrization of the load on
the three phases. Instead, it has the following disadvantages:
at the fundamental frequency, the assembly load compensator can be
equivalent with a perfectly balanced impedance but at other frequencies;
these corresponds to the superior order harmonics produced by the same
load or the neighbouring loads, leading to a strong unbalance. Furthermore,
the compensator must be sized so that to avoid the resonance with the
network, at the harmonics present under normal operating conditions.
manually or automatic control of C1, C2 and L2 leads to frequent voltage
oscillations into the network, due to commutations.
These inconveniences can be corrected with modern applications of power
electronics.
It is known for long time that the static reactive power compensation system
(SVS) can be used to balance the load currents and to improve the power factor of
unbalanced power systems [6.45, 6.46]. Each phase of the SVSs can be
independently controlled and it can provide a different amount of reactive power
compensation.
In [6.46] the derivation of load balancing theorem is based on the
symmetrical component method. However, the same result can also be obtained by
minimizing the quadratic sum of three-phase currents.
Most of the studies about SVSs concentrate on application techniques, such
as using high speed programmable controllers or microprocessors and solving sub
optimal solutions when discrete-tap compensators are used.
In the three-phase four-wire distribution networks, unbalanced loads may
produce negative- and zero-sequence currents. In order to improve the load bus
power factor these currents have to be reduced accordingly. The technique uses a
wye (Y) connected SVS and a delta () connected SVS to give different amount of
reactive power compensation to each phase. While the -SVS is used to eliminate
the negative-sequence currents, the Y-SVS is used to eliminate the zero-sequence
currents and the imaginary part of the positive sequence currents. Figure 6.61
[6.47] illustrates the simplified connection circuit of the SVS to the three-phase
four-wire system, in which the electronic part was not represented.
l
Ia Ia
a
l
Ib b
b
l Unbalanced
Ic Ic
c load
IN IN
N
I a I b I c
Y
Ia
Y
Ib IYc I
Y

N I ab I bc
Ca Cb Cc
Cab Cbc
I ca Cac
Fig. 6.61. An unbalanced three-phase four-wire distribution system

with SVSs connected at the load terminals.
In order to achieve the load balancing and full reactive power compensation,
we start from the following equalities:
Im I ( ) = 0 ; Re ( I ) = 0 ; Im ( I ) = 0 ; Re ( I ) = 0 ; Im ( I ) = 0
+ 0 0
(6.93)
Equations (6.93) have infinite number of solutions because there are six
unknowns (susceptances of the Y-SVS and the -SVS) and five equations. An
additional constraint together with the five ones in (6.93) will offer a unique
solution. The additional equation needs an additional constraint. The first suggested
constraint is that the imaginary part of the positive-sequence component of the load
current should be eliminated by the Y-SVS because the -SVS does not generate
imaginary part of positive sequence currents. The new constraint is given by:
I ab + I bc + I ca = 0 (6.94)
Substituting equation (6.94) into equations (6.93), we get the on-line
compensation formulae for the currents of the SVSs [6.48]:
1 a 1 1 a
I aY =
3
( )
I b I ca + I ar ; I bY =
3
( )
I aa + I ca + I cr ; I cY =
3
I c I ca + I cr ( )
2 2 2
( ) ( )
I ab = I aa I ba ; I bc = I ba I ca ; I ca = I ca I aa
3 3 3
( )
(6.95)
where I p and I p , with p = a, b, c , are the active and reactive (imaginary) parts of
a r
the load currents, i.e.:

l l l
I a = I aa jI ar ; I b = I ba jI br ; I c = I ca jI cr (6.96)
Other two constraints may be used. The first is the condition of minimum

squared sum of the SVS currents ( ( I c ) 2 = min ) and the second is the minimum
squared sum of the reactive powers provided by the SVS ( (I V ) c 2
= min ).
The obtained load bus voltages and currents are used to calculate the on-line
compensation susceptance values of the SVSs. The SVSs can provide a different
amount of reactive power to each phase such that, although the load is unbalanced,
the system will be balanced, seen from the load bus. The SVSs can also maintain
the load bus voltage at a certain value in addition to the balancing effect.
The problem is difficult because the network operates under a non-sinusoidal
steady-state. Under these conditions, the problem can be solved by means of
simultaneous operation of the reactive power compensation devices. One of the
most efficient methods consists in using passive shunt filters. These are, in fact,
single-tuned filters on the harmonic current to be cancelled. For their frequency the
equivalent impedance is practically zero, but it has capacitive character for low
frequencies, and so does for the fundamental frequency. For each harmonic current
which is to be filtered, a three-phase symmetrical wye-connected single-tuned filter
is needed. This will have a double effect: firstly, it will cancel the corresponding
harmonic current, and secondly, it will compensate the reactive power at the
fundamental frequency. Furthermore, the value of the reactive power to compensate
is one of the designing criteria for the filter elements.
Therefore, the problem of the reactive power compensation in distribution
networks that supply unbalanced and non-linear loads has to be solved taking into
account the correlation with the effects of the present or future electrical devices
used for load balancing and for the non-sinusoidal steady-states amelioration,
respectively. In this respect, the case of unbalanced and non-linear equivalent load,
connected to a three-phase network is considered.
Ia
a
b
c
Ia IaY Ia
CkY Bbc Bab
LkY
Unbalanced and Bca
nonlinear load
Y compensator (filters) compensator
Fig. 6.62. Simplified electric circuit of equivalent load and

compensation-balancing-filtering device.
The aim is to achieve a full compensation of the load reactive power and
complete cancellation of its distributing effects. These corrections can be made by
means of a simultaneously balancing-filtering device. This device consists in a
simplified configuration of a branch with three-phase filters (single-tuned wye-
connected filters) and a delta-connected compensator that contains only inductive
susceptances (Fig. 6.62).
The analytical form of the compensator functions can be inferred using the
component parts of the current supplied by the network to the load-compensator
system. Thus, it is possible to write the relations:
+
Im(I 1 ) = 0; Re( I 1 ) = 0; Im(I 1 ) = 0; I h (h > 1) = 0 (6.97)
In [6.47], two designing criteria for the compensator elements are proposed
(that are in fact criteria for reactive power compensation). The single-tuned filter
(here called wye-compensator) and the delta-compensator can fulfil both their
special functions of filtering and balancing and also the reactive power
compensation:
criterion a the designing of the filtering elements under the condition of
full compensation of reactive power at fundamental frequency, the load balancing
function being accomplished by the delta-compensator;
criterion b the designing of the filtering elements under the condition of
full compensation of reactive power injection minimization (at fundamental
frequency), this time the delta-compensator having to accomplish both the load
balancing and compensation functions, up to unity power factor at fundamental
frequency;
Star (Y) compensator design
a) Assuming that a single harmonic current is filtered, the capacitance and
inductance is given by the following relations:
h 2 1 I1c 1
Ch = and Lh = 2 2 (6.98)
h 2
V1 1 h 1 Ch
where I1c is the current needed to compensate the imaginary part of the positive-
sequence current of the load;
V1 rated phase-to-neutral voltage of the network;
1 fundamental angular frequency.
b) The capacitance resulted from the minimization of the installed reactive

power is (equation (6.77)):
1 I
Ch = h (6.99)
h Vc 1
where Vc is the voltage at the capacitor terminals:

V1 h 2
Vc = ; Vc > V1 (6.100)
h2 1
The capacitive current on each phase is then given by:
I1c = Vc 1 Ch (6.101)
Delta () compensator design

The susceptances values of the compensator branches will be computed
using the appropriate compensatory currents, B = I V . Depending on the sign of
B , the appropriate capacitance and inductance are determined: L = 1 1 B if
B > 0 and C = B 1 if B < 0 , respectively.
The compensation currents are determined by establishing for the
compensator phases the following issues:
a) a negative-sequence currents system, equal and with the opposite sense of
rotation with respect to the negative-sequence currents system of the load (at
fundamental frequency);
b) full compensation of reactive power at fundamental frequency.
In accordance with (6.97), we can write the expression of compensatory
currents at fundamental frequency, taking into account the active and reactive
components of the phase currents of the load, given by:
1 a 1
I ab ,1 = ( I b ,1 I aa,1 ) + ( I ar,1 I br,1 + 2 I cr,1 )
3 3 3
1 a 1
I bc ,1 = ( I c ,1 I ba,1 ) + (2 I ar,1 I br,1 I cr,1 ) (6.102)
3 3 3
1 a 1
I ca ,1 = ( I a ,1 I ca,1 ) + ( I ar,1 + 2 I br,1 I cr,1 )
3 3 3
Application
A numerical application is used to evaluate the quantitative effects of the
compensation and to perform a comparison between the two compensation criteria.
Consider an equivalent load, connected to a 20 kV network, for which the phase
currents at fundamental frequency and at the fifth harmonic are taken into account. Both the
currents system at the fundamental frequency and the currents system at the fifth harmonic
are considered unbalanced, but without the zero-sequence (absent into the three-phase
distribution networks). As known, the three-phase currents system at the fifth harmonic has
only negative-sequence, for the positive-sequence they appear only in cases of unbalanced
loads, but even in these cases its amplitude is usually lower than the amplitude at the
corresponding negative-sequence. A computer program implemented under Borland Pascal
has been used for this application. This program includes a procedure that generates the
three-phase currents system both for the fundamental and fifth harmonic with adequate
features, as mentioned above.
Table 6.11 presents two patterns for load currents (both for fundamental and fifth
harmonic) and the designed parameters of the compensators elements, respectively the
currents flow (on phase components and sequence components) inside the load-
compensator assembly, as a result of taking into consideration the two criteria.
Table 6.11
Results of the numerical application
first pattern second pattern
Ia1s*= 90.000 - j 32.757 A Ia1s*= 72.800 - j 42.031 A
Ib1s*= 83.599 - j 90.301 A Ib1s*= 84.282 - j 70.043 A
Ic1s*= 36.965 - j 55.980 A Ic1s*= 54.282 - j 65.980 A
I(+)1s= 70.184 - j 59.679 A I(+)1s= 92.128 A I(+)1s= 70.454 - j 59.351 A I(+)1s= 92.122 A
I(-)1s= 19.815 + j 26.922 A I(-)1s= 33.428 A I(-)1s= 2.345 + j 17.320 A I(-)1s= 17.478 A
cos (+)1s= 0.7618 kn(-)1s= 0.3628 cos (+)1s= 0.7648 kn(-)1s= 0.1897
S s
I *= 9.685 + j 23.275 A
a5 Ia5s*= 1.650 + j 22.141 A
s
I *= 20.000 - j 1.749 A
b5 Ib5s*= 20.000 - j 5.359 A
s
I *= -6.830 + j 1.830 A
c5 Ic5s*= -12.990 - j 7.500 A
I(+)5s= 7.618 + j 7.785 A I(+)5s= 10.892 A I(+)5s= 2.886 + j 3.094 A I(+)5s= 4.231 A
I(-)5s= 2.066 + j 15.490 A I(-)5s= 15.627 A I(-)5s= -1.236 + j 19.047 A I(-)5s= 19.087 A
I(+)5s= 0.1182 I(-)5s= 0.4675 I(+)5s= 0.0459 I(-)5s= 1.0920
criterion a criterion b criterion a criterion b
CY5= 15.7936 F CY5= 3.2375 F CY5= 15.7067 F CY5= 2.8512 F
LY5= 0.0257 H LY5= 0.1252 H LY5= 0.0258 H LY5= 0.1421 H
IYa1*= 0.0 + j 59.679 A IYa1*= 0.0 + j 12.233 A IYa1*= 0.0 + j 59.351 A IYa1*= 0.0 + j 10.773 A
IYb1*= 0.0 + j 59.679 A IYb1*= 0.0 + j 12.233 A IYb1*= 0.0 + j 59.351 A IYb1*= 0.0 + j 10.773 A
Y IYc1*= 0.0 + j 59.679 A
Y
IYc1*= 0.0 + j 12.233 A IYc1*= 0.0 + j 59.351 A IYc1*= 0.0 + j 10.773 A
I (+)1= 0.0 + j 59.679 A IY(+)1= 0.0 + j 12.233 A Y
I (+)1= 0.0 + j 59.351 A IY(+)1= 0.0 + j 10.773 A
IY(-)1= 0.0 - j 0.0 A IY(-)1= 0.0 - j 0.0 A IY(-)1= 0.0 - j 0.0 A IY(-)1= 0.0 - j 0.0 A
IY(+)1= 59.679 A IY(+)1= 12.233 A IY(+)1= 59.351 A IY(+)1= 10.773 A
IY(-)1= 0.0 A IY(-)1= 0.0 A IY(-)1= 0.0 A IY(-)1= 0.0 A
Iab1= -4.271 A Iab1= -31.664A Iab1= 7.654 A Iab1= -20.391 A
Ibc1= -31.087 A Ibc1= -58.480 A Ibc1= -20.000 A Ibc1= -48.046 A
Ica1= 35.359 A Ica1= 7.965 A Ica1= 12.345 A Ica1= -15.701 A
Cab= 0.67982 F Cab= 5.03958 F Lab= 8.31673 H Cab= 3.24543 F
Cbc= 4.94774 F Cbc= 9.30750 F Cbc= 3.18310 F Cbc= 7.64681 F
Lca= 1.80045 H Lca= 7.99191 H Lca= 5.15677 H Cca= 2.49890 F
Ia1*=-19.815-j 26.922 A Ia1*= -19.815+j 20.523 A Ia1*= -2.345 - j 17.320 A Ia1*= -2.345+j 31.257 A
Ib1*=-13.408+j 30.621 A Ib1*= -13.408+j 78.068 A Ib1*= -13.827+j 10.691 A Ib1*=-13.827+j 59.269 A
Ic1*= 33.223 -j 3.699 A Ic1*= 33.223 + j 43.747 A Ic1*= 16.172 + j 6.629 A Ic1*= 16.172+j 55.206 A
Ia1= 33.428 A Ia1= 28.528 A Ia1= 17.478 A Ia1= 31.345 A
Ib1= 33.428 A Ib1= 79.211 A Ib1= 17.478 A Ib1= 60.860 A
Ic1= 33.428 A Ic1= 54.932 A Ic1= 17.478 A Ic1= 57.527 A
I(+)1= 0.0 - j 0.0 A I(+)1= 0.0 + j 47.446 A I(+)1= 0.0 - j 0.0 A I(+)1= 0.0 + j 48.577 A
I(-)1= -19.815 - j 26.922 A I(-)1= -19.815 - j 26.922 A I(-)1= -2.345 - j 17.320 A I(-)1= -2.345 - j 17.320 A
I(+)1= 0.0 A I(+)1= 47.446 A I(+)1= 0.0 A I(+)1= 48.577 A
I(-)1= 33.428 A I(-)1= 33.428 A I(-)1= 17.478 A I(-)1= 17.478 A
Ia1*= 70.184 - j 0.0 A Ia1*= 70.184 - j 0.0 A Ia1*= 70.454 - j 0.0 A Ia1*= 70.454 - j 0.0 A
Ib1*= 70.184 - j 0.0 A Ib1*= 70.184 - j 0.0 A Ib1*= 70.454 - j 0.0 A Ib1*= 70.454 - j 0.0 A
Ic1*= 70.184 - j 0.0 A Ic1*= 70.184 - j 0.0 A Ic1*= 70.454 - j 0.0 A Ic1*= 70.454 - j 0.0 A
E I(+)1= 70.184 - j 0.0 A I(+)1= 70.184 - j 0.0 A I(+)1= 70.454 - j 0.0 A I(+)1= 70.454 - j 0.0 A
I(-)1= 0.0 - j 0.0 A I(-)1= 0.0 - j 0.0 A I(-)1= 0.0 - j 0.0 A I(-)1= 0.0 - j 0.0 A
I5= 0.0 A I5= 0.0 A I5= 0.0 A I5= 0.0 A
The abbreviation S was used for load, and the abbreviation E was used for the
load-compensator assembly. Some other quantities are also given for the load: cos (+)1L
is the power factor of the positive sequence at fundamental frequency, k n()1L is the
coefficient of non-symmetry of the load at fundamental frequency, I (+ )5 L and I ()5 L is

the currents level for positive- and negative-sequence at fifth harmonic.
The calculation has been performed taking into account the following simplifications
hypotheses:
the non-symmetrical and non-sinusoidal steady-state concerns the currents only,
the voltage system at the load terminals being symmetrical and sinusoidal;
the filters cancel the fifth harmonic;
the filters and the compensators use ideal reactive elements, i.e. all the electrical
resistances and corresponding the active power losses were neglected, the filters
being considered linear (having no unbalancing effect);
the compensator is designed so as to compensate at fundamental frequency only
the positive- and negative-sequence currents, the influence on the current flows at
superior harmonics being neglected.
The filter (the Y compensator) cancel the fifth harmonic of the current through the
load-compensator assembly; in the same time, at fundamental frequency, in order to obtain
symmetry, it acts only for the positive-sequence, achieving full compensation of the
reactive power (correcting to unity the power factor) for the criterion a, and only partial
compensation of the reactive power for the criterion b;
Although the compensator consists only of susceptances, the compensator also
affects the active power flow in the network. In both cases it symmetrizes the load at the
fundamental frequency, its negative-sequence components of the phase currents at
fundamental frequency being the same for both criteria, equal in amplitude and with the
opposite sense of rotation with respect to the negative-sequence of the phase currents of the
load. The difference between the two criteria appears in the positive sequence at
fundamental frequency: in the first case the compensator does not have any effects, the
reactive power compensation being performed entirely by the filter; in the second case it
provides compensation only for the difference between the required reactive power to
correct to unity power factor and the reactive power provided by the filter.
Many techniques have been proposed to improve the supply side power
factor, to balance the load and to cancel out the harmonics generated by power
electronic loads [6.49]. These schemes usually employ single/three-phase voltage
source inverters that are supplied from a DC storage capacitor and operate in
current control mode to track a specified reference current waveform. The single
most important issue in such a scheme is the generation of the reference current
waveforms that, when injected into the power systems, cancel out the load
harmonics and/or improve the supply power factor. Of the various methods that
have been proposed for generating the reference current waveforms, the
instantaneous p-q theory has gained considerable attention. This theory is
extremely versatile and can be utilized to compensate either the fluctuating or
constant part of the load reactive power as well as the fluctuating part of the real
power.
In [6.49], the theory of instantaneous symmetrical components for generating
the instantaneous reference current waveforms to balance a given load is used. It
has been observed that the instantaneous power in an unbalanced system contains
an oscillating component that rides a DC value. The objective of the compensating
system is to supply this zero-mean oscillating power such that the DC component
can be supplied by the source. The structure of the compensating system depends
on the manner in which the load is connected (Fig. 6.63).
vsa isa vsa
ila
~v ~v
isa
sb isb ilb ifab ifca
N ~v n sb
isb
~
sc isc ilc ~v ilab ilca
sc
isc ilbc
~
ifa ifb ifc
ifbc
a. b.
Fig. 6.63. Schematic diagram of the compensation scheme for:
a. wye-connected load; b. delta-connected load [6.49].
One of the major advantages of the scheme is that the desired source power
factor angle can be explicitly defined. Furthermore, it is easy to implement on-line
since the desired compensator currents are directly computed. The drawing also is
computationally simple since it does not require complicated transformations.
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[6.30] Robert, A., Deflandre, T. Groupe de Travail CIGRE/CIRED CCO2: Guide pour
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[6.31] Albert, Hermina et al. Probleme privind msurarea i facturarea energiei active
i reactive cu ajutorul actualelor sisteme de msurare (Problems concerning the
measurement and invoice of active and reactive energy by means of modern
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reelele de distribuie folosind metoda variabilelor de stare. (Establishment of
harmonic resonance frequencies in the distribution networks using the state
variable analysis method), Energetica Revue, Vol. 51, No. 1, pp. 14 18, 2003.
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current emissions (equipment input current up to and including 16 A per phase),
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industrial power systems, IEEE Trans. on Industry Applications, Vol. 1123, pp.
504 511, No. 3, May/June 1987.
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course, St. Louis, Missouri, 1998.
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unbalanced three phase four wire distribution feeders, IEEE Trans. on Power
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[6.46] Gyugyi, L., Otto, R.A., Putman, T.H. Principles and applications of static
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No. 1, pp. 417 422, January 2000.
Chapter 7
POWER AND ENERGY LOSSES

IN ELECTRIC NETWORKS
7.1. Introduction
7.1.1. Background
As with any physical process, electric power transmission and distribution
requires energy consumption associated with irreversible thermodynamic
conversions. This consumption, referred to as losses in electric networks is
referenced as such in the technical literature and international statistics.
In the supplying process of consumers with energy, losses occur during
generation, transmission and distribution stages. Generally, it is considered that, an
average of 8% from the energy produced by the all sources is lost during
generation stage and 10% during transmission and distribution. Figure 7.1 shows
the power balance of a developed power system.
Energy generated
in power plants
Internal
consumption in Total sources Energy
power plants imported
100%
~ 8%
Energy delivered
to the consumers Energy
Losses in exported
the ~ 82 %
electric
networks
~ 10%
Domestic energy consumers

Fig. 7.1. Electric energy balance in a complex power system.
In establishing the tariffs for the power transmission and distribution, the cost
of the losses in the electric networks represents a significant component and, in a
market economy, it is a weighty element in the competition between companies.
Taking into consideration that these network losses range in various
countries between 8 to 15% of the consumed electric energy, the energy saving is
one of the main energy sources, and special concerns has been dedicated, in all the
power systems, to their reducing as much as possible. Studies performed
emphasized that most often, the losses reduction is more economicaly than the
corresponding increase of the generating capacities [7.1].
A decisive element in changing the losses outlook was the evolution of the
oil cost compared to the copper and aluminium cost, which are components of the
lines and transformers. Between 1970 and 1994, the cost of oil increased more than
3 times, while the copper and aluminium costs practically kept unchanged or even
had decreased. According to the actual forecast [7.1, 7.2], this situation is likely to
be unchanged all through 2010.
Statistically, the energy losses in the electric networks result from the
difference between the energy injected into the networks by the power plants,
including the energy imported from neighbouring systems, and the energy sold to
consumers including the exported energy. These losses include three components:
Own technologic consumption (o.t.c.) associated with the power
transmission and distribution processes in compliance with the installation
design requirements;
Technical losses due to deviations from the designed operation state, either
through incomplete development of the installations or through improper
operation;
Commercial losses (positive or negative) resulting from errors introduced
by the inaccuracy of the metering units and unorganised electric energy
records, including unaccounted consumption of the metering transformers
and meters, as well as the electric power theft.
Therefore, the reduction studies of what we improperly call losses in the
electric networks, require three distinct analyses:
(i) Optimization of the transmission and distribution process in the designing
stage and setting the theoretical technologic consumption for various
operation states of the installations;
(ii) Elimination of the technical losses in the networks by framing with the
optimum operation state of the installations, by observing the investment
program and through the optimum operation of the installations;
(iii) Improve the electric energy record within the administrative organization
of the enterprises so that the influence of some calculation or
measurement errors on the values reported for the network losses to be
minimal.
Each of the three direction studies should aim the achievement of a maximum
gain on the whole system, while satisfying the safety conditions of supply required
Power and energy losses in electric networks 473
by all consumers. This desideratum, for a given pattern of the sources and
consumers, leads to the concerns of reducing the power delivery costs by reducing
the network power losses.
Physically, the technologic consumption of active power (energy) in systems
networks is the sum of the technologic consumptions located in:
line conductors and the windings of the transformers or autotransformers
through Joule effect. The losses by thermal effect (Joule) are due to the
current passing through the conductors and also to the active and reactive
powers, and can be reduced, in a given case, by increasing the cross sectional
area of the wire or by reducing the amperage (through voltage increase,
reactive power compensation, etc.). In appropriate sized electric networks,
loaded at their rated capacities, these losses represent the main rate;
the magnetic core of the transformers or autotransformers, due to the
magnetic field presence, through eddy currents (flux) and hysteresis
phenomenon. The power losses due to the transformers (autotransformers)
magnetization do not depend upon the load. Their weight can be decreased
by optimal sizing and utilization, as well as avoidance of useless operation.
lines of 220 kV and higher rated voltage, due to the presence of the electric
field through corona phenomenon;
the dielectric of the high voltage insulation, mainly in polluted areas or
during fog time.
Of the total amount of power losses, in appropriate sized networks, the load-
free losses due to corona phenomenon, losses through dielectric and in improper
insulations have a low weight.
The meters consumption, in terms of their quality and number, can increase
the losses into the networks by 0.53% (for instance in Germany, the
consumption of the 25,000,000 installed meters represents 2% of all the losses in
the networks [7.3]).
Losses determination for an electric network, based on measurements,
represents both technically and economically, a difficult issue. Given the low
percentage of the losses in various elements of network and the accuracy of the
metering units mounted in installations, the determination, by measuring per
element of network losses is obviously not feasible. Therefore:
In high and very high voltage networks, the losses determination is
achievable by comparing the injected and the withdrawal energy from a contour,
since the number of the input-output points is relatively small and a simultaneous
reading of the meters is feasible mostly under the actual conditions of the market
economy when the transmission network dispose of a metering systems. Also,
given the reduced number of elements, it is possible to perform post calculation in
terms of the elements loading and even in real time, thanks to an appropriate
computerized system existence;
In medium and low voltage networks this comparison can only be done in
special situations, since in many countries it is not possible an accurate
determination of the energy sold for a given period, because, generally, the reading
of all the meters takes more than a week. In the medium voltage networks it is
possible to perform a post calculation of the technologic losses on those elements
whose loading is monitored (recorded) operatively or even in real time if an
appropriate computerized system exists;
For low voltage networks, the post calculation method is not widely used
because it is rational only for the study of smaller parts of the network, the
manpower and costs involved for metering being less than for the entire low
voltage network analysis. The obtained results can be used as guiding values for
the networks with comparable configurations and consumption.
The creation of the electricity market has imposed the development of a
simultaneous centralized reading system of the meters of all consumers within a
company, making possible a more accurate ascertainment of the losses and their
costs, respectively, for the power distribution.
Taking into consideration the above-mentioned aspects, it can be said that the
amount of the power losses is an indicator that characterizes the operation of a
power system. The values of this indicator are determined even in the early
planning, designing and sizing of equipments stage, when the level of the justified
technologic consumption is established. This leads to an optimum of the whole
power system subjected to the actual market economy framework for the
transmission network and each electricity company but not being an achievable
minimum.
During operation, the optimum level of the technologic losses in the electric
networks, for a certain network topology and generation scenario, can be reached
by optimal reconfiguration of the network according to the real conditions or
correct voltage adjustment in terms of the load behaviour and weather conditions
(for the reduction of the losses caused by corona phenomenon). As a result of the
powerful hardware and software from the operative control centres, of the
automatic voltage control, the supervising of the network loading, local reactive
power generation etc., operating regimes near to optimum can be obtained. Also,
with appropriate software, the technical losses achieved in the chosen configuration
can be determined in real time.
7.1.2. Evolution and structure of the losses

in the Romanian electric networks
The total amount of losses in the electric networks is directly influenced by
the distance between sources and consumption area, as well as the structure and
characteristic parameters of the network that connects them.
Table 7.1 shows the losses evolution, in percentage of the aggregate energy
transmitted (sum of the energy injected into the networks by the power plants plus
the imported electricity). This evolution should be correlated with the evolution of
the maximum power consumption, which, during 19701989, increased from 5245
MW to 11270 MW, while between 19892000 decreased to 8161 MW [7.10].
Table 7.1
Evolution of power losses in the Romanian electric networks
(percentage of the aggregate energy transmitted)
1982 1985 1989 1990 1995 2000 2001
Total NPS 6.69 6.70 7.73 9.00 11.98 13.93 13.81
Transmission
2.82 2.84 3.55 3.74 2.43* 2.08* 2.12*
networks
Distribution
3.87 3.86 4.18 5.26 9.55** 11.85** 11.69**
networks
*without the 110 kV network, ** with the 110 kV network
The evolution after 1989 is characterized by two significant factors:

at once with the consumption decrease, the operation of a transmission
installation, dimensioned for a transit much higher than the achieved one, has lead
to a remarkable decrease of the efficiency (the no-load losses weight prevailing in
the aggregate amount of losses);
alteration of the consumption pattern, which shifted from 110 kV and
220 kV (large industrial enterprises) to MV and LV.
Table 7.2
Electric power balance.
Energy Loss in
generated in the Energy delivered the
Year network to the consumers networks
[%] [%] [%]
1982 100 93.31 6.69
1989 100 92.27 7.73
1990 100 91.01 8.99
1994 100 89.96 10.04
1995 100 88.02 11.98
2000 100 86.07 13.93
2001 100 86.18 13.82
From the analysis of the electric power balance before 1989 and after 1990
the following conclusions can be drawn:
the change of the generation pattern by the increase of the energy weight
delivered at 400 kV voltage (from 9.50% to 15.25);
the electricity import reduction from 2.3% in 1989 up to 1.5% in 1994;
the change of electricity consumption structure through export variation,
the consumption decrease at 220 kV (mainly by reducing and rationalizing
the consumption of the aluminium factories), the variation at 110 kV
correlated with the activity of large industrial enterprises (the increase
during 19761989 and tremendous decrease after 1989) and the increase of
the importance of the MV consumption (mainly after 1989 through the
development of the small and average enterprises) and LV.
The above mentioned factors have various effects on the losses in the electric
networks: the increase of sources share at 400 kV leads to losses increase, while
the increase of sources at 110 kV leads to losses decrease, the consumption
reduction at 220 kV and its increase al MV and LV having the same effect, the
losses increase.
7.1.3. Comparison between losses in the Romanian electric

networks and other countries
Generally, a comparison of the losses in the electric networks of various
power systems is difficult, because:
the network losses depend on the power system structure (the distance of
sources to the consumers, constructional type of the electric lines and
equipment, static load characteristics, etc.);
the economic losses level justified by the sizing depends on the power
policy of each system, on specific circumstance factors (such as, availability
of primary resources, possibility to assimilate new equipments, etc.);
the possibility of real optimization of the operation state varies from one
system to another according to the existing reserves in sources and
networks, the level of technical endowment used in the operative
management of power installations (power and voltage controls
automation, centralized organization of the surveillance through process
computers) and also the structure in terms of ownership form;
the organization of energy record and accuracy of input data as well as
calculation method are different from one power system to another.
Table 7.3 shows the variation of losses in the electric networks in some
power systems, in terms of the percentage of total transmitted energy (net
generated energy plus import), according the data presented in [7.6, 7.8, 7.9].
It can be noticed a low level of the losses in Romania until 1989. The power
systems with lower amounts of losses than in the Romanian Power Grid are either
systems developed on small geographic areas and implicitly with short networks
(e.g. Belgium, The Netherlands), or systems with different generation patern, with
a very large share of the autoproducers in the total energy production (e.g.
Germany). The situation for Romania is quite different in 1993, the losses level
being due to the causes dealt earlier among the highest.
The data in Table 7.3 reveal that:
losses amount varies between countries within wide limits from 5% to 16%;
in some systems the losses level is practically around the same value,
determined by the power characteristic of the respective system (such as
Belgium, France, Germany, England);
during 19891993, in all power systems of the former socialist countries,
the losses in the electric networks increased very much (Bulgaria,
Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Romania);
there exists no clear continuous tendency towards increase or decrease of

losses amount and networks efficiency, the variations being accountable
through the development of the networks which are performed differently
on stages (with larger or smaller capacity reserves), and the development
and policy of resources utilization.
Table 7.3
Variation of the losses in electric networks of some power systems
(% of the transmitted energy).
1980 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993
Austria 7.14 6.31 6.13 6.24 5.96 9.08
Belgium 5.71 5.32 5.52 5.30 5.21 6.77
Bulgaria 10.04 10.49 10.75 14.49 14.45 13.27
Czechoslovakia 7.85 6.94 6.83 6.74 7.40 9.66
Denmark 8.19 6.77 5.13 4.35 6.59 6.23
France 6.93 8.80 7.51 7.61 7.07 8.40
Germany 4.70 4.35 4.58 4.71 4.11 5.37
Greece 7.29 7.84 8.72 8.61 7.65 8.41
Hungary 9.21 10.83 10.85 10.79 9.19 13.34
Italy 9.05 7.45 6.85 7.06 6.72 8.72
Romania 6.53 7.73 9.00 10.31 10.88 10.76
Turkey 12.16 13.58 12.48 13.37 14.28 13.90
England 8.08 7.92 7.81 8.01 8 .55 7.90
Swiss 7.99 7.19 7.09 7.04 7.08 9.35
Sweden 9.04 8.68 6.60 6.64 6.67 7.99
Poland 10.78 9.73 8.40 11.40 12.63 16.19
It is worth mentioning that UNIPEDE [7.2] considers technically correct a

network efficiency having 0.98 for U nom 100 kV (transmission) respectively 0.92
for U nom < 100 kV (distribution).
Within the distribution networks the economical level is 35% (efficiency
0.950.97), out of which 10% in sub-stations HV/MV, 55% in the medium
voltage networks and 35%, in the stations and low voltage network. The
economical level of the losses in the transmission networks is 23% of total
sources (efficiency 0.970.98).
7.2. Own technologic power consumption

In order to evaluate the losses associated with the operation of various
components of an electric network (lines, transformers) it is necessary to know
their technical characteristics and to establish a representation model. In this
regard, the following technical data are required:
for electric lines: rated voltage, network type (overhead, cable, pole type,
cross sectional area of the active and protection conductors, cable
characteristics etc.)
for transformers: rated voltages, rated power, unit type (transformer with
single or several windings, autotransformer), transformation ratio,
magnetization current, no-load losses, load losses at rated power, short
circuit voltage;
for reactors: rated voltage, rated current, rated power, losses of active
power through coil;
for capacitors: rated voltage, rated power, losses through dielectric or
dissipation factor (loss factor).
The information obtained help us to establish the parameters associated to the
model that, for various operation states, will provide the no-load and load losses.
Further on, besides the theoretical approaches in chapters 2 and 3, aspects
related to the calculation of losses on the long transmission lines are detailed.
Thus, the power losses can be determined:
i) as the difference between the powers at the lines ends:
* *
P = Re[U 1 I 1 U 2 I 2 ]
* *
(7.1)
Q = Im[U 1 I 1 U 2 I 2 ]
ii) using the value of the mean-square current on the line:
l
1 2
I2 =
l0
Ix d x
where I x can be expressed as per parameters from one of the lines end:
U2
I x = I 2 cosh x + sinh x
Zc
or
U1
I x = I 1 cosh x sinh x
Zc
where is the propagation constant and Z c is the characteristic impedance.
Thus, the following expressions are obtained [7.15]:

P2 + Q2 sinh2l sin 2l U22 sinh2l sin 2l
P(2) = r0 2 2 2 + + +
2U2 2 2 2 Zc2 2 2
P2 cosh 2l 1 Q2 cosh 2l 1
+ + (7.2,a)
Zc 2 Zc 2
P2 + Q2 sinh 2l sin 2l U 22 sinh 2l sin 2l

Q(2) = x0 2 2 2 + + +
2U 2 2 2 2 Zc2 2 2
P2 cosh 2l 1 Q2 cosh 2 l 1
+ + (7.2,b)
Zc 2 Zc 2
P 2 + Q 2 sinh 2l sin 2l U12 sinh 2l sin 2l

P(1) = r0 1 2 1 + +
2 U 1 2 2 2 Z c2 2 2
(7.2,c)
Zc 2 Zc 2
P2 + Q2 sinh 2l sin 2l U12 sinh 2l sin 2l

Q(1) = x0 1 2 1 + +
2U1 2 2 2 Zc2 2 2
(7.2,d)
Zc 2 Zc 2
where P(1) , Q(1) respectively P( 2 ) , Q( 2 ) are the active and reactive power
losses, respectively, calculated according to the power at the sending and receiving
end , respectively.
It is worth mentioning that P( 2 ) P(1) , P(1) < P , P( 2 ) > P(1) and
P( 2) + P(1)
= P .
2
Figure 7.2 shows the percentage error between power losses calculated with
relations (7.2) and the one determined with relation (7.1), for various loads of a line
of 750 kV, 400 km, 5400 mm2, A1-Ol, where stands for the power factor.
The determination of the power losses in the networks, dependent on both the
network configuration and consumers state and the loading of various sources
(power plants and reactive power sources), is carried out through a steady state
calculation. In this respect, it should be mentioned that:
it is very important to model no-load losses for all types of transformers
and mainly of the distribution ones (110 kV/MV and MV/LV);
it is required the modelling of 220 kV networks in the calculation of the
operating states and more of the losses caused by corona phenomenon. For
a certain type of overhead line (OHL), losses variation due to corona
phenomenon in terms of the operation voltage can be represented by a
polynomial, whose coefficients are determined by regression. In Romania,
for the existing lines, with cross sectional area of 2450 mm2 and
3300 mm2, respectively, the relation:
Pcorona = a + bU 2 (7.3)
proved to be suitable (correlation factor 0.998). In order to consider the
corona discharge losses, modelled according to (7.3), in computer
programs for steady state calculation, at the line ends, a lumped load
(a/2L) and a conductance (b/2L) will be introduced.
It is important to relive that the introduction of these parameters has a little
influence in the voltage value (< 0.05%) determined by load flow calculation, but
the voltage value may have a big influence on the value of the corona losses.
[%]
4
P2-P
P
3 P1-P
P
=1 leading
1 =0.9 state
=0.8
=0.9
=0.7
0 1000 2000 3000 =0.7 4000
P2[MW]
=0.9
=0.8
=0.9 leading
-1 =1 state
-2
-3
Fig. 7.2. Percentage errors between power losses determined by means of relations (7.1)
and (7.2) for a line of 750kV, 400km, 5400mm2 Al-Ol.
The relation (7.3) allows us to obtaine guiding average values, taking into
consideration the actual values for each line (configuration, route, average multi-
annual weather conditions).
In steady-state calculation, for the optimization of the voltage level and
reactive power compensation, the modelling of the static characteristic of the load
is also required. Notice that the simple switching of the taps, disregarding the load
characteristics, can lead to other effects than the ones intended. Thus, switching the
taps towards the direction of the voltage increase on the consumption bus-bar can
result in increased consumption of reactive power that may determine the voltage
drop at bus-bars, supply and consumption.
7.3. Own electric energy technologic consumption
7.3.1. Basic notions and data

The calculation of the own technologic consumption with high accuracy,
carried out for the analysis of steady states of complex networks, allows the
determination of o.t.c. (active and reactive) both on the entire network and its
elements.
Further on, equal loads of the three phases in every instant are assumed.
Taking into consideration that the determination of the own electric energy
technologic consumption by using an integral in time of the current square flowing
through the element:
T

W = 3R I t2 dt
0
(7.4)
constitutes a very difficult issue, as in practice the accurate knowledge of It for the
entire period analyzed is impossible; also, in many cases even the accurate
knowledge of the value R is difficult, R being lines electric resistance. This issue
necessitated the use of simplified ways for determination of the own technologic
consumption. To this effect, two distinct calculation cases are considered.
a. Own technologic consumption practically load independent corresponds to
the product between the own technologic consumption of power and the
duration the respective element is powered (obviously, disregarding the
voltage variations influence, either by considering the rated voltage or a
medium operation voltage);
b. Own technologic consumption dependent of the load that appears at:
series elements that supply a radial consumer, when the operation state
of the element is determined by the consumption characteristics and its
annual variation;
basic network elements of the power system, whose state is influenced
by a large number of factors (network structure, consumption level and
repartition on the system nodes, generation dispatching etc.) and

therefore the state of an element cannot be characterized independently
by all the other elements of the network in which it is integrated.
The o.t.c. determination for the basic networks of the system, of the meshed
network with variable states, is carried out on the basis of state calculations for
characteristic operation levels (generally, four levels for one working day in winter
and summer and two levels for holiday in winter and summer) and assignment of a
number of hours for the carrying out of each one.
For each element of an electric network, the calculation of the o.t.c. is
performed considering its two components, the one dependent on the load and the
one independent of load.
For a three-phase electric line, of length L, considered long, that is with
distributed parameters, the energy losses in an interval T are:
LT
I
2
W = 3R0 lt dldt (7.5)
0 0
where I lt is the current at distance l and instant t, while R0 is the resistance per
length unit of the line.
The overall energy loss is made up of no-load losses (losses by corona
phenomenon and insulation) and load losses. Neglecting the losses through
insulation, the relation can be written as:
LT
(I
' 2
W = 3R0 lt ) dldt + Wcorona (7.6)
0 0
where Wcorona are the energy losses caused by corona phenomenon, established
by considering weather condition, I lt' the current through the line, minus the shunt
currents through line conductance.
For the relatively short lines, in the equations of the long line the hyperbolic
sine can be replaced with the circular one, and the cosine with 1, and the relation
(7.6) becomes:
T

W = 3R I t2dt + Wcorona
0
(7.7)
where I t is the constant current along the entire line at instant t.

For a power transformer, knowing the no-load losses ( P0 ) and load power
losses at rated load ( Pscc ), the o.t.c. will be (assuming that the voltages at the
terminals are maintained constant):
T 2
S
S
W = Pscc t dt + W0
0 nom
(7.8,a)
or:
T 2
I
I
W = Pscc t dt + W0
0 nom
(7.8,b)
where W0 = P0T is the electric power own technologic consumption (e.p.o.t.c.)

independent of load (dependent only on the applied voltage); S t ( I t ) transformer
loading at instant t, that determines the power losses in transformer;
For a synchronous compensator having the rated power Qnom , a technologic
consumption of power at rated loading Pcs,nom out of which K P Pcs,nom represents
the technologic consumption independent of the load, resulting:
T 2
Q
Wc.s = K P Pcs,nomT + (1 K P )Pcs,nom
dt

(7.9)
Q
0 cs,nom
For the installations with series capacitors (for the series compensation)
T 2
I
Wc.c
= pc Qnom,c
I
0 nom,c
dt

(7.10)
where pc is the o.t.c. of power at rated load.
For shunt reactors and capacitor banks whose technologic consumption is

not dependent of the load, the e.p.o.t.c. is obtained as follows (the voltage at
terminals is considered to be kept unchanged):
Wb = pbQnom,bT
(7.11)
Wc = pcQnom,cT
where pb and pc are the o.t.c. of power of the coil, respectively capacitor.
In order to determine the own technologic consumption of energy by means

of relations (7.5) and (7.6) it is required to know the law of time variation of the
current flowing through the element. In the general case, this law cannot be
mathematically expressed. That is why, for the consideration of current variation in
time, various assumptions are taken into consideration and various calculation
methods have been elaborated for the calculation of the integral value.
7.3.2. Diagram integration method

It is considered that the time variation of the root-mean-square value of the
current passing through the element is known, and that it is represented in a
diagram (Fig.7.3). The time period T is divided into n equal t periods.
I, S
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 t [h ]
Fig. 7.3. A daily load curve.
The areas between two neighbouring y-coordinates can either be considered

as rectangles or trapezes. For the loads indicated in the points of intersection with
the load curve the following can be written:
approximating with rectangles:
T n n
T
I
2
t dt = I
t =1
2
t t =
n
I
t =1
t
2
(7.12)
0
approximating with trapezes:

T
T 2 n 1

I t2 dt = I 0 + I n2 + 2 I t2

2n t =1

(7.13)
0
For I 0 = I n , the relation (7.13) is reduced to (7.12).

Consequently, the energy losses will be:
for loads expressed in amperes:
n
T
W = 3 R
n I
t =1
t
2
(7.14)
or
T 2 n 1

W = 1.5 R I
0
n
+ I 2
n + 2
t =1
I t2

(7.15)
for loads expressed in powers

n 2
T St
W = R
n

t =1 U t*
(7.16)
or
T S0
2 2 n 1 2
Sn St
W = R *
n U0
+ *
Un
+ 2 *
t =1 U t

(7.17)

Even if the graphical integration method leads to an enhanced accuracy, it has

the disadvantage of a large amount of work. Generally, in practice, to simplify the
calculations, load curves characteristic for working days and holydays, winter,
summer, spring and autumn are used instead of the load variation curve for the
entire year. Sometimes, the calculation is limited only to the winter and summer
working days.
For these days, their number is established within the analyzed T period.
Energy losses, determined by means of relations (7.147.17) for a characteristic
day, allow the determination of the energy lost within one year, by means of the
formula:
W = Wwin , w nwin , w + Wsum , w nsum, w + Wspr , w nspr , w +
+ Waut , w naut , w + Wwin , h nwin , h + Wsum, h nsum, h + (7.18)
+ Wspr , h nspr , h + Waut , h naut , h
where win, sum, spr, aut represent winter, summer, spring, autumn, respectively, w
and h representing the working day and holiday, respectively.
The determination of the energy losses can be further simplified, within the
characteristic day, not hour by hour, but on consumption levels (generally: night
off peak, morning peak, day off peak, evening peak), establishing the duration, in
hours, of each level.
This deficiency of this method relies in its failure to render the required
accuracy due to the regular and irregular deviations that occur in the analysed
network, which makes the diagram, states and energy losses determined for one
day not to be kept unchanged for the entire characteristic period. By regular
deviations it understands the dynamics of the electricity consumption, determined
by electricity consumption variation, weather conditions influence, load actual
growth etc. Irregular deviations mean disconnection of some elements in the
network for planned repairs, change of the producers operation state.
In order to reduce the errors when using the diagram integration method, to
an admissible level, the engineering practice, usually, introduces states correction
factors: equivalence factor k from the energy losses and irregularity factor k i
point of view.
In the general case when the voltage is constant, load losses in the electric
networks, within a time period t, are:
t

W S = S t2 dt
0
(7.19,a)
n m
W S = S
i =1 j =1
2
ij t ij (7.19,b)
where i is the number of the day in the characteristic period, i (1, n ) ; j number
of the level in the load curve; i, j (1, m ) ; S ij load on the level j in the day i;
calculation period in the studied period T, (1, N ) .
In relations (7.19) it is assumed that the voltage of the line is constant.

If the analysis is performed in a period only one day, we have:
m
WS' = n S
j =1
2
j tj (7.20)
In order to obtain the equivalence between (7.19) and (7.20) it is required:

m n m
k n
j =1
S 2j t j = S
i =1 j =1
2
ij tij
From the last equality, it is possible to obtain the equivalence factor of the
operating states during the period :
n m
S
i =1 j =1
2
ij tij
k = m
(7.21)
n
j =1
S 2j t j
The energy losses in the networks for the period T will be:
N
W ST = k i k
1
'
W S
(7.22)
The graphical integration method can be applied relatively easily with the aid
of computers. It can be considered a standard method for the elimination of errors
introduced by other methods. It is a correct method for the complex meshed
networks as well.
7.3.3. Root-mean-square current method

It is supposed that through a network element flows a constant current of
magnitude I, which, in a period T, can produce on the line the same energy losses
as in the case of flowing in the given time period of the alternating current
corresponding to the real load curve:
T
3 RI T = 3 R I t2dt
2
from which:
I
2
t dt
I= 0
(7.23)
T
From the expression (7.22) it results that, for the calculation of the root-
mean-square current it is necessary to know the real load curve. The expression
under the radical can be calculated by means of relations (7.12) and (7.13).
If the value of I is known, e.p.o.t.c. in the element is determined by means of
the formula:
W = 3 RI 2T (7.24)
or when the loads are given through powers:
2
Sm, p
W = RT
U nom
where S m , p is the root-mean-square of the power that flows through the element;
U nom the rated voltage, considered constant; R the element resistance; T the
calculation period.
This calculation method is called the method of the root-mean-square current,
and, when the relations (7.12) and (7.13) are used for his determination, this
method can be considered as another way of applying the diagram integration
method. In this form of application it provides no advantage with respect to the
diagram integration method.
In practice, the method of the root-mean-square current is appropriate for
distribution networks, mainly MV. In this case, the root-mean-square current I is
determined by means of empirical relations, in terms of the mean value of the
current I mean and the quadratic dependence factor k p :
I = I mean k p (7.25)
or in terms of the maximum current I max and the number of hours of the maximum
power utilization, e.g. through a dependence of the form:
(
I = I max 0.12 + Tmax 10 4 ) (7.26)
or the calculation is performed in terms of the maximum current I max and the
losses time :
Tmax
I = I max (7.27)

The values of Tmax , k and have a probabilistic character and can be
evaluated on the basis of the samples and measurements performed only for certain
types of consumers or for radial supplying lines of groups of consumers, electric

lines operating at nominal voltage of 110 kV or less, where the capacitive current
can be ignored. For this reason, the method of the root-mean-square current must
be considered a statistical-probabilistic determination of the energy losses in the
radial networks with rated voltage 110 kV or less. This method cannot be applied
in the simple or complex meshed networks, since in this case there is no tight
correlation between Tmax , k p , and the quantities that determinate them.
7.3.4. Losses time method

One considers the annual classified curve of active powers flowing through
the element, obtained from the daily curves. The area under the curve Pt
represents, at a certain scale, the energy W transmitted through the element within a
period of time T. The same quantity of energy could be transmitted at constant
power Pmax , within a period of time Tmax < T :
T

W = Pt dt = PmaxTmax P
0
(7.28)
from which:
T
P dt t
Tmax P = 0
(7.29)
Pmax
In Figure 7.4,a the expressions given above are represented, the area of the
rectangle determined by Pmax and Tmax P being equal to the area determined by
axes and the curve Pt ; Tmax P is called the number of hours of the maximum active
power utilization. Obviously, such times, representing a period conventionally
adopted, when on the line operating at maximum loading an energy equal to the
actual one is transmitted, can be also determined for the reactive power (Fig.
7.4,b):
T
Q dt t
Tmax Q = 0
(7.30)
Pmax
and for the current (and for the apparent power, respectively), (Fig. 7.4,c):
T T
I t dt S dt
t
Tmax = 0
0
(7.31)
I max S max
It is worth noticing that, because the curve S (t ) is fuller than that of P(t ) ,
Tmax P < Tmax . This observation should be taken into consideration at the application
of various formulae for the losses time calculation.
The determination of the energy losses per element requires, naturally, losses
calculation for each curve point I t = f (t ) and then their summation. The same
energy losses occurs in the element considered with a constant loading, equal to the
maximum loading, during a period of time , smaller than the calendar period of
operation, taking into account that, in this case, during the entire period, the
maximum power losses occur. From this results the name for time of maximum
losses or, more often, losses time.
Pt Qt
2
P
t
Qt2
2 2
Pmax Q max
Pmax Pt Qmax Qt
p t Q t
TmaxP TmaxQ
a. b.
St
St 2
2
Smax
Smax St
t
Tmax
c.
Fig. 7.4. Determination of values Tmax and .
To determine the value it is required, in Figure 7.4, to draw the rectangles

2
with I max as coordinate, and abscisa determined by means of the relation:
T
I
2
t dt
= 0
2
(7.32)
I max
Thus, losses time is a conventional time during which, within the element,
operating at maximum loading, the same energy losses as during operation at
actual loading, variable loading, within period of time T, occur. Consequently, the
energy losses will have the expression:
2
2 Smax
W = 3 RImax=R (7.33)
U
where I max is the maximum load current, S max apparent maximum power, U
voltage at maximum load, most frequently approximated by U n .
In order to use the formula (7.33), firstly, it is necessary to evaluate in each
concrete case the losses time value . Usually, the value is determined
empirically or through regressions, in terms of the number of hours of the
maximum active power utilization and the power factor.
Basically, there is a tight correlation between the number of hours of the
maximum power utilization, Tmax , and the maximum power only in the networks
of voltage up to 110 kV (220 kV), where the influence of the capacitive load of the
respective network can be neglected.
In order to calculate the losses time, many formulas are established in terms
of at least the maximum current value (or of the maximum apparent, active or
reactive power), mean current value (active, reactive or apparent power) and losses
calculation duration. To enhance the accuracy for the losses time determination,
some authors introduced additional information, such as the minimum value of the
current (power).
In West European countries and American companies [7.17, 7.18],
considering that a sufficiently accurate determination of the maximum value ( I max ,
Pmax , Qmax , S max ) is not feasible in practice unless there are appropriate recording
installations (printmaxigraph, computerized systems, up-to-date meters), the
analysis is based on the load factor with reference to the apparent power kU or
active power kUP .
The load factor is defined as the ratio between the average apparent power
and the maximum apparent power:
S med I med
kU = = (7.34)
S max I max
and
Pmed
kUP = (7.35)
Pmax
In (7.34), the voltage is assumed to be the same in both operating states.
For a consumption centre, the load curve keeps its shape, respectively the
value of kU . This can be determined by means of recordings during the
characteristic period of the load curve. The rate will be kept until a new large
consumer shows up, when the recordings will be performed again.
At the same time, the notion loss factor * , is introduced, for which relations
in terms of kU (or kUP ) are established:

* = (7.36)
T
where is the losses time and T the operating period.
For the calculation of the o.t.c. associated with the active power, the literature
provides several relations for the determination of p* (Table 7.4). In [7.17], it is
shown that for p* , the following general relation can be used:
p * = pkU + (1 p ) kU2
with p = (0.15K 0.3) according to the consumption type.

The work [7.19] deals with values of the loss factor in distribution
obtained as average of the values used in many power systems corresponding to a
curve type B (Fig. 7.5,b) with loading ranging between 4.2% and 10%. The values
are given in Table 7.4 (formula 6). Figure 7.6 presents the dependencies between
loss factor and load factor for an A and B load type.
Pmax[%] Pmax[%]
Constant load 23 hours
100 (any value between 0 % and 100 %)
100
75 75
Consumption
50 100 % or 0% 50
25 25
[h]
5 10 15 20 24 [h] 5 10 15 20 24
a. b.
Fig. 7.5. Extreme types of load curves: a. load type A; b. load type B.
Losses
factor [%]
100
80 Distribution
feeder
60
Type A
load
40 Distribution
transformer
20 Type B
load
Load
0 factor [%]
0 20 40 60 80 100
Fig. 7.6. Dependency between the load factor and loss factor for a type B curve
(distribution).
Table 7.4
Expression for the loss factors in terms of the parameters P and kUP .
Curve
Author Formula Observations
no.
Superior limit curve
P* = k UP corresponding to a
Wolf [7.27] 1
unsmooth load curve
(type A Fig. 7.5,a)
Fleck and kUP
P* = 2
Rahn [7.29] 2 kUP
Langrehn 1.6
P * = kUP 3
[7.29]
Iansen [7.29] P* =
1
2
( 2
kUP + kUP ) 4
Kezevici
[7.28] (
P * = 0.124 + Tmax 10 4 )
2
5
= (k )
Militaru 1 2
P* UP + kUP + kUP Average curve
[7.34] 2
P * = 2Tmax* 1 +
2
[7.26] 1 Tmax* P
+ 1 min
Pmin Pmax
1 + Tmax* 2
Pmax
Glazunov Indicate P in terms of
Fig. 7.8
[7.31] Tmax P and
Valid for variable and
[7.30] P * = kU (0.66 + 0.34kU )2
discontinuous diagrams
[7.30] P* = kU kU The same, if kU > 0.25
VDEW
P* = 0.17 kU + 0.83 kU2
[7.32]
Valid for apparent
[7.33] P* = 0.7 kU2 + 0.3 kU
powers
Used for distribution
[7.1] P* = 0.85 kU2 + 0.15 kU networks and
transformers
Inferior limit curve
corresponding to a
Wolf [7.27] P* = kU2 1 smooth load curve
(type B Fig. 7.5,b).
( kU = 0.0417 K1 )
Used for distribution
[7.17] P* = 0.8 kU2 + 0.2 kU
networks
*) P = Pmin Pmax ; kUP = Pmed Pmax
P*
1.0 8000
0.9 s [h]
1
0.8 6000 = 0.6
1
0.7 5
2 = 0.8
0.6 3 4000
0.5 4 =1
0.4
0.3 2 2000
5
0.2
0.1 kU, max 0 2000 4000 6000 8000
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 TmaxP [h]
Fig. 7.7. Dependencies between load factors of Fig. 7.8. The curves P = f (Tmax P ) .
load curves and loss factors.
Figure 7.7 presents the dependencies of *P in terms of kU , and Figure 7.8

represents the dependence of s in terms of Tmax P , for some expressions from
Table 7.4.
The dependencies described for losses time evaluation played an important
role in the development of theory for the determination of the power losses in the
electric networks. However, the average error within the limits (1025)% is not
suitable for the selection of the optimum variant of a network development and
much less for performing analyses on operation, this error should not exceed 5%.
In this respect, for the determination of the losses time it is required to take into
account the load curve, power factor dynamics, possibility that during the analyzed
period the maximum of active power may not coincide with the reactive power.
By separating the losses time for active and reactive power, the accuracy
degree increases.
The analysis of the load duration curves in radial networks allowed to obtain
satisfactorily accurate dependencies between the active and reactive power. Such
dependency is [7.21]:
Q*i = cP*ib (7.37)
where P*i and Q*i are the actual ordinates of the active and reactive power
expressed in per units, the base value being their maximum value; c and b are
constants, coefficients of a regression.
By considering this dependency, the relationship between the times T*max P
and T*max Q corresponding to maximum active and reactive loads are determined by:
T*max P = T*bmax Q
between T*max P , *P and *Q , respectively, existing the relationships:
* P = (0.7 T*max P + 0.3)T*max P (7.38)
(
*Q = 0.7 T*bmax P + 0.3 T*bmax P ) (7.39)
If the maximum values of the active and reactive power coincide in time,
which is characteristic to the distribution networks, the total losses time is:
* = *P cos 2 max + *Q sin 2 max (7.40)
and in the general case:
* = * P cos 2 max + K q *Q sin 2 max (7.41)
where K q is the factor of no overlapping of the active and reactive power

maximums in the daily load curve, while the phase shift angle between the
voltage and current curves, considered as sinusoidal quantities.
For the municipal and rural networks with voltages of 20 kV and less, the
exponent b is 0.75, while for the 110...220 kV networks, b = 0.5 .
Losses time method is recommended to determine power losses in radial
networks, while diagram integration method is recommended for the meshed
networks.
Under the presented form, due to the relations (7.38) and (7.39), the method
allows the separate computation of the technologic losses in the networks due to
the active and reactive powers flow. Power factor dynamics and possibility of no
overlapping of the active and reactive power maximums are also taken into
consideration. By means of this method, accuracy equal to the basic information
( 2.5K3% ) was obtained for the power losses into the distribution networks.
7.3.5. Technologic consumption in transmission installations

The long transmission lines are used for the transmission of large amount
of electricity from large power plants to the consumption areas, as well as for the
parallel connection of large power plants and interconnection of power systems.
The operating state of such electric lines is different, the load curves being
determined in terms of the power and energy exchanges resulting from the
approval of the generation bids to meet power demand and imports/exports of
electricity, as well as the voltages state. Usually, the long lines are considerate to
operate with fixed voltage drop. For this reason, the reactive load curve for a fixed
state of the active power is determined by the possibilities of the adjustment and
compensation devices. Load curves of the apparent power on these lines vary
within very large limits during one year. For the losses calculation with a suitable
level of credibility, the analysis of 2530 characteristic days is required. The
calculation effort can be reduced if characteristic states corresponding to
characteristic levels of the daily load curve, instead of all the states for
characteristic days, are used.
Power technologic losses in the case of long distance transmission consist in
no-load losses and load losses. The no-load losses are determined from the corona
phenomenon losses on the lines, iron loss in the step-up and step-down
transformers, as well as losses in shunt compensation devices. Running load losses

occur in lines, transformer windings and in circuits of series compensation devices
connected along the transmission path.
In order to determine the power losses it is required to sum up the power
losses in the elements of the transmission equipments corresponding to the selected
characteristic states, for their performance duration during the chosen calculation
period (by means of the diagram integration method).
The duration of state j during the chosen calculation period is determined on
the basis of the analysis of n characteristic load curves:
n
tj = t
t =1
ji ni (7.42)
where: t j is the duration of the j characteristic state; t ji duration of the j state

in the characteristic day of i type; ni characteristic days of i type.
For electricity transmission with power injections in the paths, the calculation
is performed on each section.
The calculation algorithm of the technologic consumption, in long distance
transmission, by means of the diagram integration method, consists of the
following steps:
1. Formation of the computerized system for the electricity transmission and
the basic scheme with technical data related to equipments.
2. Parameters determination of the four-terminal network Ai , Bi , Ci , Di of
each element i, by means of which the equivalent constants A, B, C, D are
determined.
3. Analysis of the daily load curves and voltages states on parts of the
transmission network. For the planning and forecasting of the technologic
consumption, the operation states of the active power and corresponding
voltage drops are used. As result of the analysis, the calculation states are
established while, by means of formula (7.42), their duration within the
calculation period limits is determined.
4. On the basis of the operation states concerning the active power and the
limits given for the voltage drop, the state concerning reactive powers, for
each part is determined.
5. Power losses on each network section and for each operating state are
calculated:
Pj = ( A'C' + A"C" )U 22 j + (B'D' + D"B" )3 I 22 j +

(7.43)
+ 2( A"D" + BC ) P2 j + 2(B"C AD" )Q2 j
The first term of these expressions refers to the no-load losses, the second to
the load losses, third and fourth terms to the losses determined by the model with
distributed parameters, as well as the passage of the capacitive current of the line.
6. Power losses during period t are equal to:

m
Wt = P t
t =1
j j (7.44)
where m is the number of the calculation states, and tj is the period

corresponding to the state j;
7. The structure of the transmission power losses is expressed by means of
relations (7.43).
Technologic consumption associated with losses caused by corona
phenomenon can be determined as follows:
by modelling also, within the characteristic states, the losses caused by
corona phenomenon (7.3), these are included in the technologic
consumption of each level;
considering their average annual value:
Wcorona = Pc med T ' (7.45,a)
where T ' is the duration of keeping the respective line energized.

assuming differentiated values for the losses due to corona phenomenon
according to the weather conditions, which require the knowledge of
coefficients a and b (eq. 7.3) in compliance with the weather conditions:
n
Wcorona = P T
i =1
ci i (7.45,b)
where i refers to weather condition considered, while Ti is its duration ( T = T ' ).

i
In the end the total technologic consumption WT will be:

WT = WS + Wcorona (7.46)
where WS represents the losses caused by the apparent power transmitted on the
line.
7.4. Economic efficiency of the electric network losses

reducing
Generally, for the economic analysis of several variants (options), two
criteria categories are used:
ranking criterion of the options, which considers that under any conditions
the electricity must be supplied without pointing out the investment profitability, its
economical effectiveness;
determination criterion of the economical efficiency of the electricity
supply installation and chosing of the optimal solution according to this criterion.
For the problem studied, it is considered that the safety in operation of the
electric networks of various types and maintenance conditions are the same and
therefore, the damages at the consumers following failures in the network generally
are not taken into consideration.
In the first criteria category the well known criterion of present total
discounted costs (PTDC), is included which, in the last time, as for the practice in
the countries with developed power systems (e.g. EdF), ignores the equivalencing
investment afferent to power losses differences. Actually, this investment is
considered non-necessary since it leads to a false result of the analysis.
Furthermore, for an enterprise that supplies electricity (respectively purchased from
producers), even if required at power system level, it has no influence on the
economical efficiency of the respective enterprise. PTDC value is established as
referred to one updating year selected (for instance, the investment commencement
year, start-up year, etc.).
The calculation relation is [7.15]:
Ds Ds
PTDC = t =1
I t (1 + a) t + (C
t = d +1
t + Cet + Dt )(1 + a) t
Ds
(7.47)
(W
t = d +1
'
ni + Wrt )(1 + a) t Wn (1 + a) Ds
where: I t areinvestments carried out in year t;

Ct annual operation expenses in year t ( Ct = kI );
Cet equivalent annual expenses (corresponding to power losses);
Dt presumable annual damages, in the year t (as per specification
above, in our case Dt = 0 );
Ds study period;
Wn (Wni ') remanent value after the period Ds and after a limited
operating period, respectively;
Wrt residual value (in our case Wrt = 0 );
d execution period.
a discount rate, with:
a = ad + ar + a s
ad activity interest rate (10 25%);
ar risk rate (1 1.5%);
as safety rate (for social security) (0.5%)
Applications
The following input data are considered:
study period, 10 years;
annual operation expenses for substations, 6% of investment value;
the cost of kWh for the equivalencing of the power losses in the medium voltage
networks in the expression of PTDC is e = 65 /MWh;
{
Wn = I (1 + ) Ds m(1 + )Dv + 1 m(1 + )Dv [ ]

[(1 + )(1 + a )]D [(1 + )(1 + a )]D D
v v s (7.48)

[(1 + )(1 + a )]D 1 v

where: is the average annual factor of equipment wear = 1%;

m residual value upon lifetime expiry, % of investment value = 10%;
Ds study period = 10 years;
Dv lifetime = 20 years;
D S =10
a discount rate = 12% and (1 + a )
i =1
1
5.65 .
For these data from (7.48) it results Wn = 0.726 I .

Considering the residual value on the lifetime expiry of only 5%, the following is
proposed:
D Ds
VRM = I 0.05 + (1 0.05) v = 0.525 I (7.49)
Dv d
where d is the execution period 0.

Further on, the relation (7.48) will be used.
Mention that, for example in the USA, for the PTDC calculation, the remanent value
is not subtracted, on the ground that the recovery of these at the equipment
decommissioning date is improbable.
Knowing these information, the PTDC from expression (7.47) becomes:
n n
PTDC = I + I k (1 + a )i + P0Te (1 + a )i +
1 1
n
(7.50,a)
+ e P (1 + a )
1
i
i
0.726 I (1 + a ) Ds
or
n
PTDC = I 1 + k

(1 + a )
1
i
0.726(1 + a ) Ds +
(7.50,b)
n n
+ P0Te (1 + a )
1
i
+ e P (1 + a )
1
i
i
PTDC = I + (0.06 I ) 5.65 + W (1 + a ) i

i
65 / MWh 0.726 (1.12)10 I
or post calculations:
PTDC = 1.105 I + P (1 + a ) i
i
65 [] (7.51)
where Pi is the power losses in the year t.
If we denote by Ps the power losses under running load in the year 1 and by
the annual percentage of the load growth, it results the sum:
n
Ps Ps (1 + )2 Ps (1 + )4
i =1
Psi (1 + a )
i
=
1+ a
+
(1 + a )2
+
(1 + a )3
+K =
n
(1 + )2
1
Ps 1 + a
= = (7.52)
1 + a (1 + )2
1
1+ a
Ps (1 + )2 n (1 + a )n
=
(1 + a )n (1 + )2 (1 + a )
For the calculation of the following relation can be used [7.17]:
[ ]
= T * = T (1 p )ku2 + pK u with p (0.15 0.3)
S med
where ku = ; T is the operation period.
S max
In the end, the option with the minimum PTDC will be chosen.
The second category of the efficiency criterion consists of the followings:
(i) Net present income (NPI), which evaluates the annual cumulated,
proceeds:
Ds
Vt (Ct + I t )
NPI =
t =1 (1 + a)t
(7.53)
where: Vt is the total income in the year t;

Ct investment in the year t;
a discount rate;
t current year;
Ds study period.
Obviously, the economically efficient options have NPI 0 and the options
with maximum NPI are choosen.
If the total investments are not equal, the net presents income rate (NPIR)
will be used.
NPI
NPIR = Ds
(7.54)
It

t =1 (1 + a )t
and the option with maximum NPIR is selected.
(ii) Internal rate of return (IRR) represents a relative profit criterion.
Actually, this is that discount rate for which the net present income is zero:
Ds
Vt Ct
(1 + IRR)
t =1
t
=0 (7.55)
The solutioning is done by means of an iterative process.

The investment is considered profitable if IRR is larger than a set minimum
return rate (regularly, with the discount rate 12%).
In order to compare two options (A and B) the relative profit criterion is
applied:
Ds
(V B
) (
CtB Vt A CtA )

t =1
t
(1 + a )t
=0 (7.56)
(iii) Pay back period (PBP) represents the time period required for the
recovery of the initial investment value (financed from own funds) from the annual
returns associated with it.
Simple pay back period (SPBP)
T'
I= (V
t =1
t Ct ) (7.57)
The value T, obtained from (7.57), represents the recovery period.

If the difference ( Vt Ct ) is constant and the investment is carried out in a
single year, then the recovery period is:
I
T '= (7.58)
Vt Ct
1
The investment is, regularly, considered efficient, T '
a
Present pay back period (PPBP), T " :
1 T"
(Vt Ct )
d
I t (1 + a ) t = t =1 (1 + a) t
(7.59)
where d is the period of carrying out the investment (between the year d and the
start-up year).
The pay back period can also be calculated under the form of pay back period
of investment differences through annual expenses differences. It is proposed the
application under this form, as the revenue-sum cashed from the selling of a fixed
electricity quantity, cannot be accurately determined when performing the analysis.
Therefore:
I 2 I1
PBP = (7.60)
C1 C 2
C being composed of the energy losses cost and operation expenses.
For the cost of losses under running load, if consider a variation in time of the
costs, to apply the simple pay back period criterion, the utilization of the
levelizing factor is required, to obtain a constant value of them during the
entire analyzed period [7.13, 7.18]:
Plevelized = Ps
(1 + )2 N (1 + a )N a
(7.61)
(1 + ) (1 + a ) (1 + a )N 1
2
Considering an average value for 10 years of study N = 10 years = 2% and

a = 12% , it results:
Plevelized 1.16 Ps
(iv) Annual recovery of investment differences. If one considers that the
supply of a consumer is compulsory and therefore it is not subjected to a cost-profit
analysis, it is necessary to only check the conditions of recovering the investment
differences between options, of existence of conditions for credits reimbursement.
It is known that a loan of 1 with i interest for N years leads to an annual
constant rate of reimbursement as follows:
i
Ra = 1
1
1
(1 + i ) N
Generally, the reimbursement is accomplished after commissioning of the
equipment (execution period of d years).
In this case, the annual recovery of the investment differences can be assured
for the option K with respect to the option with minimum investments:
I K RaNK I min RaN min
K= <1 (7.62)
C min C k
where C min and C k stand for both carrying charge and variable ones, while RaNK
and RaN min represents the reimbursement rate in the two options.
The relation (7.62) can also be used to check the opportunity of existent
equipment rehabilitation:
I RT Ra
K' = <1 (7.63,a)
C C RT
IRa
K1 = <1 (7.63,b)
C C RT
The criterion of annual recovery of the investment differences can also be
used to determine the economical efficiency of an investment considering:
IRa
K1 = <1 (7.64,c)
V C
where: V is the annual income (resulting from electricity selling);
C annual expenses (fixed plus variable ones);
V C = B annual profit.
(v) Determination of the economically justified investment. An evaluation
method of the investment that can be justified through the advantage obtained by
adopting a certain solution to cut the power losses in the electric networks is given
in [7.13, 7.17].
The capital justifiable to be invested is:
C = Total savings achieved / carrying change rate (7.65)
The total savings achieved include in the general case:
costs cut through power losses reduction;
costs cut through energy losses reduction;
maintenance and upgrading costs cut.
The carrying charge rate includes:
rate of return I;
capital redemption determined for the entire lifetime established and a cost
of the evaluated capital;
annual income tax;
property and social security tax.
In literature, the value adopted for the carrying charge rate is about 12%.
7.5. Measures to reduce the own technologic

consumption and the active energy and power losses
The main element in approaching the issue of cutting the own technologic
consumption in electric networks is its knowledge as a whole, and of the various
network elements. The knowledge of the own technologic consumption of power
on the maximum load level is very important since it determines additional
investments in the generation, transmission and distribution equipments. For a first
analysis of this level, in some power systems, allowable values have been
established or more exactly, values for which it is considered that the measures of
cutting the losses can be applied but are not likely to result in exceptional profits.
7.5.1. Measures to cut the technical losses requiring no

investments
Optimization of electric network and basic equipment operation states:
set the regular operation scheme with main aim the minimization of own
technologic consumption;
appropriate load distribution between power plants considering network

loss (actually, not applicable under the conditions of electricity market);
determination of the appropriate voltage and reactive power state;
optimization of the operating states of the compensation devices, for the
scheme established post demand and offer approval;
optimization of the transformers operation states in substations with two or
several transformers;
switch some generators to synchronous compensator state.
Optimization of power flow through non-homogeneous meshed networks:
set the appropriate transformation ratios at the units without on-load tap
changing;
set the transformation ratios for the phase-shift autotransformers;
reconfigure MV and LV networks.
Optimization of the voltage level in the electric networks:
keep the voltage at the supply bus-bars at maximum allowable limit, during
load peak hours and the rated one under minimum load state;
optimization of the voltage level in the 400 kV networks correlated with
the weather conditions, in order to cut losses caused by corona
phenomenon;
set guidelines concerning utilization of on-load tap changing, reactive
power adjustment at generators;
periodical modifications of the transformation ratios at the units without
on-load tap changing.
Load balance on the medium and low voltage network phases.
Increase the network operation level:
increase the safety and the efficiency of all network elements operation;
decrease the duration and increase the quality of the network elements
repairs in order to limit the unavailabilities;
introduce energized work upon transmission lines repair;
improve quality of new works acceptance.
Improvement of the energy losses recordings into the electric network. This
category comprises:
organize and carry out an appropriate computerized system, applicable to
the electronic computation systems;
determine in real time the networks losses;
organize and introduce a system to determine technical power losses;
optimize and improve power losses recording system;
introduce an analysis system for commercial losses, their location, setting
their character and cut measures;
personnel training.
Review the existing regulations, norms. This category comprises:
set the regulations that allow the adjustment of the load curve;
establish a fair tariff system to discount the active energy lost in the system
due to reactive power transmission;
norming the asymmetry and distortion level;

switch to light saving hour.
7.5.2. Measures to cut the own technologic consumption

requiring investments
Rated voltage increase:
build deep inlets at high voltage;
switch the networks to a superior voltage level, by accepting the reduction of
the insulation reserve (e.g. from 6, 10 kV to 20 kV, from 0.4 kV to 0.6 kV);
switch to rated voltage of the lines operating temporarily to inferior voltage
(e.g. 400 kV lines temporarily operating to 220 kV);
reconstruction of lines for superior voltage levels (e.g. 220 kV d.c. lines to
400 kV).
Install additional means for the compensation of the reactive power and
voltage control:
replace the transformers without voltage adjustment by transformers with
adjustment, or a finer adjustment (e.g. for the MV/LV transformers from
U nom 5% to U nom 2 2.5% );
install additional regulation autotransformers into the network;
install compensation means (condenser batteries, static compensators,
reactors) and introduce their adjustment;
install means for the lines reactance compensation;
introduce FACTS devices.
Optimization of the parameters of the electric power network elements:
correlate the power installed in the substation- and post-transformers with
their load;
enlarge the lines cross sectional area;
dislodge double transformations between transmission and distribution
networks.
Optimization of the network development and reconstruction:
develop the basic networks of each company as per established
optimization criteria;
optimize the reconstruction of distribution networks and their shortening
according to the consumption density increase;
introduce decentralized distribution on the medium voltage (by actually
eliminating the low voltage network).
Obviously, each measure from this category must be techno-economical
justified.
The main criterion of the techno-economical analysis of the electricity
companies is the profit maximization. Under these conditions, the company policy
could accept the operation with large losses.
The cut of o.t.c. in electric installations should be approached in correlation
with the strategy of each electricity company concerning the profit maximization.
Chapter references
[7.1] Munasinghe, M., Scott, W. Energy efficiency, optimization of electric power
distribution system losses, Energy Department of World Bank, 1982.
[7.2] World Bank International. Economics Department. International Trade Division,
February 23, 1994.
[7.3] VDEW Netzverluste. Eine Richtlinie fur ihre Bewertung und ihre Verminderung,
1968.
[7.4] *** Guidelines regarding electric power consumption norming in the electic
power networks, PE 139/77.
[7.5] *** Norms for the power balances preparation and analysis, PE 902/1986.
[7.6] *** Annual bulletin of electric statistics for Europe, USA, 1990.
[7.7] *** La situation de lnergie lectrique dans la region de la CEE en 1975/1976,
Nations Unies Conseil economique et social.
[7.8] *** Annual bulletin of electric statistics for Europe, USA, 1978/1979.
[7.9] *** Annual bulletin of electric statistics for Europe, USA, 1994.
[7.10] *** Statistical annual of Romania 1990, 1994.
[7.11] *** Mesures prises pour la rduction des pertes dnergie lectrique dans les
rseaux lectriques et rsultats obtenus, Nations Unies. Conseil Economique et
Social. Commission de lenergie electrique EP/GE 1/R.31, (Transmises par le
Gouvernement roumain), August 8, 1983.
[7.12] Duquenne, P. Consommation dnergie primaire du chauffage lectrique des
logements, Bull. ASE, 70, No. 222, pp. 1205 1209, 1979.
[7.13] Flenn, D.G., Hall, S., Morris, J. Improved methods for distribution loss
evaluation, Electric Power Institute, 1983.
[7.14] Davidson, E.I, Odubiye, A., Kachienga M., Manubure. B. Technical loss
computation and economic dispatch model for T&D systems in a deregulated ESI,
April 2002.
[7.15] Albert, H., Mihilescu, A. Pierderi de putere i energie electric n reelele
electrice (Power and electricity loss in the electric power networks), Editura
[7.16] Bercovici, M., Arie, A., Poeat, Al. Reele electrice. Calculul electric (Electric
power networks. Electric calculation), Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 1974.
[7.17] *** Distribution system loss evaluation manual, American Public Power
Association, 1994.
[7.18] *** Loss reduction techniques and evaluation methods, Seminar Materials.
Electrotek Concept Inc., December 1994.
[7.19] Munasinghe, M. Principles of modern electricity pricing, IEEE, Vol. 69, March
1981.
[7.20] Pocpelov, G.E., Sci, N.M. Poteri mocinosti i energhii v electriceski setiax,
Energoizdat, Moscova, 1981.
[7.21] Jelezno, I.C. Progresnosti opredelenia poteri energii electriceschih setiah,
Electricestvo, Vol. 2, pp. 19 22, 1975.
[7.22] Berejnoi, A.V.K. Analiticeskomu opisanie poteri mocinosti i energii v
economicomatematiceskih modeliah linii electroperedaci, Electricestvo, Vol. 1,
pp. 74 77, 1975.
[7.23] Anisimov, L.P., Levin, M.S., Pekelin, V.G. Metodica rasciota poteri energii v
deistvuiuih raspredelitelnih setiah, Electricestvo, Vol. 4, pp. 27, 1975.
[7.24] Kaialov, G.M. Opredelenie poteri energii v electricescoi seti po srednim

znaceniam nagruzok v eio uzlah, Electricestvo, Vol. 6, pp. 19, 1976.
[7.25] Secretariat CAER Electroperedacia 750 kV Vinia Zapadno Ukrainskaia
Albertia (Hungary), Moscow, 1979.
[7.26] *** Spravocinic po proiectivanui electroelecticeskih system, Moscow, 1977.
[7.27] Wolf, M. Die Berechnung der elektrischen Verluste bei schwankenden. ETZ,
1931.
[7.28] Kezevici, V.V. Zavisimosti cislo ceasov poteri ot ispolzovania maximuma,
Elektriceschie stantii, No. 9, pp. 29 31, 1948.
[7.29] Zebisch, M. Netzverluste, Berlin, VEB Verlag Technik, 1959.
[7.30] Morgenstern, M. Sur la dtermination des pertes dnergie par effet joule dans
un lment de rseaux soumis a un rgime de charge variable, Revue Gnrale de
lElectricit, Tome 68, No. 3, May 1939.
[7.31] Glazunov, A.A. Elektriceskie seti i sistem, Moscow, Gosnergoizdat, 1960.
[7.32] *** Netzverluste. Eine Richtlinie fur ihre Bewertung und ihre Verminderung,
Frankfurt (Main), Ausgabe 2, VDEW e.V, 1968.
[7.33] *** Standard Handbook for Engineering, New York, Toronto, London, 1957.
[7.34] Militaru, P. Analiza critic a metodelor pentru determinarea pierderilor de
energie pe elemente de reea folosind un numr redus de informaii (timpul de
pierderi) (Critical analysis of the methods to determine the energy loss on network
elements using scarce information (losses time)), Symposium of Electric Power
Networks, Iai, 1981.
Chapter 8
PERFORMANCE METHODS
FOR POWER FLOW STUDIES
8.1. Introduction
Formulation and importance of the power flow problem for the power system
steady-state operation and development planning have been underlined in the
chapter 2. In accordance with the concepts, definitions and notations, presented
over there, in the present chapter a network with n nodes and l branches is
considered. The network structure comprises nc=dim(c) nodes of PQ-type,
ng=dim(g) nodes of PU-type and a slack node, denoted by e, so that n = nc +ng+1.
To define the power flow problem, the essential aspects are remembered
below, as follows:
knowing:
voltage magnitude and phase-angle at the slack node: Ue, e = 0;
active and reactive powers, demanded at the PQ-nodes: Pci , Qci , i c ;
voltage magnitudes and active powers, generated at the PU-nodes:
Pgi , U i , i g
technical limits of the reactive powers, generated at the PU-nodes:
Qgimin , Qgimax , i g ;
the following quantities are to be calculated:
voltage magnitudes and phase-angles at the PQ-nodes;
reactive nodal powers and phase-angles at the PU-nodes;
active and reactive powers, injected at the slack node;
active and reactive power flows;
active and reactive power losses;
reactive power, generated by the line capacitances.
The solution of the power flow problem can be obtained by means of
different numerical methods. The oldest one, namely Seidel-Gauss, was described
in subsection 2.3.2.7. This is an iterative method, remarkable by simplicity and
little computer memory requirement. However, its main disadvantage consists in
slow convergence rate, such that the number of the iterations increases fast with the
system size and also depends on the network topology and the selection of the
slack node.
510 Load flow and power system security
In the following, the performance methods are presented, well known for
their rapidity and efficiency: Newton-Raphson method and the other ones derived
from it: Newton decoupled and fast decoupled. At present, due to the high
performances of the computer technology, these methods are extensively used.
Based on the linearization of the steady-state model, the Newton-Raphson
method provides a very accurate solution by using a successive approximation
process. In comparison with Seidel-Gauss, the Newton-Raphson method requires
much more computer memory but it has a high convergence rate, which does not
depend on the system size. Nevertheless, the Newtons approximation process is
convergent providing that the first approximation of the solution is close enough to
the exact solution. Therefore, to perform this, some Seidel-Gauss iterations are
usually used before Newtons approximations.
Newton decoupled and fast decoupled methods, based on a series of
approximations to the Newton-Raphson method, require much smaller computer
memory and provide a good solution without significant increasing in the number
of iterations.
Likewise, the mentioned above methods can be efficiently integrated within
power flow optimization problems, as well as to small signal and voltage stability
studies, since power flow Jacobian is a sensitivity matrix.
8.2. Mathematical models

The performance methods for power flow analysis operate with adequate
mathematical models, i.e. sets of nonlinear algebraic equations that describe the
steady-state of a power system. Such a model is usually the balance of nodal
currents or powers, expressed in the set of real numbers.
To determine a certain type of model, the complex admittances and nodal
voltages are written in rectangular or polar coordinates. Thus, the elements of the
nodal admittance matrix will be expressed as:
Y ii = Gii + j Bii , Y ik = Gik + j Bik
in rectangular coordinates, and

Y ii = Yii e j ii , Y ik = Yik e j ik
in polar coordinates. Similarly, the expressions of the complex nodal voltages are:
U i = U i' + jU i" , U k = U k' + jU k"
respectively
U i = U i e j i , U k = U k e j k
Between the two categories of coordinates, there is a well-known
dependence.
Performance methods for power flow studies 511
8.2.1. The balance of the nodal currents

The set of nodal equations (2.102) is brought to the form:
n
Pi jQi
Y iiU i +
k =1,k i
Y ik U k
Ui
*
= 0, i = 1,...,n (8.1)
For each node i, by separating the real and imaginary parts from (8.1), it
results two nonlinear algebraic equations, expressing the nodal current balance,
which can be written in different forms depending on the chosen coordinates. If
only rectangular coordinates are used, it is obtained:

( )
n
' '' P U ' + QiU i''
GiiU i BiiU i + GikU k' BikU k" i i2 =0
k =1,k i ( ) ( )
U i' + U i"
2
(8.2)

( )
n
G U '' + B U ' + PU '' QiU i'
GikU k" + BikU k' i 2i =0

ii i ii i
k =1,k i ( ) ( )
U i' + U i"
2
Using only polar coordinates, the equations get the form:

n
P cos i + Qi sin i

Y U
ii i sin ( i + ii ) +
k =1,k i
Yik U k sin ( k + ik ) i
Ui
=0
n
(8.3)
Y U cos( + ) Pi sin i + Qi cos i
ii i i ii Yik U k cos( k + ik )
Ui
=0
k =1,k i
where:

ii = ii , ik = ik
2 2
Obviously, other models can be derived using other combinations of
coordinates. In addition, in the literature [8.18] the balance of the active and
reactive nodal currents is mentioned.
8.2.2. The balance of the nodal powers

For each node i, the complex nodal power is expressed taking into account
the balance of nodal currents:
* * n
S i = U i I i = U i Y iiU i +
*

Y ik U k , i = 1,..., n
* *

k =1, k i
resulting the balance of nodal powers as complex form:
* * n
U i Y iiU i +
Y ik U k (Pi + jQi ) = 0, i = 1,..., n
* *

(8.4)
k =1, k i
For each node i, by separating the real and imaginary parts from (8.4), it
results two nonlinear equations whose form depends upon the used coordinates.
Thus, in case of rectangular coordinates for Y and U , it is obtained:
'2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
n n
" 2 ' ' " "
G U
ii i + U i + U G U B U + U GikU k" + BikU k' Pi = 0
i
k =1, k i
ik k ik k i
k =1, k i

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
n n
B U ' 2 + U " 2 +U " G U '
B U "
U '
GikU k" + BikU k' Qi = 0
ii i i
i ik k ik k i
k =1, k i k =1, k i
(8.5)
Expressing the voltages in polar form, and the admittances in rectangular
form, the obtained equations are:
U k [Gik cos(i k ) + Bik sin (i k )] Pi = 0

2
G U
ii i + U i
k =1, k i
(8.6)
n
U k [Gik sin (i k ) Bik cos(i k )] Qi = 0

2
B
ii iU + U i
k =1, k i
It can be observed that the equations (8.6) are equivalent to the equations
(2.97).
Another form of power balance, often met, results by expressing both
admittance and voltage in polar coordinates:
n
2
YiiU i sin ii Yik U iU k sin (i k ik ) Pi = 0
k =1, k i
(8.7)
n
Yii U i
2
cos ii + Yik U iU k cos(i k ik ) Qi = 0
k =1, k i
where ii and ik are calculated with given above relations.
8.2.3. Power flow per unit computation

The power flow computation can be performed by expressing the involved
quantities in physical units, e.g., impedances in [], admittances in [-1] (siemens),
voltages in [kV], currents in [kA], apparent, active and reactive powers in [MVA],
[MW] and [MVAr].
However, per unit computation restrains the variation domain of the state
variables, and allows fast and suggestive comparisons among the quantities of the
same nature, by their relating to the convenient base quantity. Such a manner of
computation can also eliminate eventual instabilities of the convergence process.
To express circuit parameters and state quantities in per unit, it is necessary

to chose advantageously the base quantities so that per unit rated values of the
voltages, eventually other variables, be equal to 1. Thus, the base quantities will be:
three-phase apparent power, Sb , in MVA;
rated nodal voltage at each voltage level, in kV.
For an ordered pair of nodes (i, k), defining a network link, the base nodal
currents result:
Sb S
I ib = , I kb = b
U ib U kb
where U ib and U kb are the base voltages, equal to the rated values of the voltage
levels, corresponding to the node i and respectively k.
Further, denoting per unit quantities by subscript asterisk, per unit nodal
voltages and currents are obtained:
Ui U I U
U i* = , U k * = k , I i* = i = I i ib (8.8)
U ib U kb I ib Sb
as well as per unit nodal powers:

Si P Q
S i* = , Pi* = i , Qi* = i (8.9)
Sb Sb Sb
The variables I i , U i , U k will be explicitly expressed from (8.8), and then

are replaced in the nodal equations:
n
I i = Y iiU i + Y
k =1, k i
ik U k , i = 1,..., n (8.10)
which becomes:
n
Sb
I i*
U ib
= Y iiU i*U ib +
Y ik U i *U ibU k *U kb , i = 1, ..., n
k =1, k i
so that these last equations can be written in per unit as:

n
I i* = Y ii *U i * + Y
k =1, k i
ik *U k * , i = 1, ..., n (8.11)
resulting the per unit admittance calculation formula:
U ib2 U U
Y ii * =Y ii , Y ik * =Y ik ib kb (8.12)
Sb Sb
and consequently, if necessary, the per unit node-ground admittances will be

calculated as:
n
Y i 0* = Y ii * Y
k =1, k i
ik * , i = 1,..., n
On the other hand, the current I i is explicitly expressed as function of I i* ,

U ib , Sb from the last relations (8.8), and then is replaced in the first relation from
(2.102), obtaining the per unit expressions of the nodal currents:
*
S i*
I i* = *
, i = 1,..., n (8.13)
U i*
Obviously, the equations (8.11) and (8.13) are formally identical with the
original equations, written in physical units. Generally, it can be easily observed
that passing state quantities from physical units to per unit keeps invariant the form
of all network equations.
8.3. Newton-Raphson (N-R) method
8.3.1. Theoretical aspects

A nonlinear algebraic equation under vector form is considered below:
f (x ) = 0 (8.14)
where f is a given vector function of an unknown vector variable, denoted x, so that

f :D R m , D R m and R m is the m-dimensional real space. The components of
the function f are f i ( x ), f i :D R, i = 1, K , m , continuous and continuously
differentiable in D, while xi , i = 1,..., m are the components of x, which can be
regarded as a point of R m .
The equation (8.14) is equivalent to a set of nonlinear algebraic equations of
the form:
f i (x1 , x2 ,K , xm ) = 0, i = 1,K, m (8.15)
In an electric power system, x is the state variable, representing the nodal
voltages, and the domain of definition D is a m-dimensional hyper-rectangular,
defined by the constraints of double inequality on the components of x, which are
the magnitudes and angles of the nodal voltages.
Further, it is assumed that the equation (8.14) has only a solution x = X D
in a neighbourhood of X, and the problem is the search for that solution.
The Newton (Newton-Raphson) method is one of the most known numerical
methods to solve nonlinear equations. Particularly, in power flow analysis, this

method has a preferential place due to its advantages that will be underlined below.
The principle of the method consists in linearizing the equation (8.14) by
using Taylor's expansion of function f around an approximate solution x ( p 1) , and
retaining the linear terms only. Since the superscript p represents the number of the
approximation, the vector x (0 ) , obtained for p = 1, signifies the first approximation
of the solution. Thus, the equation (8.14) is replaced by
( )
f x ( p 1) +
f
x
(x x ( ) ) = 0
p 1
(8.16)
x = x ( p +1 )
f
where is the Jacobian matrix a nonsingular square matrix, calculated in the
x
point x ( p 1) . Because of error of linearization, by solving for x the equation (8.16)
it is not possible to obtain the exact solution X but a new approximate solution
x ( p ) will be found. By denoting the correction vector x ( p ) = x x ( p 1) , for
x = x ( p ) it results:
x ( p ) = x ( p 1) + x ( p ) (8.17)
and (8.16) becomes:
f
f (p) = x (p) (8.18)
x x = x ( p 1 )
in which the quantity from the left-hand side defines the error vector of f:
( )
f ( p ) f x ( p 1) .
Under these conditions, from (8.17) and (8.18), the formula of successive
approximations of the Newton method results:
1
( p) ( p +1) f ( p)
x =x + f (8.19)
x x=x ( p +1 )

This formula is used iteratively by starting from x (0 ) , which must be

estimated by the user, and calculating a range of approximations until a certain
norm of the error vector becomes less than a specified value. In this case, the
method is called convergent.
The convergence of the Newton method is essentially conditioned by the first
approximation of the solution x (0 ) , which is to be close enough to the exact
solution X, so that the higher order terms of Taylor's series expansion of f may be
neglected.
When the Newton method converges, its convergence is quadratic, hence
very fast, and the number of necessary approximations does not practically increase
with the system size.
8.3.2. Computational algorithm for power flow study

by N-R method
The N-R method can be applied to solve any set of nonlinear equations,
formed with one of the models (8.2), (8.3), (8.5), (8.6), (8.7), taking into account
the nodal input data, as indicated in Table 2.1, subsection 2.3.2.6.
Most frequently, the nonlinear model of nodal power balance in polar voltage
coordinates is used, so that the computing algorithm, further described, will be
referred to the set of equations, based on the model (8.6), written in the form:
Pi (U , ) Pi sp = 0, i c g
(8.20)
Qi (U , ) Qisp = 0, i c
where Pi sp and Qisp are the specified nodal powers, while the nodal powers, briefly
denoted as functions of U and , have the expressions:
n
P
i

(U , ) =G U
ii i
2
+ U i U k (Gik cos ik + sin Bik sin ik ), i c g
k =1,k i
n
(8.21)
Q (U , ) = B U 2 + U
i ii i i U k (Gik sin ik Bik cos ik ), i c
k =1,k i
where ik = i k .
The equations (8.20) are to be solved for variables U and by N-R method.
They do not include the equation of the slack node where both voltage magnitude
and phase-angle are fixed.
The functions fi from (8.15) are identified with the functions from the left-
hand side of equations (8.20), which by linearizing lead to a set of equations,
written in vector form as equation (8.18), in which the error vector of nodal powers
has the components:
Pi ( p ) = Pi sp Pi ( p ) , i c g; Qi( p ) = Qisp Qi( p ) , i c (8.22)
while the components of the correction vector are:
i( p ) , i c g; U i( p ) , i c (8.23)
In each p-approximation, the nodal powers from (8.22) are computed in
function of the available quantities with the relations (8.21), as:
( p)
( ) ( )
n
Pi =Gii U i
( p 1) 2
+U i( p 1) U k( p1) Gik cos ik( p1) + Bik sin ik( p 1) , i c g
k =1, k i
(8.24)
( p)
( ) ( )
n
( p 1)
+U i( p1) U k( p 1) Gik sin ik( p 1) Bik cos ik( p 1) , i c
2
Qi = Bii U i
k =1, k i
The elements of the Jacobian matrix in the linearized equations are the partial
derivatives of the functions (8.21) with respect to the variables i , i c g and
U i , i c , and calculated for i( p 1) , i c g and U i( p 1) , i c . By giving up the
approximation index p, the set of linearized equations can be written in the form:
Pi Pi P Pi
Pi = i + k
k + i U i +
U i U k
U k , i c g
i k g c k c
k i k i
(8.25)
Q = Qi + Qi Q Qi
i i
k g c
k + i U i +
U

k c U k
U k , i c
i
k i
k i
k i
To obtain adequate expressions for the elements of the Jacobian, more

advantageous for computer programming, the corrections U i , U k from (8.25)
will be replaced by the quantities U i / U i , U k / U k , correspondingly modifying
the affected terms. Thus, in partitioned matrix form, the equations (8.25) become:
P1 P1 L
P1 P1
U1 L
P1
U nc
M 1 N U1 U nc 1
M
P
O M M O M M
PN PN PN
P N L U1 L U nc N
N 1 N U1 U nc
LL = Q1 LLL (8.26)
Q1 Q1 1
Q
Q1 L U1 L Un
M 1 N U1 U nc c U1 U 1
M M
O M M O M
Qnc Qnc Qnc Qnc U U
Qn L U1 L U nc nc nc
c 1 N U1 U nc

where N = nc + ng = n 1 the slack node being numbered as (N+1)th node, without
loss of generality.
Usually, the equation (8.26) is written in condensed form:
P H N
Q = J L U U
(8.27)

where [P] and [Q] are the sub-vectors of the nodal power errors, whose
elements are calculated with the relations (8.22), (8.24), while [] and [U U ]
are the correction sub-vectors, representing the unknowns in equation (8.27). The
Jacobian sub-matrices are also denoted by:
[H] = P , [N] = P U , [J ] = Q , [L] = Q U

U U
their elements being calculated with the relations:

n
P
H ii = i = U i
i U k (Gik sin ik Bik cos ik ) = Qi BiiU i2
k =1, k i
n
Pi
N ii =
U i
U i = 2GiiU i2 + U i U k (Gik cos ik + Bik sin ik ) = Pi + GiiU i2
k =1, k i
n
Qi
J ii =
i
= Ui U k (Gik cos ik + Bik sin ik ) = Pi GiiU i2
k =1, k i
n
Qi
Lii =
U i
U i = 2 BiiU i2 + U i U k (Gik sin ik Bik cos ik ) = Qi BiiU i2
k =1, k i
Pi
H ik = = U iU k (Gik sin ik Bik cos ik )
k
Pi
N ik = U k = U iU k (Gik cos ik + Bik sin ik )
U k
Qi
J ik = = U iU k (Gik cos ik + Bik sin ik ) = N ik
k
Qi
Lik = U k = U iU k (Gik sin ik Bik cos ik ) = H ik
U k
(8.28)
Notice that, since H ik = Lik , J ik = N ik and all diagonal terms can be
computed by using the available values of the nodal powers, the computational
effort is substantially reduced.
Considering the network outlined in Figure 8.1, in which there exist three
types of node, as follows: 1 slack node, 2 and 3 PQ-nodes, 4 PU-node, the
equations (8.26), particularized to this case, will be written as:
P2 H 22 0 H 24 N 22 0 2
P3 0 H 33 H 34 0 N 33 3
P4 = H 42 H 43 H 44 N 42 N 43 4 (8.29)
Q2 J 22 0 J 24 L22 0 U 2 U 2
Q3 0 J 33 J 34 0 L33 U 3 U 3
Matrix equation (8.26) is linear and sparse. To solve such an equation,

especially for systems of great dimensions, in the professional computer programs
the method of coefficient matrix triangular factorization, combined with sparsity
techniques, based on ordered elimination, is used (see Appendix 1). This method is
more efficient if the equation (8.26) is written under another form, by grouping
compactly the equations (8.25) corresponding to the same node. As concrete
example, equation (8.29) will be written as:
P2 H 22 N 22 0 0 H 24 2
Q2 J 22 L22 0 0 J 24 U 2 U 2
P3 = 0 0 H 33 N 33 H 34 3 (8.30)
Q3 0 0 J 33 L33 J 34 U 3 U 3
P4 H 42 N 42 H 43 N 43 H 44 4
P1 , Q1 P2 ,Q 2
1 2
Fig. 8.1. Configuration of a four

node network.
3 4
P3 , Q 3 P4 , Q 4
Thus, the Jacobian includes sub-matrices of different dimensions: 22, 21,

12, 11, which are directly associated to the nodes.
As expected, the terms of the main diagonal sub-matrices in the Jacobian are
non-zero, while the off-diagonal sub-matrices, corresponding to a pair of nodes i
and k, have their elements equal to zero if i and k are not connected one to another.
Hence, the Jacobian and nodal admittance matrix have the same structure. For
networks of great dimensions, this fact is very important because the two matrices
can be stored and inspected by using the same structure vectors (see Appendix 1).
Likewise, it is obvious that the Jacobian matrix is not symmetrical, even if
the nodal admittance matrix is.
As observed, the number of the unknowns in equation (8.26) is nc+ng. To
these, a number of other nc unknowns is to be added: Qgi , i g existing a total of
2(n-1) unknowns which are to be determined.
The reactive powers at the PU-nodes, calculated in each p-approximation
with the relation:
( ) U ( ) (G )
n
Qi( p ) = Bii U isp + U isp sin ik( p 1) Bik cos ik( p 1) , i g (8.31)
2 p 1
k ik
k =1, k i
are subject to the double restriction:

Qimin Qi( p ) Qimax , i g (8.32)
where:
Qimin = Qgimin Qcisp , Qimax = Qgimax Qcisp , i g
considering the existence of the specified reactive powers, consumed at the nodes g.
In general, treatment of the PU-nodes represents a difficult enough problem,

influencing both the algorithm and the volume of calculation. Passing a node i g
to the set c takes place when the restriction (8.32) is not verified, as shown in the
subsection 2.3.2.7, and then the Jacobian changes its dimensions.
On the other hand, a node i c , stated initially as a PU-node, can be returned
to the set g if one of the following conditions is accomplished:
U isp U i
Qi = Qimin ; U i U isp ; 0.001 (8.33)
Ui
U isp U i
Qi = Qimax ; U i U isp ; 0.001 (8.34)
Ui
In practice, the professional computer programs can verify if both the
specified voltage magnitudes and the specified limits of reactive power, at the
PU-nodes, are correlated between them. For that purpose, the power flow
computation can be optionally executed without blocking the reactive power. Thus,
the necessary reactive powers to maintain the specified voltages of PU-nodes are
determined, and then the initial data of the problem can be better adjusted.
Theoretically, it is possible that all the PU-nodes can pass to the PQ-nodes,
therefore all the Jacobian sub-matrices must be initially chosen of 22-dimension.
Among the implemented algorithms, met in the literature, the treatment of the
PU-nodes, concerning their passing from g to c, is often subject to a compromise:
during x iterations, such nodes are kept in the set g. Usually x=23.
The main computational part of an approximation p consists of solving the
equation (8.26) for
( p)
( p) U i
i , i c g; , i c (8.35)
Ui
and then updated values of the unknowns are calculated:
i( p ) = i( p 1) + i( p ) , i c g
( p)
( p) (8.36)
( p 1) U i
iU = U i + U i( p 1) , i c
U
i
In order to verify the convergence of the successive N-R approximations,
there exist different types of convergence criteria, met in the literature. However,
when the voltages are expressed in polar coordinates, as in the present case, a
criterion related to the nodal power errors is suitable, as
max Pi ( p ) P , max Qi( p ) Q (8.37)
ic g ic
where the specified errors P and Q have usually a unique value, comprised in
the interval 0.001 0.05 MW/MVAr.
The experience of power flow computation by N-R method shows that the
convergence can be ameliorated by using a start method, e.g., Seidel-Gauss during
23 iterations before Newtons approximations.
In order to coherently describe the algorithm of the N-R method, the
following supplementary notations are introduced:
MaxApp maximum number of approximations, usually adopted of values
in the interval 2030;
MaxP maximum absolute value of the nodal active power error.
MaxQ maximum absolute value of the nodal reactive power error.
Ir indicator regarding the treatment of the PU-nodes:
Ir = 1 , if the restrictions on reactive power are verified;
Ir = 1 , if the restrictions on reactive power are not verified.
App number of approximations in which the PU-nodes are maintained in
the set g;
LimDiv limit of the absolute active and reactive power error, over which
the computational process is considered as divergent. It is usually adopted
of values in the interval 104106 MW/MVAr.
Further, the most used algorithm of the N-R method is detailed, as follows:
1. Initialization of iterative process:
Initialization of approximation counter: p = 1;
Initialization of nodal voltages:
U i = 1, i c; U i = U isp U in , i g; i = 0, i c g
Initialization of maximum power error values: MaxP = MaxQ = 0.
2. While (MaxP > P or MaxQ > Q ) or (p < 3) execute repeatedly the
following sequence:
2.1. Compute the active and reactive nodal powers using relations (8.24);
2.2. Compute the left-hand side vector from (8.26), using relations (8.22);
2.3. Compute maximum nodal power errors:
MaxP = max Pi and MaxQ = max Qi
ic g ic
2.4. If MaxP < P and MaxQ < Q then go to the step 3;

2.5. If MaxP > LimDiv or MaxQ > LimDiv then display an error message
and go to the step 3;
2.6. If Ir = 1 and p App, verify the restrictions (8.32); pass the PU-nodes,
for which these restrictions are not verified, from g to c;
2.7. If Ir = 1 and p App+1, use relation (8.33) or (8.34) to verify if the
PU-nodes, transformed in PQ-nodes, can return to the set g;
2.8. Compute the elements of the Jacobian, using relations (8.28);
2.9. Compute the factorization of the Jacobian;
2.10. Compute the solution (8.35) of the equation (8.26);

2.11. Compute updated values of the unknowns with relations (8.36);
2.12. Do the increment of the iteration counter: pp+1;
2.13. Display, optionally, the partial results;
2.14. If p > MaxApp then display an advertisement message and go to the
step 3.
3. Display the final results.
If the above algorithm is convergent, i.e. all the voltage magnitudes and
angles are determined, the active and reactive power flow, as well as the other
quantities, characterizing the operating point, can be directly calculated by using
initial network parameters, as indicated in the subsections 2.3.2.3 and 2.3.2.5.
Application 1
In the following, the Newton-Raphson method will be applied to solving power flow
problem for the network, represented in Figure 8.2. The computation will be executed in
per unit.
1 400 kV
2
S Pc2 + jQc2
AT 1 2 x 400 2 x 400 AT 2
MVA MVA
3 220 kV 4
Pc4 + jQc4
Pc3 + jQc3 Q g4
Fig. 8.2 One-line diagram of a 4-node network.
The node classification and nodal data in physical units are given in Table 8.1, where
all the quantities have been previously defined. As observed, in this particular case, e = 1 ,
c = {2, 3} , g = {4}.
Table 8.1
Node types and nodal initial data
Node Type Pgi Q gi Pci Qci Q gimin Q gimax Ui
i of node MW MVAr MW MVAr MVAr MVAr kV
1 slack 0 0 0 0 - - 400
2 PQ 0 0 420 140 - - 400
3 PQ 0 0 320 130 - - 220
4 PU 0 Qg 4 300 150 -100 100 225
To the node 4, stated as a PU-node, a compensating device is connected, e.g., static

VAr compensator, able to provide reactive power Qg 4 between the limits from -100 to 100
MVAr to ensure the specified voltage magnitude of 225 kV. The purpose of this
assumption is to point out the behaviour of a PU-node during the computation because,
normally, in this particular case, the voltage magnitude is regulated with the aid of the
autotransformer connected to this node.
The nodal reactive power, injected at the node 4 is Q4 = Qg 4 Qc 4 . As Qc 4 and
variation limits of Qg 4 are known, it results the variation limits of Q4 in [MVAr]:
250 Q4 50 (8.38)
Transforming the type of the node 4 to a PQ-node will be performed, if necessary,
after two Newton approximations.
The types of links and their technical characteristics are given in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2
Types of network links
Link
Type of link
i-k
Overhead 400 kV line of 100 km length with double three-phase circuit
1-2 and parameters per unit length per phase:
r0 = 0.0337 km , x0 = 0.324 km , b0 = 3.555 S km
Substation equipped with two identical autotransformers, denoted AT1,
1-3
in parallel operation.
Substation equipped with two identical autotransformers, denoted AT2,
2-4
in parallel operation.
Overhead 220 kV line of 85 km length with double three-phase circuit
3-4 and parameters per unit length per phase:
r0 = 0.068 km , x0 = 0.414 km , b0 = 2.787 S km
The autotransformers AT1 and AT2 are of the same type, with the catalogue data:
Nominal apparent power: Sn = 400 MVA
Primary nominal voltage: Up = 400 kV
Secondary nominal voltage: Us = 231 kV
Percentage voltage under short-circuit test: u sc = 11.5%
Active power losses under short-circuit test: Pscnom = 1,020 kW
Percentage current under no-load test: i0 = 0.5%
Active power losses under no-load test: P0 = 290 kW
Under load tap changer on 231 kV side: wn = 13, Up = 1.25%
AT1 and AT2 operate with nominal transformation ratio N = 400/231 =1.7316. The
parameters of the equivalent circuits, corresponding to the network links were first
calculated in physical units [S], as indicated in chapters 1 and 2. They are given in Table 8.3.
Table 8.3
Parameters of the equivalent circuits
ik y y =y N ik
ik ik 0 ki 0
12 0.0063518 - j 0.0610677 j 0.0003555 1

13 0.0009636 - j 0.0434569 0.0000018 - j 0.0000125 1.7316
23 0.0009636 - j 0.0434569 0.0000018 - j 0.0000125 1.7316
34 0.0090899 - j 0.0553413 j 0.0002369 1
The transformation operator N ik is connected to the node k, and the quantities y ik ,

y ik 0 , y of the autotransformers are referred to the 400 kV voltage.
ki 0
The errors from the convergence test (8.38) were chosen of values:
P = 0.05 MW, Q = 0.05 MVAr .
To perform the per unit computation, the following base quantities were chosen:
base apparent power: Sbase =100 MVA;
base nodal voltages: U1b = U 2b = 400 kV; U 3b = U 4b = 220 kV.
In the following, for simplicity, there is not special subscript for the per unit
quantities.
By using the admittances from Table 8.3 and the above specified base quantities, the
results of computing the elements of the nodal admittance matrix in per unit are given
below:
Y 11 =

(y12
+y
120
+y +y
13
)U /S
130
2
1b base = 11.70755 j166.6906

Y 22 = (y12
+ y 210 + y + y )U /S
24 240
2
2b base = 11.70755 j166.6906
(8.39)
Y 33 =

((y
13
+ y 310 )N + y + y )U
2
13 34 340
2
3b /S base = 5.80057 j89.75537

Y =
44
((y 24
+ y 420 )N + y + y )U
2
24 34 430
2
4b /S base = 5.80057 j89.75537
Y 12 = y12U1bU 2b /S base = 10.16288 + j 97.70837

Y 13 = y N13U1bU 3b /S base = 1.46836 + j 66.22003
13
(8.40)
Y 24 = y 24 N 24U 2bU 4b /S base = 1.46836 + j 66.22003

Y 34 = y U 3bU 4b /S base = 4.3995 + j 26.78519
34
The nodal admittance matrix is symmetrical, i.e. Y ik = Y ki , k i .

The per unit values of the voltage magnitudes, given in Table 8.1, it results:
400 400 220 225
U1 = = 1, U 2 = = 1, U 3 = = 1, U 4sp = = 1.02273 (8.41)
400 400 220 220
and the per unit specified nodal powers are obtained with the relations:
Pg 2 Pc 2 0 420 320 300

P2sp = = = 4.2, P3sp = = 3.2, P4sp = = 3.0
Sb 100 100 100
140 130
Q2sp = = 1.4, Q3sp = = 1.3 (8.42)
100 100
0.05
Also, calculating the per unit specified errors gives: P = Q = = 0.0005, and
100
the expression (8.38) becomes in per unit:
2.5 Q4 0.5 (8.43)
For the particular network, studied here, the expressions (8.24) of the nodal powers,
to which the expression of Q4 is added, are:
P2 = G22U 22 + U 2U1 [G21cos( 2 1 ) + B21sin ( 2 1 )] +

+ U 2U 4 [G24 cos( 2 4 ) + B24sin ( 2 4 )]

Q2 = B22U 2 + U 2U1 [G21sin ( 2 1 ) B21cos( 2 1 )] +
2
+ U 2U 4 [G24sin (2 4 ) B24 cos(2 4 )]

P3 = G33U 32 + U 3U1 [G31cos(3 1 ) + B31sin (3 1 )] +

+ U 3U 4 [G34 cos(3 4 ) + B34sin (3 4 )]
(8.44)
Q3 = B33U 3 + U 3U1 [G31sin (3 1 ) B31cos(3 1 )] +
2
+ U 3U 4 [G34sin (3 4 ) B34 cos(3 4 )]

P = G U 2 + U U [G cos( ) + B sin ( )] +
4 44 4 4 2 42 4 2 42 4 2
+ U 4U 3 [G43cos( 4 3 ) + B43sin ( 4 3 )]

Q4 = B44U 4 + U 4U 2 [G42sin ( 4 2 ) B42 cos( 4 2 )] +
2

+ U 4U 3 [G43sin ( 4 3 ) B43cos( 4 3 )]
where 1 = 0, U 4 = U 4sp = 1.02273, and the parameters G and B represent the real and
imaginary parts from (8.39), (8.40).
In each Newton-Raphson p-approximation, the linear matrix equation (8.26), of the
general form:
A ( p ) x( p ) = b ( p ) (8.45)
is solved, as shown in Appendix 1. Here, A(p) is the Jacobian matrix, x(p) the unknown
vector of corrections, and b(p) the right-hand side vector, whose elements represent the
actual errors of the nodal powers, used in the convergence test.
The first estimation of the main unknowns is:
(20 ) = 0 , U 2(0 ) = 1, 3(0 ) = 0 , U 3(0 ) = 1, (40 ) = 0 (8.46)

The first approximation (p = 1)
With the values (8.46), the approximated nodal powers, resulting from (8.44), are:
P2(1) = 0.04295, Q2(1) = 1.25720, P3(1) = 0.16728, Q3(1) = 3.85861, P4(1) = 0.06601 (8.47)
Computation of b(1) gives:
P2(1) P2sp P2(1) 4.2 0.04295 4.24295

(1) sp
Q2 Q2 Q2(1) 1.4 1.25720 2.65720
b (1) = P3(1) = P3sp P3(1) = 3.2 + 0.16728 = 3.03272 (8.48)
(1) sp
Q3 Q3 Q3(1) 1.3 + 3.85861 2.55861
P (1) P sp P4(1) 3.0 0.06601 3.06601
4 4
The convergence testing shows that:
max Pi(1) = P2(1) = 4.24295 > P , max Qi(1) = Q2(1) = 2.6572 > Q
igc ic
i.e., it is necessary to compute a new approximation of the unknowns.

The elements of the Jacobian are computed with the relations (8.28) by using the
values (8.46) and (8.47), as follows:
H 22 =
P2
2
( )
= Q2(1) B22 U 2(0 )
2
= 1.25720 ( 166.6906 ) 12 = 165.4334
N 22 =
P2 (0 )
U = P2(1) + G22 U 2(0 )
U 2 2
( ) 2
= 0.04295 + 11.70755 12 = 11.7505
J 22 =
Q2
2
( )
= P2(1) G22 U 2(0 )
2
= 0.04295 11.70755 12 = 11.6646
L22 =
Q2 (0 )
U = Q2(1) B22 U 2(0 )
U 2 2
( ) 2
= 1.25720 ( 166.6906) 12 = 167.9478
H 33 =
P3
3
( )
= Q3(1) B33 U 3(0 )
2
= 3.85861 ( 89.75537 ) 12 = 93.614
N 33 =
P3 (0 )
U = P3(1) + G33 U 3(0 )
U 3 3
( ) 2
= 0.16728 + 5.80057 12 = 5.6333
J 33 =
Q3
3
( )
= P3(1) G33 U 3(0 )
2
= 0.16728 5.80057 12 = 5.9678
L33 =
Q3 (0 )
U 3
2
( )
U 3 = Q3(1) B33 U 3(0 ) = 3.85861 ( 89.75537 ) 12 = 85.8968
H 44
P
4
2
( )
= 4 = Q4(1) B44 U 4sp = 1.23746 ( 89.75537 ) 1.022732 = 95.119
H 24 =
P2
4
[ ( ) (
= U 2(0 ) U 4sp G24 sin (20 ) (40 ) B24 cos (20 ) (40 ) =)]
= 1 1.02273 [ 1.46836 sin 0 66.22003 cos 0] = 67.725
J 24 =
Q2
4
[ ( ) (
= U 2(0 ) U 4sp G24 cos (20 ) (40 ) + B24 sin (20 ) (40 ) = )]
= 1 1.02273 [ 1.46836 cos 0 + 66.22003 sin 0] = 1.5017
H 34 =
P3
4
[ ( ) (
= U 3(0 ) U 4sp G34 sin 3(0 ) (40 ) B34 cos 3(0 ) (40 ) = )]
= 1 1.02273 [ 4.3995 sin 0 26.78519 cos 0] = 27.3939
J 34 =
Q3
4
[ ( )
= U 3(0 ) U 4sp G34 cos 3(0 ) (40 ) + B34 sin 3(0 ) (40 ) = ( )]
= 1 1.02273 [ 4.3995 cos 0 + 26.78519 sin 0] = 4.4995
H 42 =
P4
2
[ ( ) (
=U 4sp U 2(0 ) G42 sin (40 ) (20 ) B42 cos (40 ) (20 ) = )]
= 1.02273 1[ 1.46836 sin 0 66.22003 cos 0] = 67.725
N 42 =
P4 (0 )
[ ( )
U = U 4sp U 2(0 ) G42 cos (40 ) (20 ) + B42 sin (40 ) (20 ) =
U 2 2
( )]
= 1.02273 1[ 1.46836 sin 0 66.22003 cos 0] = 1.5017
H 43 =
P4
3
[ ( ) (
= U 4sp U 3(0 ) G43 sin (40 ) 3(0 ) B43 cos (40 ) 3(0 ) = )]
= 1.02273 1 [ 4.3995 sin 0 26.78519 cos 0] = 27.3939
N 43 =
P4 (0 )
[ ( )
U = U 4sp U 3(0 ) G43 cos (40 ) 3(0 ) + B43 sin (40 ) 3(0 ) =
U 3 3
( )]
= 1.02273 1 [ 4.3995 sin 0 26.78519 cos 0] = 4.4995
The obtained Jacobian matrix, denoted here A(1) , has the following form, as shown
in equation (8.30):
2 3 4
165.4334 11.7505 0 0 -67.7250
2
-11.6646 167.9478 0 0 1.5017
0 0 93.6140 5.6333 -27.3939
3
0 0 -5.9678 85.8968 -4.4995
4 -67.7250 -1.5017 -27.3939 -4.4995 95.1190
The result of LU-factorization of A(1), stored in the same matrix, as shown in

expression A.9 from Appendix 1, is:
165.4334 11.7505 0 0 67.7250

0.0705 168.7763 0 0 3.2735

0 0 93.6140 5.6333 27.3939

0 0 0.0637 86.2559 2.7531
0.4094 0.0196 0.2926 0.0331 59.5327
Notice that, by factorizing A the initial sparsity is entirely conserved. Solving

equation (8.45) for x(1), an intermediate vector y(1) is also obtained (see Appendix 1), as
follows:
4.24295 (21) 0.06247

2.95637 (1) 0.01933
(U 2 U 2 )
y (1) = 3.03272 , x (1) = 3(1) = 0.06153
(1)
2.36527 (U 3 U 3 ) 0.03040
5.55430 (41) 0.09330

and the new approximate values of the voltage magnitudes and phase-angles result:
(21) = (20 ) + (21) = 0 + ( 0.06247 ) = 0.06247

U (1) = U (0 ) + (U U )(1) U ( 0 ) = 1 + ( 0.01933) 1 = 0.98067
2 2
2 2 2
(1) ( 0) ( 1)
3 = 3 + 3 = 0 + ( 0.06153) = 0.06153 (8.49)
(1) ( ) (1)
U 3 = U 30 + (U 3 U 3 ) U 3 = 1 + 0.03040 1 = 1.03040
(0)

(41) = (40 ) + (41) = 0 + ( 0.0933) = 0.0933

The second approximation (p = 2)
The values (8.49) are used to compute new values of the nodal powers:
P2(2 ) = 4.09431, Q2(2 ) = 1.13105, P3(2 ) = 3.28434, Q3(2 ) = 1.07533, P4(2 ) = 2.98259
After two approximations of the nodal powers, the reactive power at node 4 is
Q4(2 ) = 0.52288 verifying (8.43).
Computation of b(2) gives:
P2(2 ) P2sp P2(2 ) 4.2 + 4.09431 0.10569
(2 ) sp
Q2 Q2 Q2(2 ) 1.4 + 1.13105 0.26895
b (2 ) = P3(2 ) = P3sp P3(2 ) = 3.2 + 3.28434 = 0.08434
(2 ) sp
Q3 Q3 Q3(2 ) 1.3 + 1.07533 0.22467
P (2 ) P sp P4(2 ) 3.0 + 2.98259 0.01741
4 4
The convergence testing:
max Pi(2 ) = P2(2 ) = 0.10569 > P , max Qi(2 ) = Q2(2 ) = 0.26895 > Q
igc ic
shows the divergence, so that a new Jacobian, A(2), is to be calculated:
2 3 4
161.4410 7.1651 0 0 -66.4300
2
-15.3537 159.1789 0 0 -0.5752
0 0 96.3707 2.8743 -28.3597
3
0 0 -9.4429 94.2200 3.7373
4 -66.3392 -3.5192 -28.0652 -5.5306 94.4044
Solving for x equation (8.45), it is obtained:

(22 ) 0.00091135
(2 ) 0.00178045
(U 2 U 2 )
x (2 ) = 3(2 ) = 0.00070312
(2 )
(U 3 U 3 ) 0.00228166
(42 ) 0.00081853

and then it results:
(22 ) = (21) + (22 ) = 0.06247 0.00091 = 0.06338

U (2 ) = U (1) + (U U )(2 ) U (1) = 0.98067 0.00178 0.98067 = 0.97892
2 2 2 2 2
(2 ) ( 1) ( 2)
3 = 3 + 3 = 0.06153 + 0.00070 = 0.06083 (8.50)

U 3(2 ) = U 3(1) + (U 3 U 3 )(2 ) U 3(1) = 1.03040 + ( 0.00228) 1.03040 = 1.02805

(2 ) = (1) + (2 ) = 0.09330 0.00082 = 0.09412
4 4 4
The third approximation (p = 3)

The result of computing the nodal active powers is:
P2(3) = 4.19979, Q2(3) = 1.39948, P3(3) = 3.20017, Q3(3) = 1.29943, P4(3) = 2.99991
and the reactive power at node 4, Q4(3) = 0.33226 , does not verify the condition (8.43). It
follows that, further, the node 4 will be treated as a PQ-node, having the specified reactive
power Q sp = 0.5 , and the quantity U sp becomes U (2 ) .
4 4 4
In consequence, the dimension of equation (8.45) increases by a unity, and the error
vector of the nodal powers becomes:
P2(3) P2sp P2(3) 4.2 + 4.19979 0.00021

(3) sp
Q2 Q2 Q2(3) 1.4 + 1.39948 0.00052
P (3) P sp P3(3) 3.2 + 3.20017 0.00017
b (3) = 3(3) = 3sp = =
Q3 Q3 Q3(3) 1.3 + 1.29943 0.00057
P (3) P sp P4(3) 3.0 + 2.99991 0.00009
4 4
Q4(3) Q4sp Q4(3) 0.5 + 0.33266 0.16734
As it can be seen,
max Pi(3) = P2(3) = 0.00021 < P , max Qi(3) = Q4(3) = 0.1634 > Q
igc ic
hence, the convergence test is not verified because of passing node 4 from g to c.
This time, the Jacobian A(3) has a new configuration, as:
2 3 4
161.1390 7.0196 0 0 -66.43118 0.5679
2
-15.4191 158.3401 0 0 -0.5679 -66.3118
0 0 96.1604 2.9304 -28.3007 -3.6858
3
0 0 -9.3307 93.5615 3.6858 -28.3007
-66.2214 -3.5066 -27.9927 -5.5605 94.2142 3.0673
4
3.5066 -66.2214 5.5605 -27.9927 -9.0671 93.5489
and the solution of equation (8.45) is:
(23) 0.00007171
(3)
(U 2 U 2 ) 0.00121663

3(3)
0.00007567
x (3) = (3) =
( )
U 3 U 3 0.00089600
( 3 ) 0.00002365
4
(U U )(3) 0.00291408
4 4
leading to the third approximations of the unknowns:
(23) = (22 ) + (23) = 0.06338 + 0.000072 = 0.063308

U 2(3) = U 2(2 ) + (U 2 U 2 )(3)U 2(2 ) = 0.97892 0.00122 0.97892 = 0.97772
(3) (2 ) (3)
3 = 3 + 3 = 0.06083 0.000076 = 0.060906
(3) (3) (2 )
(8.51)
(2 )
U 3 = U 3 + (U 3 U 3 ) U 3 = 1.02805 0.000896 1.02805 = 1.02713
(3) (2 ) (3)
4 = 4 + 4 = 0.09412 + 0.000024 = 0.094096
(3) (2 ) (3) (2 )
U 4 = U 4 + (U 4 U 4 ) U 4 = 1.02273 0.002914 1.02273 = 1.01975
The fourth approximation

By computing the nodal powers, it results:
P2(4 ) = 4.2000028, Q2(4 ) = 1.3999971

P3(4 ) = 3.1999894, Q3(4 ) = 1.2999992
P4(4 ) = 2.9999728, Q4(4 ) = 0.4995090
and computation of b(4) gives:
P2(4 ) P2sp P2(4 ) 4.2 + 4.2000028 0.0000028

(4 ) sp
Q2 Q2 Q2(4 ) 1.4 + 1.3999971 0.0000029
P (4 ) P sp P3(4 ) 3.2 + 3.1999894 0.0000106
b (4 ) = 3(4 ) = 3sp = =
Q3 Q3 Q3(4 ) 1.3 + 1.2999992 0.0000008
P (4 ) P sp
4 4 P4(4 ) 3.0 + 2.9999728 0.0000272

Q4(4 ) Q4sp Q4(4 ) 0.5 + 0.4995090 0.0004910
Since
max Pi(4 ) = P4(4 ) = 0.0000028 < P , max Qi(4 ) = Q4(4 ) = 0.000491 < Q
igc ic
it follows that, in fact, the convergence have been reached after three approximations.
The per unit values of (8.51), representing the final result, are given in physical units
in the next table, together with the voltages, expressed in physical units.
Table 8.4
Node i Ui
i radians degrees pu kV
1 0 0 1.00000 400.00
2 -0.063308 -3.627 0.97772 391.09
3 -0.060906 -3.490 1.02713 225.97
4 -0.094096 -5.391 1.01975 224.34
The other quantities of interest: power flows, power losses, reactive power of line
capacitances may be directly calculated by using the formulae from the subsections 2.3.2.3,
2.3.2.5, with the values from Table 8.4 and parameters from Table 8.3. The results are
presented in Table 8.5.
Table 8.5
Branch Pik Qik Pki Qki Pik Qik Qikcap
i-k MW MVAr MW MVAr MW MVAr MVAr
12 629.01 116.90 -624.53 -185.04 4.48 43.12 111.26
13 417.88 156.88 -416.68 -124.45 1.20 32.43 0
24 204.54 45.06 -203.84 -34.71 0.7 10.35 0
34 96.69 -5.54 -96.16 -15.24 0.53 3.24 24.02
8.4. Decoupled Newton method

The linearized model (8.27), used by Newton-Raphson method, can be
reduced to a simpler one, taking into account the weak dependence between the
variables P and U, and respectively Q and . This is a power system property, due
to the low values of r x ratio or, equivalently, G B ratio, of the network
branches, as well as to a small difference ik between the phase-angles of the
voltages at the nodes i and k. Thus, with the assumptions: Gii 0 , Gik 0 ,
sin ik 0 operated in the expressions (8.28) of the elements N ii , N ik , J ii , J ik , it
results the approximation: [N ] = 0 , [J ] = 0 . Consequently, the model (8.27) can be
decoupled, resulting two matrix equations, as follows:
[P ] = [H][] (8.52)
[Q] = [L] U (8.53)

U
These equations are written under developed form, as
Pi = H ii i + H
k i
ik k , i c g (8.54)
k c g
U i U k
Qi = Lii +
U i k i , k c
Lik
Uk
, i c (8.55)
The computing algorithm of the Newton decoupled method is not much

different of that of the Newton-Raphson method. The decoupled equations (8.52)
and (8.53) are alternately solved, such that the updated value of or U, obtained
after solving one of equations, is used for computing the power error vector and the
Jacobian of the other equation.
It is important to underline that, in order to compute the Jacobian matrices
[H] and [L] , as well as the errors vectors [P] and [Q] , the exact relations
(8.28), (8.22), (8.24) are to be used.
In comparison with the N-R method, the Newton decoupled method is
advantageous by much smaller computer memory and number of operations, even
if its convergence rate is a little slower.
8.5. Fast decoupled method

The fast decoupled method, presented by Stott and Alsac [8.17], is probably
the most utilized method to solve power flow problem, because of its simplicity
and efficiency of computation. The method is derived from decoupled Newton
method, by introducing the approximations: cos ik 1 , Gik sin ik << Bik ,
Qi << BiiU i2 . Thus, the expressions of the elements of [H ] and [L ] from (8.28)
become:
Hii = BiiUi2 , i c g ; Hik = BikUiU k , i, k c g , k i
(8.56)
Lii = BiiUi2 , i c ; Lik = BikUiU k , i,k c , k i
By replacing expressions (8.56) into the equations (8.54) and (8.55), the
following sets of equations are obtained:
Pi
Ui
= BiiU i i BikU k k , i c g
k i , k c g
(8.57)
n
Qi
Ui
= Bii U i Bik U k , i c
k i , k c
(8.58)
Supplementary, the following new simplifications are considered:

1) In equation (8.57), those network elements, which do not significantly
influence the active power flows, are neglected:
shunt reactances and compensation sources, installed at network nodes;
voltage regulation by transformer taps, considering only the nominal
transformation ratio; if there exist phase-shifting transformers, only
their phase-angle regulation is considered;
branch resistances, in calculation of Bii , Bik ;
variation of the voltages U i , U k from the right-hand side of equation
(8.57), by considering them to be equal to their nominal values:
U i = U in , U k = U kn .
Under the above-mentioned conditions, the equation (8.57) has constant
coefficients, denoted by:
Bii' = BiiU in , i c g , Bik' = BikU kn , i, k c g , k i (8.59)
where Bii' and Bik' are calculated using only the branch reactances.
2) In equation (8.58), those network elements, which do not significantly

influence the reactive power flows, are neglected:
branch conductances;
phase-shifter regulation, considering only voltage regulation by
transformer taps.
In this case, the right-hand side coefficients in equation (8.58) are denoted
and calculated by the relations:
Bii'' = Bii , i c , Bik'' = Bik , i, k c , k i (8.60)
It follows that the equations (8.57) and (8.58) can be written in matrix form:
P
U = [B'][] (8.61)

Q
U = [B"][U ] (8.62)

The stated above assumptions correspond to the so-called XB-variant of the
fast decoupled method, which is suitable for networks with low r/x branch ratio. In
[8.2], another variant is proposed, in which the elements of [B"] are calculated by
neglecting series resistances. This variant, suitable for networks with high r/x ratio,
is called BXvariant.
Generally, the main properties of the matrices [B'] and [B"] are:
a) Both matrices are real and sparse, having the same structure as nodal
admittance matrix;
b) Matrix [B'] , of (n-1)(n-1) dimension, is constant during the computing

process; it is symmetrical only for networks with no phase-shifter
transformers;
c) Matrix [B"] , of ncnc dimension, is symmetrical for every network; this
matrix changes its configuration when the type of a node changes from PU
to PQ but, for a given configuration, it is constant.
As the per unit computation is usually preferred, in this case the per unit
values of the voltages U in and U kn in expressions (8.59) are to be equal to 1, and
then [B'] becomes a susceptance matrix.
Based on the above properties b) and c), it is obvious that the matrices [B']
and [B"] can be factorized only once at the beginning of the computing process. If
[B"] have to be modified by passing a node from g to c, or inversely, only a partial
re-factorization of this matrix is carried out.
The iterative process is similar to that of the Newton decoupled method,
summarily presented in section 8.4. In each p-approximation, equations (8.61) and
(8.62) are alternately solved. First equation is solved for [] in order to update the
variables , and then the second equation is solved for [U ] in order to update the
variables U.
Before solving one of equations, the error vector [P ] , respectively [Q] , is
computed with exact formulae (8.22), (8.24), and then the convergence test on
[P] , respectively [Q], is verified. The PU-nodes are treated as shown in
subsection 8.3.2.
Application 2
The fast decoupled method, under the form of XB-variant, will be applied to solving
power flow problem for the network, described in Application 1. The computation will be
carried out in per unit.
All the assumptions from application 1 are valid here.
Computation and factorization of the matrix [B']
In conformity with the XB-variant, the elements of the matrix [B'] are computed in
function of the network series reactances. Thus, from Table 8.2 and autotransformer data, it
results:
Reactance of line 1 2: x12 = 0.324 100 / 2 = 16.2
Reactance of line 3 4: x34 = 0.414 85 / 2 = 17.595
11.5 400 2
Reactances of AT1 and AT2: x13 = x24 = = 23
100 2 400
Since the parameters y ik from Table 8.3 become y = j bik = j (1 xik ), i k , for
ik
the four network links it is obtained:
b12 = (1 x12 ) = 1 / 16.2 = 0.061728, b34 = (1 x34 ) = 1 / 17.595 = 0.056834
b13 = (1 x13 ) = 1 / 23 = 0.043478, b24 = b13
and for the non-zero elements of [B'] :

U 22b 400 2
'
B22 = (b12 + b24 ) = ( 0.061728 0.043478) = 168.331
Sb 100
( )US ( )
2
' 2 220 2
B33 = b34 + b13 N13 3b
= 0.056834 0.043478 1.7316 2 = 90.605
b 100
' '
B44 = B33
' ' U 2bU 4b 400 220
B24 = B42 = b24 N 24 = 0.043478 1.7316 = 66.253
Sb 100
' ' U 3bU 4b 220 220
B34 = B43 = b34 = 0.056834 = 27.508
Sb 100
so that the matrix [B'] is:
B22
'
0 '
B24 168.331 0 66.252
'
[B'] = 0 '
B33 B34 = 0 90.605 27.508
B' '
B43 '
B44 66.252 27.508 90.605
42
The equation (8.61) will be written:
P2 U 2 2
P U = [B']
3 3 3
P4 U 4 4
The result of the LU-factorization of the matrix [B'] , stored in the same matrix is:
168.331 0 66.252
0 90.605 27.508

0.394 0.304 56.178
Computation and factorization of the matrix [B"]

The elements of this matrix are associated only to the PQ-nodes, namely 2 and 3. In
the XB-variant, the matrix [B"] is of 22-dimension, having the non-zero elements,
determined from (8.39):
"
B22 = Im(Y 22 ) = 166.691, B33
"
= Im(Y 33 ) = 89.755
so that
"
0 166.691 0
[B"] = B22 "
=
0 B33 0 89.755
and the equation (8.62) become:
Q2 U 2 166.691 0 U 2
Q U = (8.63)
3 3 0 89 . 755 U 3
It can be easily observed that, the matrix [B"] is already factorized, and the solution
of (8.63) can be directly expressed as:
1 Q2
U 2 = 166.691 U
2
(8.64)
U = 1 Q3

3 89.755 U 3
The first estimation of the main unknowns is chosen as in application 1:

(20 ) = 0, U 2(0 ) = 1, 3(0 ) = 0, U 3(0 ) = 1, (40 ) = 0 (8.65)
The first approximation (p = 1)
The values of the active nodal powers, obtained from (8.44), of interest at this stage
are:
P2(1) = 0.04295, P3(1) = 0.16728, P4(1) = 0.06601 (8.66)
and the errors of the active nodal powers result:
P2(1) = P2sp P2(1) = 4.2 0.04295 = 4.24295

(1) sp (1)
P3 = P3 P3 = 3.2 + 0.16728 = 3.03272
(1) sp (1)
P4 = P4 P4 = 3.0 0.06601 = 3.06601
Since max Pi(1) = P1(1) = 4.24295 > P , the convergence test on the active powers
ig c
is not verified.
The components of the left-hand side vector from (8.61) result:
(1)
P2 P2(1) 4.24295
= = = 4.24295
U U 2(0 ) 1
2
(1)
P3 P3(1) 3.03272
= = = 3.03272
U U 3(0 ) 1
3
(1)
P4 P4(1) 3.06601
= = = 2.99787
U U 4(sp ) 1.02273
4
By solving the equation (8.61) for [] , obtain:
(21) = 0.06436, 3(1) = 0.06367, (41) = 0.09948
and the new approximation of the voltage angles results:
(21) = (20 ) + (21) = 0 + ( 0.06436 ) = 0.06436

(1) (0 ) (1)
3 = 3 + 3 = 0 + ( 0.06367 ) = 0.06367 (8.67)
(1) (0 ) (1)
4 = 4 + 4 = 0 + ( 0.09948) = 0.09948
With the angle values (8.67) and available voltage magnitudes, the new values of the
nodal reactive powers, computed with expressions (8.44) are:
Q2(1) = 2.10216, Q (1) = 3.77449 (8.68)
so that the errors of reactive power result:
Q2(1) = Q2sp Q2(1) = 1.4 2.10216 = 3.50216
Q3(1) = Q3sp Q3(1) = 1.3 + 3.77449 = 2.47449
Since max Qi(1) = Q2(1) = 3.50216 > Q , the convergence test on the reactive
ic
powers is not verified.
The components of the left-hand side vector from (8.61) are:
(1)
Q2 Q2(1) 3.50216
= = = 3.50216
U U (0 ) 1
2 2
(1)
Q3 Q3(1) 2.47449
= = = 2.47449
U U (0 ) 1
3 3
By solving the equation (8.61) for [U ] , it results from (8.64):

(1)
1 Q2 3.50216
U 2(1) = = = 0.02101
166.691 U 2 166.691
(1)
(1) 1 Q3 2.47449
U 3 = = = 0.02757
89.755 U 3 89.755
and the new approximation of the voltage angles becomes:

U 2(1) = U 2(0 ) + U 2(1) = 1 0.02101 = 0.97899
(1) (8.69)
U 3 = U 3(0 ) + U 3(1) = 1 + 0.02757 = 1.02757
The second approximation (p = 2)

With the values (8.69) and (8.67), the nodal active powers, computed with the
expressions (8.44), are:
P2(2 ) = 4.00133, P3(2 ) = 3.32365, P4(2 ) = 3.35836 (8.70)

and the errors of the active nodal powers result:
P2(2 ) = P2sp P2(2 ) = 4.2 + 4.00133 = 0.19867

(2 ) sp (2 )
P3 = P3 P3 = 3.2 + 3.32365 = 0.12365
(2 ) sp (2 )
P4 = P4 P4 = 3.0 + 3.35836 = 0.35836
Since max Pi(2 ) = P4(2 ) = 0.35836 > P , the convergence test on active powers is
ig c
not verified.
The components of the left-hand side vector from (8.61) result:

(2 )
P2 P2(2 ) 0.19867
= = = 0.20293
U U 2(1) 0.97899
2
(2 )
P3 P3(2 ) 0.12365
= = = 0.12033
U U 3(1) 1.02757
3
(2 )
P4 P4(2 ) 0.35836
= = = 0.35040
U4 U 4sp 1.02273
By solving the equation (8.61) for [] , it is obtained:
(22 ) = 0.00095, 3(2 ) = 0.00299, (42 ) = 0.00547
and the new approximations of the voltage angles are:
(22 ) = (21) + (22 ) = 0.06436 + 0.00095 = 0.06341

(2 ) (1) (2 )
3 = 3 + 3 = 0.06367 + 0.00299 = 0.06068 (8.71)
(2 ) (1) (2 )
4 = 4 + 4 = 0.09948 + 0.00547 = 0.09401
The nodal reactive powers, computed with (8.44) are:
Q2(2 ) = 1.38896, Q3(2 ) = 1.34393 (8.72)
and the reactive power at the node 4 is Q4(2 ) = 0.32408 . This value, computed after two
approximations, does not verify the restriction (8.43). Hence, the node 4 is to be treated as a
PQ-node with the specified reactive power Q4sp = 0.5 . In this case, the quantity U 4sp
becomes U (41) .
In consequence, the errors of the nodal reactive power result:
Q2(2 ) = Q2sp Q2(2 ) = 1.4 + 1.38896 = 0.01104

Q3(2 ) = Q3sp Q3(2 ) = 1.3 + 1.34393 = 0.04393 (8.73)
Q4(2 ) = Q4sp Q4(2 ) = 0.5 + 0.32408 = 0.17592
Since max Qi(2 ) = Q4(2 ) = 0.17592 > Q , the convergence test on the reactive
ic
powers is not verified.
As the node 4 is now of type PQ, the dimension of the matrix [B"] increases by a
unity. The new elements of [B"] , resulting from (8.39) and (8.40), are:
"
B44 = Im(Y 44 ) = 89.755
"
B24 "
= B42 = Im(Y 24 ) = 66.22
"
B34 "
= B43 = Im(Y 34 ) = 26.785
so that
B22
" "
0 B24 166.691 0 66.220
"
[B"] = 0 "
B33 B34 = 0 89.755 26.785
B" "
"
B43 B44 66.220 26.785 89.755
42
By re-factorising [B"] , the result, stored in the same matrix, is:
166.691 0 66.220
0 89.755 26.785

0.3973 0.2984 55.455
The components of the left-hand side vector from (8.62) are:

(2 )
Q2 Q2(2 ) 0.01104
= = = 0.1128
U U 2(1) 0.97899
2
(2 )
Q3 Q3(2 ) 0.04393
= = = 0.042752
U U 3(1) 1.02757
3
(2 )
Q4 Q4(2 ) 1.17592
= = = 1.14979
U4 U 4(1) 1.02273
By solving equation (8.62) for variables U , obtain:
U 2(2 ) = 0.00825, U 3(2 ) = 0.00567, U 4(2 ) = 0.02058
and the voltage magnitudes result:

U 2(2 ) = U 2(1) + U 2(2 ) = 0.97899 0.00825 = 0.97074

(2 ) (1) (2 )
U 3 = U 3 + U 3 = 1.02757 0.00567 = 1.02190 (8.74)
(2 ) (1) (2 )
U 4 = U 4 + U 4 = 1.02273 0.02058 = 1.00215
Because the computational process is, further, similarly repeated, the main numerical
results of each approximation, beginning from the third one, are presented in the Table 8.6.
For lack of space, it was necessary to give up the variables and U , which,
otherwise, can be easily calculated inspecting the table.
Likewise, based on voltage magnitudes from Table 8.6, it is not difficult to verify the
conditions (8.34) for p = 3 and p = 4, and to conclude that the node 4 cannot return to the
PU-nodes.
Table 8.6 contains also the answers No and Yes to the convergence tests referred
to the active (CP) and reactive (CQ) nodal power errors.
Considering the volume of calculation, the convergence has been reached after less
than five approximations.
The final results, marked by F in the Table 8.6, are given in per unit and physical
units in the Table 8.7. It is observed that the results are, practically, identical to those
obtained by N-R method, presented in the Table 8.4.
Table 8.6
Approximation p
3 4 5 6
P2( p ) -4.28080 -4.14351 -4.19749 -4.19994
P3( p ) -3.13342 -3.25052 -3.19863 -3.20005
P4( p ) -2.99030 -2.99994 -3.00167 -3.00003
P2( p ) 0.08080 -0.05649 -0.00251 -0.00006
P3( p ) -0.06658 0.05052 -0.00137 0.00005
P4( p ) -0.00970 -0.00006 -0.00167 0.00003

CP No No No Yes
(2p ) -0.06289 -0.06329 -0.063304 F
3( p ) -0.06138 -0.06088 -0.060894 F
(4p ) -0.09395 -0.09409 -0.094086 F

Q 2( p ) -1.39587 -1.40397 -1.39993
Q3( p ) -1.28338 -1.31388 -1.30014
Q 4( p ) -1.47390 -0.50470 -0.50021

Q 2( p ) -0.00413 0.00397 0.00007
Q3( p ) -0.01622 0.01388 0.00014
Q 4( p ) 0.97390 0.00470 0.00021

CQ No No Yes
U 2( p ) 0.97763 0.97773 F
U 3( p ) 1.02691 1.02713 F
U 4( p ) 1.01956 1.01973 F
Table 8.7
Node i Ui
i radians degrees pu kV
1 0 0 1.00000 400.00
2 -0.063304 -3.627 0.97773 391.09
3 -0.060894 -3.489 1.02713 225.97
4 -0.094086 -5.391 1.01973 224.34
8.6. Direct current (DC) method

A fast approximate evaluation of the active power flows in a transmission
network, using a non-iterative way, can be performed by the so-called DC method.
The method is useful in the following cases:
in power system expansion planning, where numerous solutions of active
power flow problems are required;
when applying usual methods, the divergence of the computing process is
obtained;
for evaluating the use of transmission network capacity in an electricity
market.
The principle of this method is based on disregarding reactive power flows
and considering networks with low r/x branch ratio, so that using the
approximations:
Gii 0 , Gik 0 , sin ik ik , U i U in , U k U kn
the expressions of the nodal active powers from (8.21) become:
Pi = BikU inU kn
kcg , k i
(i k ) , i c g (8.75)
In the per unit computation, the expressions (8.75) get the form:
Pi = ( Bik
kcg , k i
i k ) , i c g
or in matrix form:
[P] = [C][] (8.76)
where the elements of [C] are:
Cii = Bik
kcg , k i
, i c g , Cik = Bik , i, k c g , k i
After solving equation (8.76) for [], the active power flow on each branch
(i, k) results:
Pik = Bik (i k ) (8.77)
In addition, considering an average value of the power factor in the network,
an approximate evaluation of the active power losses can be obtained.
Application 3
The DC method will be applied in order to find active power flows in the network,
described in Application 1. The per unit computation will be performed.
By using only the network series reactances, the matrix equation (8.76) may be
written as a set of equations:
P2 = (B21 + B24 ) 2 B24 4

P3 = (B31 + B34 ) 3 B34 4
P = (B + B ) B B
4 42 43 4 42 2 43 3
where:
U 2bU1b 1 400 400
B21 = B12 = b12 S =
16.2

100
= 98.765
b
'
B24 = B42 = B24 = 66.253
B = B = B = B = 66.253
13 31 24 42
B34 = B43 = B34 = 27.508
'
' '
where the parameters b12 , B24 , B34 have been calculated in Application 2.
In the matrix form (8.76), the coefficient matrix is:
B21 + B24 0 B24 165.018 0 66.253
[C] = 0 B31 + B34
B34 = 0 93.760 27.508
B42 B43 B42 + B43 66.253 27.508 93.760
and the vectors, containing angles and specified nodal active powers, are:
2 P2 4.2
[] = 3 , [P] = P3 = 3.2
4 P4 3.0
By factorising matrix [C] , the equation (8.76) is solved for [] . The following
values, in radians, are obtained:
2 = 0.0637, 3 = 0.0621, 4 = 0.0952
The per unit active power flows, resulted from (8.77) are:
P12 = B12 (1 2 ) = 98.765 (0 + 0.0637 ) = 6.2885

P13 = B13 (1 3 ) = 66.253 (0 + 0.0621) = 4.1115

P24 = B24 ( 2 4 ) = 66.253 ( 0.0637 + 0.0952) = 2.0885
P34 = B34 (3 4 ) = 66.253 ( 0.0621 + 0.0952) = 0.9115
The final results, including angles in degrees and active powers in MW are given in
the next tables.
Table 8.8 Table 8.9

Node i Branch Pik
i radians degrees i-k pu MW
1 0 0 12 6.2885 628.85
2 -0.0637 -3.650 13 4.1115 411.15
3 -0.0621 -3.557 24 2.0885 208.85
4 -0.0952 -5.457 34 0.9115 91.15
8.7. Improvements of power flow analysis methods

In case of high voltage networks, the fast decoupled method has generally a
very good convergence. However, the practice of power flow analysis pointed out
some types of networks for which the convergence of the method is slow: low
voltage networks or networks in which certain types of equivalents are used. Such
networks are characterized by relatively high values of the r/x ratios of their
branches. Consequently, development of new decoupled methods or modifying the
fast decoupled method in order to be applied to all types of networks represented a
steady work of the researchers in the last decade. Among these, two propositions
for modifying the fast decoupled method are presented.
1. The first method, namely the method of compensation, comprises two
variants: series compensation and parallel compensation, as shown in Figure 8.3.
Principle of the method of compensation consists in replacing the branch with high
r/x ratio by two or three branches, having the r/x ratios of small values, such that
the final effect is the same with that of the original branch.
In series compensation, x is chosen so that the r/ ( x + x) ratio is small. In
parallel compensation, r , x and x are chosen so that the r / ( x + x) ratio be
small. Both methods introduce a fictitious node for each compensated branch.
The experience of using this method shows that, generally, the convergence
is slower than that of the classical fast decoupled method.
Therefore, the method is used
in load flow programs only if the i r x k
applied classical method lead to
divergence, existing the suspicion a) series branch
that the divergence arise because of
a too high r/x ratio. Likewise, i r x x' j -x' k
notice that the parallel
compensation approach is more b) series compensation
efficient than the series ones. For r' x x'
both methods, the value of r/x i k
ratio after compensation has a
decisive influence on the
convergence. The majority of j x
- x
programs indicate an approximate c) parallel compensation
value of 0.9 for this ratio, which is
over the usual values met in Fig. 8.3. Series and parallel branch compensation.
practice. Hence, it can conclude that the most programs using this method lead to
the over-compensation in solving the problems.
2. Another fast method, used in order to study the networks with high r/x
ratios, is based on introducing into computation the effect of conductance Gik on
the matrix of coefficients from (8.62).
By adding the relations (8.21) one to the other, it results:
n
Pi + Qi
= (Gii Bii )U i + U k [(Gik Bik ) cos ik + (Gik + Bik ) sin ik ] (8.78)
Ui k =1,k i
Equation (8.62) from the fast decoupled method is replaced by the equation:
[(P + Q ) / U ] = [B][U ] (8.79)
where the elements of [B] are calculated by means of the expressions:
Bik = Gik Bik , Bii = Gii Bii (8.80)
Also, in order to limit the effect of large values of Gik in computing the value

of Bik , the following empiric relation is used:
Bik = Bik 0.4 Gik 0.3 Gik2 / Bik (8.81)
where the coefficients have been experimentally determined.

From the tests, carried out on the networks recommended by IEEE, in which
the r/x ratios have been 25 times multiplied, it resulted that the mentioned
method, converges better than the method of compensation, and provides solution
in the most cases in which the fast decoupled method is divergent.
3. Another proposed method is based on:
neglecting the dependence between P and U at the PU-nodes;
assuming that the branches, convergent to a node, have the same
r/x ratio.
By using the relations (8.25) and the values of the Jacobian terms, calculated
with the relation (8.28) for the values Ui =1 pu, i =0, ic, it results:
(Pi i Qi ) =

xk
1
ik k
i c (8.82)
(Qi + i Pi ) =

xk
1
ik U k
where i = rik xik = Gik Bik , and k stands for the set of nodes adjacent to the
node i. If the assumption of constant value of r/x branch ratio, convergent to the
PQ-nodes, is not true, a mean value can be used, e.g.,
n n
i =
Gik

Bik , i c

(8.83)
k =1; k i k =1; k i
By neglecting the term Nik from the first relation (8.25), corresponding to the
nodes i g it is obtained:
Pi = B
k
ik k , ig (8.84)
It can be observed that, in case of the well-conditioned networks, in which all

the branches have r/x ratio of low values, eventually tending to zero, the proposed
method tends to the fast decoupled method. If there are no PU-nodes in the
network to be studied, then the method in question becomes a particular case of the
Newton-Raphson method. These properties increase the degree of applicability of
the method, as well as its attractiveness.
From the presented results, it follows that the proposed method offers
solutions whenever these can be also obtained by Newton-Raphson method but
with computation time much smaller. In addition, for the networks with high values
of the r/x ratio, the method described above is much superior from the viewpoint
of convergence in comparison with classical fast decoupled method.
8.8. Static equivalents of the power systems
8.8.1. Introduction
The study of the large interconnected power systems became very difficult
because of a considerable growth in size and complexity of the state model, even
under conditions of spectacular ascension of computer technology.
The operation analysis of a certain power system, referred to as studied
system, do not need to take into account the whole interconnected system.
Practically, it is sufficient to consider only a part of this, namely external system,
localized in the vicinity of the studied system. The far-away systems, which cannot
have a significant interaction with the studied system, are neglected.
To save the computer memory and computing time, as well as to avoid the
uncertainties concerning the topology, parameters and nodal data of the external
network, the studied system is modelled in detail, while the external system is
represented by a reduced network structure, so called equivalent.
Interconnection between a studied system and its external system is
represented in Fig. 8.4,a where the symbols S and E signify the sets of nodes
belonging to the studied respectively external system, and F is the set of boundary
(frontier) nodes, situated on the interconnecting lines. The external system is
detached from the studied system, as shown in Fig. 8.4,b, retaining the boundary
'
nodes to which a complex vector I F of injected currents is attached.
'
As it can be seen, the components of I F are:
'
I f = I sf + I f , f F
where I sf , s S are the currents through interconnecting lines, and I f , f F
the real currents, injected at the F-nodes.
Isf If
S E IF E
F F
a. b.
Fig. 8.4. a. Interconnection between a studied system S and an external system E;
b. Detachment of the external system together with the boundary nodes.
In real-time applications, an important objective of the monitoring and

operative control is the assessment of the studied system security by contingency
analysis. In this case, for lack of information concerning the external system, an
external network equivalent must be constructed with the aid of the state estimator
that can on-line determine the power flows trough the interconnected line and the
complex voltages of the F-nodes.
In off-line analysis, as development planning of the studied power system,
the complete information on the external system is usually available with
acceptable approximation. Construction of the equivalents presented below is
based on this assumption.
In the matrix partitioned form, the nodal equations of the external system E,
connected to the nodes F, can be written:
[Y EE ] [Y EF ] [U E ] [I E ]
[Y ] [Y ]
FE
= '
FF [ U F ] [ ]
I F
(8.85)
from where it results two equations, as
[Y EE ][U E ] + [Y EF ][U F ] = [I E ]

[ ]
[Y FE ][U E ] + [Y FF ][U F ] = I F
'
(8.86)
There exist more methods to construct an equivalent of reduced dimensions

for the external systems. In the following, the most known types of external system
equivalents are presented.
8.8.2. Ward equivalent

Proposed by J. B. Ward in 1949 [8.23], this is the simplest equivalent of the
external system, which, at present, is still very used.
Formally, by eliminating the vector [U E ] between the equations (8.86), the
nodal equation of a reduced network structure, referred to as Ward equivalent, can
be obtained. Thus, expressing [U E ] explicitly from the first equation (8.86), and
then replacing it into the second one, it results:
{[Y FF ] [Y EF ][Y FE ][Y EE ]1[U F ]}[U F ] = [I'F ] [Y FE ][Y EE ]1[I E ] (8.87)
representing the nodal matrix equation of the Ward equivalent. It can be written in
the general form:
[Y ][U
r
FF F ] = [I'F ] + [I EF ] (8.88)
in which the nodal admittance matrix of the reduced network, denoted by the
superscript r, results:
[Y ] = [Y
r
FF FF ] [Y FE ][Y EE ]1 [Y EF ] (8.89)
while the complex vector of the supplementary currents, injected at the F-nodes,
given by the relation:
[I EF ] = [Y FE ][Y EE ]1 [I E ] (8.90)
contains the currents, transferred from the eliminated E-nodes to the boundary
nodes.
r
[ ]
Practically, the admittance matrix Y FF is obtained by using the Gauss
elimination technique, applied to the
E-nodes in equation (8.85). As observed,
IEF
this operation does not involve knowledge
of the vector [U E ] , and can be performed
taking the elements of [I E ] equal to zero.
The Ward equivalent structure,
described above, is often referred to as WI
equivalent due to injected currents [I EF ] . IF
This equivalent is presented in Figure 8.5
where, for simplifying, the shunt
admittances to ground at F-nodes are not
represented. The WI equivalent is F
advantageous by its simplicity. In addition, Fig. 8.5. Ward equivalent.
it keeps a small G B ratio of branch
admittances so that the fast decoupled method may be applied to obtain the power
flow solution without convergence problems.
In the real-time applications, calculation of [I EF ] by the formula (8.90) is
unnecessary because the control centre of the studied system disposes of a state
estimator that can provide the elements of the complex vectors [U F ] and I F . In
'
[ ]
this case, the complex vector [I EF ] results from (8.88). This possibility is very
convenient especially when the complex nodal powers at E-nodes change, whilst
the topology and parameters of the external network remains unchanged.
The WI equivalent presents some inconveniences, as follows:
its construction requires information about all the external network data;
[ ]
r
its nodal admittance matrix Y FF is a full matrix;
it does not conserve the power losses;
it does not take into account the influence of the PU-nodes from the
external network.
At present, there exist more improved variants of the Ward equivalent, like
Ward PU and Ward extended, which allow reactive power control modelling in
the external network. More details about these can be found in [8.10, 8.12, 8.8].
8.8.3. REI-Dimo equivalent
This type of equivalent has been proposed by Paul Dimo within Nodal
Analysis that is an ample methodology in order to investigate the operating states
of an electric power system [8.4, 8.5, 8.6]. Fundamentals of the Nodal Analysis
consist of two basic concepts: REI diagram and nodal image. The REI (Radial,
Equivalent, Independent) diagram is a radial network, obtained by restructuring the
real network in relation to a node of interest.
Nowadays, the REI models with fictitious or equivalent nodes represent the
most important concept of the Nodal Analysis. Construction of the REI models for
the external system is based on dividing the E-nodes into more groups, and
aggregating each group into one equivalent node, referred to as a REI-node. There
is much flexibility to establish the groups of nodes after different criteria of
selection. For example, one group can include only nodes of the same nature
(generator or load) or of different nature. In this last case, a mixed REI-node will
be obtained.
The aggregation of a group of E-nodes is carried out by means of an ancillary
network, referred to as zero power balance (ZPB) network. Considering the
simplest case when all the E-nodes are aggregated into a single REI-node, the
following steps must be performed:
1. Linearization: the complex currents, injected at the E-nodes (Fig. 8.6,a),
are replaced by constant shunt admittances (Fig. 8.6,b):
*
Si Pi Qi
yi0 = *
= *
, iE
Ui Ui
where the complex nodal powers S i , i E , as well as the complex voltages

U i , i E , are known from the reference power flow;
Ii y i0 0
IF i IF i
F E F E
a. b.
Fig. 8.6. Linearization of the E-nodes.
2. Forming the ZPB network by detaching the above shunt admittances from
the ground, the node 0 remaining of zero voltage, and attaching a new branch Oe
whose extremity e is the equivalent node (Fig. 8.7). The complex power and
current, injected at the node e, must be equal to the sum of complex powers
respectively currents, injected at the E-nodes:
Se = P + jQ ,
iE
i
iE
i Ie = I
iE
i
and, in consequence, the complex voltage of the node e results:

Se
Ue = *
Ie
M y i0 0
y 0e e
i Ie
M Ue
F E
Fig. 8.7. Forming the ZPB network.
As it can be seen, the total losses in the admittances y i 0 , i E are equal to

S e . Therefore the branch Oe must be calibrated such that its losses be equal and
in opposite sign to quantity S e :
*
Se
y 0e =
U e2
Thus, the balance of power between nodes i E and node e is equal to zero.
The nodal matrix equation of the external system, extended with ZPB
network, can be written as:
[Y EE ] [Y E 0 ] [Y EF ] [0] [U E ] [0]
[Y ]
0E Y 00 [0] Y 0e 0 0
[0] [Y FF ] [0] [U F ] [I 'F ]
= (8.91)
[Y FE ]

[0] Y e0 [0] Y ee U e I e
where
Y 00 = y 0e y
iE
i0
, Y 0e = Y e 0 = y 0e , Y ee = y 0e
and [Y E 0 ] is the column vector with elements y i 0 , i E , while [Y 0 E ] = [Y E 0 ] t .

The other notations have been met before.
3. Gauss elimination of the nodes E and 0 in equation (8.91) to obtain the
nodal matrix equation:
[ ] [Y ] [U
Y rFF r
] [ ]
I 'F
[ ] Y U
F
r
Fe
r
=
(8.92)
Y eF ee e I e
corresponding to reduced network of the REI model (Fig. 8.8), in which the
remainder nodes are e and F. Thus, the state of the eliminated E-nodes is now
synthetically described by the node e.
e
IF Se
Ue
F
Fig. 8.8. The REI equivalent with one REI-node.
[ ]
r
It is important to remark that the sub-matrix Y FF in (8.92) is completely
different of that, obtained for the Ward equivalent.
Another well-known construction of the REI equivalent is based on
aggregating the generator nodes into a single REI-node, whilst the consumer nodes
are linearized, and then eliminated.
The above REI model presents the following main advantages:
it conserves the power losses in the real network for power flow reference;
it can model the reactive power control of the external network, leading to
the better results especially in case of generator or consumer contingencies.
The REI models have also some inconveniences:
it provides a full nodal admittance matrix;
it contains inherent negative admittances, some of them having the real

part of large absolute value so that the Newton-Raphson method is more
suitable to solve the power flow problem.
The external network can be more precisely modelled by using a REI
equivalent with two REI-nodes. In this case, the E-nodes are grouped after their
nature: one group with generator nodes g and the other with consumer nodes c. To
each group a ZPB network is attached, as shown in Fig. 8.9,a. By eliminating
nodes, except F, G and C, the REI equivalent is obtained, its configuration being
outlined in Fig. 8.9,b.
Possibilities of constructing the REI models are not limited to the above-
described two equivalents. There exist numerous researches that pointed out
different criteria of grouping the nodes to obtain an increasing in accuracy of the
REI models, and underlined the necessity of adapting such a study to the particular
interconnected power systems.
01 G
g G
IF IF
02 C
c C
a. b.
Fig. 8.9. Forming the REI equivalent with two REI-nodes.
Application 4
Calculate the contingencies in a studied network belonging to the network TEST,
given in Appendix 2, by using the REI-Dimo equivalent with one fictitious node for the
external network.
The studied network, chosen as shown in Figure 8.10, contains the nodes 1, 10, 11,
12, 13, whilst the external network contains the other 8 nodes.
Starting from the reference power flow, calculated with data from Appendix 2, the
ZPB network, including the node 0 and the fictitious node e = 14, was built. It is
represented by dotted lines in Figure 8.10.
Further, by using Gauss elimination of the nodes 2, , 9 and 0, the REI equivalent is
obtained. It is attached to the studied network, as shown in Figure 8.11.
The contingency analysis was performed considering the outage of the following
elements in the studied network: line 11-12, line 1-10, and generator group at node 11. The
calculation have been carried out on the complete network TEST, as well as in case of
using the REI model of the external network. The results, including the reference power
flow, are centralized in the Table 8.10.
The use of the REI model leads to the errors, denoted by , and determined for each
branch with the formula:
P Pext
[%] = 100
S lim
where: P is the active/reactive power flow in the branches of the studied network, when
the network TEST is completely represented;
Pext the active/reactive power flow in the branches of the studied network, when
the network TEST is represented by the REI model;
Slim the thermal limit of the apparent power for a given line (see Imax from
Appendix 2).
4 7
8
2
0 9
3 e=14
Se
1 10
12
~
13 11
Fig. 8.10. Delimiting studied and external network.
Ie
14(e)
y 1,14 y 10,1
y 1,10
1 10
12
~
13 11
Fig. 8.11. Studied and external network, reduced to REI equivalent.
Table 8.10
Outage of line 11 - 12 Outage of line 1 -10 Outage of generator at node 11

Lines Base case
Complete Using Complete Using Complete Using
network REI model network REI model network REI model
MW MVAr MW MVAr MW MVAr MW MVAr MW MVAr MW MVAr MW MVAr
1 - 12
115.3 -59.8 125.5 -57.2 125.9 -56.7 -95.6 -53.9 101.2 -46.7 120.7 -59.9 120.8 -63
(1)
Performance methods for power flow studies
1 - 12
115.3 -59.8 125.5 -57.2 125.9 -56.7 -95.6 -53.9 101.2 -46.7 120.7 -59.9 120.8 -63
(2)
1 - 10 56.9 19.8 74.8 15.9 73.9 16.4 - - - - 66.2 22.3 66.3 23.4
10 - 11 160.6 -78.4 140.4 -84.5 140.3 -84.2 200.8 -92.4 191.4 -99.3 150.0 -73.2 144.3 -89.2
11 - 12 -58.8 -14.9 - - - - -91.9 -10 -84.0 -10.1 112.6 -34.4 108.9 5.1
11 - 13 57.5 33.9 19.8 40.4 19.9 40.4 46.6 35.1 49.4 36.0 39.4 26.6 43.6 48.6
12 - 13 94.1 41.8 132.4 39.1 132.4 39.1 105.1 41.4 102.6 41.9 112.6 51 112.2 52.2
553
It is easily to find that the obtained errors are generally small. They take values less
than 1% for line contingencies. Related to these, the errors for group contingency are larger,
taking values in the intervals 0.03-1.29% for P and 0.03-11.85% for Q .
8.8.4. Equivalent with ideal transformers (EIT)

The equivalent with ideal transformers has been proposed in [8.14] in order
to be applied to the transient stability analysis but it can be also used to steady-sate
studies. The principle of building this type of equivalent, exposed below, consists
in aggregating the E-nodes in a different way than that of REI-Dimo method. Thus,
the complex currents, injected at the E-nodes, are regarded as current flows on
ideal transformer branches, connected to one equivalent node, denoted e, with
voltage U e and injected current I e , as shown in Figure 8.12. Since all the ideal
transformer branches have the impedance equal to zero, the set of these branches
will be referred to as zero power loss (ZPL) network.
M Ii Nie Iei e I
e
i
M Ue
F E
Fig. 8.12. Forming the ZPL network.
Obvious, the ideal transformers have complex transformation ratios, their

operation being described by the equations:
1
U i = N ie U e , I i = I , iE
* ei
(8.93)
N ie
reflecting the invariance of the complex apparent power at passage from the
primary side to the secondary one.
The voltage U e may be arbitrary chosen providing that its value be different
of zero, and then the quantities N ie , i E are calculated from the first equations
(8.93). Also, it can be observed that the complex apparent power, injected at the
node e, is equal to the sum of the complex apparent powers, injected at the
E-nodes.
Under the above conditions, the reduced network will keep only the nodes e
and F, and the problem is the search for its nodal equations. For that purpose, the
following procedure can be performed:
1. The matrix equations (8.86) of the original unreduced external system are
written in the form:

I i = Y ik U k + Y if U f , i E
kE f F
' (8.94)

I f = Y fi U i + Y ff U f , f F
iE
2. The expressions of the quantities I i , U i , U k , resulted from (8.93), are

replaced into the equations (8.94). Finally, it results:
k E
f F

I ei = Y ik N *ie N ke U e + Y if N *ie U f , i E
' (8.95)
iE

I f = Y fi N ie U e + Y ff U f , f F
3. Since I e = I
iE
ei , by summing the first set of equations (8.95), the nodal
equations of the reduced equivalent are obtained, as:

I e =

iE kE
Y ik N ie N ke U e +
*

*
Y if N ie U f
iE f F (8.96)

I = Y N U + Y U , f F
'
f iE fi ie e ff f
or, in the general form:
f F

I e = Y ee U e + Y ef U f
(8.97)
I = Y U + Y U , f F
'
f fe e ff f
where the complex admittances are calculated with the relations:

Y ee = *
Y ik N ie N ke
iE k E

*
Y ef = Y if N ie , f F (8.98)
iE
Y = Y N , f F
fe

iE
fi ie
The expressions (8.98) point out a simple and direct way to calculate
EIT admittances. The equivalent configuration is outlined in Figure 8.13 where the
shunt admittances are also shown. Their expressions are:
Y e 0 = Y ee Y
f F
ef
Y f0 =Y ff Y fe , f F
f Yfe Yef e Ie
IF
Yf0 Ye0
Fig. 8.13. EIT configuration.
The main properties of the obtained equivalent can be summarized as

follows:
1. Because of non-reciprocal admittances (Y fe Y ef ) , its nodal admittance
matrix is entirely non-symmetrical;
2. EIT keeps both the losses of the original external system and sparsity of
the nodal admittance matrix;
3. There are no negative admittances in the EIT structure;
4. The G / B ratios of branch admittances are small as in initial network, so
that the power flow problem may be successfully solved by using the fast
decoupled method. For that purpose the computer programs have to be
adjusted in conformity with the property 1, since the coefficient matrices in
equations (8.61) and (8.62) are non-symmetrical.
The modelling of reactive power control from the external system can be also
obtained by regrouping the E-nodes separately for the generator and load nodes, as
shown for the REI-Dimo equivalent. In this case, it is necessary to construct two
ZPL networks, finally obtaining two fictitious nodes: G and C [8.7].
Notice that, EIT simultaneously includes the advantages of the other two
equivalents, discussed before: Ward and REI-Dimo.
8.8.5. Updating of the static equivalents

As shown before, to calculate an equivalent of the external system, a
reference power flow must be known. Usually, such an equivalent may be also
used in contingency analysis of the studied system for another power flow close
enough to that of reference.
If the reference power flow changes because of a significant modification of
the network structure, as well as of the nodal powers, the existing equivalent must
be updated. In this case, the state estimator of the studied system plays an
important role by providing on-line information on the complex voltages of the
boundary nodes, and on the power flows trough the interconnecting lines.
Generally, the following three cases are to be discussed:
1. Any information on the external system is not available.
In this case, it is obvious that a Ward equivalent cannot be determined.
A simplified REI equivalent can be obtained since the voltages of the

F-nodes and the power flows, directed to the external system, are known due to the
state estimator. This time, a ZPB network, constructed following the algorithm
from 8.8.3, is directly added to the boundary nodes. Nevertheless, this type of REI
equivalent is more preferred in off-line studies. In the real time applications, a
better solution consists in extending the functions of the state estimator on a
tampon zone of the external network in the immediate vicinity of the studied
system. Thus, the ZPB network will be attached to the boundary nodes, situated
beyond the mentioned zone [8.6].
In a similar way, a simplified EIT equivalent with a single fictitious node can
be obtained by attaching a ZPL network to the boundary nodes.
2. An equivalent of the external network is available. If the power flows,
calculated with this equivalent, already connected to the boundary nodes, are much
different of those measured, it is necessary to update the existing equivalent.
As shown above, since the complex voltages U f , f F and the complex
apparent powers, injected to the external network, are known, it is possible to
calculate the supplementary powers S f that must be injected at the F-nodes in
order to maintain the actual state of the boundary nodes, determined by the state
estimator. This procedure is suitable to update an available Ward equivalent or REI
equivalent, providing that the obtained updating can be verified for some concrete
contingencies.
Another variant to update a REI equivalent consists in using a corrective ZPB
network, attached to the F-nodes, and calculated as follows:
a) Determine the branch admittances of the corrective network (Fig. 8.14,b):
*
' S f '
*
S F
y0 f = , f F; y 0e =
U 2f U e2
Sf e Se Se
f f
e
F F
a. b.
Fig. 8.14. Updating the REI equivalent.
where S F is the complex power through the branch e-O:
S F = S
f F
f
b) By Gauss elimination of the node O, the updated REI equivalent results,

having the initial configuration and the power, injected at the node e:
'
S e = S e + S F
3. Complete information on the external network, together with a reference
power flow, is available. In this case, a new reduced model of the external system,
as WI, REI or EIT, is constructed, and then will be updated by fictitious injections
of power at the boundary nodes each time when their state change, as indicated at
the point 2.
Appendix 8.1
SPECIFIC ASPECTS OF THE POWER FLOW COMPUTATION
OF LARGE ELECTRIC NETWORKS
The power flow computation represents a problem that can be as a principle solved
by the methods, exposed in the chapters 2 and 8. Mathematically, by linearizing and,
sometimes, particularizing a nonlinear system of equations, this problem is reduced to the
solving of a linear system. At the first view, solving such a system does not imply
difficulties, since the classical methods from the linear system theory can be used.
However, the power flow computation for the great networks, having usually the
number of nodes by hundreds, even by thousands, necessitates taking into account some
specific aspects regarding algorithm programming in a given frame of computer
performances. These aspects are shown in the following.
Formalizing the problem and transforming the real network into an ideal one
One of major preoccupations of the programmers is that to implement algorithms,
able to be applied to as great as possible number of networks. For that purpose, the
networks must be uniquely described. This means:
Formalizing the problem; the action consists in working the entering data so that
they be easily and coherently recognized by an implemented algorithm;
Transforming the real network into an ideal one by modifying the network
topology in order to simulate the shutting of coupling devices and to transform the
parallel branches into a single one.
Memorizing (storing) the sparse matrices
For a network with n nodes and l links, the nodal admittance matrix contains
complex elements from which only n diagonal and 2 l off-diagonal elements are non-
zero. The filling coefficient of this matrix is defined by the ratio of the sum of non-zero
elements to the total number of elements:
n + 2l
= (A.1)
n2
In the great electric power networks the ratio l / n has an average value of 1.3. By
replacing this value in (A.1), it results = 3.6 / n. Hence, for the networks whose number
of nodes is comprised between 100 and 1000, the quantity takes values between 3.6% and
0.36%. It follows that the memorizing and computing effort can be spectacularly reduced if
the sparsity of the nodal admittance matrix and Jacobian will be taken into consideration in
algorithm programming.
Memorizing these matrices implies memorizing the diagonal and non-zero off-
diagonal elements, as well as the matrix structure, as follows:
The diagonal elements are stored into a complex n-dimensional vector for nodal
admittance matrix, and into sub-matrices of dimension 22 for Jacobian (denoted
YD, and respectively JD);
The non-zero off-diagonal elements are stored into a complex 2l-dimensional
vector for nodal admittance matrix, and into sub-matrices of dimension 22 for
Jacobian (denoted YND, and respectively JND).
The matrix structure (common for both above mentioned matrices) is stored by using
three chain-coupled lists, usually named LOC, KOL and NEXT. The dimension and stored
information of these vectors are given below:
LOC n-dimensional vector of integer numbers. For the current node i, the order
number of the first link of i is k = LOC(i), whilst YD(i) and JD(i) respectively, store the
diagonal elements of the respective matrices;
KOL 2l-dimensional vector of integer numbers. For the current link i j,
corresponding to the position m in the list of branches, the order numbers of the nodes i and
j are: KOL(2m) = j and KOL(2m+1) = i. The values of this link are stored in the
corresponding positions 2m, 2m+1 of YND and JND, respectively;
NEXT 2l-dimensional vector of integer numbers. For each node, the order
(increasing or decreasing) of node links is stored in the vector NEXT.
To illustrate the technique of storing the nodal admittance matrix with the aid of the
chain-coupled lists, a network structure with 6 nodes and 7 branches is considered, as
shown in Figure A.1.1, where the matrix Y nn , and a certain order of branch reading are
specified.
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 2 5 Order of
branch 1 Y11 Y12 Y14
reading: 2 Y21 Y22 Y25 Y26
1. 25
2. 63 3 Y33 Y36
4 6 3. 14
4 Y41 Y44 Y46
4. 12
5. 56 5 Y52 Y55 Y56
3 6. 62
7. 64 6 Y62 Y63 Y64 Y65 Y66
Fig. A.1.1. Example of network.
In conformity with the above definitions, the structure and admittance vectors are
filled in, as follows:
1 2 3 4 5 6
YD Y 11 Y 22 Y 33 Y 44 Y 55 Y 66
1 2 3 4 5 6
LOC 5 1 4 6 2 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
YND Y 25 Y 52 Y 63 Y 36 Y 14 Y 41 Y 12 Y 21 Y 56 Y 65 Y 62 Y 26 Y 64 Y 46
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
KOL 5 2 3 6 4 1 2 1 6 5 2 6 4 6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
NEXT 8 9 10 0 7 14 0 12 0 11 13 0 0 0
To better understand the utilization of these vectors, a sequence of inspecting the

links of node 6 is presented. Thus:
1. In position k = LOC(6) = 3 there is the first link of the node 6 with the node
j = KOL(3) =3; the link 6 3 have the value YND(3); the next link of the node 6
is k = NEXT(3) = 10;
2. The node 6 is now connected to the node j = KOL(10) =5; the link 6 5 has the
value YND(10); the next link of the node 6 is k = NEXT(10) = 11;
value YND(11); the next link of the node 6 is k = NEXT(11) = 13;
value YND(13); the next link of the node 6 is k = NEXT(13) = 0. Hence, all the
links of the node 6 have been verified.
A memorizing structure, similar to that described above, has been developed once
with appearance of programming languages, which allowed the utilization of memory
addresses and data structures. For example, the following data structure is convenient for
the network branches:
i j Y ij Y ji Next_i Next_j
where: i, j are the order numbers of the nodes which define the branch;
Y ij , Y ji the values of the branch admittances;
Next_i address of the next link of the node i;
Next_j address of next link of the node j.
The data structure for the nodes can be chosen of the form:
i Y ii Loc
where: i is the order number of the node; Y ii the value of the diagonal element; Loc
address of first link of the node i.
Solving the sets of linear equations
Obtaining solution of power flow problem by a Newton type method always leads to
solving a linear set of equations, written in matrix general form as
Ax=b (A.2)
where A is the nn coefficient matrix, x the n1 unknown vector and b a known n1
right-hand side vector.
To solve such a system there exist many methods, from which the most known are:
Gauss elimination, Gauss-Jordan elimination and LU-factorization. Many authors prefer the
last method, due to its advantages, related to the saving memory and computing time.
It is assumed that the matrix A can be subjected to a triangular factorization as:
A=LU (A.3)
where L is a lower triangular matrix, whilst U is a upper triangular matrix, both of

dimension nn.
The factorization (A.3) can be written in developed form. For example, if n = 4, it
becomes:
a11 a12 a13 a14 l11 0 0 0 u11 u12 u13 u14

a a24 l21 l22
21 a22 a23 0 0 0 u 22 u 23 u 24
= (A.4)
a31 a32 a33 a34 l31 l32 l33 0 0 0 u33 u34

a41 a42 a43 a44 l41 l42 l43 l44 0 0 0 u 44
where the non-zero elements of the matrices L and U, which are to be calculated, are
pointed out.
The factorization (A.3) is used to solving two triangular systems of equations derived
from (A.2), namely:
Ly=b (A.5,a)
and
Ux=y (A.5,b)
whose solutions can be easily found. Firstly, the equation (A.5a) is solved for the
intermediate vector y by forward substitution:
b1 1 i 1
y1 =
l11
, yi =
lii
b
i l ii y j
, i = 2, 3, ..., n,

(A.6,a)
j =1
afterwards, the equation (A.5b) is solved for x by back substitution:
yn 1 n
xn =
u nn
, xi =
uii
y
i uij x j , i = n 1, n 2, ..., 1

(A.6,b)
j = i +1
It is obvious that, after factorizing matrix A, any equation, having A as coefficient
matrix and different right-hand side vectors, can be rapidly solved. This observation is very
important for the fast decoupled methods exposed before.
To compute the elements of L and U, it can be observed that for an nn matrix A, the
matrices L and U have together n 2 + n unknowns. These can be determined by a compact
procedure of identifying the n 2 elements of A with corresponding elements of the product
LU, getting n 2 equations. Since the number of unknowns is larger with n than that of
equations, a number of n elements of the product LU must be specified. In practice, the
diagonal elements of L or U are chosen to be equal to unity. Thus, by choosing L with
diagonal unity elements, i.e.:
lii = 1, i = 1, 2, ..., n (A.7)
the LU factorisation of the matrix A can be obtained by Crouts algorithm, as follows:

For each j = 1, 2, , n the following steps are to be performed:
i 1
1. uij = aij l
k =1
ik u kj , i = 1, 2, ..., j (A.8,a)
1 j 1
2. lij =
u jj
a
ij lik u kj , i = j + 1, j + 2, ..., n

(A.8,b)
k =1
The sums in the right-hand side of (A.8a), and respectively (A.8b), are considered to
be equal to zero for i = 1, and respectively for j = 1.
By examining relations (A.8,a) and (A.8,b), it follows that a certain a ij is used only
once, such that l ij or u ij can be stored into the place of a ij in the matrix A. For example,
in the particular case (A.4), it results:
u11 u12 u13 u14
l u 23 u 24
21 u 22 (A.9)
l31 l32 u33 u34

l41 l42 l43 u 44
It can be also observed that, the unknown vector x can be stored into the right-hand
side vector b.
Determining order of node elimination
From relations (A.8), it follows that, during the process of factorisation, the
appearance of the elements l ij or u ij is possible even if the element a ij does not exist in
initial matrix A. In consequence, the filling coefficient of A increases, leading to
increasing in the necessary memory for storing the factorised matrix, as well as in the
computing time.
To conserve as much as possible the sparsity of the matrix A, it is necessary to
change, into a certain way, the order of the matrix rows or, in other words, the node
numbering, to minimize the number of the new elements, introduced by the factorising
process. This procedure is called ordering, and the entire factorisation process is known as
ordered factorisation.
Among the methods of node ordering, met in the literature, those proposed in [8.19],
[8.20] are the most known. Thus, one of the three methods, exposed below, based on the
number of the node links, can perform the node ordering, as follows:
1. The nodes are rearranged in the increasing order of their number of links; this
order is kept constant until the end of the factorising process;
2. Before eliminating each node, the remainder nodes are rearranged in the
increasing order of their number of links;
3. Before eliminating each node, the elimination of all the remainder nodes is
simulated to find the node, which introduces the minimal number of new links;
this is the next node to be eliminated.
The first method is the simplest one but it cannot control the sparsity during the
factorisation.
The third method ensures the best conservation of sparsity but it necessitates large
memory and computing time. Therefore its using is limited.
The second method is the most used because it performs an acceptable compromise
between the saving of memory and that of time.
Appendix 8.2
STRUCTURE AND STEADY STATE DATA OF THE NETWORK TEST
The structure of the network TEST comprises 5 power stations, 8 power substations
and 15 transmission lines with simple or double circuits, as shown in Figure A.2.1. The
nodal and line data are given in the next tables.
5
~ 6
4 7
8 ~
3
2 9
~
1 10
12
~
~
13 11
Fig. A.2.1. Single-line diagram of the network TEST.
Table A.2.1
Nodal data
Node Type Pg Qg Pc Qc Qmin Qmax U
[MW] [MVAr] [MW] [MVAr] [MVAr] [MVAr] [kV]
1 PQ 0 0 250 155 - - 220
2 PU 255 - 0 0 0 190 230*
3 PQ 0 0 60 35 - - 220
4 PQ 0 0 190 130 - - 220
5 PU 240 - 0 0 0 180 225*
6 PQ 0 0 220 135 - - 220
7 PU 240 - 0 0 0 180 225*
8 PQ 0 0 60 35 - - 220
9 PQ 0 0 130 70 - - 220
10 PQ 0 0 200 140 - - 220
11 PU 165 - 0 0 - 60 160 233*
12 SN - - 0 0 0 300 235*
13 PQ 0 0 150 90 - - 220
The superscript asterisk in Table A.2.1 indicates specified voltage values.
Table A.2.2
Lines data
Link Number R X B Imax
i - j of [] [] [S] [A]
circuits
1-2 1 9.90 60.6 416 875
1 - 10 1 5.50 31.5 202 875
1 - 12 1 9.80 62.8 406 875
1 - 12 2 9.80 62.8 406 875
2-3 1 5.30 32.3 222 875
2-4 1 7.40 45.2 311 875
4-5 1 4.00 24.2 167 875
5-6 1 6.60 41.8 272 875
5-6 2 6.60 41.8 272 875
6-7 1 6.65 37.9 243 875
7-8 1 4.60 28.3 195 875
7-9 1 4.00 24.2 167 875
9 - 10 1 5.30 32.3 222 875
10 - 11 1 7.90 4.85 333 875
11 - 13 1 5.30 32.3 222 875
11 - 12 1 3.60 22.2 153 875
12 - 13 1 5.50 33.5 230 875
The quantity Imax in Table A.2.2 represents the thermal limit of the phase current.
Chapter references
[8.1] Alsac, O., Stott, B., Tinney, W. F. Sparsity-oriented compensation methods for
modified network solutions, IEEE Trans. on PAS, Vol. 102, No.5, pp. 1050
1060, May 1983.
[8.2] Van Amerongen, R.A.M. A general-purpose version of the fast decoupled load
flow, IEEE Trans. on PWRS, Vol. 4, pp. 760 770, May 1989.
[8.3] Bucur, C.M., Popeea, C.A., Simion, GH. Matematici speciale. Calcul numeric
(Special mathematics. Numerical calculus), Editura Didactic i Pedagogic,
Bucureti, 1983.
[8.4] Dimo, P. Nodal analysis of power systems. Abacus Press, Kent, England, 1975.
[8.5] Dimo, P. Modele REI i indicatori de stare. Sisteme electroenergetice
interconectate (REI models and state indicators. Interconnected power systems),
Editura Academiei Romne, Bucureti, 1979.
[8.6] Dimo, P. Les rseaux REI, support conceptual pour linformatique des rseaux
d'nergie, Bull. de la DER, Srie B, No. 2, 1982.
[8.7] Eremia, M., Criciu, H., Ungureanu, B., Bulac, C. Analiza asistat de calculator
a regimurilor sistemelor electroenegetice (Computer aided analysis of the electric
power systems regimes), Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 1985.
[8.9] Gross, C. A. Power system analysis. 2nd Edition, John Wiley, New York, 1986.
[8.10] Housos, E.C., Irisarri, G., Porter, R.M., Sasson, A.M. Steady-state network
equivalents for power system planning applications, IEEE Trans. on PAS, Vol. 99,
No. 6, pp. 2113 2120, November/December 1980.
[8.11] Jukov, L.A., Stratan, I.P. Steady-states of complex electric networks and systems.
Methods of calculation (in Russian), Energy Publisher, Moscow, 1979.
[8.12] Monticelli, A., Deckman, S., Garcia, A., Stott, B. Real-time external equivalents
for static security analysis, IEEE Trans. on PAS, Vol. 98, No. 2, pp. 489 508,
March/April 1979.
[8.13] Poeat, A., Arie, A., Crian, O., Eremia, M., Buta, A., Alexandrescu, V.
[8.14] Podmore, R., Germond, A. Development of dynamic equivalent for transient
stability studies, EPRI Research Project 763, Final report, April 1979.
[8.15] Potolea, E. Calculul regimurilor de funcionare a sistemelor electroenergetice
(Computation of the operation states of the electric power systems), Editura
[8.16] Stott, B. Effective starting process for Newton-Raphson load-flow, IEE Proc.,
Vol. 118, pp. 983 987, August 1971.
[8.17] Stott, B., Alsac, D., Fast decoupled load flow, IEEE Trans. on PAS, Vol. 93, pp.
859 869, May/June 1974.
[8.18] Stratan, I.P., Neretin, V.L., Spivak, V.L. Calculation and analysis of electric
power systems (in Russian), Scientific Publisher, Chiinu, 1990.
[8.19] Tinney, W.F., Hart, C.E. Power flow solution by Newtons method, IEEE Trans.
on PAS, Vol. 86, No. 11, pp. 1449 1461, November 1967.
[8.20] Tinney, W.F., Brandwajn, V., Chan, S.M. Sparse vector methods, IEEE Trans.
on PAS, Vol. 104, pp. 295 301, February 1985.
[8.21] Tinney, W.F., Bright, J.M. Adaptive reduction for power flow equivalents, IEEE
Trans. on PWRS, Vol. 2, No.2, pp. 351 360, May 1987.
[8.22] Tinney, W.F., Walker, J.W. Direct solution of sparse network equations by
optimally ordered triangular factorization. Proc. IEE, Vol. 55, pp. 1801 1809,
November 1967.
[8.23] Ward, J.B. Equivalents circuits for power flow studies. AIEE Trans., Vol. 68, pp.
373 382, 1949.
[8.24] Weedy, B.M. Electric power systems. 3rd Edition, John Wiley, NewYork, 1979.
Chapter 9
STATE ESTIMATION OF ELECTRIC
POWER SYSTEMS
9.1. Some general aspects

The human organism is more complicated than a power system is, but referring
to their state it is possible to establish some correlation, because the state may be
evaluated through the knowledge of some measured quantities called state
parameters. For a person, the measured quantities could be the body temperature,
blood pressure, pulse, blood formula, etc. If all of the state parameters are on normal
limits, except one of them body temperature for instance, is 40 C (107.6 F)
there are two possibilities: a) the patient is dead (meanwhile); b) the patient is alive
but the information that refers to the body temperature was wrongly registered. If the
patient is standing behind the physician the conclusion is clear: 40 C is a wrong
value and must be remeasured.
The state of a power system is completely well known if the state vector (9.1)
is determined:
[x]t = [1, 2 , K, n , U1, U 2 ,K, U n ] (9.1)
where i and Ui are the voltage angle and module of the node i. The angles of nodal
voltages are not measurable but the modules are easily measurable if the state
vector is known and it is possible to compute all the active and reactive injected
powers, power flows, power looses, efficiency of transfer, hourly cost of
generation, marginal costs, etc. Using the nodal admittance matrix [Ynn], it results:
Pi= U U Y cos (
jn
i j ij i j ij ) (9.2,a)
Qi= U U Y sin (
jn
i j ij i j ij ) (9.2,b)
( ) ( )
Pij = U i2 yij cos ij U iU j yij cos i j ij + U i2 +U 2j y ij 0 cos ij 0 (9.2,c)
(
Pji=U 2j yij cos ij U jU i yij cos j i ij ) (9.2,d)
( ) (
Qij= U i2 yij sin ij U iU j yij sin i j ij U i2+U 2j yij 0 sin ij 0 ) (9.2,e)
(
Q ji= U 2j yij sin ij U jU i yij sin j i ij ) (9.2,f)
y ij=yij ij ; y ij 0 = yij 0 ij 0 (9.2,g)
The meanings of the notations from (9.2) are depicted in Figure 9.1.
Sij i yij j Sji

Fig. 9.1. Incident branch to
Vi yij0 yji0 Vj nodes i and j. Equivalent
circuit.
In the steady state evaluation the data of consumers and sources for a system
with known structure (Ynn) are used. The state estimation uses the measurement
quantities P, Q, E (measured voltage magnitude) and the matrix Ynn that offer all
information about system structure. Unfortunately nobody is perfect! The
estimation could be complicated because of P, Q, E telemetry; some quantities are
metered with errors. Also, system configuration can have structure errors because
of possible errors in the switch position.
The estimator is an algorithm that identifies the existence of some errors of
measurements or of structure, corrects or eliminates them and computes the final
and correct system state.
The number of state variables (9.1) is (2n1) because the reference axis is the
slack node axis with SB = 0. The number of measurements, m, is greater than (2n1):
m=3n + 4l > 7 n >> (2n 1) (9.3)
For every node, the injected active and reactive powers and the nodal voltage
are known. Every branch is characterized by four power flows active and reactive
(at sending and receiving ends). The number of redundant measurements is:
mr = m (2n 1) (9.4)
It is easy to accept ideas that a good redundancy amplifies the chance of

estimator to solve the problem if the measurements have a good spatial
distribution. If the number of information is less than (2n1) or the distribution of
measurements is not well through the system, the calculation of the state vector is
not possible and the system is not observable. If enough measurements are
available to make state estimation possible, the network is considered to be
observable. If a system is not observable, it is still useful to know which portion
has a state that can be estimated. Those positions are observable islands, and to
obtain the entire system observable, the pseudo measurements are used.
The measurements are of the following type:
1. Voltage magnitude Ek at node k;
2. Active and reactive powers:
State estimation of electric power systems 569
power flow Pij (Qij) on branch ij;

sum of power flows Pij (Qij) on a designated group of branches;
injected powers Pi (Qi) into node i;
3. Current flow Iij and injected current Ii;
4. Management of transformer turns ratio tij.
The pseudo measurements are the following:
1. Target voltage magnitude E kps at node k;
2. Active and reactive powers:
target flow Pijps and Qijps on branch ij;
3. Target current flow I ijps and injection I ips ;
4. Upper and lower limit of turns ratio tijlim .
9.2. Simple application

In order to anticipate the mechanism of estimation (Fig. 9.2) let us assume the
existence of two information, current (I) and voltage (U); the unknown quantity is, for
instance, the voltage E. The functions referred to the measurement of the state variable E are:
z1 = I ; z 2 = U ; x = E
x xR2
f1 (x ) = ; f 2 (x ) =
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
I R1
A
Fig. 9.2. Simple circuit. E, r = 0 U V R2
It results two equations with one unknown quantity, an overdetermined system of

linear equations, solved generally as weighted least squares (WLS) problem. The best value
of voltage E minimizes the performance index J(x) defined as follows:
ek2
J (x ) =
kn
2
k
(9.5)
where: ek = z k f k (x ) is the random error;

2k the measurement variance value.
In the present case:

2 2
1 x 1 xR2
J (x ) = z1 + 2 z 2 MIN
12 R1 + R2 2 R1 + R2
Differentiating the performance index with respect to x, it results the estimated value:
z z R +
x = 12 + 2 2 2 R1 R 22
1 2 1 R 2
+
12 22
Assuming R1 = 1 , R2 = 3 , and the measurements z1 = 1.5 A, z2 = 6 V, with

1 = 1 A and 2 = 1 V, it results:
x1 = 7.8 V
How can be appreciated this result? Computing the values of both measurements, it
is natural to compare with z1 and z2:
( ) ( )
f 1 x1 = 1.95 A; r1 = z1 f 1 x1 = 1.5 1.95 = 0.45 A
f 2 (x1) = 5.85 V; r2 = z 2 f 2 (x1) = 6 5.85 = 0.15 V
Comparing both weighted residues in absolute value:

r1 r r
> 2 = rw
1 2
If rw1 > rw 2 means that the wrong measurement is the current. It is possible to
continue in two ways: the first way consists in the elimination of the suspect measurement,
and the second one consists in the correction of the suspect measurement.
Eliminating z1, obtain:
z 2 (R1+R2 )
x 2 = =8 V
R2
and the current should be:
~z = 2 A
1
The quantity z1 is then corrected:
1 1 x( )
~z = f 1 = 1.95 A ; z = 6 V
2
Computing x, it results:
x 2 = 7.98 V
rP1 =
~ ( )
z1 f 1 x 2
= 1.95 1.995 = 0.045
1
rP 2 =
( )
z 2 f 2 x 2
= 6 5.985 = 0.015
2
After the second correction, the voltage E is:
x 3 = 7.998 V
The interactive process is here convergent and will be stopped when the difference
between two successive values of x in below a specified limit, such as x = 0.05. Because:
x 3 x 2 = 0.018 < 0.05, STOP

If for the same case the measurement of voltage is more accurate and assuming:
1 1
= 1; 2 = 3
12 2
it is obtained:
x = 7.928 V
1
( )
f 1 x1 = 1.982 A rw1 =
r1
1
= 0.482
( )
f 2 x1 = 5.946 V rw2 =
r2 0.054
2
= = 0.0935
1/ 3
Correcting ~z 1 = 1.982 A , z 2 remains the same, then:
x 2 = 7.997 V
The convergence is faster if the correct measurement is more accurate.
The state estimation problem is usually defined mathematically as a weighted
least squares (WLS) problem [9.5], solved traditionally iteratively by the normal
equations (NE). The great advantage of the NE method is that the gain matrix can
be easily factorised using well-known sparsity techniques. The NE approach can
handle zero injection, by assigning much larger weights for the zero injection
equations [9.6, 9.2]. The artificially large weights may cause ill conditioning
problems thus degrading the convergence. Orthogonal transformations based
method [9.8 9.12] has been used to alleviate the ill conditioning problems. The
formulation of WLS with equality constraints has been suggested to handle zero
injections. After a Lagrange multipliers based method was applied, the so-called
Hachtels augmented matrix method for solving least squares problems has been
applied. The Hachtels method is numerically more robust than the method of SE
with equality constraints.
Although NE/C and Hachtels augmented methods [9.12 9.16] are robust,
their weakness is that the corresponding gain matrices are symmetric but indefinite
and the factorisation routines must be modified to handle zero pivots during the
Gauss elimination. Ordinary sparsity-oriented pivoting scheme for symmetric
matrices may lead to numerical stability problems. Asymmetric factorisation can be
obtained using a mixture of 11 and 22 pivots. The least absolute value estimator
is solved by means of a linear programming (LP) algorithm.
The main problem of the interior point (IP) methods is that all the constraints
are represented in the model, causing significant computational burden [9.17 9.20]
computational efficiency of a new fast decoupled state estimator based on the
equivalent current measurement and rectangular coordinates is increased as
compare to direct application of an IP optimisation algorithm. A new method
enforces equality and limit constraints in WLS state estimation. Computational
efficiency is increased as compared to direct application of an IP optimisation
algorithm. Self-scaling Givens rotations are used for the numerically robust
solution of the problem [9.21].
9.3. The estimator

The fundamental relationship between measurements and the state vector is
as follows:
[Z ] = [ f ( [x] ) ] + [e] (9.6)
where: [Z] is the vector of measurements P, Q, E, with dimension m 1;
[x] the state vector, (2n 1) 1;
[f] the vector of nonlinear functions referring to measurements and state
variables;
[e] the vector of random errors, with dimension m 1.
The system (9.6) is overdetermined because m > (2n 1), therefore, the
performance index may be defined as follows:
J ( [x ] ) = [ [Z ] [ f ( [x ] ) ] ] t [W ] [ [Z ] [ f ( [x ] ) ] ] MIN (9.7)
The overdetermined systems are solved using the weighted least squares
method (WLS) [9.1 9.4]. If the number of equations is higher than the number of
unknown quantities it is impossible to get an exact solution. In that case, the best
solution results by minimisation of the sum of weighted errors. The relation (9.7)
represents the sum of weighted squares errors:
1
J ( [x ] )= e 2
k
k m 2k
The weighted matrix W is of diagonal type with terms 1/2. The minimisation
of the performance index is obtained by equating with zero its partial derivatives
with respect to the quantities U and :
J ( [x ] )
( [x ] ) = 2 [F ( [x ] ) ] t [W ] [ [Z ] [ f ( [x ] ) ]] (9.8)

where [F] is the Jacobian matrix. Thus,
[F ( [x] ) ] t [W ] [ [Z ] [ f ( [x] ) ] ] = [0] (9.9)
[ ]
Assuming the set of initial values x 0 and accepting the first order correction
of the Taylor series expansion,
[x] = [x 0 ]+ [x 0 ]
[ f ( [x] ) ] = [ f ( [x 0 ] )]+ [ f ( [x] )] [x 0 ] = [ f ( [x 0 ] )]+ [F ( [x 0 ] )][x 0 ]
(9.10)
[x ] 0
The relation (9.9) becomes:
[F ( [x ]+ [x ] ) ] [W ] ( [Z ] [ (x ) ] [F ( [x ] ) ] [x ] ) = [0]
0 0
t
0 0 0
(9.11)
For a small variation vector it is possible to be accepted:
[F ( [x] ) ] [F ( [x 0 ] ) ] (9.12)
and therefore
[F ( [x ] ) ] [W ] ( [Z ] [ f ( [x ] ) ] [F ( [x ] ) ][x ] ) = 0
0
t
0 0 0
[F ( [x ] )] [W ][F ( [x ] ) ][x ] = [F ( [x ] ) ] [W ] ( [Z ] [ f ( [x ] ) ] )
0
t
0 0 0
t
0
or for the k iteration
[F ( [x ] )] [W ] [F ( [x ] ) ][x ] = [F ( [x ] ) ] [W ]([Z ] [ f ( [x ] ) ] )
k
t
k k k
t
k
(9.13)
The product:
[F ( [x ] ) ] [W ] [F ( [x ] ) ] = [G ( [x ] ) ]
k
t
k k
(9.14)
is called gain matrix.

The relation:
[G ( [x ] ) ][x ] = [F ( [x ] ) ] [W ] ( [Z ] [ f ( [x ] ) ] )
k k k
t
k
(9.15)
represents the estimator. Solving the system (9.15) it results the corrections [xk] so
that:
[x ] = [x ]+ [x ]
k +1 k k
(9.16)
Usually, the set of initial values for the state vector is 0 = [0] and U 0 = [U n ] . [ ] [ ]
The iterative calculation finishes, if the process is convergent by the rule
imposed by operator, comparing the maximum difference between variables from
two successive iterations:
xik +1 xik < x , i, i (2n 1)
Decoupling, the estimator operates distinctly on the relations P ~ and

Q, E ~ U respectively:
[ ] = [G ( [x ] ) ] [F ( [x ] ) ] [W ] ( [P] [P( [ ], [U ] ) ] )
k
P
k 1
P
k
t P
k k
(9.17)
and
[U ] = [G ( [x ] )] [F ( [x ] ) ] [W ] ( [Q, E ] [Q( [ ][U ] ) ] )

k
QE
k 1
QE
k
t QE
k k
(9.18)
9.4. Two-node system

The best way to understand the estimation mechanism is a simple application. Let us
consider a two-node system (Fig. 9.3).
NG(NE) NC
1 2
C LT
Fig. 9.3. Two-node system.
The nodes data are:
P2 = 400 MW ; Q2 = 3.62 MVAr ; U1 = 420 kV ; 1 = 0
The branches data are:
y12 = j 10 2 S ; y10 = j 2.8 10 4 S
The branch 12 is an overhead line of 400 kV, 300 km length and the branch 10
represents an inductive consumer of 50 MVAr.
Q 50
y10 = j 2
=j 2
= j 2.8 10 4 S
U 420
Calculating the steady state, it results:
P1 = 400 MW ; Q1 = 150 MVAr ; 2 = 13.51 ; U 2 = 401,48 kV

P12 = 400 MW ; P21 = 400 MW ; Q12 = 100 MVAr ; Q 21 = 3.62 MVAr
P10 = 0 ; Q10 = 50 MVAr
Of the 12 measurements, the set of interest is consisting of 8:
[Z ]t = [P1 , P2 , P12 , Q1 , Q2 , Q12 , E1 , E2 ] (9.19)
The state vector will have three terms:
[x] t = [2 , U1, U 2 ] (9.20)
Thus, the overdetermined system has 8 equations and 3 unknown values, and the
Jacobian matrix will be:
2 U1 U2
U n2Y12
1
U n2Y12
2 P
U n2Y12
12 2U nY11
1 U nY12
U nY12 (9.21)
[F ] = 2U nY11
2 Q
U nY12
12 U nY12
U nY12 U nY12
1
1
2 E
1
The Jacobian matrix (9.21) have been computed assuming the following hypotheses:

G = 0; ii = ; ij =
2 2 (9.22)
i j = 0; U i = U n
For instance:
P1 = U12Y11 cos ( 11 ) + U 1Y12U 2 cos (1 2 12 ) =

= U1U 2Y12 cos 2 = U1U 2Y12 sin 2
2
P1 E1 E1
= U1U 2Y12 cos 2 U n2Y12 =1 =0
1 U1 U 2
Having a very accessible way to determine the terms of the Jacobian matrix, the gain
matrix (9.8) with [W] = [1] will be:
G = FtWF
2 U n2Y12 U n2Y12 U n2Y12

[G ] = 1 1.056 U nY12 U nY12 U nY12 1
2 U nY12 U nY12 U nY12 1
1 1 U n2Y12
1 2 U n2Y12
1 12 U n2Y12
1 1 1.056 U nY 12 U nY 12
(9.23)
1 2 U nY 12 U nY 12
1 12 U nY 12 U nY 12
1 1 1
1 2 1
2 1 2
2 3 U n4Y122 0 0
[G ] = 1 0 3.1151 U n Y12 + 1 3.056 U n2Y122
2 2
2 0 3.056 U n2Y122 3 U n4Y122 + 1

The corrections are performed as:
7.68 10 6 2
49.84 48.89 U1 =
48.89 49 U 2
P1 ( U1U 2Y12 sin 2 )

P2 ( U1U 2Y12 sin 2 )
P12 ( U1U 2YL sin 2 )
1600 1600 1600
(
Q U12Y11 U1U 2Y12 cos 2
1
)
= 4.224 4 4 1
(
Q2 U1U 2Y12 cos 2 + U 22Y22 )
4 4 4 1
(
Q12 U12YL U1U 2YL cos 2 )
E1 U1
E2 U 2
(9.24)
Only one wrong measurement is accepted (P1 = 350 MW instead of 400 MW), with:
02 = 0; U10 = 400 kV; U 20 = 400 kV
After three iterations, the final solution of the state vector is:
2 = 12.9139, U1=420.5671 kV, U 2=407.6906 kV
In Table 9.1 values of measurements, values of functions referred to measurements
and weighted residues are presented:
Table 9.1
Weighted residue
Measured value Calculated value
r p= r
P1 = 350 MW 383.35 MW 33.35
P2 = 400 MW 383.35 MW 16.64
P12 = 400 MW 383.35 MW 16.64
Q1 = 150 MVAr 146.67 MVAr 3.32
Q2 = 3.62 MVAr 9.09 MVAr 5.47
Q12 = 100 MVAr 97.55 MVAr 2.45
E1 = 420 kV 420.56 kV 0.56
E2 = 407.48 kV 407.69 kV 0.21
The maximum weighted residue is of P1, followed by P2 and P12. The influence of
error of P1 on the reactive powers and voltages is relatively small because the dominant
correlation is P ~ and Q ~ U. The procedure of detection and identification of bad data,
simply in this case, cannot be based on the visual perception of residues or on an intuitive
decision. An exigent analysis is necessary.
9.5. Detection and identification of bad data.

The procedure of performance index
If does not exist measurement errors then:
[Z ] = [ f ( [x ] ) ]
J ( [x ] ) = [ [Z ] [ f ( [x ] ) ] ] t [W ] [ [Z ] [ f ( [x ] ) ] ] = [0]
If exist errors then J ( [x ] ) > 0 , having small or great values. Comparing
J ( [x ] ) = 0.2 with J ( [x ] ) = 1640 , the intuition says us that in the first case the
errors are insignificant and they do not have to be taken into account, while in the
second case it can be at least suspicious. The obvious question is: if J ([ x ]) is
greater than zero how big should be the threshold p that say us if there exist errors?
Taking into account that the errors e have a normal repartition Gauss the
weighted square sum of J ([ x ]) has a 2 (Helmert) repartition.
Density
of
prob.
Fig. 9.4. The

2
repartition function 2.
0 5 15.09 J(x)
(m red )
(Pa = 0.01)
The threshold value is established in terms of the numbers of degrees of

freedom and of the probability of a false alarm, usually Pa = 0.01 or Pa = 0.05.
p = 2 (mred , Pa ) (9.25)
Table 9.2
Threshold values
mred Pa = 0.05 Pa = 0.01 mred Pa = 0.05 Pa = 0.01
1 3.84 6.64 9 16.42 21.67
2 5.99 9.21 10 18.31 23.21
3 7.82 11.35 20 31.41 37.57
4 9.49 13.28 30 43.77 50.89
5 11.07 15.09 40 55.76 63.69
6 12.59 16.81 60 72.08 88.38
7 14.07 18.48 120 146.57 158.95
8 15.51 20.09
It must be mentioned that if mred the function of repartition 2 become

equal to the Gauss function.
For the previous application:
J (x ) = 1714.1 >> 15.09
The threshold value of 15.09 results for mred = 5 and a probability of false
alarm pa = 0.01 (Table 9.2). The conclusion is obvious: there exist bad data. Taking
into account that the accuracy of measurements is different and the nature of
measurements also differs (P, Q or E) then the identification of bad data is
performed in terms of the absolute value of normalized residue, defined as:
r
rN = (9.26)

being the standard deviation of residue.
Considering:
[r ] = [Z ] [ f ( [x ] ) ] (9.27)
and accepting a small variation for Z , x and r,
[r ] + [r ] = [Z ] + [Z ] [ f ( [x + x ] ) ]
or
[r ] + [r ] = [Z ] +[Z ][ f [ (x ) ] ] [F [ (x ) ] ] [x ]
Taking account of (9.27) it results:
[r ] = [Z ] [F ( [x ] ) ] [x ] (9.28)
From (9.15) we successively obtain:
[G ( [x ] ) ] [x ] = [F ( [x ] ) ] t [W ] [ [Z ] [ f ( [x ] ) ] ]
Taking into account that [x ] [0] , it is obtained:
[F ( [x ] ) ] t [W ] [Z ] [ f ( [x ] ) ] = [0]
or
[F ( [x + x ] ) ] t [W ] [ [Z ] + [Z ] [ f ( [x + x ] ) ] ] = [0]
[F ( [x + x ] ) ] t [W ] [ [Z ] + [Z ] f ( [x ] ) [F ( [x ] ) [x ] ] ] = [0]
[ ( [x ] ) ] t [W ] [ [Z ] [F ( [x ] ) ] [x ] ] = [0]
because
[x ] = [0] and [F ( [x + x ] ) ] t [F ( [x ] ) ]
then
[F ( [x ] ) ] t [W ][Z ] = [F ( [x ] ) ] t [W ][F ( [x ] ) ][x ]
[x ] = [G ( [x ] ) ]1[F ( [x ] ) ] t [W ][Z ]
Replacing the obtained result in equation (9.28), obtain:

[r ] = [Z ] [F ( [x ] ) ] [G ( [x ] ) ]1 [F ( [x ] ) ] t [W ] [Z ]
[r ] = [I ] [F ( [x ] ) ] [G ( [x ] ) ]1 [F ( [x ] ) ] [W ] (9.29)
[Z ] t
where [I] is the unity matrix m m
[r ] = [[W ]1 [F ( [x ]) ] [G ( [x ] ) ] ] [F ( [x ] ) ] t [W ] [Z ]
1
[r ] = [W ]1 [F ( [x ] ) ] [G ( [x ] )]1 [F ( [x ] ) ] t = [R ] (9.30)
[Z ] [W ]1 [W ]1
[R] = [W ]1 [F ( [x ] ) ] [G ( [x ] )]1 [F ( [x ] ) ] t (9.31)
[R] represents the matrix of residues variance, and:

[] = [ (diag R ) ] 1/ 2 (9.32)
Therefore, the matrix of normalized residues is:
[rN ] = [ (diag R ) ] 1 / 2[r ] (9.33)
The identification of erroneous measurement is simply, with maximum
absolute value of normalised residues:
|rNj| MAX j m (9.34)
|rN 1| = 40.41 MAX

Table 9.3 presents the normalized residues of the 8 measurements.
Table 9.3
Measurement Residue Standard deviation Normalized residue
P1 33.35 0.8252 40.41
P2 16.64 0.8252 20.16
P12 16.64 0.8252 20.16
Q1 3.32 0.7983 4.15
Q2 5.47 0.8063 6.78
Q12 2.45 0.7963 3.06
E1 0.56 0.7093 0.78
E2 0.21 0.7299 0.28
Therefore, the measurement with the largest error is P1.

9.6. The procedure of standard deviation multiple b

Assuming only one erroneous measurement Zi and perfect corrected by Zi,
the new residue becomes zero.
The correlated measurement is:
~
Z i = Z i + Zi (9.35)
~
ri = ri + ri = 0 ri = ri
From relation (9.30) it results:

ri i2
=
Z i i2
i2
Zi = 2
( ri ) (9.36)
i
The corrected measurement will be:
~ 2 2
Z i = Z i i2 ri = Z i i rNi (9.37)
i i
The difference between the value of a measurement and the corrected one
will be interpreted as a multiple of the standard deviation:
~
Z i Z i = bi i
(9.38)
bi = i rNi
i
The multiple b is compared with the threshold value "c". If all values are less
than this threshold then there are no errors. If some values are larger than the
threshold, there exists big errors, and the measurement with the largest value of the
absolute value of b will be identified as bad data. Usually, c = 4.
9.7. The correction of large errors

Both procedures of detection and identification of erroneous measurements qualify as
suspect the measurement with the largest absolute value of the normalized residue or the
highest multiple of the standard deviation of the measurement. There are two possible
methods: a first one is to eliminate the suspect measurement, and repeat the state estimation
with (m 1) measurements, the second way is to correct the suspect measurement and to
repeat the estimation with m measurements. If still exists suspect measurement, the
procedure should be repeated.
In the present example, the measurement P1 with maximum normed residue as

absolute value will be eliminated. The calculation of the state vector is repeated with 7
measurements.
2 = 13.522; U1 = 420.067 kV; U2 = 407.506 kV
P2 = 400.25 MW; P12 = 400.25 MW; Q1 = 149.62 MVAr
Q2 = 3.73 MVAr; Q12 = 100.21 MVAr
The performance index becomes:
J ([ x ]) = 0.33 << 15.09
Obviously, there are no bad data, resulting:
P1=400.25 MW
The correction has the advantage of keeping the same number of measurements. By
relation (9.37) we obtain the solution:
~ 2
Z i = Z i i rNi
i
~ 1
P1 = 350 + 40.41 = 398.97 MW
0.8252
With this measurement corrected and with other seven ones, the estimation is
repeated. The result is obviously positive.
Sometimes, errors regarding interactive measurements could appear, the estimation
leading to an erroneous solution, but catalogued as good estimation. If one considers, for
instance, P1 = 350 MW (400) ; P12 = 350 MW (400) ; Q12 = 200 MVAr (100) the
remaining of measurements being correct, the final result is obtained after 5 iterations, as it
can be seen in Table 9.4.
Table 9.4
Estimation evolution
Suspected Corrected
Stage J( x ) rN State
measurement value
Q12 = 85.8
I 9049 Q2 = 46.7 Q12 200 92.5 correct
Q1 = 40
P2 = 37.6
II 1689 P12 = 20.88 P2 400 353 false
P1 = 20.7
Q2 = 14.65
III 247 Q1 = 11.54 Q2 3.3 21.3 false
P12 = 3.05
Q1 = 4.31
IV 29.3 Q12 = 4.3 Q1 149.2 143.7 false
P2 = 2.07
P2 = 2.32
V 10.5 < 15.09 Q2 = 2.1 false
Q12 = 1.8
Finally it results:
P1 = 351 MW (400); P2 = 351 MW ( 400); P12 = 351 MW (400)
Q1 = 143 MVAr (150); Q2 = 19.5 MVAr ( 3.62); Q12 = 94 MVAr (100)
U1 = 421.16kV (420); U2 = 407.4 kV (407.48).

The above example, moreover possible in reality, relives the decision of algorithm to
treat also desperate situations even if the end is wrong.
9.8. The procedure of test identification

In power systems the cause of apparition of large erroneous measurements,
that do not obey to a Gauss distribution, are various such as: failure of
measurement equipment, wrong connection of metering apparatus, non
simultaneous procession of measurements, the damage of apparatus precision due
to atmospheric conditions (temperature, humidity, vibrations, etc.), defective
operation of data transmission systems, etc. Furthermore, due to the huge amount
of processed data, the probability of appearance of such errors is surprisingly high.
Knowing that the classical estimator get good results only when the
measurement errors obey a Gauss distribution law, the detection of wrong data is a
basic requirement for a good power system estimator, not only to obtain
information with high accuracy but also because the elimination of large errors
have a beneficial influence on performance of the estimation algorithm.
The conventional methods of data identification, based on the J on b tests
and on the successive elimination of the largest error followed by reestimation,
have a high calculation efficiency and generates sometimes wrong detections either
in the case of small redundancy of measurements but especially due to the strong
influence between measurements when multiple errors appear.
Because the improvement of conventional methods has not succeeded, the
approaching of identification process of multiple large errors with other methods is
required. The HTI method (Hypothesis Testing Identification) unifies the
identification of simple and large errors into a single method (Fig. 9.5).
The basic idea of the HTI method is presented in the following.
The measuring model is:
[Z ] = [ f ( [x] ) ] + [e]
The errors of a measurements set, selected as suspect, are estimated with
formula:
[es ] = [zs ] [ f s ( [xn s ] ) ] (9.39)
where [x n s ] is the estimated state vector obtained in the absence of the s

measurements selected as suspect.
y
2
r
6
e 4 r
e
e r
r
r e
r 5
e
e 3
1
0 x
Fig. 9.5. The example for HTI method.
Each estimated error is analysed in order to establish if it is acceptable or

not. The errors that exceed a specified threshold are not accepted therefore the
respective measurements are erroneous.
For better understanding, the above-described methodology can be illustrated
on a simple example of a linear regression.
Let us consider 6 points, as shown in Figure 9.5, based on which we wish to
estimate the unknown constants a and b of the right line described by expression:
y = a + bx
that corresponds to the best regression (the sum of residues squares ri , i = 16, to
be minimum.
From Figure 9.5 we see the point 2 in obvious in disagreement with respect
to the other 5 points. Using all the 6 points the right line with the best regression,
represented by dashed line, is obtained. It can be seen that the first 3 points are
characterized by large residues therefore they are probably wrongly situated, in
other words they are suspicious.
If we now determine the right line with the best regression for the last 3
points ( i = 4...6 ), remained after the elimination of the suspicious points ( i = 1...3 )
we obtain the solid line.
The residues of the first 3 points, with respect to the solid line, are just the
)
estimations of errors ei ( i = 1...3 ). It can be seen that the estimations of errors for
the point 1 and 3 are small, therefore the points correspond to the correct tendency,
while the estimation of error of point 2 do not obey the evolution of tendency
established for the rest of points, and only him must be eliminated.
It must be mentioned that, in the HTI method frame, the calculation of errors
estimation of suspected measurements is not perform by state reestimation with a
limited set of measurements, by eliminating the erroneous measurements, but also
directly by an approximation formula.
The HTI method consists in the following calculation steps:

1) Establishing of the list of suspicious measurements. In this regard:
the normed residues of measurements are decreasingly ranked;
from this list, the first yet unselected measurement is tested in order to
determine if it can be considered suspect. In this regard, the corresponding
submatrix Pss , from the sensitivity matrix of residues
[P] = [1] [F ][G ]1[Ft ][W ] (9.40)
to be invertible.
if the matrix in question is invertible, then the measurement is suspicious
being introduced into the list of suspected measurements;
the matrix Pss1 is calculated by expansion, including the new suspected
measurement;
the errors vector of suspected measurements are then determined by:
[es ] = [Pss ]1 [rs ] (9.41)
without a stat reestimation after the elimination of the suspect measurements.

[ Pss ] is the sensitivity submatrix corresponding to the suspected
measurements (9.40)
in order the list of suspected measurements to be short, including of other
measurements in it was stopped and immediately all the large errors were
introduced;
This issue can be emphasized with the J ( x) test applied to the measurements
unselected as suspect. In order to avoid the state reestimation, the index J ( x) for
the remained measurements can be calculated with formula:
J ( [xm s ] ) = J ( [x ] ) [rs ] t [Pss ] [es ]

1
(9.42)
The list with suspect measurements is ended when the value of J ( x) index,
for the (m s) correct measurements, is below the specified detection threshold.
2) Testing of the hypothesis whether one element from the list of suspect
measurements is erroneous or not, is based on the condition:
)
esi < i , i = 1...s (9.43)
where i is the statistical threshold chosen so that:

to exceed the risk of unidentification, denoted by ;
to maintain below a reasonable limit the risk of false alarm, denoted by ,
when is not a restriction;
It has been demonstrated that the appropriate test consists in comparing the
estimation for the normed error:
)
) esi
eNi =
i (P )
1
ss
ii
0 i N min
i
2
eWi + Nmax (P ) 1
ss
ii
1
i =
(P )
1
ss
ii
where: eWi is the matrix of minimum errors that must be identified;

min the minimum risk of chosen;
max the maximum risk of chosen;
N d the value of unity variable x so that the probability ( x < N i ) = a .
In practice, the typical values for these quantities are:

N min = 3 ; eWi = 20 ; = 14
i
2
resulting Nmax = 2.32 .

The measurements that obey the expression (9.43) are doubtless correct,
being eliminated from the list of suspect measurements. Finally, after the text is
applied for all measurements form the list of suspect measurements, the list of
erroneous measurements is obtained.
3) The measurements with large errors are corrected with formula:
Z cors = Z s es
and the power system state is reestimated with the new corrected values. The
advantage of correlating the erroneous measurements instead of their elimination
from the set of data, is that the configuration of measurements from the network is
maintained, which allow the reusing of the Jacobian and gain matrices, although it
allows a calculation time saving.
9.9. Application with HTI method

For the previous application (9.4) two measurement errors (P1 and Q12) will be
considered, the remained being correct:
P1 = 350 MW instead of 400 MW
Q12 = 70 MVAr instead of 100 MVAr
Table 9.5 shows the details of process:
Table 9.5
The correction of erroneous measurements
Residue Estimation Threshold Corrected
Measurement rN Decision
r |e| value
P1 32.12 0.8249 38.94 48.16 44.16 error 398.3
P12 17.63 0.8249 21.37 1.45 2.69 no error
Q12 16.43 0.7983 20.58 28.6 0.24 error 98.6
no more
P2 16.03 0.8249 19.43
errors
Even if the normalized residue of P12 is larger than the residue of Q12, the
identification is perfect. With J and b tests, the estimation necessitates two steps.
9.10. Power system observability

A system is observable when it is possible to determine state vector. If that is
not possible, the system is qualified as not observable. Generally, a system is not
observable when the information are not sufficient or if the information are
redundant, but the repartition is not uniform.
The test of observability is based on the estimation described in (9.15). If the
gain matrix G admits an inverse matrix, the system of equations is compatible.
The decoupling techniques simplify the evaluation.
The existent analysis methods of observability can be classified into
topological, numerical, symbolic and hybrid. The topological algorithms are based
on a necessary and sufficient condition according to which a network is observable
if and only if, a spanning tree of full rank can be constructed. The procedure for
constructing a spanning tree of full rank has combinatory natural and it is relatively
complicated. The numerical algorithm [9.22] is based on the presence of zero
pivots that may occur during triangular factorization of the gain matrix. This uses
an iterative scheme to determine the maximal observable islands. The numerical
approach [9.23] is extended to state estimation using orthogonal transform action
the Hachtels based method and the state estimation with equality constraints
[9.24]. Crucial to the numerical algorithms is the identification of zero pivots.
Detection of zero pivots is sensitive to round-off errors and machine accuracy. An
alternative numerical approach is based on the echelon reduction of decoupled
Jacobian matrices. A first method is based on branch variable formulation, which
tests not only observability but also solution uniqueness for a system containing
injection, flow, voltage and current magnitude measurements. A second method
determines observable islands by a non-iterative manner via the use of selected row
of the increase triangular factors of the signal gain matrix. A symbolic approach for
observability analysis based on a symbolic reduction of Jacobian matrix without
numerical computations. The hybrid algorithm is a mixed topological numerical
approach. By topological processing of flow measurements, flow islands
(supernodes) are determined only the boundary nodes and injections of these
islands obtained via the topological algorithm are retained for the numerical
analysis [9.25]. The existing numerical methods are based on the number of zero
pivots that may appear during the factorization of the gain on the Jacobian matrix.
As the number of network nodes and injection measurements increase numerical ill
conditioning may arise and the zero pivots may be misclassified.
9.10.1. Test of observability P ~

Since of interest are only the possibilities of determination of the state vector, some
simplifying hypothesis are applied into the injected and transfer powers equations:
Pi= U U Y i j ij (
cos i j ij )
jn
( ) (
Pij = U i2 yij cos ij U iU j yij cos i j ij + U i2 +U 2j y ij 0 cos ij 0 )
Pji=U 2j yij cos ij U jU i yij cos j i ij ( )
First of all, the term corresponding to the shunt active power losses is neglected and
all the voltages as well as the admittances are considered equal to 1 p.u.; furthermore,
neglecting the conductance, the impedances angles become equal to / 2 . Therefore:

U i = U j = 1 p.u.; Yii = Yij = yij = 1 p.u.; ii =
2

ij =
2
The expressions of Pi , Pij and Pji can be written as become:
Pi = U i2Yii cos( ii ) + UU Y i j ij (
cos i j ij )
jn \ i
( )

Pi = 12 1 0 + 1 1 1 cos
j n \ i
i j =
2 jn \ i
sin i j
Pi = ( )
jn \ i
i j (9.43)
Expression (9.43) was obtained taking into account that the differences between the
angles corresponding to the nodes incident to the branch i j are generally small. Therefore:

Pij = 12 1 0 1 1 1 cos i j + = sin i j i j
2
( )
(9.44)

Pji = 12 1 0 1 1 1 cos j i + = sin j i j i
2
( )
The first application (Fig. 9.6) refers to a four-node system where the injected active
powers are taken as measurements:
P1 = 2 1 2 3
P2 = 1 + 2 2 3
P3 = 1 2 + 3 3 4
P4 = 3 + 4
3 4
Fig. 9.6. Four-node system with
injected active powers.
The Jacobian matrix results as:
2 1 1 P1
1 2 1 P2
[FP ] =
1 1 3 1 P3
1 1 P4
If [W ] = [1] , the gain matrix will be:
6 3 4 1
3 6 4 1
[ ]
[GP ] = Fp t [W ][FP ] =
4 4 12 4
1 1 4 2
By superior triangularization, the observability on the relationship P ~ is certified:
1 1/ 2 1/ 3 1/ 6
1 4 / 3 1/ 3
[U P ] =
1 1
0
The system is observable because all pivots are equal to one, except for the last pivot,
which is zero, corresponding to the phase angle of the slack node.
In Figure 9.7, the problem of redundant information, but non-uniform, is shown. The
measurements are: P1, P2, P12, P21, P23, P32.
Fig. 9.7. Four-node system with 3 4

six measurements.
II
2
I
The Jacobian matrix, the gain matrix and the superior triangularized one have the
form:
1 2 3 4
1 2 1 1
2 1 2 1
12 1 1
[FP ] =
21 1 1
23 1 1
32 1 1
7 6 1
6 9 3
[GP ] =
1 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 6 / 7 1/ 7
1 1
[U P ] =
0 p
0
The system is not observable although m >> (2n 1). We find then an observable
island (I) consisting of the nodes 1, 2 and 3, and another island (II), unobservable,
consisting of the node 4. The same results would have been obtained knowing only two
measurements, that is P1 and P2:
1 2 3 4
1 2 1 1
[FP ] =
2 1 2 1
1 4 / 5 1/ 5
1 1
[U P ] =
0 p
0
By acceptance of any pseudo-measurement from the group P3, P34, P43 and P4 both
systems become observable. For the case with six measurements to which we add, for
instance, P34, the gain matrix and the superior triangularized one are obtained:
7 6 1
6 9 3
[GP ] =
1 3 5 1
1 1
1 4 / 5 1/ 5
1 1
[U P ] =
1 1
The limit situation, with only two measurements P1, P2 and a pseudo-measurement
P34, leads to:
5 4 1
4 5 1
[GP ] =
1 1 3 1
1 1
1 4 / 5 1/ 5
1 1
[U P ] =
1 1
0
The two parallel studies show an interesting issue: the power flows P12, P21, P23 and
P32 are irrelevant measurements therefore they can be eliminated. Normally, the question is:
what is relevant and what is not into the measurements domain? The answer can be easily
get showing that, if three measurements are available that is P12, P23, P34, the system is
observable. Thus, P1, P2, P21 and P32 became irrelevant. Therefore it is sufficient to know
one injected power or one transferred power on a branch incident to a node so that this one
to be seen.
9.10.2. The structure of the gain matrix Q, E ~ U

The injection power measurements contribute to the gain matrix structure with
elements corresponding to the branches connected to the node where the measurement is
given and its neighbourhood on all possible ways (Fig. 9.8) [9.1, 9.4].
2 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 4 -2 -2 1
4 5 2 -2 1 1 2 1 1 -3 1
1 P1
3 -2 1 1 3 1 1 -3 1
4 4 -3 -3 9 -3 P4
5 1 -1 P6 5 1 1 -3 1
3 6 -1 1 6
Fig. 9.8. Six-node system with the contribution of the power injection measurements.
The powers flow has a different contribution, with the same sparsity pattern as the
corresponding Y matrix (the Y matrix of a network formed by the branches with the given
power flow measurements) (Fig. 9.9).
2 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
P21
1 2 -2
P12 P65 P12 & P21
4 5 2 -2 2
1 3 1 -1
P43
P43 4 -1 1
5 1 -1
P65
3 6 -1 1
Fig. 9.9. Six-node system. The contribution of powers flow.
The second power flow measurement P21 is irrelevant because the information
remains the same. For any system it is possible to construct the gain matrix very easy with
superposition technique.
9.10.3. Test of observability Q, E ~ U

Using the same simplifications as in the case of P ~ , but keeping the formal identity
of voltages and assuming the differences between angles are zero, that is:
i j = 0
the expressions of reactive powers are successively obtained:
Qi=U i2Yii sin ( ii ) + U U Y sin (

jn \1
i j ij i j ij )
Qi = 1i2 1 1 + 1 1
jn \i
i j 1 ( 1) =1i2 1 1
jn \i
i j
( ) (
Qij= U i2 yij sin ij U iU j yij sin i j ij U i2+U 2j yij 0 sin ij 0 )
Qij = 1i2 1 ( 1) 1i 1 j 1 1 = 1i2 1i 1 j
(
Q ji= U 2j yij sin ij U jU i yij sin j i ij )
Q ji = 12j 1 j 1i
If consider the four-node system with four injected reactive powers (Fig. 9.10) the
conclusion is apparently obvious. Being available four measurements the system should
have been observable but it is not. As will be seen further the redundancy is compulsory.
Any redundant measurement is sufficient.
Q1 = 112 11 12 11 13
Q2 = 122 12 11 12 13
Q3 = 132 13 11 13 12 13 14
Q4 = 142 14 13
3 4
Fig. 9.10. Four-node system with
injected reactive powers.
The terms of the Jacobian matrix are obtained by differentiation:

Q1 Q1 Q1
= 2 11 12 13 = 0 ; = 11 = 1; = 1; etc.
U1 U 2 U 3
1 2 3 4
1 1 1
[FQ ] = 32 1 1
1 1 1 1
4 1 1
2 1 2 1
[GQ ] = 1 2 2 1
2 2 4
1 1 2
1 1/ 2 1 1/ 2
[U Q ] =
1 2 / 3 1/ 3
1 1
0
The last pivot is zero therefore the system is not observable. Any additional
information voltage or power flow confirms the observability. If a voltage is accepted
into the node 1, the Jacobian, gain and superior triagularized matrices become:
1 2 3 4
1 1 1
2 1 1
[FQE ] = 3 1 1 1
4 1 1
1 1
3 1 2 1
[GQE ] =
1
2
2 2 1
2 4
1 1 2
1 1/ 3 2 / 3 1/ 3
[U Q ] =
1 4/5 2/5
1 3/ 4
1
This time, with only one redundant measurement the system become observable. All
pivots on the main diagonal of the superior triangularized matrix are equal to unity thus the
system is observable. It is compulsory an information of voltage type in order to fix the
voltage level. With E1 as pseudo-measurement, the system becomes observable.
An interesting situation is the case of the same system but with three measurements
(Fig. 9.11).
3 4
I
II III
2
Fig. 9.11. Four-node system
with three measurements.
Q1 = 112 11 12 11 13
Q2 = 122 12 11 12 13
E 4 = 14
The matrices F, G and U are:
1
2 3 4
1 1 1
[FQE ] = 2 1 1
3 1
1 1
[GQE ] = 1 1 2
1 1
1 2 3 4
1 0 1
[U QE ] = 1 1
0
1
The system is split into three islands: the island I consisting of the nodes 1 and 2 is
observable, node 3 represents the second island (II), unobservable, and the node 4 to which
a measurement of voltage type is assigned, represents also an observable island. If a
measurement that offers additional information for node 3 is accepted, for instance Q23, the
system becomes observable. The new matrices F, G and U are:
1 2 3 4
1 1 1
2 1 1
[ ]
FQE =
3 1 1
4 1
1 1
[GQE ] = 1
2
3
1
1 1
[U QE ] = 1
1
1
It is possible the system to contain more zero pivots. In this case, successive pseudo-
measurements are proposed, evaluating the effect of each one, until the system becomes
unobservable.
Besides the presented method for observability determination of power systems,
topological methods are used.
Chapter references
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London, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999.
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[9.3] Eremia, M., Trecat, J., Germond, A. Rseaux lectriques. Aspects actuels, Editura
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problems), Editura Orizonturi Universitare, Timioara, 2003.
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[9.8] Simoes-Costa, A., Quintana, V.H. A robust numerical technique for power system
state estimation, IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. 100, pp. 691
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[9.9] Simoes-Costa, A., Quintana, V.H. An orthogonal row processing algorithm for
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[9.10] Gu, J.W., Clements, K.A., Krumpholz, G.R., Davis, P.W. The solution of ill-
conditioned power system state estimation problems via the method of Peters and
Wilkinson, Proc. on PICA Conf., Houston, Texas, pp. 239 246, 1983.
[9.11] Wang, J.W., Quintana, V.H. A decoupled orthogonal row processing algorithm
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method improving numerical stability in power system static state estimation, IEEE
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[9.14] Liu, W.H.E., Wu, F.F., Holten, L., Gjelsvik, A., Aam, S. Computational issues in
the Hachtels augmented matrix method for power system state estimation, Proc. on
Power Systems Computation Conf., Lisbon, Portugal, 1987.
[9.15] Wu, F.F., Liu, W.H.E., Lun, S.M. Observability analysis and bad data processing
for state estimation with equality constraints, IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Vol.
3, pp. 541 548, May 1988.
[9.16] Alvarado, F., Tinney, W. State estimation using augmented blocked matrices,
IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Vol. 5, pp. 911 921, August 1990.
[9.17] Monticelli, A., Wu, F.F. Network observability: Identification of ovservable
islands and measurement placement, IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and
Systems, Vol. 104, pp. 1035 1041, May 1985.
[9.18] Contaxis, G.C., Korres, G.N. A reduced model for power system observability
analysis and restoration, IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Vol. 3, pp. 1411 1417,
November 1988.
[9.19] Korres, G.N., Contaxis, G.C. Identification and updating of minimally dependent
sets of measurements in state estimation, IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Vol. 6,
pp. 990 1005, August 1991.
[9.20] Abur, A., Celik, M.K. Least absolute value state estimation with equality and
inequality constraints, IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Vol. 8, pp.680 686, May
1993.
[9.21] Kliokys, E., Singh, N. Minimum correction method for enforcing limits and
equality constraints in state estimation based on orthogonal transformations, IEEE
Trans. on Power Systems, Vol. 15, pp. 1281 1286, November 2000.
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Apparatus and Systems, Vol. 104, pp. 1042 1048, May 1985.
[9.23] Monticelli, A., Wu, F.F. Observability analysis for orthogonal transformation
based state estimation, IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Vol. 1, pp. 201 206,
February 1986.
[9.24] Korres, G.N. A robust method for equality constrained state estimation, IEEE
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Systems, Vol. 18, pp.1035 1045, August 2003.
Chapter 10
STEADY STATE OPTIMIZATION
10.1. Horizon of the power system optimization problems

An optimization problem is usually a mathematical model, where we wish to
minimize a numerical value that represents something undesirable (costs, energy
losses, financial risks, sum of errors, etc.) or maximize something, which is desired
(profit, quality, efficiency, etc.), [10.56].
Since its introduction as Network Constrained Economic Dispatch by
Carpentier, [10.5], and its definition as Optimal Power Flow (OPF) by Dommel
and Tinney, [10.24], the OPF has been the subject of intensive research. The main
goal of OPF is to provide the electric utility with suggestion to optimize the current
power system state online with respect to various objectives under various
constraints, [10.54]. Although the OPF was introduced as an extension of
conventional economic dispatch to determine the optimal settings for control
variables while respecting various constraints, further the term is used as a generic
name for a large series of related network optimization problems.
Table 10.1
Horizon of power system optimization problem [10.46]
Time
Objectives Optimization Function
Horizon
Automatic Generation Minimize Area Control Error Subject to
Seconds
Control (AGC) Machine and System Dynamics Constraints
Minimize Instantaneous Cost of Operation
Optimal Power Flow
Minutes (Minimum Losses Cost, Minimum
(OPF)
Generation Cost)
Hours Minimize Expected Costs of Operations or
Optimal Unit other indices (Pollution), with Reliability
Days
Commitment (OUC) Constraints (Minimum Generation Cost)
Weeks
Maintenance Scheduling, Minimize Expected Cost of Operation, with
Months
Interchange Coordination Reliability Constraints
Minimize Expected Investment and
Maintenance Scheduling,
Years Operational Costs, with Reliability
Expansion Planning
Constraints
The development of OPF in the last two decades has tracked progress closely
in numerical optimization techniques and advanced in computer technology. For
OPF studies, the power system network is typically modelled at the main
transmission level, including generating units. In an OPF, the values of some of
control variables need to be found so as to optimize (maximize or minimize) a
predefined objective.
The scheduling is done over time (minutes, hours, days, etc). This forms a
hierarchical structure, typically from OPF, to load dispatch, unit commitment,
maintenance scheduling and expansion planning. Recent introduction of
deregulation into electricity supply industry adds new dimensions in such
optimization problems with the maximum market benefit as its objective, [10.54].
Load forecasting
One of the first steps in power system development planning is to forecast the
loads, loads that the networks will supply. The load estimation used in electric
networks planning must consider not only the future loads, but also their
geographical positions, for permitting the designer to locate and to dimension the
electric equipment.
Load forecasting includes long-term, medium-term, short-term, and dispatch
mode. Typically, long term forecast covers up to a period of 20 years and is
normally used for generation and transmission planning. The planning of
maintenance, scheduling of fuel supply, energy contracts requires medium load
forecast, which covers a period of a few weeks with a resolution of daily and
provides the peak load and the daily energy requirement, [10.55].
System load forecasting is an essential operation in power system control
centres. Short-term load forecasting is one of the most important procedures in the
real-time control of power generation and efficient energy management systems. It
is used for establishing the power station operations and the unit operation plan,
together with generation spinning reserve planning of energy exchanges. In other
words, the optimal utilization of generators and power stations is completely
dependent upon the accuracy of load forecasting.
Estimation of loads, particularly of the peak loads, is the basis for the system
state estimation, and for technical and economic calculations. Load estimation, and,
especially peak load demand, influences various aspects of power systems planning
such as: generating powers, transformer and conductor sizing, capacitor bank
placement, and so on. Hence, the peak load estimation is a problem of a special
interest. In order to properly analyse the performance of power systems, it is essential
that accurate estimates of power consumption be obtained. In order to estimate the
load, various mathematical formulations and methods have been developed.
Many forecasting models have been proposed and implemented in this field
based on time-series, regression, expert system models and so on. Over the last
decade, a great deal of attention has been paid to the use of Artificial Neural
Networks (ANN) to model load. In short-term and medium-term load forecasting
weather forecasts is a key input, and especially when the ANN method is used.
Steady state optimization 599
In the recent years, control centres in distribution went through some drastic
changes. Evolving from simple Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
(SCADA) systems, the concept of Distribution Management System (DMS) gained
growing acceptance. A DMS must provide a set of functions, namely for switching
decision and operation, which rely on the basic tool of power flow calculus. The
problem of generating a coherent load set is critical in distribution, because usually,
the only real time measurements available at a SCADA system are power or
current values at the sending end of a feeder emerging from a medium-voltage
(MV) substation. One must therefore rely on other type of data, recorded in
commercial files, to try inferring the values of load.
A modern DMS must try to address the problem of evaluating actual
synchronized flows and making this compatible with any measurements available
at a SCADA system at any time. The complexity of the problem increased with the
connection at distribution level. In this situation a modern technique, based on
fuzzy set model, can provide a good operating solution. The core of this technique
is the fuzzy correlation model, [10.16]. The combination of the fuzzy approach
with the system expert leads to an efficient and robust tool.
Depending on the specific objectives and constraints, there are different OPF
formulations. The typical objectives are:
minimization of total generation cost;
minimization of the active power losses;
maximization of the degree of security of the system;
optimization of the Voltage-Reactive power control.
The achievement of these goals are very important, since these utilities are
forced to operate the system with minimal resources consumption and maximal
degree of security.
In the first section of this chapter, the horizon of power system optimization
problem is presented. In the next sections, the background of the mathematical
programming, the optimization techniques in operating planning and the most
efficient, used in OPF and Optimal Unit Commitment (OUC) are described. The
choosing of the method depends on available data, the imposed goal and accuracy.
An important attention is paid to the OUC in deregulated markets. Finally, the
strategies optimization in deregulated market is presented.
10.1.1. Minimization of the total generation cost (MTGC)

Minimization of total generation cost (MTGC) requires knowledge of the fuel
cost curves for each of the generation units and on transmission system. Control
variables are usually the independent variables in an OPF, including:
active generation powers;
generator buses voltages;
transformer tap changing position;
phase-shifter angles;
values of switchable shunt capacitor and reactors.

For a regular MTGC, the usual constraints are:
network power balance equation at each bus;
bounds on all variables;
line-flow constraints;
other such as transformer tap ratios, etc.
Generally, the OPF problem can be summarized as the following nonlinear
programming problem:
Minimize F ( X )
subject to: hi ( X ) = 0 , i = 1, 2,K, m (10.1)

g j (X ) 0, j = 1, 2,K, n
where: F(X) is objective function;
h(X) equality constraints;
g(X) the inequality constraints.
OPF incorporates a complete model of power network, including both active
and reactive powers. Equality constraints h(X) include active and reactive power
balance. Inequality constraints g(X) include generator capacity limits, voltage
limits and so on.
A version of MTGC is minimization of fuel cost (MFC). In MFC the
generating powers are used as control variables, and the power balance equations at
each bus and power limits on generation powers, as constraints. In the MFC case,
the following assumptions can make in modelling of the objectives and constraints:
Only active power generation is controlled for cost minimization.
Transformer tap ratios, generation voltages, shunt capacitors and reactors
positions are maintained at their nominal values throughout the
optimization.
Current flows are controlled approximately using voltage and angle
restrictions across the lines.
Contingency constraints are neglected.
10.1.2. Minimization of the active power losses (MAPL)

When the minimization cost is performed using only the active power
generations as cost variables, (MFC), a subsequent losses minimization
computation using a different set of control variables can be useful to obtain a
better voltage profile and lower current flow along the lines. The losses
minimization can be a useful tool in conjunction with a planning objective,
providing more secure optimal solutions planning purposes. There are two basic
approaches to losses minimization, namely, the slack bus approach and the
summation of losses on individual lines. The slack bus approach is by far the least
complicated approach, where the slack bus generation is minimized. The
disadvantage of this approach is that it can only minimize the total active power
losses of the system. The second approach does not have the mentioned
disadvantage, but it is more involved computationally, [10.46].
In losses minimization, the usual control variables are:
generator buses voltages;
transformer tap changing position;
switchable shunt capacitor and reactors;
phase-shifter angles.
Out of these, a great deal of control can be achieved by using generator bus
voltages and transformer tap changing as control variables. Phase-shifter angles are
normally used to alleviate line overloads.
As in the MTGC case, a large number of equality and inequalities constraints
can be used in MAPL models, namely: network power balance equation at each
bus, bounds on all variables and so on.
The following assumptions are made in the formulation of the losses
minimization, [10.46]:
Losses minimization is done following a cost minimization, and thus the
active power generations, excluding the slack bus generation, are held at
their optimal values.
Generator bus voltages and transformer tap changing are used as control
variables. Shunt reactances and phase-shifter angles, where available, are
held at nominal values.
Transformer tap ratios are treated as continuous variables during the
optimization, after which they are adjusted to the nearest tap position.
Current flows are controlled approximately, using restrictions on the real
and imaginary components of the complex voltage across the lines.
Contingency constraints are neglected.
10.1.3. Optimization of the voltage-reactive power control

(VQ)
It is aimed at minimizing the installation cost of additional reactive support
necessary to maintain the system in a secure manner. The planning priority is to
minimize cost and also to minimize future operations costs. In the voltage
optimization, the aim is to maintain the system voltage magnitudes as close as
possible to the nominal voltages. The control variables are:
generator bus voltages;
transformer tap changing;
shunt capacitor and inductors.
The objective function is, [10.11, 10.23]:
N P
F (U ) = (U
i =1
i i U i ref ) 2 + (Q Q
i =1
i i i ref )2 (10.2)
where: U, Q are the vectors of the real-time measurements of the pilot bus
voltages and of the reactive power generation levels;
Uref , Qref the vector of the optimal forecast pilot bus voltages and the
reactive power generation levels.
The optimization of the VQ control in the transmission and distribution
systems is generally solved using the optimal power flow, [10.23, 10.28]. Power
system operators must ensure the quality and reliability of supply to the customers,
by maintaining the local bus voltages in their allowable limits. They can act on the
reactive power sources (shunt capacitors) and the transformer tap changing, which
are, by far, the most frequent and useful VQ control devices. The distribution of the
electric energy at a desired voltage profile is a measure of not only the quality, but
also the security of supply. Moreover, the bus voltage is one of the most important
security and service indexes, [10.28, 10.41]. Hence, the optimal voltage control is a
problem of a special interest.
The optimal voltage profile is defined as the profile corresponding to the
minimum active power losses. The minimization of transmission losses is
considered to be important, but a secondary objective, [10.28]. Such an approach is
based on the VQ control decomposition on three levels: primary, secondary and
tertiary. The primary control compensates the small and fast variations of the
reactive power and voltages by the Automatic Voltage Regulations (AVRs). The
secondary control acts slowly, modifying the reference values of AVRs, to
coordinate actions at the regional level. The tertiary voltage regulation coordinates,
in a centralized way, the actions of the AVRs, by defining and achieving, in real
time, the optimal voltage of the pilot nodes, [10.23]. The short-term forecasting (24
hours) allows the determination of the optimal voltage profiles, by minimizing the
active losses for the time representative intervals of the daily load diagram, [10.41].
The strategy for preventing unnecessary tap operations is based on the
prediction of the near future voltage and reactive power, [10.38]. Most control
actions are conditioned by the tendency of the load (to increase, decrease, or
remain steady). The operators will not be willing to change the voltage set point if
they take for granted that the opposite action will be necessary in the near future, in
twenty minutes, for example, [10.44]. The short-term reactive scheduling (24
hours) is executed one day in advance, using an adaptive artificial neural network.
The optimal voltage profiles are those, which minimize the real losses for the
most representative time intervals of the daily load diagram. The attainment of the
planned optimal profile is possible only if the current network situation exhibits the
characteristics of the day before forecast. On the contrary, the very short-term
(15 30 minutes) scheduling will be executed, on the basis of the actual state, [10.23].
10.1.4. Optimal unit commitment (OUC)

The unit commitment or power system scheduling considers a multiperiod
time horizon and determines the start-up and shut-down schedules of thermal
plants, as well as the production of thermal and hydroelectric plants so as to

optimize a specific objective. Thermal and hydroelectric plants integrated in a river
system are modelled precisely. However, the transmission network is typically not
considered, [10.1]. Unit commitment is sometimes called predispatch. In the
overall hierarchy of generation resources management, the unit commitment
function fits between economic dispatch, maintenance and production scheduling.
In terms of time scales involved, unit commitment scheduling covers the scope of
hourly power system operations with a one-day to one-week horizon, [10.46].
Unit commitment schedules the on and off times of generating units, and
calculates the minimum cost hourly generation schedule while ensuring that start-
up and shut-down rates, and minimum up-time and down-times are considered.
The function sometimes includes deciding the practicality of interregional power
exchanges, and meeting daily or weekly quotas for consumption of fixed-batch
energies, such as nuclear, restricted gas contracts, and other fuels that may be in
short supply. Most unit commitment programs operate discreetly in time, at one-
hour intervals. Systems with short horizon times can successfully deal with time
increments as small as a few minutes. There is sometimes no clear distinction
between the minute-by-minute dispatch techniques and some of the unit
commitment programs with small time increments.
The objective function is to minimize the fuel costs, the maintenance costs
and the start up costs, subject to following constraints, [10.54]:
real power balance constraints;
real power operating limits of generating units;
ramp rate limits of generating units;
line flow limits of transmission line
spinning reserve constraints;
minimum up-time of units;
minimum down-time of units.
With deregulation and open access in the utility industry occurring
internationally, there are pressures to not only optimize the operation of generation
resources, but also the transmission systems.
10.1.5. Optimization of the strategies in deregulated market

(OSDM)
In deregulated power systems, a free market structure is advocated for
competition among participants as generators and consumers. An electricity market
usually includes two instruments to facilitate trade among power producers and
consumers, which is an e-commerce marketplace, and framework to enable
physical bilateral contracts. To ensure nondiscriminatory access to the transmission
networks by all participants, an Independent System Operator (ISO) is created for
each power system. There are two distinct models for ISOs: the pool model and the
bilateral/multilateral model.
The pool is an e-commerce market place. The ISO uses a market clearing tool,
to clear the market, which is normally based on a single round auction. Participants
provide their supply costs, demands values and various technical constraints such
generator output limits and so on. The ISO optimizes both generation and
transmission systems simultaneously, subject to constraints. The ISO serves the
economic dispatch function, deciding which generators will be committed. The ISO
reduces flows by directing various generators to adjust their outputs. From an
economic point of view, the ISO induces counter flows by differentiating energy
prices by location. The energy price at a bus is derived from optimization with
constraints as the shadow price and reflects the marginal value precisely.
Under new structures, generation companies schedule their generators with
the objective to maximize their own profit without regard for system social benefit.
Power reserve and prices become important factors in decision process. For
optimization of the strategies in deregulated market ordinal optimization technique
are often used. Thus, a systematic bid selection method is developed to obtain
good enough bidding strategies for generation suppliers.
10.2. Optimization techniques in power systems
10.2.1. Nonlinear programming (NLP)

Nonlinear programming aims to solve optimization problems involving a
nonlinear objective and constraint functions. The constraints may consist of
equality and/or inequality forms. The inequalities may be specified by two bounds:
bounded below and bounded above, [10.46]. Any method for minimization can be
also used for maximization, by changing the sign of the objective function. To
simplify the discussion, generally, we will refer to minimization problems.
Mathematically, many power system optimization problems can be
formulated as follows:
Minimize F ( X ); X = [ X 1 , X 2 , ..., X n ]t
subject to: hi ( X ) = 0, i = 1, K, mh (10.3)
g i ( X ) bi , i = 1,K, ng
X j 0, j = 1, K , n
where: X is the vector of independent variables (the decision variables);
F(X) the cost function (the objective function);
h(X), g(X) the equality and inequality constraints respectively.
There are different classes of such problems, depending on the way the function
and constraints are expressed. For example, the decision/control variables involved can
be discrete or continuous; the objective function can be linear or nonlinear and so on.
Nonlinear programming (NLP) aims to solve optimization problems

involving a nonlinear objective and constraint functions. The constraints may
consist of equality and/or inequality forms.
Convex functions have a number of important properties and constitute one
of the main objects of study in the theory of mathematical programming. The
problem of convex programming, which is the most investigate one for extreme is
formulated in terms of convex sets. However convex functions play a decisive role
in general nonlinear problem too, since the sufficiently and necessary conditions of
extreme can be formulated only for the case of these functions (convex).
Quadratic programming (QP) is a special case when the objective function is
quadratic. Many algorithms have been developed with the additional assumption
that the objective function is convex. Apart from being a very common form for
many important problems, QP is also very important because many of the problems
are often solved as a series of QP or sequential quadratic programming (SQP).
Convex programming arises out of the assumptions of convexity of the
objective and constraints functions. Under these assumptions, it can encompass
both foregoing problems. The major point of emphasis is that the local optimal
point is necessarily for the global optimum under these assumptions.
This section presents some definitions and theorems from the theory of
convex programming and the necessary conditions of the extreme. These are
necessary for understanding the heart of nonlinear programming.
10.2.1.1. Definitions
Definition 1
A set of points in Rn is called convex, together with any X 1 , X 2 , if it
contains also all points of the form, [10.50]:
X = X 1 + (1 ) X 2 ; [0,1] (10.4)
In the geometrical terms, this means that if the end points of a segment
belong to a convex set , then the whole segment belongs to the set too.
Definition 2
A function F(X), defined for all X , is called convex if for any X 1 , X 2 ,
( )
F X 1 + (1 ) X 2 F ( X 1 ) + (1 ) F ( X 2 ) ; [0,1] (10.5)
If in previous relation only the inequality sign is valid, F(X) is strictly convex
function.
Definition 3. Reduced gradient expression
Starting from minimization problem:
Minimize F1 ( X , Y ); X = [ X 1 , X 2 , ... , X I ]t , Y = [Y1 , Y2 ,..., YD ]t (10.6)
subject to: hi ( X ) = 0, i = 1 , K , m h = D
by elimination of dependent variables, Y = Y(X), the expression of reduced gradient

is obtained by successive processing. The minimum conditions for the objective
function:
F1 ( X , Y ) = F2 ( X , Y ( X )) (10.7)
give
F2 F1 Y F1
X = X + X Y (10.8)
t
h h Y
X + Y X = 0 (10.9)
t
1
Y h h
X = Y X (10.10)

whence
1
F2 ( X ) F1 h h F1
X = X X Y Y (10.11)
t t
This (reduced) gradient contains a reduced number of variables, and its
components number is equal to the number of control variables.
10.2.1.2. Differential properties

Theorem 1
Consider F(X) a convex differentiable function whose continuous gradient is
F(X). The following statements are equivalents:
1. F(X) is a convex function.
2. F( X 2 ) F( X 1 ) ( F( X 1 ), X 2 X 1 ); X 1 , X 2 ; (X,Y) scalar
product.
3. ( F(X + d), d) is a not decreasing function of .
4. The matrix of second derivatives (Hessian) is positive semi definite,
namely, (d, H(X)d) 0, for any X, d .
2F 2 F 2F
2

X1 X1X 2 X1X n
H(X ) = (10.12)
2F 2F 2F
X X
X nX 2 X n2
n 1
For the strictly convex functions, in the statements 2 and 4, only the
inequality sign is valid, and the matrix H(X) is positive definite.
Theorem 2
Let X* be the minimum point of a convex function F(X) in a convex set .
Then:
(F ( X * ) , X X * ) 0 , X (10.13)
The necessary condition for a minimum over the whole space, Rn, is the
equality:
F ( X * ) = 0 (10.14)
Generally, in solving the nonlinear programming we shall use iterative
processes of the type:
X k +1 = X k + k d k , k = 1, 2, 3 , ... (10.15)
where: d k Rn is the vector determining the direction of motion from point X k ,

in the iteration (k);
k
the length of the step in direction d k .
The optimization methods differ by concrete procedures of the calculation of
the d k and k parameters. In order to reduce the computing effort in executing of
the iterative process, only the gradients and Hessian values are used.
10.2.1.3. The Karush-Kuhn-Tucher (KKT) conditions

For a constrained optimization problem:
Minimize F ( X ) ;
subject to: g i ( X ) 0 , i = 1,K, m (10.16)
The Karush-Kuhn-Tucher (KKT) conditions can be stated as follows:
F ( X ) m
g i ( X )
X j
+
i =1
i
X j
= 0, j = 1,..., n
g i ( X ) 0 , i = 1,..., m (10.17)
i g i ( X ) = 0 , i = 1,..., m
i 0 , i = 1,..., m
10.2.2. Lagrange relaxation techniques (LRT)

10.2.2.1. Lagrange multipliers (LM)
The method of Lagrange multipliers is a powerful tool for solving a class of
problems, without the need to explicitly solve the constraints and use them to
eliminate extra variables. The general idea of such problems is perhaps best
illustrated by an example, given in Figures 10.1 and 10.2.
F(X)
River
M M
g(X,Y)=0
g(X)
C C
River
Fig. 10.1. Farmer problem. Fig. 10.2. Geometrical interpretation.
Suppose that a farmer, how is in quite a hurry, wants to reach C, starting from
M, and passing by a point P, which belongs to riverbank, [10.36]. To put this into
more mathematical terms, the problem is to find the point P for which the distance
d(M,P) from M to P, plus the distance d(P,C), from P to C, is a minimum:
Minimize F ( P) = d ( M , P) + d ( P , C )
subject to: g ( P) = 0 (10.18)
Our first way of thinking about this problem can be obtained directly from
the picture itself. We will use the handy fact that an ellipse is a set of points P, for
which the total distance from one focus to P to the other focus is constant. In our
problem, that means that find the desired point P on the riverbank, we must simply
find the smallest ellipse that intersects the curve of the river.
It is obvious from the picture that the perfect ellipse and the river are truly
tangential to each other at the ideal point P. More mathematically, this means that
the normal vector to the ellipse is in the same direction as the normal vector to the
riverbank.
As geometric interpretation constrained extreme occur at points where the
contours of F are tangent to the contours of g(X,Y) = 0. In our case, we have two
functions that have the same normal vector, so
( F ( P )) = ( g ( P )) (10.19)
where is a constant multiplier, which is necessary because the two gradients will,
in general, have different magnitudes.
The value of is approximately the increase in the optimum value of F(X),
when the constraint is increased by 1 unit.
How to distinguish maxima from minima? There is a second derivative test
for classifying the critical points of constrained optimization problems. If we have
more than one constraint, it turns out that all you need to do is to replace the right
hand side of the equation, with the sum of the gradients of each constraint, each
with its own (different) Lagrange multiplier.
Application
Find the minimum and the maximum values of ( x + y ) , on the circle
2 2
( x + y 4 = 0).
With the objective function
F ( x, y ) = x + y
and the constraint,
g ( x, y ) = x 2 + y 2 4 = 0
the Lagrange function is
L ( x , y , ) = x + y + ( x 2 + y 2 4)
So, using
F ( x , y ) = g ( x , y )
gives:
Minimum:
1
1 + 2 x =1 + 2 y = 0 ; x= y= 2 ; =
2 2
Maximum:
1
1 + 2 x =1 + 2 y = 0; x= y= 2 ; =
2 2
y
x2 + y2 = 4
F
F = -1 Pmax g
F = -2 ( 2, 2)
F = -2 2 x
F F=2 2
(- 2,- 2) F=2
Pmin F=1
g
F=0
Fig. 10.3. The solutions for the optimization problems.
10.2.2.2. Lagrange relaxation method (LR)

Lagrange relaxation is based upon the observation that many difficult
programming problems, complicated by a set of side constraints, can be solved as
relatively easy problems. To exploit this observation, we create a Lagrangian

problem, in which the complicating constraints are replaced with a penalty term in
the objective function involving the amount of violations of the constraints and
their dual variables, [10.46].
To advantageous apply of the Lagrangian Relaxation (LR) to a mathematical
programming primal problem (PP), this problem should have the structure below,
[10.21].
(PP) Minimize F ( X )
X
subject to: h1 ( X ) = 0
g1 ( X ) 0 (10.20)
h2 ( X ) = 0
g2 (X ) 0
where h2(X) = 0 and g2(X) 0 are the complicating constraints, namely constraints
that if relaxed, problem (PP) becomes much more easily. The Lagrangian function
(LF) is defined as, [10.43]:
L( X , , ) = F ( X ) + t h2 ( X ) + t g 2 ( X ) (10.21)
where and are Lagrange multiplier vectors.
The Lagrange multipliers measure the sensitivity of the objective function, to
the corresponding constraints, [10.46].
Under local convexity assumptions ( H xx L ( X * , * ) > 0) , the dual function (DF)
is defined as:
(DF) ( , ) = minimum L( X , , )
X
subject to: h1 ( X ) = 0 (10.22)
g1 ( X ) 0
The dual function is concave and, in general, non-differentiable, [10.43]. This
is a fundamental fact in the algorithm of the LR methods. The dual problem (DP) is
then defined as:
(DP) Maximize (, )
,
subject to: 0 (10.23)
The LR decomposition procedure is attractive if, for fixed values of and ,
the dual function is easily solved, namely, if the dual function is easily evaluated
~~
for given values , of multiplier vectors and respectively. The problem to be
~~
solved for given values , is the so-called relaxed primal problem (RPP),
~ ~
(RPP) Minimize L( X , , )
X
subject to: h1 ( X ) = 0 (10.24)
g1 ( X ) 0
The above problem typically decomposes into sub problems. This
decomposition facilitates its solutions, that is
n
~
(DPP) Minimize L( X , , ~)
i =1
i
Xi
subject to: h1i ( X i ) = 0 ; i = 1,..., n (10.25)
g 1i ( X i ) 0; i = 1,..., n
This problem is called the decomposed primal problem (DPP). The resulting
sub problem can be solved in parallel. Under local convexity assumptions, the local
duality theorem says that:
F ( X * ) = (* , * ) (10.26)
where X* is the minimizer for the PP and (* , * ) , the maximizer for the DP.
In the nonconvex case, given a feasible solution for the PP, X, and a feasible
solution for the DP, (,), the weak duality theorem says that:
F ( X ) (, ) (10.27)
LR generates a separable problem by integrating some constraints into the
objective function, through penalty factors, which are functions of the constraints
violations, [10.20].
By assumption the Lagrangian problem is relatively easy to solve, there are
three major questions in using the Lagrangian Relaxation method, [10.46]:
Which constraints should be relaxed?
How to compute good multipliers?
How to deduce a good feasible solution to the original problem, given a
solution to the relaxed problem?
The penalty factors, referred to the Lagrangian multipliers, are determined
iteratively. The procedure is dependent on the initial estimates of the Lagrangian
multipliers and the method used to update these. The most used technique for
estimating the Lagrangian multipliers relies on sub gradient algorithms or heuristic,
[10.20].
Application
Consider the problem [10.20]
Minimize ( x 2 + y 2 )
x, y
subject to: ( x + y ) 2 2 = 0; x, y 0
Whose solution is x*= y*= 2 , F( 2 , 2 ) = 4.

The Lagrange multipliers associated to the equality constraint has the optimal value
*= 2 2 . The Lagrangian function is:
L( x, y , ) = x 2 + y 2 + ( x + y 2 2 )
This problem is solved by LR follows.
Step 0. Initialization. = 0.
Step 1. Solution of the relaxed primal problem. The problem is decomposed into
two sub problems:
Minimize ( x 2 + x 2 ) Minimize ( y 2 + y 2 )
x y
whose solutions are x and y.
Step 2. Multiplier updating. Use a sub gradient procedure with proportionality

constant equal to .
+ ( x + y 2 2 )
Step 3. Convergence checking. If multiplier does not change sufficiently, stop;
the optimal solution is x* = x, y* = y. Otherwise the procedure continues in
Step 1.
In this algorithm the following values can be considered: = 1 and an initial

multiplier value = 1.
Augmented Lagrangian decomposition
The augmented Lagrangian (AL) function of problem (10.20) has the form:
1 1 ~
AL ( x, , , , ) = F ( X ) + T h2 ( X ) + T g~2 ( X , Z ) +
2 2
h2 ( X ) + g 2 ( X , e)
2 2
(10.28)
Penalty parameters and are large enough scalars to ensure local
convexity, and the component i of function g~2 ( X , e) is defined as
g~ ( X , e ) = g ( X ) + e 2 .
2i i i 2i i i
10.2.3. Multiobjective optimization techniques

10.2.3.1. Introduction to multiobjective optimization (MO)
Practical optimization problems, especially the engineering design
optimization problems, seem to have a multiobjective nature much more frequently
than a single objective one. Practically, real-world decision making problems with
only one objective are rare.
Despite of that, solving single objective optimization problems is far more

common than solving multiobjective problems, since there appears to be no
generally effective and efficient method available for solving multiobjective
problems directly as they are. Typically a multiobjective problem is to be
effectively converted to a single objective problem before applying an optimization
algorithm. This conversion can be done easily by first deciding the relative
importance for each objective a priori. Then, for example, the Decision-Maker
(DM) may combine the individual objective functions into a scalar cost function
(linear or nonlinear combination), which effectively converts a multiobjective
problem into a single objective one.
When considering multiobjective optimization (MO) problems, the most
frequently applied evolutionary optimization algorithms are genetic algorithms.
Anyway, single objective problems are only a subclass of multiobjective
problems. Thus finding a method for solving the multiobjective problems as
multiobjective problems, without any a priori preference decisions, and without
first converting the problem into a single objective one, is one of the most
important optimization research objectives at the moment, [10.40].
This focusing can be justified by considering two facts:
The Pareto-optimization approach does not require any a priori preference
decisions between the conflicting objectives.
Evolutionary optimization approach has proven to be potential for solving
Pareto-optimization problems.
A wide variety of approaches have been applied for attacking MO problems.
As well as in case of single objective optimization problems, these approaches can
be classified into three classes: enumerative, deterministic and stochastic methods.
Each approach has some advantages and some fundamental limitations.
The engineer/economist Vilfredo Pareto made (1886) one of the most
important findings in the field of (MO) by finding that Multiple criteria solutions
could be partially ordered without making any preference choices a priori.
Optimal solutions for a multiobjective problem, defined by applying Paretos
idea, are currently called as Pareto-optimal solutions due to obvious reasons. The
Pareto relatively simple idea of optimality in case of multiple objectives can be
verbally described as follows, [10.40]: A solution is Pareto-optimal if it is
dominated by no other feasible solution, which means that there exists no other
solution that is superior at least in case of one objective function value, and equal
or superior with respect to the other objective functions values.
It is clear that in case of conflicting objectives, the Pareto optimal solutions
are rather a class of solutions, forming a surface in objective function space, than a
single solution. This surface is commonly called as a Pareto-front.
This decision can be done applying one of the following approaches:
1. A priori preference articulation: The Decision-Maker (DM) selects the
weighting before running the optimization algorithm. In practice it means
that the DM combines the individual objective functions into a scalar cost
function (linear or nonlinear combination). This effectively converts a

multiobjective problem into a single objective one.
2. Progressive preference articulation: DM interacts with the optimization
program during the optimization process. Typically the system provides an
updated set of solution and let the DM consider whether or not change the
weighting of individual objective functions.
3. A posteriori preference articulation: No weighting is specified by the user
before or during the optimization process. The optimization algorithm
provides a set of efficient candidate solutions from which the DM chooses
the solution to be used.
Currently, in connection with evolutionary algorithms, there exist clearly two
mainstream approaches for appropriate definition of MO problem also in case of
conflicting objectives:
1. Weighted sum of objective functions: Converting the multiobjective
problem to a single objective one using weighted sum of objective
functions as a representative objective function, and then solve the problem
as a single objective one represents an a priori preference articulation.
2. Pareto-optimization: Solving the multiobjective problem by applying
Pareto-optimization approach. DM selects the solution from the resulting
Pareto-optimal set. This represents an a posteriori preference articulation.
The problems with multiple objectives do not have a unique optimal solution,
but a set of Pareto-optimal solutions. The set of Pareto-optimal solutions can be
characterized by Pareto-front a hypersurface in the objective function space in
which the Pareto-optimal points are located.
10.2.3.2. Multiobjective decisions in power systems

In the operating and expansion planning of the power systems the various
structures are assessed and compared according to various type of criteria:
economic criterion;
supply quality criterion;
robustness criterion;
environment criterion and so on.
The priority of the criteria has changed dramatically in recent years.
In the economic criterion a comparison of the various structures adopted is
made on the basis of costs calculation. Regarding the reliability of customers
supply as a quality criterion, by means of a special network topology, in Figure
10.4 is indicated the general possibilities for applying reliability criterion.
A key criterion to the optimization problem is that of robustness. A given
plan is robust regarding a specific constraint, if the constraint holds true for every
possible value of the uncertain variables and constants. In the last time the
importance of the environmental criterion is greater and greater and a very
important aspect that must be taking into account is the networks (lines) impact
with the environment.
Methods for applying reliability

criterion to power system planning
Treatment as a restriction Treatment within the goal function
(n-1) Limits for the Multiobjective optimization Interruption costs

criterion topology reliability indices
Fig. 10.4. Methods for using reliability in the power systems planning.
In contrast to traditionally planning methods, in the last time, the (MO)

methods show their advantages. As example, in OPF and OUC case, the economic,
the security, environmental and reliability objectives must be considered too.
Usually, the objective function to be considered is the sum of start-up, shut-down
and running cost. The security refers to the maximization of the static and dynamic
security of the system. In environment criterion, the objective is the minimization
of the total emission from the fossil fuel plants. For reliable operation of the power
system, a sufficient amount of operating reserve expressed as a percentage of the
total generation must be maintained at each generating station.
Optimization according to multiple objectives can be done using the
following methods:
definition of a scalar function as the weighted sum of the results of each
objective;
transforming the multiobjective problem into a single objective one using
fuzzy technique;
optimization of one objective while treating the others as restrictions;
- constrained technique;
goal programming.
Fundamental to the MO problems is the Pareto-optimal concept (known as a
noninferior solution). Assuming that the Decision-Maker (DM) has imprecise or
fuzzy goal for each of objectives, a fuzzy goal expressed can be quantified by
drawing out a corresponding membership function. To elicit a membership
function for each objective, we first estimate the individual minimum and
maximum value of each objective function under given constrains by the
experiences of the DM.
The problem of Economic Dispatching (ED) of the thermal power plants tries
to find the optimal commitment of generating units, to meet the demand,
transmission losses and reserve requirements. An equally important objective is to
minimize the adverse effects on the environment. In this case, the objective is to
find the commitment of generating units so as to comply with environmental
constraints, such as limitation of emission of oxides of sulfur, oxides of nitrogen or
the heat discharge into watercourse. The schedule that achieves this last objective
may be called Controlled/ Minimum Emission Dispatching (C/MED).
In the MO problems, multiple objectives are usually non-commensurable and
cannot be combined into a single objective. Moreover, any improvement of one
objective can be reached only at the loss of another. Consequently, it is necessary

to design a DM for the MO problems. The aim of the MO is to find a compromise
between all the DM solutions. This means that the DM must select the compromise
solution between global non-inferior solutions.
10.2.3.3. Application on the case of a distribution station

This section presents a MO technique, based on fuzzy dynamic programming (FDP)
for the voltage-reactive power (VQ) control on the case of distribution stations. The main
two objectives are the improvement of the voltage profile and the reduction of the active
power losses. Using the hourly forecast of the demanded load for the next day, the VQ
control optimizes the control actions for the transformer tap changing (tc) and the capacitor
switching (CS) of capacitor banks (CBs), so as to maintain the secondary bus voltage, as
close as possible to the specified value and to keep the active power losses in the station
transformers, as small as possible, at all hours of the day. Coordination of tc and CS is
achieved through the maximization of a fuzzy objective function by fuzzy dynamic
programming (FDP).
The strategy for preventing unnecessary tap operations is based on the prediction of
the near future voltage and reactive power. Most control actions are conditioned by the
tendency of the load (to increase, decrease, or remain steady). The operators will not be
willing to change the voltage set point, if they take for granted that the opposite action will
be necessary in the near future, in twenty minutes, for example, [10.44]. The short-term
reactive scheduling (24 hours) is executed one day in advance, using an adaptive artificial
neural network.
The optimal voltage profiles are those, which minimize the real losses for the most
representative time intervals of the daily load diagram. The attainment of the planned
optimal profile is possible only if the current network situation exhibits the characteristics
of the day before forecast. On the contrary, the very short-term (15 30 minutes)
scheduling will be executed, on the basis of the actual state, [10.23].
If the tc and the CS are operated independently, it may happen that the tc move too
often and, consequently, it is necessary to coordinate the tc and CS actions. To solve this
problem, an FDP approach is used to find the proper dispatching strategy for the tc
movements and CS actions, so as to improve the bus voltage profile and to reduce the
transmission losses in main transformer. Hard limits on the maximum allowable number of
control actions of CS and tc are also imposed.
Optimization mathematical model
Using the demanded load forecasting for the next day, the status of the tc and CS
must be determined, so as to keep the active power losses in the main transformer as small
as possible and to maintain the secondary bus voltage as close as possible to the specified
value, at all hours in the day. In practice, the following values are imposed: cos 0.8 ,
U 2 5% and the daily switching number for the tc and CB is: N tc 30 , respectively,
N CB 6 [10.11, 10.42].
If the control variables for CB (CB1, CB2) and tc are defined:
X i ( X 1i , X 2i ) = 0 (CB1 (CB2) is off); i = h = 1, K, N = 24 ;
X i ( X 1i , X 2i ) = 1 (CB1 (CB2) is on); i = h = 1, K, N = 24 ;
tci = 9, K, 0, K, 9 ; i = h = 1, K, N = 24 ;
U 2 = U 2 ; Q = Q2 QCB
U2 cos
1 1
0.5 0.5
U2 cos
1 2 3 4 5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Fig. 10.5. Membership function Fig. 10.6. Membership function

for U2. for cos .
The problem is to find a set of control variables X i and tci , so that the objective
function:
N N
F=
i =1
~
u 2i
+
i =1
~
Q
= F1 + F2 (10.29)
is maximized subject to:

N
N tc = tc tc
i =1
i i 1 30 (10.30)
N
N CB1 = X1 X1
i =1
i i 1 6 (10.31)
N
N CB 2 = X2 X2
i =1
i i 1 6 (10.32)
The membership functions regarding the voltage deviation and, respectively, reactive
power transit, are shown in Figures 10.5 and 10.6. In the objective function (10.29), the
term F1 quantifies the desirability of maintaining the secondary bus voltage, as close as
possible to the specified value, and the term F2 quantifies the desirability of keeping the
reactive power flow in the main transformer, as small as possible at all hours during the
day. The optimization model (10.29) (10.32) enables us to determine the optimal control
values of X i and tci at each hour during the observed period of time. The dynamic
programming principle will be applied to solve the optimization problem. The recurrence
formula to reach the status (H,QCB) at hour H has the form:
{
F (H , QCB ) = max FH (H , X i ) + F (H 1, QCB )
Xi
} (10.33)
where: F (H , QCB ) is the total value of the objective function to reach the status
(H, QCB );
FH (H , X i ) the value of the objective function for the transition from the status
(H1, QCB ), to the status (H, QCB ).
To obtain the second bus voltage, the calculated transformer ratio (CTR) must be
rounded at the real transformer ratio (RTR) at each step of the FDP, by adjusting the
correspondent value of the tci . Each step of the FDP supposes two possibilities for CB
(on/off).
Numerical results
The proposed method has been applied to several cases. For example, we present in
Figure 10.7 a distribution station case.
U1=110 kV
Sn=25 MVA
110 kV / 22 kV
+ 9 x 1.78%
U2=110 kV
QCB
P2+jQ2
Fig. 10.7. Test distribution station.
The optimal value of the objective function in the case of QCB = 2.4 MVAr is
F = F1 + F2 = 37.25 , N tc = 6 , N CB = 2 . Using fuzzy logic, logical decisions can be made
in problems exhibiting ambiguity. The coordination of voltage-reactive power control
represents an example of such a problem.
The fuzzy variables associated with the coordination are the transformer taps and the
capacitor switching of the capacitor banks.
Table 10.2
Numerical Results for case QCB = 2.4 MVAr
H P2 Q2 QCB = 2.4 MVAr H P2 Q2 QCB = 2.4 MVAr
[MW] [MVAr] tc X F1 F2 [MW] [MVAr] tc X F1 F2
1 5.75 1.2 2 0 0.90 0.96 13 15.50 11.60 -1 1 11.14 8.35
2 5.15 1.00 2 0 1.78 1.94 14 15.00 11.25 -1 1 11.94 8.63
3 5.25 0.90 2 0 2.69 2.94 15 14.50 10.80 0 1 12.84 8.95
4 5.75 1.20 2 0 3.75 3.90 16 12.50 7.00 0 1 13.56 9.53
5 6.00 1.30 2 0 4.65 4.85 17 10.50 6.00 1 1 14.42 10.29
6 7.00 2.00 2 0 5.04 5.75 18 7.75 3.50 1 1 15.00 11.25
7 8.75 4.00 1 1 6.24 6.67 19 6.75 3.00 2 1 15.88 12.25
8 12.5 7.00 0 1 6.98 7.37 20 6.25 1.75 2 0 16.76 13.15
9 15.0 11.25 -1 1 7.80 7.63 21 6.00 1.30 2 0 17.66 14.10
10 15.5 11.62 -1 1 8.62 7.67 22 5.75 1.20 2 0 18.56 14.97
11 15.7 11.80 -1 1 9.46 7.89 23 5.75 1.20 2 0 19.46 15.93
12 16.0 12.00 -1 1 10.32 8.09 24 5.75 1.20 2 0 20.36 16.89
10.2.4. Modern optimization techniques in operating planning

10.2.4.1. Sequential quadratic programming (SQP)
In the most general formulation, the Optimal Power Flow (OPF) is a
nonlinear, nonconvex, large-scale, static optimization problem with both
continuous and discrete control variables, [10.3, 10.6, 10.10, 10.11, 10.20, 10.51,
10.53, 10.54, 10.61 10.63, 10.65 10.67, 10.71 10.74].
The literature OPF is vast and presents the major contributions in this area.
Mathematical programming approaches, such as nonlinear programming (NLP),
quadratic programming (QP), linear programming (LP), etc. have been used for the
solution of the OPF problems. Some methods, instead of solving the original
problem, solve the problem Karush-Kuhn-Tucker (KKT) optimality conditions.
For equality constrained optimization problem, the KKT conditions are a set of
nonlinear equations, which can be solved using a Newton type algorithm. The
inequality constraints can be added as penalty terms to the problem objective,
multiplied by appropriate penalty multipliers. Over the past three decades, there
has been a great interest in heuristic search methods for complex optimization
problems. In this section, an overview of these optimization techniques in power
systems is presented.
Dommel and Tinney proposed a reduced gradient technique. This method
combines projection for control variables and penalty for dependent variables and
functional constraints. The method contains many uncertainties over convergence.
Other authors, more recently, proposed sequential quadratic programming (SQP)
technique to solve OPF by Newton method.
In the many other papers, the Newton method (for unconstrained optimization)
is combined with a Lagrange multipliers method (for optimizations with equalities)
and penalty functions (for handling inequalities) to solve large scale OPF, in
nonlinear manner. Desirable properties of a quadratic function are, [10.61]:
its Hessian is constant;
the higher order term is easily evaluated.
There are two reasons for the successful applications of this method (LR -
Lagrange relaxation), [10.54]:
many real problems are complicated by the addition of some constraints;
practical experience with LR has indicated that it performs well at
reasonable computational cost.
The important aspect of this approach is in identifying the set of binding
constraints; these are the inequality constraints, which need to be considered as
equality, [10.53].
The dual augmented Lagrangian approach handles all constraints using
penalty and dual variables. The dual variables are updated using an intrinsic rule.
With this method, the increase in penalty terms improves the dual convergence, but
it makes the Hessian matrix ill conditioned. The optimization of this trade off is the
critical aspect of this method.
[10.53] combines the sequential quadratic programming (Newton) and the

augmented Lagrangian methods, so the difficulties, which arise from these methods
are eliminated. The binding constraints need not be identified and the equalities
constraints are not associated with the penalty functions. Thus one avoids the need
to create more nonlinearity in the problem (augmented Lagrangian). The necessary
first-order optimality conditions (FONC) of the OPF model are the stationary
conditions of the augmented Lagrangian function.
These conditions are reached by a primal-dual procedure in which, [10.53]:
Newton method is applied to FONC with respect to the primal and dual
variables related to the equality constraints.
The dual variables related to the inequality constraints are updated by a
dual rule and the penalty factor is slightly increased.
10.2.4.2. Interior-point methods (IPMS)

In the past years, research on interior-point (IP) methods, theory and
computational implementation, have evolved extremely fast. Interior-point method
variants are being extended to solve all kind of programs: from linear to nonlinear
and from convex to non-convex (the latter with no guarantee regarding their
convergence). In the same way, they are also being applied to solve all sorts of
practical problems. Optimization of power system operations is one of the areas,
where IP methods are being applied extensively, due to the size and special
features of these problems, [10.51, 10.61 10.63, 10.65 10.67, 10.73].
Interior-point methods (IPMs) are a central, striking feature of the
constrained optimization landscape today. They have led a fundamental shift in
thinking about continuous optimization. Today, in complete contrast to the era
before 1984, researchers view linear and nonlinear programming from a unified
perspective. Also, IPMs provide an alternative to active set methods for the
treatment of inequality constraints, which permits the effective and efficient
handling of large sets of equality and inequality constraints, [10.65].
IPMs convert the inequalities by introduction of nonnegative slack variables.
A logarithmic barrier function of the slack variables is then added to the objective
function, multiplied by a barrier parameter, which is gradually reduced to zero
during the solution process.
The computational effort in each iteration of an IP algorithm is dominated by
the solution of large, sparse linear system. The greatest breakthrough in the IPMs
research field took place in 1984, when Karmarkar [10.37] came up with a new IP
method for LP, reporting solution time up to 50 times faster than the simplex
method. Karmarkar algorithm is based on nonlinear projective transformations.
10.2.4.3. Lagrange relaxation - evolutionary programming (LREP)

Computational intelligence seeks, as its main goal, to create artificial
systems, which mimic aspects of human behaviour, such as perception, evolution,
learning, adaptability and reasoning. It involves a number of intelligent techniques,
which are inspired by a well established and successful system, the nature. Several
different types of evolutionary search methods were developed independently:
Genetic programming (GP);
Evolutionary programming (EP), which focuses on optimizing continuous
functions without recombination;
Evolutionary strategies (ES), which focuses on optimizing continuous
functions with recombination;
Genetic algorithms (GA), which focuses on optimizing general
combinatorial problems.
The main applications developed worldwide in the last years:
Load forecasting;
Optimal power flow;
Optimal unit commitment;
Operating and expansion planning;
Optimal capacitor placement and control;
Tariff selection;
Alarm processing and fault diagnosis;
Control of power consumption.
The Table 10.3 presents the intelligent techniques and their main properties.
The Evolutionary programming (EP) is a stochastic optimization method in
the area of evolutionary computation, which uses the mechanics of evolution to
produce optimal solutions to a given problem, [10.68]. It works by evolving a
population of candidate solutions toward the global minimum through the use of a
mutation operator and selection scheme. The EP technique is particularly well
suited to non-monotonic solution surfaces, where many local minima may exist.
EP seeks the optimal solution by evolving a population of candidate
solutions, over a number of generations or iterations. During each iteration, a
second new population is formed, from an existing population, through the use of
mutation operator. This operator produces a new solution, by perturbing each
component of an existing solution, by a random amount. The degree of optimality
of each of the candidate solution or individuals is measured by their fitness, which
can be defined as an objective function of the problem.
Through the use of a competition scheme, the individuals in each population
compete with each other. The winning individuals form a resultant population,
which is regarded as next generation. For optimization to occur, the competition
scheme must be such that the more optimal solutions have great chance of survival
that the poorer solutions. As example, enhancement of the optimization methods by
using genetic algorithms, [10.20] proposes a method, where Lagrangian relaxation
incorporates genetic algorithms to solving the optimal commitment problems.
The Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) are used too to improvement of the
optimization methods. Most gradient-based optimization methods involve a major
difficulty the derivation of the objective function. Usually, a great number of
objective functions cannot be derivable and, frequently, are not continuous. A
method for computing the network output sensitivities, with respect to the input
variations for multilayer perceptron (MLP) using differentiable activation functions

is presented in [10.9]. The method is applied to obtain the values of the first and
second order sensitivities. These sensitivities, with the conjugated gradient, can be
used as a basis for the process optimization. As an illustration, the minimization of
losses in a power system is presented. In this case three controls are used, namely
the voltages at the generation buses, the positions of the transformers tap changing,
and the reactive power of switchable capacitors/reactors.
The fuzzy set theory, introduced by Zadeh and investigated further by many
researchers, provides the tools for representing and manipulating inexact concepts,
prelevant in human interpretation and in the reasoning process. Uncertainty in
fuzzy logic is a measure of no specificity that is characterized by possibility
distributions. This is somehow similar to the use of probability distributions, which
characterize uncertainty in the theory of probability. A fuzzy set A is characterized
by a membership function A (x) relating each element x to its compatibility
degree with set X:
A = { x, A ( x ) x X }
The membership function, which represents the possibility distribution,
assigns a real number, between 0 and 1, to every value in the fuzzy set.
In the real-world problems, there exist uncertainties in both the objective
functions and constraints. By using the fuzzy set theory, these uncertainties can be
considered. So, using the fuzzy logic, a multipleobjective problem can be
transformed into a single objective problem. This approach simplifies the solving
of the complex optimization problems.
Artificial Neural Networks, Fuzzy Logic and Evolutionary Computing have
shown capability on many problems, but have not yet been able to solve the really
complex problems that their biological counterparts can (e.g., vision). It is useful to
fuse Artificial Neural Networks, Fuzzy Logic and Evolutionary Computing
techniques for offsetting the demerits of one technique by the merits of another
techniques, [10.14].
Table 10.3
Intelligent techniques and their properties
Primary
Techniques Strengths Weaknesses
Application
Genetic Parallelism. Hard to represent some
Optimization
Algorithm Easy Implementation problems.
Neural Pattern Easy Implementation. Does not explain the results
Network Recognition Learning with data. obtained.
Manipulates inaccurate
concepts such as: bigger, Needs an expert to
Fuzzy
Control smaller, high, old. formulate the necessary
Logic
Explains the results rules.
obtained.
Expert Decision Explains completely the Needs an expert to precisely
System Making process of solution. formulate the rules.
10.2.4.4. Strategies optimization techniques in energy markets

The utility restructuring has enhanced the role and the importance of OPF
tools. Some of the basic business functions cannot be performed without OPF. In
general, the objective of an energy market is to maximize market benefits. This is
equivalent to minimizing the payments to energy offers and the revenues from
demand bid.
There are two sources for negotiating models: Game Theory (GT) and
Distributed Artificial Intelligence (DAI). GT is concerned with interactions
between human agents, while DAI deals with similar issues concerning software
agents.
Unfortunately, DAI negotiation protocols developed to date are only suitable
for tasks where agents have a common goal. For such coordination problems,
protocol such, as contract net are applicable. In competitive markets, agents may
form coalitions, but clearly they have different goals.
GT, on the other hand, is limited by assumptions about requisite knowledge of the
others agents, [10.45].
Game theory is a branch of economics focused on behaviour related to
interactive decision problems. Research within this field of study includes analysis
of pricing strategy and behaviour that applies to suppliers (market incumbents and
new entrants) and customers.
More than 50 years ago when Game theory first emerged, attempts were
made to develop theories of bargaining that would predict outcomes. John Nash,
the 1994 Nobel laureate, theorized in two papers (1950, 1953) that suppliers
competing for the same business could cooperate and set high prices.
Research reveals that as the number of bidders increase, the more likely it is
that the winner will overestimate the actual value. Individual bidders will logically
adjust bids to reflect their own market expectations, assuming over time that any
errors will average out, with the high estimates cancelling the low estimates.
However, the law of averages does not apply to competitive bidding. Suppliers
who underestimate the value of the product lose the deal and the one who
overestimates the value the most ends up a winner who overpaid, [10.45].
In deregulated market, ordinal optimization techniques often are used for
optimization of the bidding strategies, [10.29].
10.3. Optimal power flow (OPF)
10.3.1. Optimization model

10.3.1.1. Introduction
The optimal power flow (OPF) is a steady state operation of the power
system that minimizes the costs of meeting the load demand for a power system,
while maintaining the security of the system, [10.71]. The costs associated with the
power system may depend on the situation, but in general they can be attributed to
the cost of generating power at each generator. From the viewpoint of an OPF, the
maintenance of system security requires keeping each device in the power system
within its desired operation range at steady state. This will include maximum and
minimum outputs for generators, maximum MVA flows on transmission lines and
transformers. The transmission and distribution of the electric energy at a desired
voltage profile is a measure of not only the quality, but also the security of supply.
The optimal voltage profile is defined as the profile corresponding to the minimum
active power losses, [10.11, 10.28].
In this order, the OPF will perform all the steady-state control functions of
the power system, including generator control and transmission system control. For
generators, the OPF controls generator MW outputs, as well as generator voltages.
For the transmission system, the OPF may control the tap ratio or phase-shifter
angle of the transformers, switched shunt control, and all other flexible ac
transmission system (FACTS) devices.
Another goal of an OPF is the determination of system marginal cost data.
This marginal cost data can aid in the pricing of MW transactions, as well as the
pricing ancillary services such as voltage support through MVAr support. In
solving the OPF using Newton method, the marginal cost data are determined as a
by-product of the solution technique, [10.71].
10.3.1.2. Objective function

The objective function for the OPF reflects the costs associated with
generating power in the system. The cost is assumed to be approximated by a
quadratic function of generator active power output as:
Ci = ai + bi PGi + ci PG2i (10.34)
where: PGi [MW] is the active output of generator i, subject to lower/upper

bounds constraint;
ai , bi , and ci the coefficients of the consumption characteristics.
Therefore, this objective function will minimize the total system costs:
F(X ) = (a + b P
i
i i Gi + ci PG2i ) (10.35)
10.3.1.3. Equality and inequality constraints

The equality constraints of the OPF, generally, reflect the power balance at
the buses of the system. The power flow equations require that the injection of real
and reactive power at each bus sum to be zero:
N
Pi = U i U [G k ik cos( i k ) + Bik sin( i k ) ] PG i + PL i = 0
k =1 (10.36)
N
Qi = U i U [G
k =1
k ik sin( i k ) Bik cos( i k ) ] QG i + Q L i = 0
where: PGi , QGi are active and reactive power of the generator i;
PLi , Q Li active and reactive power of the load i.
It is common for OPF problems to be formulated in polar form, since voltage

magnitude limits are treated easily as simple variable limits. Despite this merit,
OPF in rectangular form has advantages in that the second derivatives of power
flow equations are constants and trigonometric functions are not including, [10.73].
N
Pi = (U (G U
k =1
i
'
ik
'
k BikU k" ) + U i" (U k" Gik + U k' Bik )) PGi + PLi = 0
(10.37)
N
Qi =
k =1
(U i" (GikU k' BikU k" ) U i' (U k" Gik + U k' Bik )) QGi + Q Li = 0
For each generator, a voltage set of points () can be enforced. In this case,
an equality constraint for each generator is added, [10.71]:
U Gi U Gi = 0 (10.38)
A special attention must be paid to the inequality constraints of this problem.

The inequality constraints of the OPF reflect the devices limits in the power
system, as well as the limits created to ensure system security. Generators have
maximum and minimum output active powers and reactive powers, which add
inequality constraints:
PGi min PGi PGi max
(10.39)
QGi min QGi QGi max
Transformer tap changing have a maximum and a minimum tap changing,

which can be achieved:
tcik min tcik tcik max (10.40)
For the maintenance of system security, power systems have transmission

line, as wells transformer MVA ratings. These ratings may come from thermal
ratings of conductors, or they may be set to a level due to the system stability
concerns. To make the mathematics less complex, the constraint used in the OPF
will limit the square of the MVA flow on a transformer or transmission line.
2 2
Sik Sik max 0 (10.41)
To maintain the quality of electric service and system security, buses

voltages, usually, have a desired voltage profile (maximum and minimum
magnitudes):
U i min U i U i max (10.42)
All variables can be assumed to be continuous. The OPF algorithm also

assumes this for the tap ratios of transformers, although this is not true for them.
One possible solution for this problem is to round the optimal setting found
assuming a continuous tap to the nearest discrete tap. This could be done for all
transformers. However, three problems arise from this methodology. First, there is
no guarantee that the rounded solution is the optimal solution. Second, the solution
may become infeasible after rounding, i.e., some constraints may be violated.
Finally, this methodology will not work well for discrete variables that have very
large step sizes such as switched capacitor banks, [10.71].
10.3.1.4. Optimal power flow variables

In order to handle the variables in the OPF problem efficiently, it is
convenient to separate them into three categories: controls, states, and constraints:
The control variables correspond to quantities that can be arbitrarily
manipulated, within their limits, in order to minimize the costs. These
include generator MW outputs ( PGi ), transformer tap changing ( tcik );
The states variables correspond to quantities that are set as a result of the
controls, but must be monitored. They are also of interest at the solution.
The states include all system voltages ( U i ) and angles ( i );
The constraint variables are variables associated with the constraints.
These include all the Lagrange multipliers.
10.3.2. Minimization of the active power losses (MAPL)

The minimization of the active power losses (MAPL) in power systems is a
very important research issue. The generators, transformer taps, and switchable
capacitors/inductors are, by far, the most useful devices in power losses
minimization, [10.4, 10.10, 10.32, 10.44].
The difficulties encountered were basically the following:
A high number of variable devices. The dispatcher is faced with the
problem of selecting a subset of effective controls to shift;
The desired corrective actions must be effected sometimes within a very
short period;
The discrete character of certain control variables (the objective function
can not be derived);
Unexpected convergence problems in certain cases.
It is very important to reduce the number of required adjustments, making the

approach suitable for practical applications. Many problems can be quickly
ascertained using first order sensitivity factors. These sensitivities can be used as a
basis for inferences about input-output relationships. In this field several
sophisticated and robust computational tools have been developed. This section
investigates the minimization of losses by voltage-reactive power control, using the
sequential quadratic programming (SQP) method.
Consider the MAPL problem, [10.10, 10.32],
Minimize F ([], [U ], [tc ]) = P ([], [U ], [tc ]) +
1
+ QGC (Q ) + T TSC
iq
i i
ijr
ijr ( tcij )
subject to: Pi ([], [U ], [tc ]) PGi + PLi = 0 i n \ e , dimension N 1
Qi ([], [U ], [tc ]) QGi + Q Li = 0 i C , dimension C, (10.43)
U i min U i U i max , i n , dimension N,
Qi min Qi ([], [U ], [tc ]) Qi max , i q , dimension Q,
tci min tcij tci max , ij r , dimension R,
0 I ij2 ([], [U ], [tc ]) I ij2 max , ij b , dimension B,
where: F ([], [U], [tc]) is

objective function;
P([],[U],[tc])
active power losses;
QGCi (Qi)
reactive generation cost at bus i;
TSCi j
tapes shift cost at transformers (ij), determined by
statistical data (tape shift wear and break-down risk);
[U] voltage magnitude vector, dimension N;
[] voltage angles vector, dimension (N 1);
[tc] transformers tap changing matrix, dimension R;
e network slack bus;
T time period considered, [hours];
c, q, r the sets of the consumers buses, buses with reactive
control, respectively, buses with tapes swift.
The MAPL variables are:
[ Z ] = [[ X ][Y ]]t ; [ X ] = [[U q ][tc ]]t ; [Y ] = [[ ] [U c ]]t (10.44)
where: [X] is independent (free/control) variables;

[Y] dependent (basic/state) variables.
The general minimization problem can be written in the following form:
Minimize F ( Z1 , Z 2 , ..., Z M ) , M = I + D
subject to: hi ( Z1 , Z 2 , ..., Z M ) = 0 , i = 1, 2, ..., D (10.45)
g i ( Z1 , Z 2 , ..., Z M ) 0 , i = 1, 2, ..., M c
Most discrete-time iterative methods for this problem involve generating a
sequence of search points Z k , via the iteration procedure:
Z k = Z k + k d k ; k = 0, 1, 2, K (10.46)
The iterative procedure (10.46) in the case of the conjugated gradient can be
written as, [10.10, 10.32]:
d ( k ) = g k + k d k 1 , i =1, 2,K (10.47)
d 0 = g0 (10.48)
( gk , gk )
k = (10.49)
( g k 1 , g k 1 )
The equality constraints arise from the operation equations at buses. The
admissible limits of the powers, of the voltages at the buses and of the power flows
give the inequality constraints. The number of the variables is equal to the size of
the vector Z, M = I + D , where I and D are the number of the independent,
respectively, dependent variables.
10.3.2.2. Sequential quadratic programming (SQP)

Considering an initial point [Z0] and separating the constraints in two sets,
active and inactive (passive) constraints, by development in Taylor series, the
objective function and the constraints of the above nonlinear model, the following
quadratic model (QM) is obtained:
1
Minimize FQ ([ Z]) = F 0 + [F]t [Z] + [Z]t [H ][ Z]
2
[ ]
subject to: f a0 + [Jf a ][Z ] = 0 (10.50)
[ f ]+ [Jf ][Z ] 0
1
0
1
where: [Z] is the new variables vector (for the QM);

[H] Hessian of the objective function;
[fa], [fl], [Jfa], [Jfl] the vectors and matrices of the active (equality) and
inactive (inequality) constraints.
Using the above quadratic model (QM) a sequential quadratic programming
(SQP) can be formulated. The solving of the initial problem (10.45), by sequential
transforming in problems of the type (10.50), is performed with the algorithm
given below.
Step 1. Initialize [Z], [Z] = [Z0];

Step 2. Calculate: [H], [F], [Ja], [Jl], [F0], [fa], [fl];
Step 3. Calculate [Z], as solution of the QM;
Step 4. [Z] = [Z] + [Z];
Step 5. If [Z]> 1 or [F]> 2 Go to Step 2;
Step 6. STOP.
The algorithm seems simple, but it includes a point key: the solution of the
model (10.50).
The model (10.50) belongs of the sequential quadratic programming, with
linear equality and inequality constraints. There are many methods for solving
these models, such conjugated reduced gradient, Newton, quasi-Newton and so on.
In order to use the conjugated reduced gradient, the constraints of the above model
will be handled by separating them in two sets: active and inactive:
[ ]
Minimize FQ([X ], [Y ]) = F 0 + [Fx ][X ] + Fy [Y ] +
+ [X ] [H ][X ] + [Y ] [H ][Y ] + [X ] [H ][Y ]

1 1
t xx t yy t xy
2 2
subject to: [ f ]+ [Jf ][X ] + [Jf ][Y ] = 0
a
0
ax ay (10.51)
[ f ]+ [Jf ][X ] + [Jf ][Y ] 0
1
0
1x 1y
The reduced gradient of FQ(X,Y) model has the following form:

[FQx ] = [FQx ] [Jf a x
] [Jf ] [FQ ]
t
1
ay t y (10.52)
where:
[FQx ] = [Fx ] + [H xx ][X ] + [H xy ][Y ] (10.53)
[FQx ] = [Fy ]+ [H yy ][Y ] + [H xy ][X ] (10.54)
After the elimination of the variable [Y], from (10.51) (10.54), the QM
achieves the final form:
1
Minimize FQR([X ]) = FQR 0 + [G ][X ] + [X ] t [H r ][X ] (10.55)
2
[ ]
[Y ] = Ty [X ] + [T ] (10.56)
where, the reduced gradient is:
[G ] = [FQR] = [G0 ] + [H x ][X ] (10.57)
with:
[G0 ] = [Fx ] + [Ty ] t [Fy ] + [ [H xy ] + [Ty ] t [H yy ] ] [T ] (10.58)
[H r ] = [H xx ] + [H xy ][Ty ]+ [Ty ] t [H xy ] t + [Ty ] t [H yy ][Ty ] (10.59)
[T ] = [Jf ] [Jf ] ; [T ] = [Jf ] [ f ]

y ar
1
ax ar
1
a
0
(10.60)
10.3.2.3. Algorithm for solving SQP problem

To solve this model, (10.55) (10.60), the following iterative process is used,
[10.10, 10.32]:
[X ] = [X ] + [D ] ; [D ] = [[D ]] ;
k
k k 1 k 0k 0k
k
k = 1,2, (10.61)
D
where: [Dk], k the direction of the motion from point [Xk] in the iteration (k),
respectively, the length of the step in direction [Dk].
The length of the step is calculated with conjugated (reduced) gradient
method:
[D ] = [G ]+ [G[G ]] [[GG ] ][D ];

k k
k k t k 1
k 1 k 1
k>1 (10.62)
t
[D ] = [G ] ; k > 1
k
(10.63)
=
[G ] [D ] k 0k
[D ] [H ][D ]
t
opt 0k 0k
(10.64)
t r
With the constraint (10.51), the length of the step becomes:

f l j (X k 1 )
ad = min ( j ) ; j = ; k = min ( opt , ad ) (10.65)
0k
j
[f1x ]t [ D ]
j
In order to reduce the number of control variables, in the beginning, the first
order sensitivities of losses to all control variables are computed. Then, an
Efficient Coefficient (EC) for power losses reduction can be defined as:
EC i = ( u P losses )i u i
max
(10.66)
which represents the product of the ith component of the reduced gradient by the
maximum amount that control i can be shifted, without causing any limit violation.
Discarding those devices whose ECs are lower than a threshold, the remaining ones
are considered in the optimization process, [10.9, 10.10, 10.44]. This is a quasi-
optimal algorithm, which has the following advantages, [10.10, 10.44]:
Control actions are sequential rather than simultaneous. This is more
adapted to the operators needs and to the way they work (sequential, by
nature).
The number of control actions performed can be chosen by the operator, on

the basis of incremental savings attainable, cost of operations and time
availability.
Easy integration within the expert systems and related heuristics.
Moderate computational effort.
Thus a simple gradient technique can be adopted in the power losses
minimization, sacrificing optimality for the sake of usefulness, reliability and quick
response.
Step 1. Initialize: k = 0, [X] =0, calculate [Yk] with (10.56);

Step 2. k = k + 1;
Step 3. Calculate: [G], [Dk], [k] with (10.57), (10.62), (10.65);
Step 4. Calculate [Xk], with (10.61);
Step 5. Calculate [Y], with (10.56);
Step 6. If all the direction are uselessly, Go to Step 7;
Step 7. If one of the constraint becomes active, determine a new set of the
active inequality and Go to Step 2;
Step 8. STOP.
10.3.2.4. Tests and results

The method outlined above for sensitivity analysis and optimization in this section
has been applied to a test network of 220/110 KV (10 buses, 12 branches), Figure 10.8.
3 7
10
220 kV 110 kV
9+ j2 6+ j4
-20.2 j11
(-20.2-j7.2)
4
1 2
-11+ j2.9 8
49.8+ j78.5 6
13+ j6
35+ j20
9
5
15+ j25
Fig. 10.8. Test network of 220 kV /110 kV.

Table 10.4
The objective function and control variables while iterative optimization process
Number Initial Conjugated reduced gradient iteration Final
Variable of QP amount amount
Iteration 1 2 3 4 5
F[MW] 0.6184 0.5943 0.5879 0.5878 - - 0.5945
F [%] 100 96.10 95.07 95.05 - - 96.13
tc 1-2 1 12 11.29 11.76 11.78 - - 12
tc 5-6 9 9.59 10.17 10.17 - - 10
tc 8-9 5 4.96 2.03 2.03 - - 2
F[MW] 0.6184 0.5943 0.5879 0.5878 0.5921 0.5920 0.5945
F [%] 100 96.10 95.07 95.05 95.74 95.73 96.13
tc 1-2 2 12 11.29 11.76 11.78 11.79 12.04 12
tc 5-6 9 9.59 10.17 10.17 10.17 10.47 10
tc 8-9 5 4.96 2.03 2.03 1.92 1.92 2
0.62
0.6 1
F [MW]
0.6 0
0.5 9
0.5 8
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Iteration N um b er
Fig. 10.9. F [MW] as function of iterations number for a test network 220/110 kV.
10.3.3. Newton Lagrange method (NL)

In this section the approach of the OPF problem is based on Newton method,
which operates with Lagrangian function associated with the original problem. The
Lagrangian function aggregates all the equality and inequality constraints, [10.53].
Newton method is well known in the area of power systems. It has been the
standard solution algorithm for the power flow problem. Newton method is a very
powerful solution algorithm, because of its rapid convergence near the solution.
The solution of this problem by Newton Lagrange method requires the
creation of the Lagrangian as shown below, [10.71].
L( Z ) = F ( X ) + t h( X ) + t g ( X ) (10.67)
where: Z = [X ]t, and are vectors of the Lagrange multipliers;
g(X) only includes the active (or binding) inequality constraints.
A gradient and Hessian of the Lagrangian may then be defined:

L(Z )
Gradient = Z L(Z ) = L z (Z ) = (10.68)
Z
L L X L X
2 L(z ) XX
Hessian = [H ] = = LX 0 0 (10.69)
Z Z
i j L
X 0 0
The scarcity of the Hessian matrix will be exploited in the solution algorithm.
From this, according to optimization theory, the Karush-Kuhn-Tucker necessary
conditions of optimality are, [10.43, 10.71]:
L X ( Z * ) = L X ([ X * , * , * ]) = 0;
L ( Z * ) = L ([ X * , * , * ]) = 0; (10.70)
* * * *
L ( Z ) = L ([ X , , ]) = 0;
*i 0 if g ( X * ) = 0
*i = 0 if g ( X * ) 0
*i = Real
where: Z* = [X*, *, *] is the optimal solution.

Thus solving the equation Lz (Z*) = 0 will yield the optimal problem solution.
10.3.3.2. Inequality constraints handling

A special attention must be paid to the inequality constraints of this problem.
Lagrangian only includes those inequalities that are being enforced. For example, if
a bus voltage is within the desired operating range, then there is no need to activate
the inequality constraint associated with that bus voltage. For this Newton -
Lagrange method formulation, the inequality constraints will be handled by
separating them into two sets: active and inactive, [10.43, 10.71]. Determination of
those inequality constraints that are active is of utmost importance.
10.3.3.3. Soft constraints by using penalty functions

When trying to solve a minimization problem, the nonexistence of a feasible
solution can be encountered. Essentially, this means that too many constraints have
been added to the problem. One way to avoid this issue is to implement soft
inequality constraints in the form of penalty functions. The word soft signifies
that the constraint is not absolutely enforced. The soft constraint only encourages
the solution to meet the constraint by enforcing a penalty if the constraint is not
met. In the OPF problem, soft equality constraints are not used, because of the
nature of the equality constraints in the OPF problem. If the power flow equations
cannot be violated, for the inequality constraints, the penalty functions offer a
viable option.
Penalty functions are added to the objective function of the minimization

problem. Ideally, a penalty function will be very small near a limit and increase
rapidly as the limit is violated more. A well-suited penalty function for use in
Newton method is the quadratic penalty function, [10.43, 10.71], which meets the
requirements of a penalty function and is also easily differentiated for use by
Newton - Lagrange method.
2 2 2

Wik = k Sik Sik max ;

Penalty Functions
k U

( 2
i min U i ; )
U i < U i min (10.71)
W = 0 ; U i min U i U i max
i

( 2
)
k U i U i max ; U i > U i max
While the inequality constraint is not violated, the penalty function has a
value of zero. As the constraint begins to be violated, the penalty function quickly
increases. Another advantage of the quadratic penalty function is the ability to
control how hard or soft to make the constraint.
10.3.3.4. Model and algorithm for solving Newton Lagrange

problems
In the above conditions, the optimal power flow problem can be written in
the following form.
Minimize (a + b P
i
i ( generators )
i Gi )
+ ci PG2i + i
i ( penalties )
gi ( X ) (10.72)
Subject to:
S 2 S 2
0
ik ik max
PG PG max 0
i i
Pi = 0 PG i min PGi 0

h( X ) = 0 Qi = 0 g ( X ) 0 U i U i max 0
U U = 0
i i set U i min U i 0
tc tc
ik max 0
ik
tcik min tcik 0

The constraints on the reactive power at each generator are not included in
the problem as stated above. These constraints will be taken care of by treating a
generator bus at a Q limit as a load bus. This is commonly done in a power system,
when modelling generator reactive power limits, [10.71].
The application of Newton-Lagrange method to the OPF algorithm can be as

follows, [10.71]:
Step 1. Initialize the OPF solution.
a) Initial guess at which inequalities are violated.
b) Initial guess Z vector (bus voltages and angles, generator output power,
transformer tap ratios, all Lagrange multipliers).
Step 2. Evaluate those inequalities that have to be added or removed using
the information from Lagrange multipliers for hard constraints and
direct evaluation for soft constraints.
Step 3. Determine viability of the OPF solution. Presently this ensures that at
least one generator is not at a limit.
Step 4. Calculate the gradient and Hessian of the Lagrangian.
Step 5. Solve the equation [H]Z = ZL(Z).
Step 6. Update solution Zk+1 = Zk - Z.
Step 7. Check whether ||Z || < . If not, go to Step 4, otherwise continue.
Step 8. Check whether correct inequalities have been enforced. If not go to
Step 2. If so, problem is solved.
10.3.3.5. Information gained from the OPF solution

The OPF is capable of performing all of the control functions necessary for
the power system. While the economic dispatch of a power system does control
generator MW output, the OPF controls transformer tap changing. The OPF also is
able to monitor system security issues including line overloads and low or high
voltage problems. If any security problems occur, the OPF will modify its controls
to fix them, i.e., remove a transmission line overload, [10.71].
Besides performing these enhanced engineering functions, the greatest
advantage of the OPF is the great wealth of knowledge it yields concerning the
economics of the power system. In studying the Lagrange multipliers associated
with each constraint, one can show that they can be interpreted as the marginal
costs associated with meeting the constraint. Therefore, the Lagrange multipliers,
Pi and Qi , can be seen as the marginal cost of real and reactive power
generation at bus i in [$/MWh] and [$/MVArh], respectively.
10.3.4. Interior-point methods (IPMs)
In the past years, research on interior-point (IP) methods, theory and
computational implementation, have evolved extremely fast. Interior-point method
variants are being extended to solve all kind of programs: from linear, to nonlinear
and from convex, to non-convex (the latter with no guarantee regarding their
convergence). In the same way, they are also being applied to solve all sorts of
practical problems. Optimization of power system operations is one of the areas,
where IP methods are being applied extensively, due to the size and special
features of these problems, [10.51, 10.61 10.63, 10.65 10.67, 10.73].
The computational effort for each iteration of an IP algorithm is dominated
by the solution of large, sparse linear system. Therefore, the performance of any IP
code is highly dependent on the linear algebra kernel.
Interior-point methods are usually classified into three main categories,
[10.15]: projective methods, affine-scaling methods and primal-dual methods.
Projective methods include Karmarkar original algorithm, and are responsible for the
great interest set to the area. Affine-scaling methods were obtained as simplifications
of projective methods. They do not share all the good theoretical qualities of
projective methods, but their reduced computational complexity and simplicity made
them become very popular at the time and the most effective in practice. Primal-dual
methods include path-following methods and potential reduction methods. The
primal-dual algorithms that incorporate predictor and corrector steps are currently
accepted as the computationally most effective variants.
The first theoretical results for primal-dual path-following methods are due to
Megiddo (1986), who proposed to apply a logarithmic barrier method to the primal
and dual problems simultaneously. The path-following algorithms that incorporate
Mehrotra predictor-corrector technique are, at present, accepted as the most
computationally effective IP algorithms. Additional improvements to Mehrotra
algorithm are usually achieved by applying multiple corrector steps.
Although logarithmic barrier IP methods were devised to solve general NLP
problems, research on IP methods for NLP has been lately motivated mainly by the
superb performance of the IP variants for LP, an area that has received much
attention and enjoyed incredible progress.
The computational effort of each iteration of an IP method is dominated by
the solution of large, sparse linear systems of the form
D 2 At X r
= (10.73)
A 0 Y w
Then, it is essential to consider efficient methods for their solution, which can
be either direct or iterative methods. Typically, the linear systems (10.73) are
solved using direct factorization. Direct methods usually consider the normal-
equations form,
[
Y = AD 2 At ] (AD r w)
1 2
(10.74)
X = D 2 At y + D 2 r
involving the symmetric positive definite matrix AD2At, or the augmented-system
form, involving the symmetric indefinite matrix in (10.73).
In the next section we present the primal-dual and predictor-corrector method

for the solution of the nonlinear programming. Forwards, an implementation issue
in optimal unit commitment is addressed.
10.3.4.2. Primal-dual interior-point method (PDIP)

A typical nonlinear programming problem that frequently arises in power
engineering (for example, optimal power flow problem) has following general
mathematical formulation:
Minimize F(X )
subject to: h( X ) = 0 (10.75)
g min g ( X ) g max
where: X Rn is a vector of decision variables, including the control and

nonfunctional dependent variables;
n
F : R R a scalar function that represents the power system operation
optimization goal;
n m
h:R R a vector function with conventional power flow equations
and other equality constraints;
g : Rn Rp a vector of functional variables, with lower bound gmin and
upper bound gmax, corresponding to operating limits in the
system.
Henceforth, we assume that F(X), hi(X) and gi(X) are twice continuously
differentiable.
The IP method described in this section transforms all inequality constraints
in (10.75) into equalities, by adding non-negative slack vectors. The non-negativity
conditions (s, z) 0 are handled by incorporating them into logarithmic barrier
terms:
p
Minimize F ( X ) k (ln s + ln z ) ;
i =1
i i s, z > 0
subject to: h( X ) = 0
s z + g max g min = 0 (10.76)
g ( X ) z + g max = 0
where: k > 0 is a barrier parameter that is forced to decrease to zero as iteration

progress.
To solve the equality-constrained problem (10.76), we use a Lagrange-
Newton method. Associated with the problem (10.76) is Lagrange function
L( X , s, z , , v, ) that is given by:
p
L(Y ) = L( X , s, z , , , ) = F ( X ) k (ln s + ln z ) h( X )
i =1
i i t
(10.77)
t ( s z + g max g min ) t ( g ( X ) z + g max )
where: Y = ( X , s, z , , v, ) .
If X* is a local minimize of (10.75), then there exist vectors of Lagrange

multipliers, say, (*, *, v*), that satisfy the Karush-Kuhn-Tucher (KKT) optimality
conditions:
S = k e (10.78)
Z = k e (10.79)
s + z g max + g min = 0 (10.80)
g ( X ) + z g max = 0 (10.81)
X F ( X ) J h ( X )t + J g ( X )t = 0 (10.82)
h( X ) = 0 (10.83)
where: s R(p) and z R(p) are slack vectors that transform the inequalities
in (10.75) into equality (10.80), (10.81);
S = diag (s1, , sp);
Z = diag (z1, , zp);
X F : Rn Rn the gradient of F;
Jh : Rn Rm x the Jacobian of h;
Jg : Rn Rp x n the Jacobian of g;
Rm, Rp and v Rp vectors of Lagrange multipliers, called dual
variables;
)
v = v + ;
e = [1, 1, , 1]t a vector of ones.
The main steps of the primal-dual algorithm are:
Step 0. Set k = 0, choose 0 > 0 and a starting point Y0 = (s0, z0, 0, v0, X0,
)
0), with (s0, z0, 0, v 0 ) > 0.
Step 1. From the Newton system (10.78) (10.80) at the current point Yk,
solve for the Newton direction Y.
Step 2. Compute the steps length kP and kD along Y and obtain a new
solution estimate as Yk+1=Yk+ k Y .
Step 3. If Yk+1 satisfied the convergence criteria, then stop. If not, then set k
k + 1, compute the barrier parameter k < k-1, and return to
Step 1.
In Step 1, the Newton direction Y is obtained as the solution to the
indefinite system of linear equations
0 S 0 0 s
0 S + k e
0 ) )
z
k
Z Z 0 0 Zv + e
I I 0 0 0
0 s z + g max g min
=
0 I 0 0 Jg v
0 g ( X ) z + g max
0 0 0 J gt 2X L J ht X X F ( X ) + J h ( X )t J g ( X )t

0 0 0 0 Jh 0 h( X )
(10.84)
)
where: = diag (1 , ..., p ) , = diag(v1 , ..., v p )
The computation of HL involves a combination of the objective function and

constraints Hessian:
m p
2X L(Y ) = 2X F ( X ) j =1
j 2X h j ( X ) + g ( X )
j =1
j
2
X j (10.85)
We have dropped the iteration index k to simplify the presentation. The

Newton direction can be obtained by solving (10.84) directly, or by solving the
reduced system:
Jd J ht X rX
J = (10.86)
h 0 r
rX = F ( X ) + J h ( X )t J g ( X )t (10.87)
r = h( X ) (10.88)
(
J d = 2X L(Y ) + k J g ( X )t S 2 + Z 2 J g ( X ) ) (10.89)
for X and first, and then computing

z = J g ( X ) X
s = z
(10.90)
= k S 2 s
v = k Z 2 z
In Step 2, a new solution estimate Yk +1 is obtained by
X k +1 = X k + kP X k +1 = k + kD
s k +1 = s k + kP s k +1 = k + kD (10.91)
z k +1 = z k + kP z v k +1 = v k + kD v
where the scalars kP (0, 1] and kD (0, 1] are the step length that can be taken
along y, given by:
s k zk
kP = min 1 , min i si < 0 , i zi < 0
i s
i zi
(10.92)
k )
vk )
kD = min 1 , min i i < 0 , )i vi < 0
i vi
i
where (0,1) is a safety factor to ensure that Yk+1 will hold the strict positivity
)
condition (s, z, , v ) > 0.
In Step 3, the kth iteration is considered converged if
{ { } {
1 = max max g g ( X k ) , max g ( X k ) g , h( X k ) }
}
1
X F ( X k ) J h ( X k )t k + J g ( X k )t v k
2 =
1 (10.93)
k k k
1+ x + + v
2 2 2
k F ( X ) F ( X k 1 )
k
3 = 2 ; 4 = 2
1+ X k 1 + F(X k )
2
or
k
X
2
(10.93')
g( X k ) 1

4 2
where 1, 2 and are predetermined tolerances, and k is the residual of the
complementary conditions, obtained by:
)
k = ( s k )t k + ( z k )t v k (10.94)
k
If not converged, then Y is reduced based on an expected decrease of the
average complementary residual, as
k +1 = k
k
2p
, k = max 0.99 k 1 , 0.1 { (10.95) }
where (0,1) is expected (not necessarily realized) decrease in k, known as the
centring parameter.
10.3.4.3. Predictor-Corrector Interior-Point Method (PCIP)

Computing Y from (10.84) involves factorization of the coefficient matrix
and two triangular systems solutions that follow the factorization.
What makes the Mehrotra predictor-corrector IP method very efficient is that

a more successful search direction is obtained by solving two systems of linear
equations, in each iteration. The two systems solutions, which define the predictor
and corrector steps, involve the same coefficient matrix with two different right-
hand sides. Thus, only one matrix factorization is required and little additional
work is needed to compute the corrector step using the matrix factorization from
the predictor step, [10.63].
In the predictor-corrector method, rather that applying Newton method to
(10.78) (10.83) to generate correction terms to current estimate, the new point
Y k +1 = Y k + k +1Y is substituted into (10.78) (10.83) directly, to obtain the
approximation:
e S
k
S
Zv
) k Zv
e
s z + g max g min 0 0
+ +
2
y L(Y ) Y = (10.96)
g ( X ) z + g max 0 0
F ( X ) + J h ( X ) t J g ( X ) t v 0 0

h( X ) 0 0
where: Y2 L(Y ) is the coefficient matrix in (10.84);

S and Z diagonal matrices defined by the components of the vectors
s and z.
The major difference between the system (10.96) and (10.84) is the right-
hand side of the (10.96) cannot be determined beforehand, because of the nonlinear
delta terms.
The direction Y obtained from (10.96) consists of three direction
components, [10.51]:
Y = Yaf + Yce + Yco (10.97)
where: Yaf is an affine direction, the pure Newton direction that is obtained
when we set k = 0 in (10.84). The affine direction is responsible
for optimization, that is, reducing primal and dual infeasibility
and complementary gap;
Yce a centring direction, whose size is governed by the adaptively
chosen barrier parameter k. The centring direction, given by the
second vector from the right-hand side of (10.96), keeps the
current point away from the boundary of the feasible region and
ideally close to the barrier trajectory to improve the changes for a
long step to be made in the next iteration;
Yco is a corrector direction, defined by the last vector in the right-hand
side of (10.96) that attempts to compensate for some of the
nonlinearity in the affine direction.
The Predictor Step

To determine a step that approximately solves (10.96), first it drops the
terms and the delta terms from the right-hand side of (10.96) and then solve for the
affine direction:
saf S
z )
af Zv
af
s z + g max g min

Y2 L(Y ) =
vaf g ( X ) z + g max
X af F ( X ) + J ( X ) J ( X ) v
h t g t

af h( X )
(10.98)
The affine direction Yaf is then used in two distinct ways:
to approximate the delta terms in the right-hand side of (10.96);
to dynamically estimate the barrier parameter .
To estimate , first it considers the standard step length rule (10.92) to
determine the step that would actually be taken if the affine direction Yaf were
used. Second, an estimate of the complementary gap is computed from:
kaf = ( s k + afP saf )t (k + afD af ) + ( z k + afP zaf )t (v k + afD vaf )
(10.99)
Finally, an estimate kaf for k+1
can be obtained from:
k
2
k
af , 0.2 af
kaf = min k (10.100)

2 p
This procedure chooses kaf to be small when the affine direction produces a
large decrease in complementary, kaf <<< k , and chooses kaf to be large
otherwise.
The Corrector Step
Instead of computing the combined centring-corrector direction Yce + Yco
and then adding Yaf, it computes the full direction Y at once from:
0 S 0 0 0 s S + k e S af af
0 ) )
Z Z 0 0 z
k
Zv + e Z af vaf
I I 0 0 0 0 s z + g max g min
=
0 I 0 0 Jg 0 v g ( X ) z + g max
0 0 0 J gt 2X L J ht X X F ( X ) + J h ( X ) t J g ( X ) t v

0 0 0 0 Jh 0 h( X )
(10.101)
Since the predictor and corrector steps are based on the same matrix
factorization, the additional effort in predictor-corrector method is in the extra
linear system solution to compute the affine direction, and in the extra ratio test to
compute af. What are usually gained from this small extra effort per iteration are
reductions in the iteration count and in overall solution time, [10.63].
10.4. Optimal unit commitment (OUC)
10.4.1. Introduction
The optimal unit commitment (OUC) problem in a power system involves
determining the start-up and shut-down statutes, as well as the real power outputs,
of thermal units for use in meeting forecasted demand over a future short-term
(24-168 hours) horizon. The objective is to minimize the system production cost
during the period, while simultaneously satisfying the load demand, spinning
reserve, physically and operational constraints of the individual unit.
The function sometimes includes deciding the practicality of interregional
power exchanges, and meeting daily or weekly quotas for consumption of fixed-
batch energies, such as nuclear, restricted gas contracts, and other fuels, that may
be in short supply. Most unit commitment programs operate discreetly in time, at
one-hour intervals. Systems with short horizon times can successfully deal with
time increments as small as a few minutes. There is sometimes no clear distinction
between the minute-by-minute dispatch techniques and some of the unit
commitment programs, with small time increments, [10.46].
The optimization for generation scheduling of the thermal power plants can
be formulated too as a multiobjective optimization (MO) problem. The objectives
considered frequently are the minimization of the production cost and the adverse
effects on the environment.
The problem of Economic Dispatching (ED) of the thermal power plants tries
to find the optimal commitment of generating units, to meet system-wide demand,
transmission losses and reserve requirements. An equally important objective is to
minimize the adverse effects on the environment. In this case, the objective is to
find the commitment of generating units so as to comply with environmental
constraints, such as limitation of emission of oxides of sulfur (SO2), oxides of
nitrogen (NOx) or the heat discharge into watercourse. In addition, other objectives,
such as transmission security, reliability and others may be included.
In the MO problems, generally, multiple objectives are usually non-
commensurable and cannot be combined into a single objective. Moreover, any
improvement of one objective can be reached only at the loss of another.
Consequently, it is necessary to design a Decision-Maker (DM) for the MO
problems. The aim of the MO is to find a compromise between all the DM
solutions. This means that the DM must select the compromise solution between
global non-inferior solutions.
The problems associated with the unit commitment have been generally
difficult to solve because of the uncertainty of particular aspects. For instance, the
fuel availability, the imprecise load forecasts, the variable costs affected by the
generating units feeding with different fuel or water rates, and losses caused by
reactive flows are generally unpredictable in the real applications. These and other
inconsistency problems affect the overall economic operation of the electric power
system. In order to reach a feasible solution to this problem, different constraints
must be considered, such as spinning reserve, thermal unit constraints, fuel
constraints, power generation-load balance, security constraints, etc.
Nowadays, in the electricity market based on a pool, the Independent System
Operator (ISO) receives energy bids from producers and consumers and determines
for every hour the market clearing price, the power production of every bidding
generator, and the consumption level of every consumer. The target is to maximize
the net social welfare, [10.2].
Unit commitment has grown in importance recently, now only to promote
system economy but also for the following reasons, [10.46]:
Start-up, shut-down, and dynamic considerations in restarting modern
generating facilities are much more complex and costly that they were for
smaller older units;
Grown in system size to the point where even small percentage gains have
become economically very important.
The application of computer-based unit commitment programs in electric
utilities has been slow due to the following reasons:
Unit commitment programs are not readily transferred between systems;
There are political problems, constraints, and peculiarities of systems that
are not easily amenable to mathematical solutions and may be very hard to
model in the first place.
The OUC problem is a complex mathematical optimization problem, with
both integer and continuous variables. Thus the OUC problem has commonly been
formulated as a nonlinear, large scale, mixed-integer combinatorial optimization
problem with constraints. A survey of literature on the OUC methods reveals that
various numerical optimization techniques have been employed to approach the
OUC problem. Specifically, there are priority list methods, integer programming,
dynamic programming, branch-and-bound, Benders decomposition, Lagrangian
relaxation, genetic algorithms, etc. Since improved OUC schedules may save the
electric utilities millions of dollars per year in production costs, the search for closer
to optimal unit commitment continues, [10.15, 10.20, 10.39, 10.66, 10.67, 10.70].
10.4.2. Lagrangian relaxation genetic algorithms method

(LRGA)
The objective of the OUC problem is the minimization of the total production
costs over the scheduling horizon, subject to equipment and operating constraints.
The decision is to select units to be on or off and the power outputs, of thermal
units, for use in meeting forecasted demand over a future short-term horizon.
Therefore, the objective function is expressed as the sum of fuel and start-up costs
of the generating units. The generic optimal unit commitment problem can be
formulated as, [10.20]:
[F ( P ]
NG H
Minimize F ( X , P) = i Gih ) + STi (1 X i ( h1) ) X ih (10.102)
i =1 h =1
subject to the following constraints:

power balance constraints:
NG
P
i =1
Gih X ih Dh (10.103)
spinning reserve constraints:

NG
X
i =1
ih PGi max Dh + Rh (10.104)
generation limit constraints:

PGi min PGih PGi max (10.105)
minimum up-time constraints:
h 1
X ih = 1 for X
t = h upi
it < upi (10.106)
minimum down-time constraints:

h 1
X ih = 0 for (1 X
t = h downi
it ) < downi (10.107)
where: Fi ( PGih ) is fuel cost function of the ith unit with generation output;
PGih at the hth hour.
Usually, it is a quadratic function with coefficients ai, bi and ci as follows:

Ci = Fi ( PGih ) = ai + bi PGih + ci PG2ih (10.34)
where: NG is the number of units;

H the number of hours;
PGih the generation output of the ith unit at the hth hour;
P the generation matrix with PGih , i = 1, , N; h = 1, , H, as
elements;
STi start-up cost of the ith unit;
Xih the on/off status of the ith unit at the h-th hour and Xih = 0 when
off, Xih = 1 when on;
X the schedule matrix with Xih, i = 1, , N; h = 1, , H, as
elements;
Dh load demand at the hth hour;

Rh spinning reserve at the hth hour;
Pi min minimum generation limit of ith unit;
Pi max maximum generation limit of ith unit;
upi minimum up-time of ith unit;
downi minimum down-time of ith unit.
The Lagrangian relaxation (LR) method uses Lagrange multipliers for the
system constraints (power balance and reserve) and adds the associated penalty
terms in the objective function to form the Lagrangian function. For fixed values of
the Lagrange multipliers, the Lagrange function is separable by unit. Therefore, the
minimization of the Lagrange function is decomposed to NG (NG is the number of
the units) smaller minimization problems, one for each unit.
Based on duality theory, the LR method subsequently tries to find those
values of the Lagrange multipliers that maximize the dual objective function. This
is a very hard problem to solve. Even if the solution to the dual problem was found,
due to the non-convexity of the primal (original problem) objective function,
feasibility of the primal is not guaranteed. The efforts of the LR method are
focused on finding some values for Lagrange multipliers that satisfy system
(coupling) constraints and meanwhile reduce as much as possible the gap between
the values of the primal problem objective function and Lagrange function, [10.39].
The LR decomposition procedure is dependent on the initial estimated of the
Lagrangian multipliers and on the method used to update the multipliers. Another
difficulty with LR based methods is that computational performance is very
dependent on the method, by which the Lagrangian multipliers are updated.
Currently most techniques used for estimating the Lagrangian multipliers rely on a
sub-gradient algorithm or heuristics, [10.20]. With the Lagrangian multipliers h ,
h = 1, K, H , and h , h = 1, K, H , using the constraints (10.103) and (10.104),
respectively, the form of the corresponding Lagrangian function is:
H NG

L ( X , P, , ) = F ( X , P ) + h Dh
P Gih X ih ) +

h =1 i =1
(10.108)
H NG

+ h Dh + Rh
PGi max X ih )

h =1 i =1
The Lagrangian relaxation procedure solves the OUC problem by relaxing
or temporarily ignoring the coupling constraints and solving the problem as if they
did not exist. This is done through the dual optimization procedure, which attempts
to reach the constrained optimum by maximizing the Lagrangian function
L( X , P, , ) , with respect to the Lagrangian multipliers h and h , while
minimizing with respect to the control variable Pih and Xih in OUC problem, that is,
[10.20]:
q * = max q ( , ) (10.109)
,
where:
q( , ) = min L( X , P, , ) (10.110)
X,P
subject to constraints (10.105), (10.106) and (10.107).

Assume that and are fixed, we minimize the Lagrangian function L as
follow. First from equations (10.102) and (10.108) we have:
NG H
L ( X , P, , ) = [ F ( P
i =1 h =1
i Gih ) + STi (1 X i ( h 1) ) h PGih h PGi max ] X ih +
(10.111)
H
+ ( D
h =1
h
h
h
+ Dh + Rh ) h
The term
H
[F (P
h =1
i Gih ) + STi (1 X i ( h 1) ) h PGih h PGi max ] X ih (10.112)
can be solved separately for each generating unit, without regard for what is
happening on the other generating units. Then the minimum of the Lagrangian
function L( X , P, , ) is found by solving the minimum for each generating unit
over all time periods:
NG H
min L( X , P, , ) =
i =1
min [F (P
h =1
i Gih ) + STi (1 X i ( h 1) )
(10.113)
H
h PGih h PGi max ] X ih + ( D
h =1
h
h + h Dh + h Rh )
subject to constraints (10.105), (10.106) and (10.107).

The Lagrange relaxation genetic algorithm consists in the following steps:
Step 1. Minimize Lagrangian function with constraints with constant
multipliers;
Step 2. Maximize Lagrangian function by updating multipliers using genetic
algorithms;
Step 3. If the stopping criteria are satisfied, then final solution, otherwise go
to Step. 1.
The numerical tests and results show that better solution of the OUC problem
can be obtained by above method (LRGA), [10.20].
Application of the PDIP method to solving the OUC problem
For an OUC problem, whose the data are presented in the Table 10.5, using the primal-
dual IP algorithm, the Table 10.6 gives the results obtained for D = 625MW.
Table 10.5
Coefficients of the optimization function
Generator type Pmax = Pn Pmin ai bi ci
[MW] [MW] [tcc/h] [tcc/MWh] [tcc/MW2h]
1. Classically-coal 195 50 26.8905 0.1978 0.0029
2. Classically-coal 250 70 32.7164 0.3250 0.0036
3. High technology on coal 300 60 48.5935 0.1925 0.0011
Since unit commitment is incomplete without the consideration of the effective

constraints, really, for the optimum determination in a commitment problem, the following
information are required, too:
minimum up-time and minimum down-time;
ramp-up limit and ramp-down limit;
start-up ramp rate and shut-down ramp rate.
Table 10.6
Results by PDIP method
Iteration P1 [MW] P2 [MW] P3 [MW] F(P) [tcc]
0 190.0000 250.0000 185.0000 521.7820
1 163.2891 161.7166 299.9942 414.0734
2 169.1651 155.8348 300.0000 411.2703
3 189.7707 135.2292 300.0000 408.5067
4 189.7700 135.2300 300.0000 408.5067
540
520
F (P) [tcc]
480
440
400
440 1 2 3 4
0
Iteration N um ber
Fig. 10.10. Evolution of the objective function in optimization process.
With the above notations, firstly, the following variables are calculated:
0.0058 X 1 + 0.1978 0.0058 0 0

F ( X ) = 0.0072 X 2 + 0.3250 ; 2X F ( X ) = 0 0.0072 0
0.0022 X + 0.1925 0 0 0.0022
3
1 0 0 0 0 0
J g (X ) = 0 1 0 ; 2X g1 ( X ) = 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
2X g 2 ( X ) = 0 0 0 ; 2X g 3 ( X ) = 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0
J h ( X ) = [1 1 1] ; 2X h( X ) = 0 0 0
0 0 0
Let us chose = 0.99995 , = 0.25 , 0 = 0.01 , 0 = 0.1 , 0 = 1 ,

= 1 = 2 = 10 3 . The X 0 = [190; 250; 185] .
The primal slack variables are next initialized as:
{ { }
s 0 = min max g , g ( X 0 ) g min , (1 )g ; z 0 = g s 0 }
50 195 145
g min = 70 ; g max = 250 ; g = g max g min = 180
60 300 240
145 190 50 145 108.75

s = min max 0.25180 , 250 70 , 0.75180 = 135
0
240 185 60 240 125

145 108.75 36.25

z = 180 135 = 45
0
240 125 115
The dual variables are given by:
0 = 0 ( S 0 ) 1 e ; v 0 = 0 ( Z 0 ) 1 e 0
1
1 0.9195 10
4
108.75 0 0
0 = 0.01 0 4
135 0 1 = 0.7407 10
0 0 125 1 0.8 10 4

1 0.9195 10 0.1839 10
1 4 3
36.25 0 0
0
v = 0.01 0 45 0 1 0.7407 10 4 = 0.1481 10 3

0 0 115 1 0.8 10 4 0.0069 10 3

Iteration 1
The Newton direction is obtained by solving reduced system (10.89):
0.0058 0 0 1 0 0

Jd = 0 0.0072 0 + 0.010 1 0

0 0 0.0022 0 0 1
108.75 0 0
2
36.25 0 0 1 0 0
2

0
135 0 + 0 45 0 0 1 0 =

0 0 125 0 0 115 0 0 1

0.00581 0 0

= 0 0.00721 0
0 0 0.0022
1 0 0 0.1839 10 0.2999
3
1.2998 1

rX = 2.1250 + 1 1 0 1 0 0.1481 10 3 = 1.1251 ; r = 0
0.5995 1 0 0 1 0.0069 10 3 0.4005

0.00581 0 0 1 X 1 0.29998

0
0.00721 0 1 X 2 1.1251
=
0 0 0.0022 1 X 3 0.4005

1 1 1 0 0
45.8254
X = 151.4594 ; = 0.03381
197.2848
With relations (10.90) are calculated:
1 0 0 45.8254 45.8254

z = 0 1 0 151.4594 = 151.4594
0 0 1 197.2848 197.2848
45.8254
s = 151.4594
197.2848
2
45.8254 0.03874 10
3
108.75 0 0

= 0.01 0 135 0 151.4594 = 0.08311 10 3

0 0 125 197.2848 0.12626 10 3

2
45.8254 0.03874 10
3
36.25 0 0

v = 0.01 0 45 0 151.4594 0.08311 10 3 =

0 0 115 197.2848 0.12626 10 3

0.3875 10 3

= 0.8311 10 3
0.2754 10 3

0.9195 10 4 0.1839 10 3 0.27586 10 3

v = v 0 + 0 = 0.7407 10 4 + 0.1481 10 3 = 0.22222 10 3
4 3 3
0.8 10 0.0069 10 0.08690 10
0.3875 10 3 0.03874 10 3 0.3487 10 3

v = v + = 0.8311 10 3 + 0.08311 10 3 = 0.7479 10 3
0 0
0.2754 10 3 0.12626 10 3 0.1491 10 3

The maximum step lengths are determined with relation (10.92):
108.75 135 115

1P = min 1, 0.99995 min , , = 0.58288
45.8254 151.4594 197.2848
0.08 10 3 0.27586 10 3 0.2222 10 3

1D = min 1, 0.99995 min 3
, , = 0.29709
0.12626 10 0.3487 10 3 0.7479 10 3
The new primal and dual variables are computed with relation (10.91):
190 45.8254 163.2891

X 1 = 250 + 0.58288 151.4594 = 161.7166
185 197.2848 299.9942
108.75 45.8254 82.0391

s = 135 + 0.58288 151.4594 = 46.7166
1
125 197.2848 239.9942
36.25 45.8254 62.9609

z1 = 45 + 0.58288 151.4594 = 133.2833
115 197.2848 0.00575
0.9195 10 4 0.03874 10 3 0.1034 10 3

1 = 0.7407 10 4 + 0.29709 0.08311 10 3 = 0.09876 10 3
0.8 10 4 0.12626 10 3 0.04248 10 3

0.1839 10 3 0.3875 10 3 0.06879 10 3

v1 = 0.1481 10 3 + 0.29709 0.8311 10 3 = 0.09875 10 3
0.0069 10 3 0.2754 10 3 0.08878 10 3

0.1034 103 0.06879 103 0.1722 103

v1 = 1 + v1 = 0.09876 103 + 0.09875 103 = 0.19751103
0.04248 103 0.08878 103 0.13126 103

1 = 1 + 0.29709 0.03381 = 1.01004
The residual of complementarity conditions is calculated with the relation (10.94):
0.1034 103

1 = [82.0391 46.7166 239.9942] 0.09876 103 +
0.04248 103

0.1722 10 3

+ [ 62.9609 133.2833 0.00575] 0.19751 103 = 0.03415
0.13126 103

Calculation of the barrier parameter with the relation (10.95):
1 = max{0.99 0.1, 0.1} = 0.1

0.03415
1= 0. 1 = 5.6916 10 4
23
F ( X 1 ) = 413.0734
From the (10.93), we obtained:
1 = 5.6916 10 4 < 10 3 ; X
= 197.2848 > 10 3 ;
h( X 1 ) = 0 < 103 ; 14 = 0.2625 > 10 3

Iteration 2
169.1651 87.9151 57.0848

X = 155.8348 ;
2
s = 40.8348 ;
2 2
z = 139.1651 ;
300 240 0.2875 10 6

0.1034 10 3 0.0688 10 3

2 = 0.0988 10 3 ; v 2 = 0.0988 10 3 ; 2 = 1.0138
3 2
0.0425 10 0.5924 10
2P = 0.22198 ; 2D = 0.01308 ; F ( X 2 ) = 411.2703 ; 2 = 0.5527 10 3 < 10 3
X
= 26.4963 > 10 3 ; h( X 2 ) = 0 < 103 ; 24 = 0.004373 > 10 3

Iteration 3
189.7707 108.5207 36.4792

X = 135.2292 ;
3 3 3
s = 20.2292 ; z = 159.7707 ;
300 240 0.2874 10 6

0.1034 10 3 0.0688 10 3

3 = 0.0988 10 3 ; v 3 = 0.0988 10 3 ; 3 = 1.01382
2
0.0425 10 3 0.5924 10

3P = 1 ; 3D = 0.94464823 10 -6 ; F ( X 3 ) = 408.5067 ; 3 = 0.4951 10 3 < 10 3
X
= 20.6056 > 10 3 ; h( X 3 ) = 0 < 10 3 ; 34 = 0.006748 > 10 3

Iteration 4
189.77 108.52 36.4782

X = 135.23 ;
4 4 4
s = 20.23 ; z = 159.7717 ;
300 240 0.2874 10 6

0.1034 10 3 0.0688 10 3

4 = 0.0988 10 3 ; v 4 = 0.0988 10 3 ;

0.0425 10 3 0.5924 10 2

4 = 1.01382 ; 4P = 1 ; 4D = 0.94464823 10 -5 ; F ( X 4 ) = 408.5067 ;
4 = 0.4951 10 3 < 10 3 ; X
= 0.9527 10 3 < 10 3 ;
h( X 4 ) = 0 < 103 ; 44 = 0.6748 109 < 103

10.5. Optimal unit commitment in deregulated market
10.5.1. Dynamic optimal power flow by interior-point

methods
10.5.1.1. Problem formulation
With deregulation and open access in the utility industry occurring
internationally, there are pressures to not only optimize the operation of generation
resources, but also transmission systems. During the past decade, some researchers
have incorporated the simplified network model into the scheduling problem
formulation by using Lagrangian relaxation (LR), augmented Lagrange relaxation
(ALR) and so on.
The OPF considers only power system at a particular instant and generally is
unable to model time-related constrains (e.g. ramping rates) or energy related
constraints (e.g. generation contract, fuel storage and reservoir capacity). With time
related and energy related constraints considered, OPF becomes a dynamic OPF
(DOPF) problem, [10.66]. However, the OPF problem for a large system in itself is
a very large complex nonlinear programming problem. Adding time-related
constraints and new decision variables creates a very large scale complex problem
encompassing both time and the network features. The solution method is therefore
very crucial for the success of this integration.
Other papers propose an iterative multi-stage method, to integrate power
system scheduling and OPF together. The optimization problem is then decoupled
into a primary stage, of minimizing the cost of active power generation, and a
secondary stage, of minimizing the power system losses. The result of one-stage is
used to update the parameters of another stage. However, like other iterative
methods, this method may have convergence problem.
By introducing a set of duplicating variables and relaxing the duplicating
equations with a set of Lagrangian multipliers, the problem can be decomposed
into a standard power system scheduling problem and a series of OPF problems,
one for each hour. In this case, the genetic algorithms can be used to transfer a
population of dual feasible solutions into a good primal feasible solution.
A direct nonlinear interior-point method (IPM) is adopted [10.66], to solve
the DOPF problem as a single optimization problem, rather than many separated
optimization sub-problems coordinated by LR or other techniques. The proposed
method takes advantage of both the super sparsity technique of Newton OPF and
the advantage of IPMs to handle inequality constraints.
Consider a power system with NG units, the objective is to minimize the total
generation cost over a scheduling horizon. This minimization is subject to the time
separated constraints, such as load demand and reserve requirement, and the time
related constraints which couple the generation of individual unit across hours. The
time unit is one hour and the planning horizon T may vary from several hours to a
week. A nonlinear DOPF model can therefore be formulated as follows, [10.66].
Objective function
The DOPF extends the objective function of the OPF problem to minimize
the generation cost across the whole time horizon:
Nt NG
Minimize F = (F (P
t=1 i=1
Pi Git ) + FQi (QGit )) (10.114)
where: NG is the number of generators;

Nt the number of time periods for the research horizon.
In general, it is more difficult to obtain an expression of FQi (QGit )

than FPi ( PGit ) . However, it is very important to compensate generators for their
MVAr contribution in an electricity market. The quadratic curve expression that is
similar to the active power generation cost is adopted in this section. An extra
advantage brought by the introduction of FQi (QGit ) is that reactive power
generations can be treated as basic variables like active power naturally, it therefore
enhances the numerical stability of the DOPF.
Time-separated constraints
Within every single time period, the following constraints should be satisfied
(subscript t is omited for simplicity):
Power output limits of generator i:
PGi min PGi PGi max
(10.39)
QGi min QGi QGi max
Spinning reserve for generator i:
PGi max PGi if PGi (1 f i ) PGi max (Type 1)

Ri = (10.115)
f i PGi max if PGi < (1 f i ) PGi max (Type 2)
The system minimum spinning reserve constraint:
R R
i
i min (10.116)
Bus voltages limits for node i:

U i min U i U i max (10.42)
Power flow equations for node i:

N
Pi = U i [U [G
k =1
k ik cos( i k ) + Bik sin( i k )]] PGi + PLi = 0
(10.36)
N
Qi = U i [U [G
k =1
k ik sin( i k ) Bik cos( i k )]] QGi + QLi = 0
Branch flow limits for branch i-k:

Pik min Pik Pik max (10.117)
Other control variables like taps of LTC transformers and shunt capacitance
can be included as well.
Time-related constraints
The time-related constraints, like ramping rates, are dynamic operational
constraints. As a result of these dynamic operational constraints, the operational
decision at a given hour may affect the operational decisions at a later hour.
Ramping rates constraints:
The loading and unloading rates of a generator should be less than or equal to
certain maxim. These ramping rate constraints can be stated as:
PGit RampGi PGi ,t +1 PGit + RampGi (10.118)
In (10.118), upper limit and lower limit of ramping rates are in the same
manner. For the notation of simplicity, only the upper limit is shown in the
following derivation:
PGi ,t +1 PGit PR max i (10.119)
where: PR maxi = RampGi
Generation contract
In a power market, generators may sign a contract with pool (or customers
directly) to guarantee the amount of generation output for a time horizon.
Pc min i P
t
Git Pc max i (10.120)
In some cases, generators have fixed generation contract for the scheduling
horizon:
P
t
G it = Pc i (10.121)
where: Pcmin i is lower limit of generation contract i;

Pcmax i upper limit of generation contract i;
Pci active power of generation contract i;
Pcit = PGit active power of generation i for time period t.
Here Pci means the maximum available energy of unit i for the contract period.
In [10.66], constraint (10.121) is handled as inequality constraint, in order to utilize the
advantage of interior-point method of dealing with inequality constraints:
Pci P
t
Gi t Pci + (10.122)
where is a very small number.
Other energy related constraints

Notably, other energy limited constraints, such as total hydro energy in a

watershed, total fuel constraints and emission constraints can be treated in the
similar manner to (10.120). These constraints couple the generation of individual
units across hours.
DOPF Model
In summary, the DOPF problem can be formulated as, [10.66]:
Minimize Ft ( X t )
t
subject to: ht ( X t ) = 0 ; t = 1,K, N t

g min t g t ( X t ) g max t t = 1,K, N t
PGt +1 PGt PR max t = 1,K, N t 1 (10.123)
Pc min i P
t
Gi t Pc max i i = 1,K, N c
where: Nc is the number of generation contract.

The first two constraints in equations (10.123) are time separated constraints
and the last two are corresponding to ramping rates constraints and generation
contracts constraints.
10.5.1.2. Algorithm of the DOPF method

A nonlinear primal dual interior-point method (PDIP) is applied to the DOPF
problem in (10.123). The key idea is to construct a border blocked matrix in which
every diagonal sub matrix is an augmented Hessian matrix in Newton OPF of the
corresponding time period and can be decoupled from each other.
DOPF algorithm can be summarized as follows, [10.66].
Step 1. Change inequality constraints to equality by introducing slack
variables in (10.123);
Step 2. Construct the corresponding Lagrangian function;
Step 3. Apply first order optimality conditions to Lagrangian function;
Step 4. Find Newton search direction;
Step 5. Reduce system scale by eliminating time separated slack variables
and Lagrangian multipliers from the obtained system;
Step 6. Reduce system scale by eliminating time-related slack variables;
Step 7. Rearrange the remaining variables orders by period, construct the
border blocked system;
Step 8. Solve the obtained system by the primary-first-secondary phase
solution process;
Step 9. Update barrier factor, primal and dual variables;
Step 10. Check convergence, if not converged, go back to Step 7.
The above multiperiod DOPF problem is solved as a single large sparse

optimization problem, rather than many separated optimization sub-problems
coordinated by Lagrangian relaxation (LR) or other techniques. Theoretically, the
proposed method is superior to the LR method both in the sense of CPU time and
iteration numbers.
The approach described involves heavy computational burdens. Performing
OPFs for all periods in a scheduling horizon, and representing this operation at
each dual iteration, is the major task. The computational effort for the OPF sub
problem can be expected to increase at least linearly with the number of periods in
the scheduling horizon and more than linearly, with the number of buses and
generators represented in the network model.
10.5.2. Power market oriented optimal power flow
10.5.2.1. Problem statement

With deregulation and open access of electricity supply industry occurring
internationally, there are increasing pressures to develop power market oriented
OPF algorithms, which are expected to be able to handle new added functional type
inequality constraints, e.g. network congestion, generation bundling and price-
dependent loads. A nonlinear interior-point method based OPF is proposed in
[10.67] for this purpose, which inherits both the super-sparsity technique of
Newton OPF and the advantages of interior point methods in handling inequality
constraints efficiently. Moreover, prices of various components are obtained
directly from corresponding Lagrangian multipliers.
Optimal power flow is predicted to be playing a crucial role in the future
power market. However, the trend towards competitive power market also imposes
great pressure to turn the conventional OPF to a Power Market Oriented OPF due
to the following challenges, [10.67]:
While power systems are becoming increasingly large and complex, OPF
problems are becoming more and more difficult. Advanced solution
methods with reliable, robust and fast iterative process, which are capable
to efficiently handle both equality and inequality constraints, are the key
factors for a successful OPF application.
Power market imposes more and more coupling type constraints
(functional inequality constraints): e.g. network congestion (coupling
between nodes), generation bundling (coupling between units, such as
spinning reserve) and price-dependent consumption (coupling between
demand and price).
It is highly desirable to account for all these constraints by making minor changes
to the standard OPF formula in order to most utilize the existing OPF code.
Security pricing helps the operator to maintain the system security as well
as gives the market participators an indication, which can correctly reflect
the cost of security. However, this is not an easy task as the security price
obtained from OPF is usually highly volatile. A power market oriented

OPF solver should be able to output smoother security price signals.
However, in spite of the extensive bibliography on this subject, only a few
methods have been considered with potential enough to solve the complex problem
of OPF in power market environment with the inherit difficulties of its dimension.
Among the nonlinear programming algorithms proposed for the solution of OPF,
interior-point methods have shown good properties in terms of fast convergence
and numeric robustness, besides the flexibility in the treatment of inequality
constraints. Moreover, IPMs based OPF can output smooth security price signals
due to the application of logarithmic barrier function.
10.5.2.2. Interior-point algorithm for OPF

Emphasis on the solver is placed in [10.67] a power market oriented OPF
algorithm employing a primary-dual interior point (PDIP) method. Three typical
coupling type constraints, i.e. network congestion, spinning reserve and demand-
price elasticity (DPE) are modelled.
The Lagrangian function of the problem is given by, [10.67]
L = F ( X ) t h( X ) + t g ( X ) (10.124)
where and are the Lagrangian multipliers of the equality and inequality
constraints respectively.
Using interior-point technique for the this problem, the model for OPF is
obtained, those algorithm is presented below, [10.67]:
Step1. Initialization;
Step 2. Choosing step size;
Step 3. Barrier factor;
Step 4. Convergence criteria.
In this model, P and Q in OPF can be interpreted as short-term marginal
cost of active power and reactive power respectively.
This algorithm, based on interior-point method, is developed in order to cope
with the new features of OPF introduced by the emerging power markets. Although
the models for three typical coupling type constraints, i.e. network congestion,
spinning reserve and demand-price elasticity, are constructed and included in the
OPF, and the calculation burden of the modification of Hessian matrix is very
limited. This method inherits all the advantages of original Newton OPF the
primary-dual interior-point method. The obtained security price signals are
smoother and more predictable due to the applications of logarithmic penalty
function. One attractive topic for future research may be an integration of the
proposed model and multiperiod power system scheduling problems to set up real
time prices.
10.6. Optimization strategies in deregulated market
10.6.1. Bidding problem formulation

The electric power industry worldwide is experiencing unprecedented
restructuring. The core of the restructuring is deregulation of the industry and
introduction of competition among power suppliers and consumers, [10.29, 10.67].
In deregulated power systems, a free market structure is advocated for
competition among participants as generators and consumers. To ensure
nondiscriminatory access to the transmission networks by all participants, an
Independent System Operator (ISO) is created for each power system. The ISOs
are mandated to maintain the physical integrity of transmission system, and to be
independent of financial concerns of the market participants. Several different ISOs
exist for different regions and market structures. However, the common
responsibility of all ISOs is to find an optimal operation schedule, taking into
account physical constraints of the transmission networks, particularity of
management of congestion.
There are two distinct models for ISOs: the pool model and the
bilateral/multilateral model. In the pool model, all suppliers and consumers transact
with the pool, where the least expensive is dispatched. Therefore, the responsibility
of a power exchange (PX) determining generators outputs by economic dispatch
functions is managed by the ISO. This idea is based on the concept that a natural
monopoly would ensure a least cost dispatch of all generators in the system. In the
bilateral model all suppliers and consumers transact witch each other,
independently. This model is based on the concept that the regulation of the
commercial market should be minimized, and the market efficiency is achieved by
consumers choosing their own suppliers, [10.47].
The pool is an e-commerce market place. The ISO uses a market-clearing tool,
to clear the market, which is normally based on a single round auction, [10.49].
In the deregulated market based on the pool, participants submits bids energy,
as PX piece-wise linear and monotonically increasing (suppliers)/decreasing
(consumers) to ISO, who decides Marginal Clearing Price (MCP) and hourly
generation levels of each participant over a 24-hours period. The relationship
between ISO and participants is shown in Figure 10.11, [10.29, 10.69]. The supply
bid curves are aggregated by the ISO, to create a single supply bid curve. The
demand bid curves are also aggregated, to create a single demand bid curve,
Figure 10.12.
Although most electricity is bought and sold under long-term bilateral
contracts, perhaps 5 to 10% will be traded day-ahead and in real-time. These short-
term trades could be a consequence of changed circumstances (e.g., a competitive
retail provider signed up more customers than it anticipated or a generator
completed its planned maintenance outage faster than it expected to), or they could
be part of a company risk management strategy. In this case, ISO calls for suppliers
and buyers to submit hourly bid by 10:00 a.m., on the day before the operating day.
The ISO then evaluates these bids using its security constrained unit commitment
optimization computer model. This model schedules generation and price
responsive demand hour-by-hour for the operating day so as to respect all generator
and security (reliability) constraints and to minimize operating cost.
E n ergy Price A ggregated D em an d
[$/M W h ] Bid C urve
ISO
Generation
Generation Level & ECP
Level & ECP MCP A ggregated Supply
Bidding Bid C urve
Strategies
E n ergy
Participant 1 Participant 2 Participant 3 [M W h ]
System D em an d
Fig. 10.11. Relationship between ISO and

participants. Fig. 10.12. Market Clearing Price.
Based on supply bid curve and demand bid curve, ISO determines Market
Clearing Price (MCP), Figure 10.12, [10.29]. The suppliers in the market energy
are paid at the MCP. For the bid curves, which are the true marginal ones, the
following remarks can be performed. If a generator unit is on the margin (MCP)
during all the hours of scheduling period, total payment it receives will equal its
energy bid. If a generator unit is not on the margin, the total payment it receives
will exceed its energy supply bid, [10.69]. Therefore, the MCP must be calculated
for each hour of the scheduling period so that to be sufficient to completely recover
all costs of committed generator units, [10.30].
MCP is public information made available by the ISOs, but aggregate offers
and demands are not available in many electricity markets, [10.49]. Producers and
consumers rely on price forecast information to prepare their corresponding
bidding strategies. If a producer has a good forecast of next day MCP, it can
develop a strategy to maximize its own benefit and establish a pool bidding
technique, to achieve its maximum benefit. Similarly, once a good next-day price
forecast is available, a consumer can derive a plan to maximize its own utility,
using the electricity purchased from the pool. In the current literature, approaches
based on neural networks, time series are used in the forecast of next-day
electricity price, [10.49]. In the literature, the simulation has been used for its
simplicity, and bidding strategies are discretized, such as bidding high, bidding
low, or bidding medium. With discrete bidding strategies, payoff matrices are
constructed by enumerating all possible combinations.
It is very interesting to find a model and a method for optimization bidding
strategies from the viewpoint of a utility, say Participant i, [10.69]. We assume that
for all generators, the production cost is a quadratic function of generated power,
Ci = ai + bi Pi + ci Pi 2 (10.34)
where: Pi [MW] is the active output of generator i;
ai , bi , and ci the coefficients of the cost function.
Since unit commitment is incomplete without the consideration of the

effective constraints, really, for the optimum determination in a commitment
problem, the following information are required, too:
minimum up-time and minimum down-time;
ramp-up limit and ramp-down limit;
start-up ramp rate and shut-down ramp rate and so on.
The incremental cost (IC) at any point of the cost curve (CC) is the derivative
evaluated at this point,
ICi = 2 ci Pi + bi (10.125)
10.6.2. Ordinal optimization method
The ISO receives energy bids from suppliers and consumers and determines,
for every hour, the MCP, the power production of every bidding generator, and the
consumption level of every consumer.
The power to be awarded to each bidder is then determined based on
individual bid curves and the MCP. All the power awards will be paid at the MCP.
After the auction closes, each bidder aggregates all its power awards as its system
demand, and performs a unit commitment/scheduling, to meet its obligations at the
minimum, cost over the bidding horizon, [10.29].
The aggregated supply bid curve and the powers awards are made in the
ascending order of the bids, the goal of the ISO being the maximization of the total
social welfare of generators and consumers, [10.47]. From ISO point of view, its
problem is deterministic, [10.69].
When the supplier i solves the ISO problem, it only has distributions
parameters for the others participants and its parameters, which must be optimized,
so to maximize its own benefit.
A survey of literature on unit commitment reveals that various numerical
optimization techniques (integer programming, dynamic programming, Lagrangian
relaxation, genetic algorithms) have been employed to approach this problem.
Since bidding problems are generally associated with the uncertainty and
complexity of the market and with the computational difficulties, it is more
desirable to ask which solution is better as opposed to looking for an optimal
solution. A systematic bid selection method based on ordinal optimization is
developed in [10.29] to obtain good enough bidding strategies for generation
suppliers. Ordinal optimization provides a way to obtain reasonable solution with
much less effort. The ordinal optimization method has been developed to solve
complicated optimization problems possibly with or without uncertainties.
Ordinal optimization is based on the following two tenets:
It is much easier to determine order than value. To determine whether
A is better or worse than B is a simpler task than to determine how much
better is A than B (i.e. the value of A-B) especially when uncertainties exist.
Instead of asking the best for sure, we seek the good enough with high
probability. This goal softening makes the optimization problem much
easier.
To apply ordinal optimization framework to integrated generation scheduling
and bidding, major efforts are needed to build power market simulation models and
to devise a strategy to construct a small but good enough select set. The basic idea
is to use a rough model that describes the influence of bidding strategies on market
clearing price, MCP.
In this section we assume that each generator bids more values (slices) in the
market, one for each generator slice, corresponding to the each portion of cost curve.
This is equivalent to assuming that each generator owns more slices (production
units), with bidding low, bidding medium, bidding high, and so on.
10.6.3. Numerical results and discussions

To illustrate the simulating action and MCP determination, a simple pool model with
four generators is considered. Each generator can be equalized with one or more generator
slices. Using the characteristics presented in Table 10.7, the bid prices are calculated, Table
10.8, Table 10.9, respectively, Table 10.10.
Table 10.7
Economic Characteristics for the Generators, [10.71]
Generat a b c Min Generation Max Generation
or Unit [$/h] [$/MW h] [$/MW2 h] [MW] [MW]
1 105 12 0.0120 50 250
2 96 9.6 0.0096 50 250
3 105 13 0.0130 50 250
4 94 9.4 0.0094 50 250
C1 = 105 + 12.0 P + 0.0120 P 2

C 2 = 96 + 9.60 P + 0.0096 P 2
(10.126)
C 3 = 105 + 13.0 P + 0.0130 P 2
C 4 = 94 + 9.40 P + 0.0094 P 2
Table 10.8
Generator Bid Prices (50 MW Slices) [$/MWh] bidding low
Slices Generated Generator Bid Price
Power [$/MWh]
Number Size [MW] GP [MW] BP1 BP2 BP3 BP4
1 50 50 15.30 12.48 16.40 12.22
2 50 50 - 100 15.45 12.48 16.65 12.22
3 50 100 - 150 16.30 13.12 17.60 12.85
4 50 150 - 200 17.32 13.92 18.73 13.63
5 50 200 - 250 18.42 14.78 19.92 14.48
Table 10.9
Generator Bid Prices (50 and 100 MW Slices) [$/MWh] bidding medium
Power [$/MWh]
1 50 50 15.30 12.48 16.40 12.22
2 100 50 - 150 16.30 13.12 17.60 12.85
3 100 150 - 250 18.42 14.78 19.92 14.48
Table 10.10
Generator Bid Prices (250 MW Slices) [$/MWh] bidding high
Power [$/MWh]
1 250 50 - 250 18.42 14.78 19.92 14.48
Other combinations can be performed, apart from the considered cases, bidding
low, bidding medium and bidding high, simultaneously, for all the suppliers. The unit
commitment and aggregated supply bid curve (50 and 100 MW Slices) for bidding
medium are given in Table 10.11 and Figure 10.13.
Table 10.11
Unit Commitment for various Demands (with 50 and 100 MW slices)
bidding medium
Merit Bid Price Generator Number Demand Awards Powers [MW]
Order [$/MWh] Unit Slices [MW] AP1 AP2 AP3 AP4
1 12.22 4 1 50 0 0 0 50
2 12.48 2 1 100 0 50 0 50
3 12.85 4 2 200 0 50 0 150
4 13.12 2 2 300 0 150 0 150
5 14.48 4 3 400 0 150 0 250
6 14.78 2 3 500 0 250 0 250
7 15.30 1 1 550 50 250 0 250
8 16.30 1 2 650 150 250 0 250
9 16.40 3 1 700 150 250 50 250
10 17.60 3 2 800 150 250 150 250
11 18.42 1 3 900 250 250 150 250
12 19.92 3 3 1000 250 250 250 250
Table 10.12
Awards and Revenues for the Generators Units (50 MW Slices) bidding low
Awards Powers [MW] Generators Revenue [$/h] Total
Demand MCP
Revenues
[MW] [$/MWh] AP1 AP2 AP3 AP4 GR1 GR2 GR3 GR4
[$/h]
200 12.48 0 100 0 100 0 1248.00 0 1248.00 2496
400 13.92 0 200 0 200 0 2784.00 0 2784.00 5568
600 15.45 100 250 0 250 1545 3862.50 0 3862.50 9270
800 17.32 200 250 100 250 3465 4331.25 1732.5 4331.25 13860
22
18
3
MCP_800 3
17.60 1
MCP_600 1
16.30 3
MCP_400 4 1
Bid Price [$/MWh]
14.48 2
MCP_200 4
12.85 2
4 2
12
0
16
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Generators Bid [MWh]
Fig. 10.13. Aggregated Supply Bid Curve with 50 and 100 MW Slices bidding medium.
Table 10.13
Awards and Revenues for the Generators Units (50 and 100 MW Slices) bidding medium
Demand MCP Awards Powers Generators Revenue Total
[MW] [$/MWh] [MW] [$/h] Revenues
AP1 AP2 AP3 AP4 GR1 GR2 GR3 GR4 [$/h]
200 12.85 0 50 0 150 0 642.33 0 1927 2569.33
400 14.48 0 150 0 250 0 2171.40 0 3619 5790.40
600 16.30 100 250 0 250 1630 4075.00 0 4075 9780.00
800 17.60 150 250 150 250 2640 4400.00 2640 4400 14080.00
Table 10.14
Awards and Revenues for the Generators Units (250 MW Slices) bidding high
Awards Powers Generators Revenue Total
Demand MCP
[MW] [$/h] Revenues
[MW] [$/MWh]
AP1 AP2 AP3 AP4 GR1 GR2 GR3 GR4 [$/h]
200 14.48 0 0 0 200 0 0 0 2896 2896
400 14.78 0 150 0 250 0 2217 0 3695 5912
600 18.42 100 250 0 250 1842 4065 0 4065 9972
800 19.92 250 250 50 250 4980 4980 996 4980 15936
Table 10.15
Benefits for the Generators Units (50 MW Slices) bidding low
Generators Benefit Total
Demand
[$/h] Benefits
[MW]
GB1 GB2 GB3 GB4 [$/h]
200 0 96.00 0 120.00 216.00
400 0 384.00 0 434.00 818.00
600 120 766.50 0 831.00 1717.50
800 480 1235.25 197.50 1299.75 3212.50
Table 10.16
Benefits for the Generators Units (50 and 100 MW Slices) bidding medium
Demand Generators Benefit Total
[MW] [$/h] Benefits
200 0 42.33 0 211.5 253.83
400 0 419.40 0 587.5 1006.90
600 205 979.00 0 1043.5 2227.50
800 465 1304.00 292.50 1368.5 3430.00
Table 10.17
Benefits for the Generators Units (250 MW Slices) bidding high
Demand Generators Benefit Total
[MW] [$/h] Benefits
200 0 0 0 546.5 546.5
400 0 465 0 663.5 1128.5
600 417 969 0 1033.5 2419.5
800 1125 1884 208.5 1948.5 5166.0
The comparison of results for the three strategies shows the influence bidding
low/medium/high on MCP, awards and revenues for the generator units.
Ideally, each generator participant in the energy market will select the binding
strategy that maximizes its profits. Using a discrete bidding strategy, a simulation bidding
can be performed for multiple possible combinations. The number of combinations depends
on the available information. Using an ordinal optimization technique, a good enough
bidding strategy is obtained, with reasonable computation effort.
In a typical short-term forward wholesale electricity market where products are
auctioned sequentially, one often observes significant market inefficiency and price
volatility thus the recent growing impetus in developing integrated short-term forward
markets where electric energy, reserves, and transmission capacity are auctioned
simultaneously. Such markets need new computational methods and models for
determining market clearing price and physical (delivery/consumption) schedules, [10.31].
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Chapter 11
LOAD FORECAST
11.1. Background
Since the electric energy storage on a large scale is not possible, the main role
of the power network is to transport the demanded energy to consumers. Therefore,
it is very important to study and analyse the evolution of the load in order to
operate and design the power network, because all the other decisions are based on
the consumed energy [11.3, 11.16].
The importance of accurate load estimation for a long time period is also due
to the following aspects [11.12]:
the designing and construction period of power plants, substations, electric
lines, etc. is quite long (5 15 years);
the power equipment life is very long (35 150 years);
the investment costs are very high (million, even billion dollars);
the damages caused by the power supply interruption are very important;
the optimisation cost is a basic condition for the exploitation of a power
system, it being possible to be achieved if accurate present and future
amount of power consumption is known.
The load forecast is the scientific activity that targets the estimation of the
energy and power consumption based on the analysis of miscellaneous
information, so that the estimated consumption can finally match the real one [11.5].
The load forecast has the following characteristics [11.13]:
it is a dynamical activity, which is strongly influenced by the time factor;
the correct appraisal of some uncertain factors evolution is essential for
the realistic forecast;
the forecast results are strongly necessary in order to justify the decisions
related to the power system development and operation;
the load forecast errors imply high extra costs:
if the load was underestimated, extra costs will be caused by the
damages due to lack of energy, or by the overloading of the system
elements;
if the load was overestimated, the network investment costs overtake the
real needs, and the fuel stocks are overvalued, locking up, in an
unjustified way, capital investment.
11.2. Factors that influence the energy consumption

The experience in this field emphasised that the main causes generating the
load modification are [11.5, 11.13]:
The weather conditions: the season, the daily temperatures (average,
minimum, maximum), the wind speed, the rain-fall quantity, the
cloudiness, etc. [11.11];
The demographic factors: the population rate of growth, the number of the
inhabitants in a certain area or in a certain country, the birth rate (the
number of child bearings per 1000 inhabitants), the population growth (the
difference between the birth rate and the death rate) etc.;
The economical factors: the gross national product, the labour productivity,
the mean specific incoming, the economy development rate, the
endowment level, and the life quality level. A very important element is
represented by the energy price, this one being related to the
supply/demand ratio on one hand, and to the energy resources and the
economical policy on the other;
Other factors are:
the length of the day compared to the length of the night, influencing
directly the load demanded for artificial lightening;
the day of the week to which the energy consumption is referred
knowing that on holidays the load is reduced as compared to a working
day, when the production activity leads to an increased load demand; the
economical activity is more intense in the days in the middle of week
(Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday) than in the other days (Monday,
Friday).
The evolution in time of these parameters has a strong random character. At a
certain moment, the more or less accidental realisations of these parameters
(explanatory variables) influence in a direct way the load (explained variable) and
their variation tendency change influences in a decisive way the load variation
tendency.
The load forecast implies the building of a mathematical model that uses as
inputs the determinant factors that influence the load, and as output, the
corresponding consumed energy.
The load forecast implies the solving of the following aspects:
Identification and classification, according to their importance, of the
causes that influence the load;
Determination from the qualitative and the quantitative point of view the
relationship between the causes and the effect;
Utilization the relationship established above for the load forecast, based
on the estimation of the cause parameters evolution;
The gradual checking of the forecast results, as time goes on, correlating
the energy consumption to its causes in order to remake the forecast by
using the corrected correlation rule that can offer improved prediction.
Load forecast 673
11.3. Stages of a forecast study

The forecast survey methodology implies the following main stages:
1. The selection, the correlation and the processing of the initial database;
2. The building of the load mathematical model;
3. The solution analysis and the final decision making.
11.3.1. Initial database selection, correlation and processing

In order to obtain an accurate forecast, a quite large and correct database
must be used [11.4]. It must contain:
The amount of the global load and, if possible, detailed on components, for
a quite long period of time (at least 5 years);
The evolution of load influencing factors.
This leads to the processing of the huge database, which has to be easily
stocked, accessed, visualised, and modified.
The database setting up and updating represents a permanent work that needs
a huge quantity of information and implies an important responsibility. If the
database is correct, there is the probability that the forecast results are verified by
the reality, but if the database is erroneous, the probability to obtain an accurate
forecast is extremely reduced, even completely erroneous.
The primary data introduction can be made easier by using the automatic data
acquisition systems based on micro-controllers. The present technologies allow the
data acquisition on a large area, by remote measurement and transmission, to a
unique computer situated in a control centre.
In this forecast step, a preliminary data selection and modification takes
place. The data are visualised under the graphical form. Then they are followed by
a statistical computation, which allows the wrong data elimination.
The correlation setting between the load and one or more parameters
considered as independent variables represents another problem. If there is a
correlation, its nature interests us (linear, non-linear, etc.). The graphical
visualisation of the dependence between the variables gives us quite quick and
correct intuitive answers, which are given, more precisely, by a competent person.
11.3.2. Mathematical model of the load
11.3.2.1. Model components

The load curve represents the energy variation in terms of the determinant
parameter. If the parameter taken into consideration is the time (t), the curve can be
divided in several components. The experience underlines the fact that there are
four main components that induce the load profile (W) (Fig. 11.1) [11.10].
W
T
C
0 t
S
0 t

0 t
Fig. 11.1. The considered components of the load mathematical model.
1. The trend (T) is the main load component, establishing the main load
variation form.
2. The cyclic component (C). It is due to some slow-varying causes such as
the correlation supply demand, which lasts more than a year.
3. The seasonal component (S) is caused by certain parameters, which
represent seasonal fluctuations. This components variation period lasts
only a few months and it is almost the same for all the years.
4. The random component ( ) is due to accidental causes that have not been
mentioned above.
So, the load is due to the summing up of the above mentioned components:
W (t ) = T (t ) + C (t ) + S (t ) + (t ) (11.1)
The practical experience proved us that, in general, the relation (11.1)

underlines, correctly, the rule through which the components of the load curve
combine. However, there are other rules according to which the components of the
load are associated. For instance, one of the most popular rules is the rule given by
the all components product, or of some of them:
W (t ) = T (t ) C (t ) S (t ) (t ) (11.2)
The relation (11.1) is obtained by applying the logarithm on the relation

(11.2).
In general, the forecast methods are given by summing up the load
components. Therefore, the model is converted to its standard form (11.1) in the
first period of the forecast, using the adequately chosen functions and variables
transformations. There are two main criteria that guide us how to choose the right
transformations:
The load graphics visualisation gives to a competent person enough
information, so that she/he can make the correct choice of the solution,
based on intuition;
Load forecast 675
The statistical indices, which can be obtained by some computations on the

load profile, as it results from the time series theory, give us enough
information to find the correct transformations that can lead to the
components outline and to the way they are associated.
If a load forecast is performed, the most important thing to do is to calculate,
separately, the variation of each load component, the final result being obtained by
the addition of the results of the components forecast.
The separation of components represents one of the main problems of the
Statistics Theory. The separation process is made easier by the cyclical component
and by the seasonal one when using load curve standardisation methods and it
becomes more difficult (sometimes even impossible) for the random component.
For this reason, for situations when the random component form is not directly
necessary, forecast probabilistic methods have been developed that calculate the
limits of the so-called confidence interval, in which the tendency can vary from the
value deterministically estimated, as a result of the accidental factors action,
without overtaking the pre-established confidence level.
If the cyclical, seasonal and random components are small as compared to the
trend then their influence over the load variation can be neglected, and everything
is limited to tendency forecast. This is the most usual situation that occurs in
practice and it represents one of the main subjects treated in books.
11.3.2.2. Mathematical models used in load forecast studies

The models that will be described next characterise, generally, the tendency
of the load profile, except for the cases when introducing, explicitly, the random
component through the doubt factor. In fact, it can be treated if necessary, in the
same way the other models are treated, by the simply addition of the doubt factor.
A large variety of mathematical models are used for the load forecast [11.13]:
a) econometric models, which are characterised by mathematical rule issued
as a result of technical and economical analysis, followed by a statistical
check-up;
b) analytical models that take into consideration the energy sources and types
of loads;
c) conditional models that take into consideration the energy purchase price
and the equipment price;
d) models that take into consideration the electricity market games;
e) models that take into consideration the influence of the electric
installations used;
f) models that incorporate the production factors.
Among the enumerated models, the most usual are the econometric models,
such as:
autonomous tendential models, whose only one variable is the time, and
whose aim is the load variation tendency extrapolation. These models have
the doubt factor as random variable (t ) . The most usual ones are:
linear:
W (t ) = a + bt + (t ) (11.3)
exponential:
W (t ) = W0 (1 + ) + (t )
t
(11.4)
where: a, b, and W0 are the models coefficients. These coefficients are
determined from the regression analysis and some of them can be regarded
from a physical point of view.
A more detailed description of these models can be seen in Table 11.1.
adaptive conditional models which are based on the use of the explicative
variables (the causal factors that determine the load) and on the respecting
of some evolution scenarios (future events series, nodal events traces);
according to the mathematical rule of the model there are:
linear models:
W (t ) = a + b GNP(t ) (11.5)
where GNP is the Gross National Product. Other explicative variables can
also be used instead of this variable.
non linear models:
without elasticity implementation:
W (t ) = a(t )[1 + r (t )]GNP(t ) (11.6)
with elasticity implementation:
W (t ) = k e GNP(t ) (11.7)
The elasticity is defined by:
W (t ) W (t )
e= (11.8)
GDP(t ) GDP(t )
and k represents the model constant.
adaptive models:
without elasticity implementation:
W x i
W
=a+ b
i
i
xi
+ (11.9)
with elasticity implementation:

GNP (t , t + 1)
W (t , t + 1) = e W (t ) (11.10)
GNP
The following relation defines the elasticity in the above formula:
e=
W (t, t + 1) W (t ) (11.11)
GNP(t , t + 1) N
Table 11.1
The main types of tendency extrapolation mathematical models [11.5].
Mathematical Graphical
Function type Substitution
expression representation
y = a 0 + a1 x
linear W (t ) = a + bt y =W x = t
a 0 = a a1 = b
With continuous growth
y = a0 + a1 x +
+ a2 x 2 + L
polynomial W (t ) = a + bt + ct 2 + L y =W x=t
a0 = a a1 = b
a2 = c L
y = a 0 + a1 x
exponential W (t ) = a e bt
y = ln W x=t
a 0 = ln a a1 = b
y = a 0 + a1 x
logarithmic W (t ) = ln (a + bt ) y = eW x=t
With limited growth
a0 = a a1 = b
y = a 0 + a1 x
y = ln[W (a Wb )]
a
logistic W (t ) = x=t
b + c e dt
a 0 = ln 1 c a1 = d
The summing up is performed for all the N periods, of the time taken into
consideration. The two terms in brackets define the limits of the interval on which
the variation of the number, symbolised by , is calculated.
There are two important situations:
linear model relative to its parameters;
non-linear model relative to its parameters.
when its parameters influence the structure of the model.
Since it is very difficult, from the mathematical point of view, to identify a
non-linear model, linear models are generally used. However, if the model that has
to be used is non-linear with respect to its parameters, it should be converted to
obtain a linear model, by changing the input and the output data. The logistical
Load forecast 673
model (Table 11.1) is the most adequate example for this situation; as found from
the Substitution column. Calculating the coefficients a and b, using the existing
data, then, using the above transformations, a linear model is obtained. After
finding the a0 , a1 coefficients, by using the existing transformation relations, it is
very easy to obtain the d, c parameters.
According to its variables, a mathematical model can be:
endogenous when the load is considered to be a time function W (t ) = f (t ) ;
the load forecast is performed by function extrapolation from the past to
the future, method called direct forecast; the time can be considered as a:
continuous variable, because the models are continuous;
discrete variable, whose values are known at equal time samples; in
general, discrete endogenous models are called time series.
Exogenous, when the variables on which the load depends are the climatic,
the economical, the demographic factors, etc., the time not being taken into
account in this structure W (x1 ,K, xn ) = f (x1 ,K, xn ) ; since the load forecast
uses an exogenous model it is called indirect forecast; every parameter is a
time function: xi = gi (t ) ;
combined: W (t , x1 (t ),K, xn (t )) = f ( x1 (t ),K, xn (t )) .
From the load point of view, the forecast models used can be:
global (synthetic) models, when the load is seen as a whole;
analytical models, when the load is obtained by summing up some of the
components, the forecast being realised at the components level.
11.3.2.3. The choice of the mathematical model

Many suggestions concerning the choice of the mathematical model can be
done, and if they are taken into consideration, the errors are avoided in principle,
and so, the time and effort for their correction are saved [11.13].
First of all, the following elements must be exactly defined:
the forecast aim implies the knowledge of the load location, of the forecast
time horizon, of the available initial data, and of its application field;
the forecast quality has to be accomplished, in conformity to the aim, and
to reflect the exactitude of the results and the establishment of the accepted
hypotheses;
explicative variables that can be introduced in the model;
scenarios that involve a possible load development;
the forecast types that are going to be taken into consideration knowing
that:
simple, but not simplified models are the favourite;
endogenous models, done by extrapolation, without taking into
consideration the power and equipment price, the production factors, or
the prices in general, are simple, and need only the knowledge of the
past load, are adequate in the preliminary step of the long term forecast;
however, the results have a low accuracy;
exogenous models are more complex, need the knowledge of some extra
data and even of the explicative parameters evolution in future, so that
the energy forecast to be possible; the results are useful for the medium
term forecast;
the energy price is the most important variable which has to be taken
into consideration into the standard models;
global models are less recommended for the normative studies;
the introduction of some limits is very important for medium and long
term studies;
the models that use the elasticity coefficient of the energy price give
acceptable results only for short and medium periods of time.
it is useful to include limits which take into consideration the
environmental restrictions and energy preserving requirements; when the
limits are set, the following aspects must be analysed:
have these limits any role at all?
is there any asymptotic conduct of the load evolution which justifies the
setting of the limits?
can models with limited growth be introduced in the study, models that
take into account the existence of the expected limits?
the models setting must take into account also the methodology used for
the identification of the model:
if it is suitable for the actual analysed situation;
if the objective (technical) and subjective (related to the staff
competence) conditions are accomplished, related to the personal
qualification, for their application.
11.3.3. Analysis of results and determining the final forecast

In order to increase the coincidence between the forecasted results and the
actual ones, every study analyses more possibilities. The number of data taken into
consideration for the past, the type of the used mathematical model and the adopted
work hypothesis differentiate these possibilities. As there are more possibilities,
there are also more results that may differ, more or less, one from each other [11.18].
The staffs that makes the forecast has the duty to establish which of the
analysed possibilities has the biggest chances to be corrected, and on their basis,
the final results of the load forecast to be provided.
In order to compare these possibilities, different criteria are used, such as:
The use of tendency quality indices (the correlation coefficient, the
correlation ratio, the variance, the sum of the absolute square deviations,
etc.). The better they are, the biggest the chances for the forecast to reflect
correctly the future real data;
Load forecast 675
The checking of the forecast possibilities in some known points. In order to

have such checking points, the last 2 3 years (the latest ones) are being
taken into account for the future, the forecast sphere moves towards the
past, 2 3 years ago. The forecast results for the next 2 3 years can be
checked, and if there is a resemblance between the actual results and the
expected ones for this same period, then, it is very possible that the results
to respect the load increase for the next years. This method has also
disadvantages, that is, in order to establish the forecast, the tendencies
which occurred in the latest years and which are crucial for the future
evolutions are neglected;
The use of another information to evaluate the obtained values by
comparison, such as: previous forecasts, forecasts performed by other
teams, and already existing data;
The heuristic approaches based on experience and on the experts intuition
can be very useful and can offer us amazing results.
After the comparison of the forecast possibilities and setting of the final
approach, the forecast results are transmitted under a very flexible form [11.14]. In
this regard are developed:
Values intervals where the future load should be found, with the mention
that this interval should be respected; it is the so-called the presentation of
the results under a probabilistic form, described in the section 11.5.4;
Different scenarios with afferent results, where assume the load evolution
takes place according to some general hypotheses, which take into account
the concrete considered conditions.
11.4. Error sources and difficulties met at load forecast

The load forecasted values will differ due to more or less from the future real
load values especially due to multiple random factor that influence the load, such
as: climatic and demographic, the international economic circumstances, and due to
more or less controllable error sources.
The random factors can be less controllable, so they are grouped into the so-
called inherent error sources. It is necessary to reduce the other error sources
called specific sources in order to increase the precision of the forecast results.
The main sources of errors are [11.13]:
load data error for the past caused by their bad processing or storing;
arbitrary reductions introduced by accepting too optimistic or too
pessimistic work hypotheses;
neglecting of important factors or consideration of insignificant factors;
computational error in determining the mathematical model coefficients;
imprecise estimation of some initial data due to their unknowing;
wrong interpretation of the obtained results.
The most important inherent source of errors is the sudden and significant
change of conditions that leads to the work hypothesis violation. This fact is
difficult to predict, but its consequences are, in general, dramatic for the forecast
result. In such cases, the best solution is to update the load forecast using the new
initial conditions.
Many difficulties can occur in the load forecast and they are caused by:
incomplete data or too short time series for the past;
the difficulty to combine more different systems (technical, economical,
social systems) in one mathematical model;
the number of variables may be very important;
the existence of some qualitative parameters difficult to quantify; the fuzzy
set theory is very useful in such cases; it is more and more amplified in our
field.
11.5. Classical methods for load forecast
11.5.1. General aspects

The methods that use continuous analytical mathematical models and are
based on classical elements of Mathematical Analysis and Statistics belong to the
load forecast classical methods [11.15, 11.19].
The load components separation, i.e. the trend, the periodical components
(the cyclical, the seasonal components) and random components, represents the
first decisive load forecast stage. The periodical components separation can be
made using the load data Fourier analyse outlining the following parameters:
the component amplitude;
each component frequency (or period);
the component angle phase.
Using the relation (11.1), the trend and the random component sum are:
y (t ) = T (t ) + (t ) = W (t ) [C (t ) + S (t )] (11.12)
Now one of the two following strategies can be adopted:
1) Calculate the trend mathematical coefficients by the least squares method.
Assuming that the load deviation towards the tendency corresponds to the
random component, it results:
(t ) = y (t ) T (t ) (11.13)
and the random component estimation follows.
2) We accept a probabilistic model for y (t ) that allows its coefficients
determination, future load estimation using the extrapolation and
estimation of the domain where they will be included with a certain
probability that the forecast is not revealed.
11.5.2. Cyclical and seasonal components analysis
A Fourier analysis of W (t ) function is necessary for the determination of the
load components that have a harmonic time variation Y (t ) the cyclical C (t ) and
the seasonal S (t ) components [11.21].
The mathematical model used for the harmonic components representation is:
n2 n2
Y (t ) = S (t ) + C (t ) = (ai sin i t + bi cos i t ) = Pi sin(i t + i )
i =1 i =1
(11.14)
where: a i , bi , Pi are the component amplitudes, i = 2 Ti is the angular

frequency, Ti is the period, i is the component phase angle:
2 n
i = i and Ti = (11.15)
n i
The estimated values of the a i and bi are established through Fourier
analysis of the function Y (t ) using the formulae:
n
) 2
ai =
n
W (k ) sin k
k =1
i
, i = 1, 2, K , n 2 (11.16)
) 2 n
bi =
n
W (k ) cos k
k =1
i
By plotting the periodogram, that is:
Pi = ai2 + bi2 = f (i ) (11.17)

it following variables can be estimated (see Fig. 11.2):
the Pi amplitudes of the ith components, whose values are important and
which are going to be kept into the model (for Fig. 11.2, i = 2 and 5);
Fig. 11.2. Load variation periodogram.
the periods of the symmetrical components kept in the model:

Ti = n i (11.18)
the phase angle shifting of the considered components:
tan i = bi ai (11.19)
Application 1
The load of a residential area is represented in Table 11.2. Determine the periodical
components of the considered load and then separate the trend and the random component.
Table 11.2
The cyclical and the random components data
Month 1 2 3 4 5 6
W [MWh] 2.572 2.900 2.547 2.511 2.891 3.117
Month 7 8 9 10 11 12
W [MWh] 1.960 1.763 2.668 2.146 1.599 1.855
Month 13 14 15 16 17 18
W [MWh] 2.978 3.305 2.376 2.817 3.170 3.313
Month 19 20 21 22 23 24
W [MWh] 1.942 1.403 1.794 1.749 1.471 1.523
Month 25 26 27 28 29 30
W [MWh] 2.730 3.482 2.478 2.797 3.729 3.371
Month 31 32 33 34 35 36
W [MWh] 1.126 0.9493 2.073 1.719 0.9443 1.626
Figure 11.3 shows the evolution of the residential area load during the 36 months that
have been taken into consideration.
[MWh] 4
yk 2
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36
k [month]
Fig. 11.3. The load evolution.
In order to obtain the symmetrical components (the cyclical one and the seasonal
one), calculate the ai , bi coefficients using the relations (11.16) and the Pi amplitudes of
the harmonics up to the 18th order, using the relation (11.17), obtaining the values from
Table 11.3.
The phase angle shifting and the periods corresponding to the cyclical and the
seasonal components are calculated using the formulae (11.18) and (11.19), and have the
following values:
for the cyclical component: 3 = 0.415 rad; T3 = 12 months;
for the seasonal component: 3 = 0.766 rad; T3 = 4 months.
Table 11.3
The harmonic values
i 1 2 3 4 5 6
ai 0.09011 -0.0368 0.6878 0.04385 0.01302 -0.02071
bi -0.1199 -0.1726 -0.3028 0.1383 0.03057 0.03636
Pi 0.15000 0.1765 0.7515 0.1451 0.03323 0.04184
i 7 8 9 10 11 12
ai -0.07506 -0.001041 0.4534 0.09771 -0.01665 -0.0269
bi -0.108 -0.03823 -0.4364 0.03729 0.1403 0.07851
Pi 0.1316 0.03824 0.6293 0.1046 0.1413 0.08299
i 13 14 15 16 17 18
ai 0.02427 0.0343 -0.09003 0.0243 0.0206 0.0000
bi 0.02264 0.01112 -0.0601 0.02607 -0.009395 0.07215
Pi 0.1439 0.1143 0.1015 0.1446 0.1286 0.1846
Using this information, the periodogram represented in Figure 11.4 can be plotted. It
can be seen that the most important values of the amplitudes correspond to the 3rd and 9th
harmonics: P3 = 0.7515 and P9 = 0.6293 . It is obvious, even from Table 11.3, that these
values are threefold bigger than the amplitudes of the others harmonics.
[MWh] 0.8
0.6
Pi 0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
i
Fig. 11.4. The periodogram.
Figure 11.5 represents the evolution in time of the cyclical and the seasonal
components, calculated with relation (11.14). Using the relation (11.12), the trend variation
and the load random component variation are obtained, represented in Figure 11.6.
Load forecast 673
[MWh] 2
1.2
yk 0.4
-0.4
-1.2
-2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36
k [month]
Fig. 11.5. The cyclical and the seasonal components.
[MWh] 3
2.7
2.4
Tk+k 2.1
1.8
1.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36
k [month]
Fig. 11.6. The trend and the random component.
Note: The Mathcad application, product under licence from Mathsoft Corporation,
from Canada, had been used as help for the calculation of the problem solution.
11.5.3. Trend forecast

After separation of the symmetrical components from the load curve, and
according to paragraph 11.3.2.2, in order to forecast the trend, a linear model that
contains also random component is adopted. Therefore, a probabilistic model of the
multiple linear regression is found [11.15, 11.19].
11.5.3.1. Probabilistic model of the multiple linear regression

We start from the assumption that y, x1 , K, x j , K, x p is a sample of n
independent observations of the p + 1 random variable where is the load and
1 , 2 , K, p the factors that influence the value of the consumed energy.
The y vector is called explainable variable or the criteria, and the vectors
x1 , L, x j , L, x p are called explanatory variables or the predictors.
In general, it is assumed that the explanatory variables form a system of
independent linear vectors, but this does not mean that they are statistically
independent, but, on the contrary, there can be some statistical correlation between
the predictors. That is why, in order to avoid any confusion, it is suitable to use the
symbol y for the dependent variable and the symbol x j for the independent one.
( )
The expectation E , 1 , 2 , ..., p gives the best approximation for in
the case of the function i . Now, if the hypothesis of the multiple linear regression
is taken into account:
( )
p
E , 1 , 2 , ..., p = 0 +
j =1
j j (11.20)
the following relation is obtained if we add a random variable , whose average

is 0, and is not correlated to i :
p
= 0 +
j =1
j j + (11.21)
where the symbol 2 is using for the variance of the random variable .
In most cases the coefficients 0 , 1 , K, p and the variance 2 are
unknown, so they are expected to be evaluated as better as possible.
Between the realisation yi , xi1 , K, xip , ei of , 1 , 2 , ..., p , , the
following relation inferred from the hypothesis of the multiple linear regression
exists:
p
yi = 0 + x
j =1
j ij + ei with i = 1, 2,K, n (11.22)
The relation (11.22) written under a matrix form represents the probabilistic
model of the multiple linear regression:
y = X + e (11.23)
where:
1 X 11 L X1 p
1 X L X 2 p
[
X = 1 x1 L xp =
M M
21
] O M
(11.24)

1 X n1 L X np
y = [ y1 , y2 , K, yn ] t
[
= 0 , 1 , K, p ] t
e = [e1 e2 L en ] t
where [ ] t stands for the transposition of a vector (or a matrix), therefore y, and
e are column vectors.
Load forecast 675
11.5.3.2. Assessment of the multiple linear regression coefficients

The vector of coefficients estimation is required so that the assessed values
)
of the criterions variables y approximate as better as possible the y vector
achievements, which correspond to the predictor variables included in the X
matrix the relation (11.24). For this purpose, the objective function is used [11.19]:
S ( ) = e t e = (y X ) (y X ) = y t y 2 t Xy + t X t X
t
(11.25)
which has to be minimised to get the best values of the regression coefficients. So,
)
the best values of the regression coefficients in the sense of the least squares
(LS) correspond to the situation when the sum of the errors squares is minimal.
Therefore, the imposed condition is that the derivative of function S to be zero.
S ( ) )
= 2 X t y + 2 X t X = 0 (11.26)
=)
The following equation is derived from the function above:
)
X t X X t y = 0 (11.27)
The solution of equation (11.27) can be obtained almost immediately:
)
( )
1
= Xt X Xt y = X + y (11.28)
where
(
X + = Xt X ) 1
Xt (11.29)
is the pseudo-inverse of the matrix X .
Of course, X t X is invertible, therefore it is positively defined, meaning that
X has independent linear columns.
The forecasted values for the variable of the criterion are:
) )
( 1
)
y = X = X X t X X t y = Ay (11.30)
with
A = XVXt (11.31)
(
A = XX t )
1
(11.32)
11.5.3.3. Features of the multiple linear regression

The following statements can be proved [11.19]:
)
For the multiple linear regression probabilistic model the values
calculated through the LS method are non-biased estimations of the
parameters :
() )
E = (11.33)
)
is the best estimation for because, from all the estimators of the
regression coefficients, it has the smallest variance;
The regression coefficient variance is:
())
V = 2V (11.34)
The difference between the achievements and the estimations is:
)
y y = (I - A)y (11.35)
The sum of squared errors (SSE), where the errors represent the differences
between the achievements and the estimation, is [11.19]:
n )
)
SS E = (y y )
i =1
i i
2
= y t y t Xt y (11.36)
formula used to calculate the SS E from the initial data of the problem;
The variance estimator is:
) SS E
2 = MS E = (11.37)
n p 1
it is not moved and has a minimal variation;
The multiple correlation coefficient R represents the highest value of the
coefficient of the simple linear correlation between the y vectors co-
) )
ordinates and the co-ordinates of any other vector y = X . Its square is
equal to the ration between the variance explained through regression and
the variance of y :
n n
)
( yi y ) 2 (y i y)2
SS E
R2 = i=1
n
i=1
= 1 (11.38)
s yy
(yi =1
i y) 2
where y = E ( y ) is the average of the yi values and [11.15]

n
s yy = (y
i=1
i y)2 (11.38')
is the sum of the square of the differences toward the average value. If for
)
every i we have got yi = yi , then the adjustment of the experimental data
linear model is perfect and the result is: R 2 = 1 ;
Eliminating the SS E between the relation (11.37) and (11.38), a practical
relation used to calculate the estimated variance is obtained:
) 1 R2
2 = s yy (11.39)
n p 1
)
It can be seen that if the adjustment is perfect ( R = 1 ) then 2 = 0 ;
If ei N (0, 2 ) , so it has a normal distribution with zero average and the
variance , then the confidence interval 100 (1 ) for the regression
coefficient is given by:
Load forecast 673
)
i t
, n p 1
( )
) ) )
S E i i i + t
, n p 1
( )
)
S E i (11.40)
2 2
where:
t represents the bilateral quantile and n p 1 represents the
, n p 1
2
degree of freedom for the t distributed statistics;
S E is called standard error or typical deviation of the regression
)
coefficient i , being rendered by the formula:
) )
S E i = 2Vii ( ) (11.41)
Vii represents the diagonal element of the coefficients covariation
matrix V the relations (11.32) and (11.34);
If the explained variable real value is y0 , which corresponds to the x 0
predictor, then the confidence intervals having the probability 100 (1 )%
for the y0 value will be:
) ) ) )
y0 t 1 + x t0 Vx 0 y 0 y 0 + t 1 + x t0 Vx 0 (11.42,a)
, n p 1 ,n p 1
2 2
where:
[
x'0 = 1 x01 L x0 p ] (11.42,b)
11.5.3.4. Testing of model coefficients

The following two contrary hypotheses are desirable to be tested [11.19]:
H0: j = 0
H1: j 0
In this regard must be calculated:

)
j
t0 j = (11.43)
( )
)
SE j
If: t 0 j > t 2,n 2 then the hypothesis H0: j = 0 is eliminated and the hypothesis
H1: j 0 is accepted. represents the distribution threshold value.
It is worth mentioning that if a significant R 2 can be found, so that no
regression coefficient, taken separately, is much different from zero: this can
happen only if there is a strong correlation between the predictors.
11.5.3.5. Residua and observations analysis

The residua method is a very important one and, sometimes, the only one
used to check the base hypothesis of the model (its linearity, homoscedasticity, etc.)
and to discover the wrong data that are influenced by great errors. In a good
situation, the residua do not have to be correlated to the explanatory variables: in
other words, the residua diagram, according to the predictors, does not have to
allow the presence of any tendency [11.19].
We call the criterion variable residuum the difference between the real value
) )
and its estimation: y i y i . The components of the residua y y vector are the
residua of all the explanatory variables. The formula for the residua variance
matrix is:
)
V ( y y ) = 2 (I A ) (11.44)
It can be seen that, in general, the residua are correlated between them,
because the matrix A has not a diagonal form.
As a consequence, the estimation of the residuum variance can be
approximated for the ith term by taking into account only the diagonal terms:
) )
V ( yi yi ) = 2 (1 Aii ) (11.45)
Aii is the diagonal term of the A projector, achieving the following conditions:
1
Aii 1
n
n
A
i =1
ii = p +1
The following formula is called studentised residuum:

)
yi yi
rsti = ) (11.46)
1 Aii
When n is large, the studentised residua values have to be situated between -2
and +2, otherwise a big residuum can indicate a wrong value. Wrong values can be
obtained without having a big residuum. Such case is illustrated in Figure 11.7.
x
x x Aberrant value with
x null residuum
x x
x
x x
x x x
Fig. 11.7. The case of an aberrant value with null residuum.

Load forecast 675
In such situations, the influence of the observations on the prediction must be

analysed. Thus, from the completed data model is removed the ith component,
whose influence must be estimated and the reduced model (n 1) is estimated for
)
the explanatory variables. With the vector y ( i ) , the observations obtained for the
explanatory variables in a reduced model, are noted.
)
The forecasted residuum is the difference y j y( i ) j . If the influence of the
ith observation is small, there should be no large difference between the residua and
the forecasted residua. Carefulness should be paid to the observations whose term
Aii is large (close to the value 1).
Application 2
Forecast, taking into account the influence of the random component, the industrial
load for the period 2000 2005, using the direct extrapolation method for the exponential
trend. The annual load for the period 1995 2001 is illustrated in the table below:
Table 11.4
The load data
Year 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
W [GWh] 1.06 1.37 1.61 1.97 2.24 2.69 3.01
The exponential model W (t ) = a ebt is reduced to a linear model by finding the

logarithm of the number: y (t ) = ln W (t ) = ln a + b t = 0 + 1 t . The mathematical model
that corresponds to the relation (11.23) has the following formula:
y1 1 X 1,1 e1
y 1 X e
2 =
M M
2,1
M
[0 1 ] + 2
M

y7 1 X
7 ,1 e7
According to the relation (11.28) the following formula is obtained:
1
7 7
) n X i ,1 yi
)
( )
t 1 t 0
= X X X y = ) = 7 i =1
7

i =1
7

1 X
i =1
i ,1
i =1
X i2,1

yi X i ,1
i =1
In order to render the calculation easier the following co-ordinates transformation is

performed:
X k = X k ,1 X 1
Yk = yk y
n n
1 1
with X 1 =
n
k =1
X k ,1, Y =
n y
k =1
k representing the averages of the explanatory and the
explained variables. As a consequence, all the sums in which the variables are at an odd
power become zero and the relations for the parameter calculus are the following:
0
1 7
)
) b0
n
7
0 0
7
)
B0

X i Yi

B = ) = 0

b1
X i2 X i Yi or B) = i =71
i =1
1
i =1
i =1 X i2

) ) ) )
1 = b1 and 0 = Y b1 X 1 .
The number of the degrees of freedom is n L = n p 1 = 7 1 1 = 5 . Having
p = 95% for the probability to achieve the forecast, the result is t = 2.57 . The
, n p 1
2
limits of the confidence interval are calculated according to the relation (11.42):
) ) ) ) 1 X 02
y0 2,57 1 + xt Vx 0 = y0 2.57 1 + + 7
7
X
i =1
i
2
The calculation is performed in a spreadsheet; the detailed results are indicated in

Tables 11.5 and 11.6.
Table 11.5
The solution data
) )
Year x W y = ln (W ) X X2 Y = y y X*Y y y y ( y y$ ) 2
1995 0 1.51 0.4121 -3 9 -0.2489 0.7466 0.3923 0.0198 3.93E-04
1996 1 1.62 0.4824 -2 4 -0.1785 0.3571 0.4818 0.0006 3.42E-07
1997 2 1.76 0.5653 -1 1 -0.0957 0.0957 0.5714 -0.0061 3.71E-05
1998 3 1.89 0.6366 0 0 -0.0244 0.0000 0.6610 -0.0244 5.95E-04
1999 4 2.10 0.7419 1 1 0.0810 0.0810 0.7505 -0.0086 7.39E-05
2000 5 2.30 0.8329 2 4 0.1719 0.3439 0.8401 -0.0072 5.17E-05
2001 6 2.60 0.9555 3 9 0.2945 0.8836 0.9297 0.0258 6.68E-04
SUM 21 4.6268 28 2.5078 1.82E-03
Intermediary and final results are:

the average values: X 1 = 3 ; y = 0.661 ;
) )
the estimated coefficients of the linear regression: B1 = 0.0896 ; B0 = 0 ;
) )
1 = 0.0896 ; 0 = 0.3923 ;
Load forecast 677
) )
the estimated parameters of the exponential model: a = 1.4803 ; b = 0.0896 ;
)
the estimated variance for the linear regression: 2 = 0.364 10 3 ;
the correlation coefficient for the linear regression: R 2 = 0.991 .
The final results for the forecasted load are obtained by inverse logarithm of linear
model results.
Table 11.6
Final results
Year x y y + y W max W W min
2000 7 1.0192 0.0287 1.0479 0.9905 2.8517 2.7710 2.6926
2001 8 1.1088 0.0313 1.1401 1.0775 3.1270 3.0307 2.9373
2002 9 1.1984 0.0342 1.2325 1.1642 3.4299 3.3147 3.2033
2003 10 1.2879 0.0373 1.3252 1.2506 3.7630 3.6252 3.4925
The load evolution for the past period and its forecast, accompanied by the minimal
and the maximal variation limits caused by the random component are illustrated in
Figure 11.8 [11.11].
4 Real load
3.5
Load forecast
3
2.5 Maximum load
forecast
2 Minimum load
forecast
1.5
90
92
94
96
98
00
19
19
19
19
19
20
Fig. 11.8. The load evolution.
Note: Microsoft Excel was used as a support for the solution of the application.
Application 3
Table 11.7 illustrates the daily load for an industrialised area according to 4 main
parameters:
the industrial production daily quantity;
the number of the inhabitants from the area on the period the energy was
measured;
the atmospheric temperature of that day;
the power cost prices the moment it was measured.
It is requested:
a) to establish a linear mathematical model including the calculation of its
coefficients;
b) to estimate the variance of the measured values compared to the linear
mathematical model;
c) to find out the multiple correlation coefficient;
d) to forecast one-day load characterised by the following parameters: x10 = 1.55 ;

x20 = 2.105 ; x30 = 25 ; x10 = 50 ;
e) to find out the confidence interval for the forecasted energy value from point c);
f) to find out the confidence interval for the mathematical model coefficients;
g) to check if there can be null coefficients;
h) to find out the studentised residua of the daily consumed energy.
Table 11.7
The daily load data
x3
x1 x2 x4
Daily
W [GWh] Daily quantity Number of The energy
atmospheric
Daily load production inhabitants cost price
temperature
[107 $] [106 loc.] [$/MWh]
[o C]
36.998 1.15 2.135 35 35
55.055 1.05 2.203 11 42
69.780 1.30 2.071 -13 55
44.912 1.92 2.178 32 30
43.012 1.47 2.123 20 61
61.736 1.23 2.035 10 38
33.696 1.76 2.117 37 49
43.798 1.85 2.192 27 52
54.275 1.62 2.094 15 32
54.403 1.58 2.015 5 57
a) The mathematical model for the load in the area corresponds to the relation (11.1),
particularised for p = 4 :
W ( x1, x2 , x3 , x4 ) = 0 + 1x1 + 2 x2 + 3 x3 + 4 x4
where the meaning of the variables corresponds to the columns of Table 11.4.
It is now possible to create the matrix X , according to its definition from
relation (11.24):
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1.15 1.05 1.30 1.92 1.47 1.23 1.76 1.85 1.62 1.58

Xt = 2.135 2.203 2.071 2.178 2.123 2.035 2.117 2.192 2.094 2.015

35 11 13 32 20 10 37 27 15 5
35 42 55 30 61 38 49 52 32 37
Using some routine calculations for relation (11.32) the following matrix is obtained:
Load forecast 679
197 4.37 90.366 0.223 0.064

4.37 1.635 1.217 0.018 0.0075

V = (X X) = 90.366
t -1
0.217 42.421 0.105 0.012

0.223 0.018 0.105 0.00085 0.00024
0.064 0.0075 0.012 0.00024 0.00102
According to relation (11.31) the projector matrix is obtained:

0.685 0.217 0.221 0.031 0.111 0.172 0.223 0.154 0.044 0.046

0.217 0.679 0.226 0.022 0.111 0.042 0.165 0.137 0.029 0.241
0.221 0.226 0.513 0.072 0.119 0.21 0.157 0.094 0.067 0.22

0.031 0.022 0.072 0.586 0.147 0.013 0.108 0.274 0.343 0.097

0.111 0.111 0.119 0.147 0.4 0.084 0.237 0.218 0.167 0.201
A = X V X' =
0.172 0.042 0.21 0.013 0.084 0.436 0.044 0.218 0.266 0.208

0.223 0.165 0.157 0.108 0.237 0.044 0.401 0.167 0.028 0.201
0.154 0.137 0 .094 0. 274 0. 218 0. 218 0. 167 0.471 2.902 10 3 3
8.622 10

0.044 0.029 0.067 0.343 0.167 0.266 0.028 2.902 10 3 0.363 0.08

0.046 0.241 0.22 0.097 0.201 0.208 0.208 8.622 10 3 0.08 0.465
The determination of the mathematical model coefficients is performed by using

some elements from relation (11.30):
( )
t = VXt W t = [0 L 4 ] t = [13.131 5.014 25.467 0.813 0.245]
The determination of the mathematical model coefficients is performed by using

some elements from relation (11.30):
W (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 )=13.131 + 5.041 x1 + 25.467 x2 0.813 x3 0.245 x4
b) In order to assess the variance of the real values for the load W vector towards
v )
the established mathematical model, the energy forecasted values y = W elements are
firstly calculated according to relation (11.30).
W t = ( AW)t =
= [36.246 55.268 69.481 44.866 43.367 61.813 33.791 43.545 54.549 54.339]
Now, the relation (11.36) is used to calculate the value:

)
SS E = W t W t X t W = 0.544
Using the relation (11.37) the value of the estimated variance is obtained:
) SS E 0.544
2 = MS E = = = 0.109
n p 1 10 4 1
So, the estimation of the mean square deviation is:

)
= MS E = 0.109 = 0.33
c) Beforehand, the relation (11.38') is used to calculate the value:

n
s yy = ( y y)
i =1
i
2
= 1150
Then, calculate the multiple correlation coefficient using the relation (11.38):
SS E 0.544
R2 = 1 = 1 = 0.98855
s yy 1150
It can be seen that R 2 is very close to 1, which means that the modelled process
the daily load can be correctly represented through a multiple linear regression, which
depends on the 4 chosen explanatory variables.
d) The one-day load forecast, characterised by the following parameters x1 0 = 1.55 ;
x2 0 = 2.105 ; x3 = 25 ; x4 0 = 50 is calculated by introducing the values of parameters in
0
the established mathematical model:

)
W0 =13.131 + 5.041 x10 + 25.467 x20 0.813 x30 0.245 x40 =
= 13.131 + 5.041 1.55 + 25.467 2.105 0.813 25 0.245 50
)
W0 =41.941 GWh
e) The value of the confidence interval band for the above forecasted load results
from relation (11.42,a):
)
W0 = t 1 + x t0 Vx 0 = 2.01 0.33 1.206 = 0.728
, n p 1
2
where = 10% is considered to be the distribution significance threshold, and

n p 1 = 5 represents the number of the degrees of freedom.
Therefore, having a probability of 90%, the real energy (W) for that day has to meet
the following inequalities:
W0 W0 W W0 + W0
41.212 W 42.668
f) The confidence intervals are established for the mathematical model coefficients.
)
Prior, the quantity S E (i ) is obtained using the relation (11.41):
S E ()t = [21.451 0.178 4.619 9.287 10 5 1.114 104 ]
Assuming that = 10% represents the distribution significance threshold and

n p 1 = 5 the number of the degrees of freedom, so, having t = 2.01 , the value of the
confidence interval band is obtained using the relation (11.40):
Load forecast 681
) )
i = t S E (i )
, n p 1
2
)
t = [9.309 0.848 4.32 0.019 0.021]
The lower and the upper limits for the confidence interval of a coefficient of the
mathematical model is obtained by subtracting, respectively by summing, the estimated
value of the coefficient in question with the confidence band that has already been
calculated. Therefore:
( )
)
min t = [ 3.821 4.166 21.47 0.832 0.266]
( )
)
max t = [ 22.44 5.862 29.787 0.793 0.234]
g) Checking if one of the coefficients might be zero implies the calculation of the
statistical variables using the relation (11.43):
)
j
t0 j = )
SE j ( )
t t0 = [3.33 7.974 4.822 47.641 13.463]
It can be seen that all the components of the t 0 vector are bigger than the t = 2.57
threshold ( = 5% , n p 1 = 5 ). Therefore, for every coefficient of the multiple linear
regression the hypothesis H1: j 0 is true, in other words, using a probability of 95%,
every coefficient differs from zero.
h) The studentised residua of the consumed energy are calculated using the
relation (11.46):
)
W Wi
rsti = ) i
1 Aii
rstt = [ 0.16 0.54 0.55 1.99 0.95 0.61 0.03 1.19 1.51 0.51 ]
Notice that all the studentised residua of the daily load are included in the interval
(-2; +2), therefore none of the forecasted load values can be included in the category of
aberrant errors, they all represent plausible values.
Note: Calculations were performed in Mathcad software tool, product under licence
from Mathsoft Corporation, from Canada, as a support to our application.
11.5.4. Load random component analysis

11.5.4.1. Random component separation
The first step to be performed is to extract the random component from the
load profile using the relation (11.1) under the form:
y (t ) = (t ) = W (t ) T (t ) C (t ) S (t ) (11.47)
If the value of the random component is small as compared to the value of the
other components of the load, its analysis cannot be justified from a practical point
of view. It is recommended only to appreciate its highest variation interval,
according to what it has already been said [11.21].
If the random component is important, then for their modelling it must be
performed a preliminary analysis that should investigate:
a) the stationarity level of that time period which indicates if the random
component was correctly separated from the other components;
b) the predictability level of the time period, which establishes if the random
component can be forecasted, or if it has to be assimilated to the white
noise.
11.5.4.2. Random component stationarity and predictability

In order to estimate the stationarity and the predictability of the time period
that represents the load random component, the covariation function of the series is
calculated:
n j
rj = 1 n (y
k =1
k yk + j ) j = 0, 1,K, n 4 (11.48)
where k represents the discrete time:

k =t (11.49)
and represents the time period patterning.
a) If the series covariation function is amortised, that is rj tends to 0 when j
raises, the series is steady, the random component being correctly and
completely separated from the other load components;
b) If the series covariation rj is not amortised and consequently the cyclic,
seasonal and trend components are not completely separated. Indeed, if
there exists a symmetrical component based on the period of time p then
yk yk + p , from (11.48) it results that rj + p rj so rj is not amortised.
c) The covariation series damping speed gives us important information on
its level of predictability:
if the damping is slow, there is a correlation between the past and the
future values and so the random component can be forecasted;
if the damping is fast, the series cannot be forecasted in time and it is
assimilated to the white noise.
It was proved that if the time series is white noise, then:
r0
rj 2 (11.50)
n
Load forecast 683
for j 1 , with the level of probability equal to 95%.

If it is possible to forecast the random component, assuming there is a
correlation between the past and the future values of the load, then, in general, the
autoregressive model (AR) is used in the following form:
m
a y
i =0
i k i = zk (11.51)
where: k represents the discrete time;

m the number of terms of the AR model;
ai the mathematical model coefficients, having a0 = 1 ;
yk i the autoregressed value of the load random component;
zk the non-correlated white noise, component of the random variable yk.
The best forecast for the white noise is z j = 0 , from where it results the
following calculation formula for the random component forecast with forward
step:
m
y ( k |k 1) = a y
i =1
i k i (11.52)
respectively with j forward steps:

j m
y (k + j|k 1) = a y (k 1 + i|k 1) a y
i =1
i
i = j +1
i k i (11.53)
The ai coefficients are determined through the least squares method, which
leads to the solving of the overdeterminated system of equations formed by the
relations (11.52) where y ( k|k 1) is replaced by yk for k = m + 1,K, n (with
n >> m ) and having ai as unknown quantity. The solution for the
overdeterminated system of equations can accurately be obtained using the
orthogonal transformation method.
The determination of the model term number (m) is performed through
unidirectional research. The appreciation criterion is given by minimising the
square deviation sum of the estimated values towards the real values.
11.6. Time series methods for load forecast

A sequence of observations, which were carried out on a physical quantity
that changes in time, and which succeed each other in the order of their apparition
is called a time series. This time series can be also considered a finite sequence of
random components y (1), y (2), K , y (n ) the components of a multidimensional
random variable [11.18, 11.21].
Technically speaking, the time series { y (t )} is a data sample also called
achievement (realisation), extracted from a random process, illustrated by a finite
sequence of random variables (we use the term of statistical population from the
Mathematical Statistics):
y ( ) , K , y ( n ), K , y ( 2 ), y ( 1), y (0 ), y (1), y (2 ), K , y (n ), K , y (+ )
An important property of this time series is the fact that all the random
variables taking part at the series report on the same physical, biological, social
fact. Thus, there are some interdependencies between the time series values and
they have to be underlined when analysing the time series to obtain a regularity
synthesis that allows the prediction of the future values of the random process
y (n + 1), y (n + 2 )K on the basis of the existing reality y (1), y (2), K , y (n ) .
For instance, if the analysed random process is the hourly electric energy
numerically equal to the electric power average for one hour of the load
belonging to an electric network bus, the process is achieved by measuring, for a
day, the hourly average electric power: P(1), P(2 ), K , P(24 ) . The electric power
of the bus is a random process because we cannot state for certain, only knowing
the time series, which the required electric power values for the next hours will be
P(25), P(26 ), etc . If the achievements for the past few hours are analysed, an
average anticipation only if taking into account the load medium evolution can
be obtained. The average tendency can be growing if the load is growing as a result
of a positive conjuncture, or conversely, if the conjuncture is negative. Oscillations
caused by the weather can superpose on the tendency, and they influence the
normal running of the climate control systems connected to that bus. If more
electric loads from the same area are analysed, they may be similar or different. In
the first case, the properties of the random variables the distribution law, the
average value and the variance can be alike, in the second case, they can partially
or totally differ.
11.6.2. Principles of methodology of the time series modelling

The main objective of a time series analyse is the finding of a good
illustration, in general a mathematical one (function, differential equation, etc.) of
the mechanism which governs the process that allowed the given realisation. This
illustration is called a model [11.20].
The model quality implies the fulfilment of some conditions: a reduced
number of parameters, the residua independence (the difference between the real
values and the ones obtained through the model), a satisfying approximation of
realisations data, the production of enough precise values for the forecast, etc.
Load forecast 685
Figure 11.9 illustrates the chart of the existing relations between the three
main elements taken into consideration: the process, the realisation and the model.
Its structure establishment represents the first step of the model identification.
To do this, the following elements are used as tools [11.18]:
The AutoCorrelation Function (ACF);
The Partial AutoCorelation Function (PACF).
The validation and the diagnosing represent the third step in the model
realisation. It is achieved by checking the model using different methods proposed
in literature, by simulating in the same conditions as those of the represented
process, and by comparing the results from the calculation to the realisations of the
process.
If the model has not gone through the validation step, it can be improved by
taking again the identification estimation validation cycle, until the expected
results are obtained. The identification, the estimation and the validation steps are
covered as many times as necessary until the quality of the model fulfils all the
required conditions.
PROCESS
Stochastic mechanism for
series values generation
Validation
Measurement &
Diagnosis
MODEL
REALISATION Process mathematical
Disposable series values representation
Identification
&
Estimation Implementation
APPLICATIONS
Simulation, Forecast,
Decision making
Fig. 11.9. The relations existing between the process, the realisation and the model.
After having finally obtained the model, its implementation follows, which
includes the forecast, the simulation, the decision-making, the management, etc.
In order to forecast the future values of the time series, the available values
must be introduced in the model at that moment. The future interest values are
established based on the future values of the time series and using a quite simple
recursive calculation.
11.6.3. Time series adopted pattern. Components separation

Next, a discrete and a quite general model are adopted for the random
process. It is available for the majority of the applications, including those related
to the estimation of the future values. A discrete model is preferable in order to
avoid the difficulties caused by the introduction of the continuous white noise. The
discrete models can be easily implemented in a numerical calculation program.
Even more, the choice of this discrete model does not restrict the approach
generality, the obtained results being available also for the continuous models.
RATIONAL
(t) STABLE y(t)
FILTER
Fig. 11.10. The chart of a time series model.

According to the spectral representation theorem a steady random process
can be obtained from a white noise (t ) , whose null average is E ( ) = 0 and whose
( )
variance is V ( ) = E 2 = 2 filtrated through a stable rational filter:
( )
y (t ) = H q 1 (t ) (11.54)
where:
t represents the discrete time: t = 1, 2, K , k , K , . The continuous time is
calculated using the relation t c = t T , where T represents the signal
sample time. T has to fulfils the condition given by sampling theorem
T < 0.5 Tmin , where Tmin represents the least time constant afferent to the
process;
The lag operator q 1 means:
y (t 1) = q 1 y (t ) (11.55)
represents the discrete dead time of the analysed process. It respects the
causality principle: 0 . It is obvious that (t ) = q (t ) ;
( )
H q 1 represents the Discrete Transfer Function (DTF):
( ) B(q )
1
H q 1 = (11.56)
A(q ) 1
A ( q 1 ) and B ( q 1 ) are prime polynomials between them, the degree of

polynomial B being less then or at most equal to that of the polynomial A.
Load forecast 687
In order to ensure the stability condition, the module of the roots of the
characteristic equation A(x ) = 0 must be greater than 1, (they have to be found
outside the unity circle of the complex plane).
The model given by the relations (11.54) and (11.56) is too general. It has to
be adapted to the desired purpose.
In order to forecast the trend of the load, it is generally used the
AutoRegressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) model. It has two
components:
the integrator one which allows the presence in the A q 1 polynomial of a ( )
(1 q )1 d
factor that leads to the relation:
( ) ( )(
A q 1 = A1 q 1 1 q 1 ) d
(11.57)
the other component is
(
y1 (t ) = 1 q 1 ) d
y (t ) = d [ y (t )] (11.58)
It corresponds to the AutoRegressive Moving Average (ARMA) model:
( ) ( )
A1 q 1 y1 (t ) = B q 1 (t ) (11.59)
For d = 1 , the relation (11.58) becomes:
( )
y1 (t ) = 1 q 1 y (t ) = y (t ) y (t 1) (11.58')
because the polynomials from the relation (11.59) have the form:
( )= 1+ a q
na
A1 q 1
1
1
+ L + a na q na
= 1+ a q
i =1
i
i
(11.60)
( )= b
nb
Bq 1
0 + b1 q 1
+ L + bnb q nb
= b0 + b q
i =1
i
i
With na nb the model (11.59) has the explanatory form:
y1 (t ) = a1 y1 (t 1) L ana y1 (t na ) + b0 (t ) + b1(t 1) +
(11.61)
+ L + bnb (t nb )
The real time series contain some periodical components that cannot be
included in the ARIMA adopted model ( na , d , nb ). The elimination of the
periodical component is a simple process.
Notice that if this component has the T C period, it can reappear over T C
intervals:
y (t ) = y (t TC ) = q TC y (t ) (11.62)
It is obvious now that if the time series contains a cyclical component whose
( ) ( )
period is T C , then a 1 q TC factor has to correspond to the A1 q 1 polynomial
from relation (11.59). So the polynomial can be factorised in the following product:
( )
A1 (t ) = 1 q TC A2 (t ) (11.63)
and (11.59) relation can be rewritten as it follows:
( )( ) ( )
A2 q 1 1 q TC y1 (t ) = B q 1 (t )
(11.64)
therefore : A (q ) y (t ) = B (q )(t )
2
1
2
1
y2 (t ) represents the time series from which the cyclical component of period
T C has been eliminated:
( )
y2 (t ) = 1 q TC y1 (t ) = y1 (t ) y1 (t TC ) (11.65)
11.6.4. Establishing of the time series model using

the Box Jenkins method
The modelling and the forecast time series methodology based on the
ARIMA model is also know as the Box-Jenkins methodology, according to the
names of the persons who created and proposed it.
Practically speaking, the using of the Box-Jenkins method implies the using
of some calculus programs dedicated to this purpose. One of the most familiar
program created for the mathematical calculation, Matlab, a product of MathWorks
Company, contains some toolboxes for the time series analysis and identification:
Financial Time Series, GARCH, System Identification that can be also used for the
energy forecast based on the Box-Jenkins method.
The main elements of this complicated technique of system classes
identification are going to be briefly introduced. For further details, the reader is
advised to make use of monographic works and books mentioned in the list of
references [11.18, 11.21].
The problem of the identification of a time series model consists of selecting
a subclass from the general model ARIMA ( na , d , nb ).
The starting point is represented by the existence of a realisation
y (1), y (2), K , y (n ) that contains an important observation number n, of a one-
dimensional variable, in general n 50 .
The main steps in the identification of the time series model are:
1) The graphical representation of the data model allows us to identify some
important proprieties of the random process. Several useful aspects can be
Load forecast 689
obtained through a visual, simple and efficient analysis, based on the researcher
experience:
if there is a statistical correlation between the observations;
if the process that caused the time series is steady or if it is not;
if the process is not steady, then must be appreciated the way in which the
average, the variance, or both of them are influenced;
if the model contains other cyclical components, except for the trend
component.
As a result, decisions can be taken concerning:
the separation of components;
providing the steady character, by finding the logarithm of a number, by
derivation, etc.
For the identification methodology elaborated by Box and Jenkins to be
applied, the time series has to be brought to the typical form of the ARMA ( na , nb )
models, using the transformations (11.58) and (11.59) adequately chosen,
performed on the initial realisation.
2) Determine the estimated auto-correlation function (ACF). In this regard,
)
the estimated correlation coefficients are calculated ( rk ) from the observations,
)
shifted by k periods of time, belonging to the same realisation. The rk (k )
coefficient represents an important statistical measure of ordered pairs
[ y(t ), y(t + k )] , being an ACF estimation. It is a dimensionless number situated in
)
the interval (-1, +1). If r)k = 0 then the variables are not correlated. The rk = 1
value indicates a perfectly positive correlation, respectively a negative one between
)
the variables. The estimated value rk of the auto-correlation coefficient supplies
estimation, more or less accurate, on the theoretical auto-correlation coefficient rk .
The standard formula for the calculation of the auto-correlation coefficients is:
nk nk
)
[y(t ) y ][y(t k ) y ] [y(t ) y ][y(t k ) y ]
rk (k ) = t =1
n
= t =1
(11.66)
s yy
[y(t ) y ]
t =1
2
where y represents the average value of the model observations. In the case of a
steady process, it can be an estimation of the average value of the statistical
population, in the first approximation. In general, it is recommended that k n 4 .
)
3) Determine the partial auto-correlation function (PACF) estimated to kk ,
)
which is, in the main, similar to the ACF estimated to rk . The partial auto-
correlation refers to the correlation degree between y (t ) and y (t + k ) taking into
account the effects of the series values y (t ) , which are between the two time
)
periods t and t + k . The partial correlation coefficient estimated to kk represents a
statistical size that supplies an estimation for the theoretical partial auto-correlation
coefficient kk . In the case of a steady time series, the calculation of the partial
auto-correlation coefficients is performed using the method proposed by Durbin:
) )
1,1 = r1
) k 1 ) )
)

rk k 1, j rk j
j =1
k , k = k 1
k = 2, 3, K (11.67)
) )
1
j =1
k 1, j r j
) ) ) )
kj = k 1, j k , k k 1, k j k = 3, 4, K; j = 1, 2, K, k 1
)
Mention that, by definition, the estimated PACF is kk (k ) .
)
4) After the calculation of the auto-correlation coefficients, estimated to rk ,
)
and the partial auto-correlation coefficients, estimated to kk , the following
hypothesis is checked: might they be equal to zero? In this regard, the statistics
from Table 11.8 are assessed.
Table 11.8
The necessary formulae for the estimation of the auto-correlation coefficients
nullity, and of the estimated partial auto-correlation coefficients nullity
) )
Coefficient rk kk
) )
rk rk kk kk
The t statistics t ) = ) t ) = )
s (rk ) s (kk )
rk kk
The approximation of the

1 )
k 1

)
standard error of the s(rk ) = 1 + 2 r j2 )
s (kk ) =
1
n
values distribution j =1 n
The estimated auto-correlation coefficients and the partial auto-correlation

coefficients, for which the absolute value of the test t statistics is bigger than 2, are
statistically different from 0, at a significance level value around 5%.
Table 11.9
The detailed features of the common steady random processes
The process ACF PACF
Exponential damping:
Peak for the lag value 1, and then it
Positive values if a1 < 0 ;
is cancelled:
AR (1) Values whose sign is The peak is positive if a1 < 0 ;
alternative, the first one is
The peak is negative if a1 > 0 ;
negative if a1 > 0 .
Load forecast 691
Sum of exponential or
symmetrical functions depending Peaks for the lag values 1, 2 then
AR (2) on the signs and the values of the they are cancelled.
a1 , a2 parameters.
Exponential damping:
Peak for the lag value 1, then it is
Values whose sign is
cancelled:
MA (1) alternative, the first value is
The peak is positive if b1 > 0 ;
positive if b1 > 0 ;
The peak is negative if b1 < 0 .
Negative values if b1 < 0 ;
Sum of exponential functions or
Peaks for the lag values 1 and 2, symmetrical functions. Their exact
MA (2) form depends on the b1 , b2
then they are cancelled
parameters signs and values.
Exponential damping starting Exponential damping starting from
from the lag value 1: the lag value 1:
sign (r1 ) = sign (b1 a1 ) 11 = r1
ARMA all the values have the same all the values have the same
(1,1) sign if b1 < 0 ;
sign if a1 < 0 ;
the values have an alternative the values have an alternative
sign if a1 > 0 . sign if b1 > 0 .
The establishment of the auto-correlation coefficients number, and of the

partial auto-correlation number, which differ for zero, is essential for the choice of
the adopted model form ARMA.
5) Find the ARMA model structure for the problem. In this regard, the
following principles and results are used:
Try to establish very simple models for the following classical types:
AR(1), AR(2), MA(1), MA(2), ARMA(1,1), , ARMA(2,2). This fact
avoids the parameters redundancy, supplies their quality estimation and
avoids the model instability with respect to its coefficients values;
Compare the ACF and the PACF estimated for the studied realisation to the
theoretical ACF and PACF, corresponding to the above models, in order to
find a better match of their model. For the analysed realisation, the
theoretical model whose model matching is the best is maintained.
In the case of a random process AR( na ), the PACF will have the elements
kk 0 for k na and kk = 0 for k > na ;
In the case of a random process MA( nb ), the ACF will have the elements
rk 0 for k nb and rk = 0 for k > nb ;
In the case of a random process ARMA( n a , nb ), the elements kk from
PACF will tend to 0 after the first na nb lag values, while the elements
rk from ACF will tend to 0 after the first nb na lag values;
The detailed properties of the simple steady random processes, illustrated

in Table 11.9, are a real help for the model type identification of the
analysed process.
6) The model parameters, whose structure has already been identified, have
to be estimated on the ground of some very well known techniques, but which do
not represents the object of the Box Jenkins identification methodology.
If the model is linear in parameters, just like the presented case, a
multivariable linear random model should be used.
If the model is not linear in parameters, we can apply linearization techniques
described in the substitutions from Table 11.1. On the contrary, we have to use a
gradient method for the parameter estimation. The most common is the Marquardt
method, well known in literature.
11.6.5. Time series model validation

The validation of the time series model implies the approaching of the
following problems [11.13]:
1) The checking of the model steadiness is ensured by the fulfilment of some
requirements for the AR coefficients ( ai with i = 1,K, na ). The imposed steadiness
required is very important because it is the only way we obtain quality estimation
for the models parameters. An unsteady model provides forecast values of the time
series containing variances that grow unlimited, result undesirable. The steadiness
checking can be performed by:
The visual examination of the time series to see if the average value or the
variance change in time;
The examination of the estimated ACF to see if its values tend quickly to 0
( rj 1.6 for j 5,6 );
The checking of the theoretical steadiness conditions where the coefficient
ai with i = 1, K, na must be respected. These conditions depend on the
na order of the model and become very complicated for na > 2 .
2) The checking of the model unsteadiness means the respecting of some
requirements for the moving average coefficients (SA) bi with i = 1, K, nb . These
requirements are similar, from the algebraic point of view, to the steadiness
conditions set for the AR coefficients. The model inversion is required due to the
fact that, in the case of an ARIMA non-invertible model, old observation
importance does not decrease as they become older. In reality, as it is physically
normal, the latest values have to influence the latest observations.
3) The checking of the statistical significance of the model parameters is
performed using a test of t type. We calculate the value:
estimated coefficient value hypothesis coefficient value
t=
coefficient estiameted standard error
Load forecast 693
The value of the coefficient from hypothesis is set to 0 to verify if the

coefficient has or has not to be excluded from the model. Every coefficient for
which t > 2 (the test confidence level is 5%) will be accepted by the model, else it
is excluded from the model if its statistical significance is not important.
4) The model correlation matrix calculation gives important information on
its quality. The very high correlation values between the coefficients suggest that
the parameters estimations are bad.
Practically speaking, the coefficient estimations are unsteady if the
correlation coefficient absolute value is equal or bigger than 0.9. The adoption of a
different model structure is the only one solution for the model steadiness.
5) The appreciation of model capacity to represent the series data is
absolutely necessary because there is no guarantee that a well-built model will
represent quite precisely the realised data it has been built on. We have to calculate
the following indicators:
Tuned square average error (TSAE):
) 1 )
TSAE = 2a =
n na nb
[ y ( t ) y ( t )]
2
(11.68)
As the random noise (t ) from the input of the random process-generating

filter cannot be directly analysed, the hypothesis that TSAE is the noise
variance estimation is introduced.
If we have to choose from two models having the same realisations and
proprieties, but differing by TSAE, we choose the model for which TSAE
has a smaller value because it better estimates the data series used for its
building.
Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE):
)
100 y (t ) y (t )
MAPE = [%] (11.69)
n y (t )
is useful for the model precision and its forecast precision characterisation.
In practice, we choose to express the forecast precision using the
forecasted confidence interval values.
6) We analyse if the model matches for the studied series. If the answer is
negative, we go back to the identification step to select other models that can
approximate the series data more correctly. We build these new models using the
recommendations and the conclusions obtained in the validity diagnose stage.
The main objective of the analysis is the obtained residua calculated as
difference between the realisation values { y (t )} and the values provided by the
identified model of the process in question.
)
e(t ) = y (t ) y (t ) (11.70)
a) The graphical representation of the residua is the first step. The visual
analysis of the graphic, accompanied by a large experience, can quickly mark out
some significant issues regarding the determined model:
big data error detection: the existence of some residua bigger than the
double standard deviation, make very probable the existence of incorrect
acquired data or the presence of a large perturbation due to the external
identifiable causes;
the variance value modification suggests the necessity to apply data series
logarithmic transformations.
b) The residua independence checking represents the most important ARIMA
model statistic relevance test. If the identified model residua are correlated we can
find a better model, which identifies more precisely the process dynamics and
which has better AR and MA coefficients combination.
During the model validation diagnose stage, the Residua Auto-correlation
Function RACF (k ) represents the main analytical instrument. The residua auto-
correlation coefficient is:
nk nk
)
[e(t ) e ] [e(t k ) e ] [e(t ) y ] [e(t k ) e ]
rk (e ) = t =1
n
= t =1
(11.71)
see
[e(t ) e ]
t =1
2
)
In the case of a well-built ARIMA model, all the RACF (k ) = rk (e )
components are theoretically zero. In reality, even in the case of a correctly
identified model we can have RACF values different from zero, as a result of the
sample error or of the fact that time-limited realisations are used. So, in practice, it
is very important to see if, for RACF, its components are or not important. In this
respect we can make use of:
the t test that uses the formula proposed by Bartlett for the calculation of
the residua auto-correlation coefficients variance;
the Ljung Box test.
c) The model oversizing represents another validation technique. We
introduce a new parameter in the model we have to validate. We check if the
extended model is better for the process. As a rule, it should be avoid the
simultaneous introduction of two AR and MA parameters, because it could cause
serious estimation and steadiness problems due to the parameters redundancy.
We can also reduce the number of parameters, one by one. Although it is a
good thing from many points of view (the easiness, the steadiness, the calculation
speed, etc.), we have to analyse, to justify and to appreciate the parameters we want
to reduce.
d) The time series splitting into data under-sets and the identification of a
single model for each series that represents another validation technique. If the
Load forecast 695
established models do not significantly differ between them and are not very
different from the complete series model, then the analysed process does not
change its properties in time, that can be verified using an adequate test, and the
new models are important for the analysed stochastic process. If there are big
differences between the new models, we have to analyse the following two
possibilities:
either the identification process failed and we have to resume and to
modify it, in order to obtain the expected result;
or the models are correct, but the studied stochastic process varies in time.
It is important to mention that the time series splitting is possible only if the
database is large, so that the under-sets contain each, enough observations.
The validation diagnose stage has to end either with a clear conclusion or
with model modification recommendations. They contain generally:
extended or reduced models;
the model structure changing by reanalysing the FAC and FACP;
replacing the residua model in the original model;
the form of the y1 (t ) realisation, etc.
11.6.6. Time series forecast

The time series forecast using the general model ARMA having the form
(11.61) implies the determination of the time series future values y (t + l ) with l 1
[11.18]. The moment t represents the forecast origin, l represents the forecast
horizon, and (t k ) represents the previous moment, situated at k time interval.
Everything is given in natural numbers, multiples of the sample period T.
Any observation, noted by y (t + l ) , generated by the ARMA process can be
expressed under the form of the recursive equation with differences:
na nb
y (t + l ) =
i =1
ai y (t + l i ) + b (t + l i )
i =0
i (11.72)
In conclusion, we obtain the series forecasted values if we take into

consideration:
The series y (t i ) terms, corresponding to the past, known at the t
moment, are replaced by the corresponding real values of the series;
The series y (t + i ) terms, corresponding to the future, which are NOT
known at the t moment, are replaced by the corresponding values
)
forecasted for that moment y (t + i ) ;
The noise series terms (t i ) , for the past, are determined in the following
way:
)
(t i ) = y (t i ) y (t i 1) (11.73)
The noise series terms (t + i ) that cannot be determined in the future are 0.
In that case, the following estimator is found:
l 1 na
y (t + l t ) =
) )
a y(t + l i ) a y(t + l i ) +
i =1
i
i =l
i
nb
(11.74)
bi [ y (t + l i ) y (t + l i 1)]
)
+
i =1
The estimation error variance value, for a horizon of l sample periods is

obtained using the relation:
l 1
V [e (t + l )] = i2 2a
)
i =0
(11.75)
where its values are replaced by the estimated corresponding values.

The weighting coefficients i are determined by solving the equation
system that results from the polynomial identity:
( ) q ( )

A q 1 i
i
= B q 1 (11.76)
i =0
If the noise that generates the series has a normal probability distribution and
the ARMA is fit for the analysed time series then the forecasted error will be
distributed normally.
The confidence intervals can be found for every forecasted value, if all these
are taken into account. For significance degree the confidence interval limits
are:
y min,max (t + l ) = y (t + l ) u 2 V [e (t + l )]
) ) )
(11.77)
where u 2 represents bilateral quantile.

If some transformations were made to obtain the time series model, the
results refer to the transformed series data. Therefore, in order to obtain the original
series forecast results, we have to make appropriate transformations, on the
estimated values and on the confidence intervals.
11.7. Short term load forecast using artificial neural

networks
Load forecast 697

Short term load forecast (STLF), with time horizons from a few hours to
several days, plays a key role in the economic and secure operation of power
systems. This type of forecasting is required by basic operating activities such as
unit commitment, hydro-thermal coordination, interchange evaluation and security
assessment. The load forecast is mainly performed starting from historic load data,
recorded systematically and processed by specific methods. The lack of accurate
load forecasts leads to erroneous schedule results, no matter how accurate the
methods of power generation scheduling are [11.8].
The load is influenced more or less by factors related to the type of
consumers. The consumers are sensitive to external factors, which are different for
each forecast horizon. Factors, such as the economic growth, influence the long
term electricity demand, instead, it can be ignored in short term load forecast.
Weather conditions, having an immediate effect on the load demand, are included
in the STLF model. There are special events such as strikes, special TV shows,
which affect the load, being very hard to model in STLF mainly due to the lack of
historical data regarding their random influence upon the load demand.
The weather-related factors have an important influence on the power
consumption. The parameter that has the strongest effect on the load is the
temperature. For example, a temperature range ensures the human comfort, outside
of which the heating or cooling devices (air conditioning) are used to restore the
temperature in the desired range.
The day of the week is another load influencing factor, since the human
beings have a weekly working cycle.
Due to the factors mentioned above, the load is a non-linear function of many
variables.
STLF is easily performed through statistical methods, but it needs a large
volume of past information, a complex model and an important computational
effort, in order to obtain an accurate forecast. In the last years, the research in this
field, aiming at forecast accuracy improvement, leaded to the use of artificial
intelligence, with new techniques and algorithms. The Artificial Neural Networks
(ANN), highly parallel computational tools, implemented software or hardware, are
a reliable alternative to the classical methods for load forecast. Their use requires
less input data and it leads to the increase of the forecast accuracy and the decrease
in the forecast time.
The artificial neural network (ANN) is a complex interconnected set of
information processing elements, called Artificial Neurons (AN).
The ANN is a domain of the Artificial Intelligence, based on the of the living
nervous system structure. Conceived as the technical model of the human nervous
system, the prove to be useful due to its features [11.6, 11.7]:
possibility of parallel processing of information, ensuring the achieving of
optimal architectures, the answers being offered in real time;
the memorising ability using an adequate training process; a problem is

described and then solved by self-learning and not by a program;
the process modelled by the ANN does not have to be described by clearly-
stated rules. This characteristic makes an easy modelling of some complex
processes whose functioning rules are either too complicated of too
ambiguous from analytical point of view;
good behaviour in the case of a partially incomplete input data set, a
performance due to the ability to associate the available input data with the
complete training data set(s) to which it resonates the best;
good behaviour in the case of a partially wrong input data set;
relatively correct operation also when some neurons are damaged, due to
the distributed memorizing of the information into the network.
The possible applications of ANN are very useful and interesting, they aim
many fields and tend to replace the specific human activity, such as voice and
pattern recognition, the diagnose and the forecast in many fields or, in our case, the
load forecast. However, the ANN present some disadvantages such as:
the learning process is, in general, long and complicated;
the ANN requires a large database for training;
the way the answer is provided is not explainable from a deterministic
point of view.
Although the present achievements are promising, sometimes even amazing,
it takes long time to reach the human brain performances.
There are many ANN types and architectures, among which the most
important one can be mentioned: the Kohonen map, the Hopfield network, the
Hamming network, the Multi Layer Perceptron with one or more layers, etc [11.2,
11.7].
11.7.2. ANN architecture

The load forecast is one of the many activities performed in power system
operation, the most used forecast interval being 24 hours, belonging to the short
term load forecast. This type of forecast can be performed by using a Multi Layer
Perceptron (MLP) [11.2]. It has a simple structure (one input layer, one output
layer and one hidden layer) as presented in Figure 11.13.
Load forecast 699
x0 y1,0
1 w[1] 1,0 1 w[2] 1,0

y1,1
x1 y2,1
x2 y2,2
x3 y2,3
xI0 w[1] I1,I0 y1,I1 y2,I2

w[2] I2,I1
s=0 s=1 s=2

Fig. 11.13. Multi Layer Perceptron.
In Figure 11.13, xi represents the input values; y represents the output values;
Is is the number of neurons on the layer s; w[jis ] is the synaptic weight for the
connexion between the neuron i from the layer s and the neuron j from the layer
s 1 ; s is the layer index.
Before the employing of MLP be possible for the load forecast, it is
necessary that its weights are initialised with values so that for a certain input
vector to obtain through the MLP an output vector as close as possible to the output
vector. This process of the weights computation represents the training step of the
MLP. Once trained, the network can be tested for the architecture and weights
validation or subsequent for employment in practice.
The training process consists in finding the right weights to produce a desired
ANN output from a given input. A well-known algorithm is the back-propagation,
which can be simplified in the following form [11.2]:
Step 1. Initialise the weights with small random values.
Step 2. Propagate forward an example through the MLP. A model is chosen
from the training data set (input desired output). In some
implementations, the models can be shuffled. Based on the weights
of neurons, the output value is computed using the normalized data:
I L 1 [ s ] [ s 1]
o[js ] = [js ] w ji oi
i =0
where o j is the output of neuron i on the layer s and [js ] is the sigmoid
[s]
activation function of the neuron i on the layer s.

Step 3. Update the weights through back-propagation. An iterative algorithm
is used, by propagating backward the error gradient from the output
layer toward the input layer, using the relations:
w[jis ] ( t + 1) = w[jis ] ( t ) + w[jis ]
w[jis ] = [js ] xi[ s ]
where is the learning rate and [js ] is the error for the layer s.
Step 4. A new example is presented to the network by going to step 2. If
there are no models left, go to step 5.
Step 5. Convergence test. If the global error is below a chosen threshold or
the number of epochs (complete iteration through the training set) is
too high then STOP, else re-initialise the training set and go to step 2.
A STLF software * has been developed to provide the forecast of the average
hourly loads for the next 24 hours, having as inputs past load data as well as
external variables with influence on the load (temperature, cloudiness, etc.) [11.22,
11.23]. Therewith, the software provides also the forecast of an 24/48 hours time
horizon, for the near future (for instance, a forecast performed Friday for the next
Monday), but with less accuracy.
From statistical observations and also from the SCADA operators
experience has been concluded that the load in a certain day is strongly correlated
with the load from the previous day and with the load from the same day one week
before. Although the software provides acceptable forecasts using as input data
only the load from the past, in order to increase the forecast accuracy, external
variables (meteorological) were also used from areas with strong influence on the
load (large cities from different geo-climatic zones). In the case of load forecast at
the country scale, data from meteo stations can be used (such as Bucharest, Cluj
and Iai).
As regards the training and validation period, two different directions were
analysed. In the first direction, the training was performed on an extended period
(one year), and the validation of the achieved model was performed on a
comparable period (6 months to 12 months). The second direction consists in
training and validation on short periods. The validation period ranges from two
weeks to one month, and the training period consists of two months before the
validation one and the same month one year before the validation (forecast) period.
In order to differentiate better the load profile of the weekend days from the
working days, 7 binary inputs was introduced, where 1 marks the input
corresponding to the forecasted day, and 0 marks the remainder of the days. The
output variables of ANN represents 24/48 average hourly loads.
The number of neurons from the hidden layer is established by a trial-and-
error process, and the optimal architecture is chosen by successive trials. All the
input and output variable are normalized in order to use the linear domain
(unsaturated) of the activation functions of the artificial neurons.
The STLF software allows the construction of many forecast models and the
choosing of different MLP architectures and training sets.
*
The software STLF v1.3 has been developed within the Doctoral School in Electrical Power
Engineering from University Politehnica of Bucharest, by Silviu Vergoti.
Load forecast 701
11.7.3. Case study

The STLF 1.3 software was used for the load forecast at two different levels:
at the Romanian power system level (National Dispatching Centre) and at the
distribution system level of Bucharest (which has more than two millions
inhabitants).
(i) Short term load forecast at the Romanian power system level
During the configuration and validation period of the forecast model, using
the training on a long time horizon (one year), the optimal architecture was chosen
from more than 70 configurations. It has 57 input neurons, 12 hidden neurons and
24 output neurons. The inputs correspond to 48 hourly loads (the day before and
the same day one week before), 2 temperatures (from Bucharest and Cluj) and 7-bit
day encoding. All other ANN configurations tested resulted in slightly higher
errors. A forecast example can be seen in Figure 11.14,a,b. The forecasts are
usually less accurate in winter than in summer since the electric heating is more
developed than the air conditioning.
The day encoding allows forecasting weekend days with greater accuracy
within the same model. During the use of the program, the operators have built
separate models for weekends and Mondays, slightly improving the forecast
quality.
Finding the optimal configuration was a time-consuming job since each
architecture had to be trained and tested. The goal was to find a structure that does
not overfit the data and provides forecast with an acceptable error. The size of the
training set was one year, the special days being excluded automatically by the
software (fixed holidays, such as May 1st and Christmas, and moving holidays,
such as Easter).
The accuracy of the ANN based forecasts was tested on one year of data
excluding the holidays. The daily load profile was forecasted using the trained
network, and subsequent it was compared to the real profile. The average
percentage absolute error was used to evaluate the accuracy of the forecast per each
hour. The errors resulted for the case analysed are mostly less than 24%, as
shown in Figure 11.15. (note that, the first term in Figure 11.15 represents the
error, and the second term represents the percentage of examples for which the
error appear).
8500
8000
Real
Real
7500 Forecasted
Prog
7000
6500
MW
6000
5500
5000
4500
4000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
h
a.
7000
6500 Real
Real
Forecasted
Prog
6000
MW
5500
5000
4500
4000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
h
b.
Fig. 11.14. Load forecast example for the Romanian power system:
a. winter day; b. summer day.
>6%
>6%
4-6%
4-6%
10%
10% 3%
3%
<2%
50%
2-4%
2-4%
37%
37%
Fig. 11.15. Distribution of the forecast error for the Romanian power system.
Usually, the largest errors are found in wintertime, since most of the holidays
are located here and there was no correct data available for training. Also, the load
curves of long weekends (holidays immediately proceeding or following
weekends) are harder to predict. Some weeks in autumn or spring, characterized by
rapidly changing weather, presented quite large forecast errors.
Load forecast 703
(ii) Short term load forecast at the distribution system level of Bucharest
For Bucharest, the 24 h forecast was performed 2-5 days before, in terms of
requirements of the company. In this regard, the training and validation were
performed on short periods and the separation of the models of the weekend days
from the working days was used. The use of the forecasted temperature as input
variable had a significant influence on the forecast accuracy due to the
unavailability of data from the day before the forecasted day.
Figure 11.16 shows the daily load forecast results obtained after the program
running for a week from August 2002.
forecast
real
error
a.
b. Tuesday c. Wednesday
d. Thursday e. Friday
Fig. 11.16. Seven forecast examples for one week: from a. Monday to e. Friday.
f. Saturday g. Sunday
Fig. 11.16. Seven forecast examples for one week: from f. Saturday to g. Sunday.
(the forecasted values are black, and the real values are grey)
From figure 11.16 we can also see that large errors appear for off-peak hours
and during the weekend due to the increase in temperature and therefore due to the
start-up of air-conditioning installations.
(iii) Conclusions
The neural networks have proven to be very accurate in short term load
forecast. In practice, it is hard to obtain a STLF with an average percentage
absolute error less than 2-3% for a 24 h prediction.
The daily use of the program on national and regional contours and on
different time horizons, reaching 5 days in advance, without the help of the weather
inputs, is between 5-10% and the operator can improve the forecast using his or her
experience.
The elimination of the special days from the training set and the use of
additional weather inputs (e.g., cloudiness) can decrease the error to values that can
satisfy the exigency of any dispatcher.
Another way to improve the accuracy is to use a short training period and
to retain the MLP with a moving day frame.
Chapter references
[11.1] Bakirtzis, A.G., Petridis, S.J., Kiartzis, S.J., Alexiadis, M.C., Maissis, A.H. A
neural network short term load forecasting model for the Greek power system,
IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 858 863, May 1996.
[11.2] Crin, Gh., Gavrila, M, Georgescu, Gh., Bonciu, C. Reele neuronale
artificiale i sisteme expert n energetic (Artificial neural networks and expert
systems in electric power systems), Editura Gheorghe Asachi, Iai, 1994.
[11.3] Civanlar, S., Grainger, J.J. Forecasting distribution feeder loads: modelling and
application to volt/VAr control, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 3,
No.1, pp. 255 262, January 1988.
[11.4] Crian, O., Buta, A., Lutrea, B., Kilyeni, t. Prognoza consumului de energie
electric (Load forecasting), Energetica revue, Vol. XXII, No. 101112, pp. 405
414, 1974.
Load forecast 705
[11.5] Crian, O. Optimizri decizionale n sistemele electroenergetice (Decisional

optimisations in power systems), Editura Facla, Timioara, 1976.
[11.7] Eremia, M., Petricic, D., Bulac, A.I., Bulac, C., Tritiu, I. Tehnici de inteligen
artificial. Concepte i aplicaii n electroenergetic (Artificial intelligence
techniques. Concepts and applications in power systems), Editura AGIR,
Bucureti, 2001.
[11.8] Gross, G., Galiana, F.D. Short term load forecasting, Proceedings of the IEEE,
Vol. 75, pp. 15581573, Decembre 1987.
[11.9] Hertz, J., Krogh, A., Palmer, R.G. Introduction to the theory of the neural
computing, Addison Wesley, Reading, Ma, 1991.
[11.10] Hore, R.A. Metode moderne de calcul i proiectare a sistemelor electrice
(Modern methods for the calculation and designing of power system), Editura
[11.11] Keyhani, A., Miri, S.M. On line weather sensitive and industrial group bus load
forecasting for microprocessor based algorithms, IEEE Power Apparatus and
Systems, Vol. 8, No.12, pp. 3868 3876, December 1983.
[11.12] Kiartzis, S.J., Bakirtzis, A.G., Petridis, V. Neural network application to short
term load forecasting, Proceedings on ISAP94, Montpellier, France, pp. 339
343, September 5 9, 1994.
[11.13] Lutrea, B. Prognoza consumului de energie (Load forecasting), Seria Energie
i Mediu, Editura AGIR, Bucureti, 2001.
[11.14] Moghram, I., Rahman, S. Analysis and evaluation of five short-term load
forecasting techniques, IEEE Transactions on Power systems, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp.
1484 1491, October 1989.
[11.15] Montgomery, D.C., Peck, E.A. Introduction to linear regression analysis
Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1992.
[11.16] Nitu, V. Economia energeticii (Energy economics), Vol. II, Editura Tehnic,
Bucureti, 1981.
[11.17] Piras, A. A multiresponse structural connectionist model for short term electrical
load forecasting, Ph.D. thesis, Lausanne, EPFL, 1996.
[11.18] Popescu, Th., Demetriu, S. Practica modelrii i prediciei seriilor de timp.
Metodologia Box Jenkins (The practice of modelling and time series prediction.
The methodology Box Jenkins), Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 1991.
[11.19] Saporta, G. Probabilits; analyse des donnes et statistique, Edition TECHNIP,
Paris, 1990.
[11.20] Tertico, M., Stoica, P. Identificarea i estimarea parametrilor sistemelor
(Identification and estimation of systems parameters), Editura Academiei Romne,
Bucureti, 1980.
[11.21] Tertico, M., Stoica, P., Popescu, Th. Modelarea i predicia seriilor de timp
(Modelling and prediction of time series), Editura Academiei Romne, Bucureti,
1985.
[11.22] Vergoti, S., Bakirtzis, A., Eremia, M. Short term load forecasting using neural
networks, Revue Romain des Science Technique, Serie Electrotechnique et
Energetique, Tome 46, No. 4, Editura Academiei Romne, Bucharest, October-
December, 2001.
[11.23] Welstead, S.T. Neural network and fuzzy logic applications in C/C++, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1994.
Chapter 12
ELECTRIC NETWORKS IMPACT
ON THE ENVIRONMENT
12.1. Introduction
The impact of the electric network on the environment does exist and cannot
be neglected. There will be put in evidence all the main negative types of impact
associated with the existing electricity utilities and those which may occur in the
case of the new utilities, if no protection measures will be taken into consideration
during the designing and erection stages.
The positive impact consists of the electric network destination of the
electricity supply for new consumers with the positive social consequences
resulting from the new jobs implied by these.
The negative impact occurs due to the construction implications and effects
of the electric power utility operation. The first group is composed by: the visual
impact, the impact on land use, the impact during the erection and maintenance
works and the direct impact on the ecological systems. The second group is
composed by all direct and indirect effects of the electric and magnetic fields
generated by the electric power utilities in operation. A detailed attention was
focused on the possible biologic effects of both industrial power frequency
electromagnetic field components: the electric field and the magnetic field.
12.2. Constructive impact
12.2.1 Visual impact

The visual impact of the electric network is of high evidence. If, in the case
of the underground utilities this impact occurs during the construction and
eventually maintenance works only, in the case of the overhead utilities, like
electric overhead lines, post-transformers and substations, the impact is major and
permanent. From this point of view the electric overhead lines of high and extra
high voltages are the most pollutant due to their lengths.
If in the case of the existing utilities it is very hard to do something that may
significantly change the visual impact at reasonable expenses, in the case of the
new utilities a lot of measures are to be considered for impact reduction.
724 Technical and environmental computation
The post-transformers must be of underground type or enclosed in building

type, avoiding the on-pole mounted one or self built ones.
For substations the following measures have to be taken into account during
the designing stage:
to insert the civil works in the natural relief of the place, avoiding massive
earth works;
to limit the number of voltage plans as much as possible;
to establish rectangular alignments for gantries and equipment supports;
manufacture of gantries and equipment supports in compact solutions;
to design the high voltage electric overhead line entries to substations as a
compact solution, using multi-circuit towers and very narrow corridors;
not to use overhead medium or low voltage connections, but use
underground cables only;
camouflage of substation by tree curtains;
painting the substation building and fence by colours not contrasting with
the environment.
For the electric overhead lines, the landscape protection during the designing
stage must be taken into account, using the best adapted solutions for the different
crossed area, according to their natural, historical or traditional context.
The measures to be considered regard three designing activities: routing,
using camouflage methods and choice or design of special, esthetical types of
line structural elements out of which the major ones are the towers or poles [12.1,
12.2, 12.3, 12.4]. The choice of the best routing is very important for the
reduction of the visual impact of a proposed future line. The line routes have to
avoid the important historical, archaeological and architectural areas or at least, if
not possible, to mitigate the impact by hiding the line behind natural screening or
even to apply for special camouflage means. Also, the routing close to main
roads and railways has to be avoided as much as possible.
The camouflage may be achieved by tree screens placed between the line and
the roads and railways, but also, in other places where it may be considered useful
for the integration of the towers in landscape [12.5]. Camouflaging the line by
painting the poles or towers in adequate colours (green, blue or other) and using
insulators of adequate colour are possible options, too [12.1].
The choice of special types of towers in specific areas means the use of
compact type towers or even a new design of towers. Such designs have been
issued by industrial architects together with line design engineers in Finland,
France, Switzerland, USA and other countries and may be considered art works
compared to towers. These unconventional towers may be manufactured by using
various materials as steel, concrete, wood or synthetic ones and need special
manufacture technologies [12.1, 12.5, 12.6].
12.2.2. Impact on land use

The impact on land use refers, generally, to the restrictions applied to using
the land under or in the vicinity of the electric utilities.
Electric networks impact on the environment 725
In the case of the substations the land on which these are built is permanently
used, the dimensions varying in large limits according to their operating voltages,
complexity, types of equipment and constructive disposal. Outside the substation
fence there are no further restrictions and normally, the land may be used properly.
In the case of the electric overhead lines routed over agricultural areas, the
land taken out from it is only that on which the foundations are cast, but restrictions
in use of agricultural equipment appear in the vicinity of poles or towers, and
especially of guyed portals. A much higher impact appears in the case of the lines
routed over forested areas, where the right of way has to be kept clear from the
initial vegetation, in order to avoid the decreasing under the minimum allowed of
clearance between the energized parts of line and trees [12.1]. In industrial areas
the clearances from the lines to the buildings and the other different facilities have
to be kept in accordance with technical prescriptions.
In the case of underground cables the impact is a minor one, normally these
being laid much closed to roads, railways or other utilities, and even in the case of
laying in agricultural areas, their depth does not restrict the agricultural works.
In the case of new substations the lands of intense productive agriculture and
of course the forestry have to be avoided. The design of the substations has to be
done in such way as to diminish the necessary surface as much as possible, by
using very compact arrangement and equipment.
As to the overhead lines, the use of compact configurations for poles or
towers, of multi-circuit lines where possible and avoiding the guyed portals
supports are the most important means to reduce this type of impact [12.1].
12.2.3. Impact during erection and maintenance works

The erection of a new substation or electric overhead line is a major impact.
This is maximal in the case of high voltage overhead lines, but the impact of a
medium voltage line is not to be neglected, either.
If, in the case of the substations, their locations are chosen to be in the
proximity of towns or villages, many times even at their outskirts, the direct impact
being important for that area only, on a limited surface, in the case of the overhead
lines, the impact implies a much bigger area, because of the line length, especially
if a high voltage line is taken into account.
During an overhead line erection there are the following main activities [12.1]:
vegetation removal from line right of way;
access road construction;
excavations works and foundation concrete pouring;
poles and tower erection;
insulator strings mounting and conductor stringing.
All the mentioned activities are characterised by different, specific impact
elements and of course, the mitigation means have to be analysed separately.
In the case of vegetation removal, the total one has to be avoided, limiting it
to poles or towers locations only. In spans, the vegetation will be cut only in those
places where the clearances from the energized parts of the line to vegetation are
less than those compulsory imposed by technical prescriptions.
Concerning the access roads, these will be constructed in the case of no other
roads, even not public ones as those used for agriculture or forest maintenance.
During the excavation and pouring of foundation concrete the most adequate
technologies will be adopted, allowing a minimal surface of land to be used for.
The same holds for pole or tower erection. In the case of the mountainous
areas, the technology of rod-by-rod erection will be applied instead of using cranes
or other huge equipment, which need large surfaces of lands.
During stringing a very narrow right of way will be deprived of vegetation, to
allow the lay of pilot wire, the conductor stringing having to be done only by using
this technology.
If this type of impact is not high during the line erection, due to the proposed
mitigation means, the impact will be low during the maintenance works, too.
12.2.4. Direct impact on ecological systems

The direct ecological impact occurs in the case of electric overhead lines
crossing large areas, the impact being focused on the fauna and flora existing there.
One of the most important consequences is the increasing mortality of wild
birds caused by their collision with high voltage line conductors and poles or
towers and electrocution in the case of low and medium voltage lines [12.1]. The
electrocution does not occur, normally, in the case of high voltage lines, since the
distances between conductors, conductors and poles or towers and between
conductors and earth are much higher than the bird dimensions [12.7].
Concerning the wild animals (other than birds), it has been stated that they
are not significantly influenced by a new line and its right of way. The change of
vegetation type in the right of way may have beneficial results for many species,
ensuring another type of food for different animals [12.1].
As it was mentioned in 12.2.2 the vegetation removal along the right of way
of the electric overhead lines is necessary, even if not wholly, to ensure the
minimum clearances between the energized parts of the line and the ground or
vegetation parts in accordance with technical prescriptions. Therefore the right of
way has to be checked and maintained periodically. The vegetation removal may
be done mechanically or chemically, using the herbicides. The mechanical removal
is healthier from an ecological point of view, but it is more expensive than the
chemical one, because of the vegetation regeneration. The chemical removal is
practically definitive for the right of way, but its effects on the neighbouring
vegetation, animals and finally on the humans is on a very long term [12.1].
Concerning the bird impact, during the design stage of line routing, the
existing studies on sensitive ecological areas have to be considered and the poles or
towers must be located in such a way as to avoid the bird collision or electrocution.
It has to be mentioned here the importance of placing the poles or towers along the
roads or railways, where the birds normally are flying higher, or paralleling the
forest boundary, for the same reason [12.1].
In case of high voltage lines crossing sensitive areas the use of thicker shield wire
may lead to decrease the bird mortality rate. Also, the use of bird flight diverters
as: balloons, spirals, strips on shield wires and phase conductors may be helpful
[12.8]. For low voltage and medium voltage crossing sensitive areas, insulated
conductors use is the best solution, even if a bit more expensive.
Regarding the vegetation removal it is clear that in such areas the mechanical
removal has to be preferred this time.
12.2.5. Final considerations

All the four described impact categories are very important and for all new
electric utilities these have to be taken into account to reduce the possible impacts
on the environment as much as possible.
The electric overhead line integration within the landscape is the main
purpose of such actions regarding the visual impact and there are a lot of methods
to do it both from a qualitative and a quantitative point of view.
As compact as possible layout solutions for the substations and compact
configurations of the towers or poles for the electric overhead lines are the main
directions to minimize the impact on land use.
The impact during erection and maintenance works is not a permanent one,
but may constitute an ecological problem if the working technologies are not
adequate.
Concerning the direct impact on the ecological systems, the impact on the
birds is the one to be minimized by special devices installed on the line conductors.
There are not any problems in the case of the substations or post- transformers. Of
course, the mechanical removal of the vegetation has to be chosen.
12.3. Electric field impact
12.3.1. General considerations

The electric field intensity depends directly on the conductor voltages of the
electric utilities. Therefore it is very clear that the effects of the electric field will
be higher if the electric field intensity is higher and this is the case of the high
voltage utilities. The electric field effects on the environment may be divided in
two categories: those caused by the electric field at ground level or at small heights
above it and those caused by the electric field on conductor and clamp surfaces,
hundreds of times larger than the ground level ones.
The effects of the ground surface electric field are:
induced currents in conductive objects ;
voltages induced in not connected to ground objects;
direct perception on humans;
direct biological effects on humans and animals;
effects on vegetation.
The effects of the conductor or clamp surface field, if the corona discharge
occurs, are:
audible noise;
radio and television interference;
ions and ozone generating.
The electric field intensity of the high voltage electric overhead lines at
ground level or close to it is decreasing by square root of the distance between the
measurement or calculation point and the line axis. In Figure 12.1 the ground level
electric field intensity variation is described as function of the distance to the line
axis of 132 kV, 230 kV, 400 kV and 765 kV of the single circuit type [12.8].
10
8
Electric field [kV/m]
6 765kV
4 400kV
2 220kV
0 132kV
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from centre of line [m]
Fig. 12.1. Ground level electric field intensity as function of the distance to the single
circuit electric line axis. Redrawn with permission from CIGRE W.G.36.01 Electric
Power Transmission and the Environment: Fields, Noise and Interference, Preliminary
Report, 1993, Copyright CIGRE 1993. All rights reserved.
A general idea about the different levels of the electric field intensities,
generated by different sources, may be drawn from Figure 12.2 [12.8].
The typical values of the electric field intensities at ground level are [12.1]:
1 10 kV/m, under a 400 kV single circuit with horizontal configuration;
0.5 1.5 kV/m at 30 m from the above line axis;
0.1 kV/m at 65 m from the above line axis;
5 25 kV/m inside switchyards.
The electric field intensity near the energized conductor surface may reach, at
6 cm, respectively 20 cm distance from the surface, values of hundreds,
respectively tens of kV/m for 400 kV lines, these values being important for live
line men screen suites manufacturers to protect the live working crews properly.
As previously mentioned, the electric field intensity at the conductor and
clamp surface may have negative effects if the corona discharge occurs. The
corona discharge is caused by the air ionization around those energized elements
and the electric breakdown of the air in those areas, if the electric field intensity is
high enough to produce them. Different impurities or protrusions (e.g. water drops,
insects, pollution particles and others) on the energized elements cause a local
enhancement of the electric field intensity.
Under transmission lines
Close to transmission lines
Under distribution lines
Close to distribution lines
In homes and buildings
Next to electrical appliances
Next to electric blankets
In some occupations
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000

Electric field [V/m]
Fig. 12.2. Electric field intensities, in V/m, generated by different electric utilities and
appliances. Redrawn with permission from CIGRE W.G.36.01 Electric Power
Transmission and the Environment: Fields, Noise and Interference, Preliminary Report,
1993, Copyright CIGRE 1993. All rights reserved.
During the design stage different possibilities are taken into consideration to
prevent the corona discharge from occurring, but in bad weather conditions, there
is almost impossible to avoid it, from the economical point of view. Anyhow, for
the utilities operating at a nominal voltage less than 200 kV, the corona discharge
is not probable.
12.3.2. Induced currents in conductive objects

The power frequency electric field leads to the displacement of the electric
charges in conductive objects, practically inducing currents through them. The
current magnitudes depend on the shape and size of the object and are not
connected to that object electric conductivity. The situation holds for animals and
for humans as well.
The maximum induced current in the people standing under a 400 kV electric
overhead line is of about 100 A, leading to a torso current density of 2 mA/sq.m.
In the case of a substation switchyard, where the electric field intensity is higher,
the torso current density may reach, in some particular cases, the value of
10 mA/sq.m., but this is a professional exposure and not a public one.
Physiologic effects on humans may occur in the case of currents densities

higher than 10 mA/sq.m as follows [12.9, 12.10]:
between 10 and 100 m A/sq.m. visual and nervous system effects;
between 100 and 1000 mA/sq.m. stimulation of excitable tissues;
over 1000 mA/sq.m. extra systoles and possible ventricular fibrillations.
Therefore it can be seen that no negative impacts may occur for the residents
from this effect.
12.3.3. Voltages induced in not connected to ground objects

The electric field may generate induced voltages in the insulated from ground
objects or objects imperfectly connected to the ground. These voltages may
become dangerous for the people who may touch such objects normally or by
accident. The situation is much more dangerous in the case of huge objects
insulated from the ground, located in the vicinity of high voltage utilities, i.e. the
case of big trucks. Under these circumstances the truck parking in such areas has to
be done if truck body is effectively connected to the ground [12.11].
12.3.4. Direct perception in humans

Occasionally, the electric field may be sensed directly, if its intensity is high
enough. This effect may occur in the case of the personnel working in substations
and on overhead lines. The main perception is that of vibrations of the fine hair on
the back of their hands or on the back of their neck. These vibrations have a
frequency of twice the electric field frequency [12.8].
Another kind of perception occurs in the case of higher than 15 kV/m electric
field intensities, when microdischarges may occur between the clothing and the
body, especially at clothing extremities [12.8]. This effect cannot be met in
residential areas or in areas with public access.
12.3.5. Direct biological effects on humans and animals

The first signals concerning the possible adverse effects of the power
frequency electric field have been reported in former USSR, since 1963, when the
maintenance personnel working in 400 500 kV substations blamed the strong
electric field for some illnesses as: changes in blood pressure, changes of
peripheral blood content, loss of sexual drive and neurological complaints [12.12].
Further clinical and physiological studies were performed there on the maintenance
personnel working in 220, 330 and 500 kV substations. The first western countries
clinical and physiological studies on human health started in 1967 [12.13], in the
USA, checking the effects of the power frequency electric field on the maintenance
personnel of the high voltage substations and transmission lines. The results of
these studies were not converging, but it was clear that the health of the people
working in the proximity of high voltage electric power utilities is affected. Then,
the scientific interest increased, the scientists began to analyse the eventual
negative effects of the electric field on the people living in the electric power utility
neighbourhood, too. In 1979, the first epidemiological study was published,
suggesting the connection between the childhood leukaemia and the exposure to
the power frequency magnetic field in the residential areas [12.14]. Therefore,
since 1980, the interest in the electric field has diminished, being replaced by huge
scientific works trying to establish the biological impact of the magnetic field.
Nevertheless, between 1996 and 2000, some reports were published stating
that a high attention has to be given to the electric field too, showing a connection
between an increased cancer incidence and the electric field [12.15, 12.16, 12.17,
12.18, 12.19]. But, the epidemiological studies on the residential exposure to the
power frequency field do not offer any support to these statements [12.20]. First of
all, the epidemiological studies showed an increased risk of leukemia for children
living close to areas where there were no high voltage utilities, but distribution
lines, characterized by a high magnetic induction and low electric field intensity
[12.13]. Second, all the epidemiological studies considering both exposures, to the
electric and the magnetic field, showed a risk association (in the case it was found)
with the magnetic field (7 studies performed in Canada, Great Britain, New
Zealand, Norway and USA) [12.20].
The epidemiological studies on professional exposure do not support J. R.
Ashley and R. W. P. Kings statements. These studies could not separate the
electric field from the magnetic field of the electric power utilities in operation.
Practically, to enable someone to study the electric field exposure only, the utilities
would need to be operated without currents, which is impossible for longer periods.
In laboratory conditions, tests on the electric field exposure have been
performed on animals, resulting changes in their daily rhythm and the reduction of
the melatonin hormone at 2 130 kV/m exposures in mice and rats. Their nervous
system has also been affected [12.21]. Chicken exposure to the electric field of
0.1 100 kV/m showed no influence effect [12.22].
Volunteer studies performed between 1974 and 1982 in France, Germany and
the USSR showed no influence of the electric field intensities lower than 20 kV/m
[12.12]. Above this value the lowering of the work exactitude and the latency of
the visual motor responses (32 and 64 kV/m) may be met.
Therefore it may be concluded that the connection between the electric field
exposure and the cancer risk is a pure speculation, already denied by
epidemiological studies and laboratory tests [12.20].
However, the effect of the electric field on peacemakers by electromagnetic
interference has to be emphasized, the persons with such devices have to avoid
undercrossing a high voltage line or visiting a switchyard, or even their close
neighbourhoods, since the maximum allowed electric field intensity for such a
device is of about 1 kV/m. G. S. Boutros, in 1983, and T. W. Dawson, in 2000,
proposed a maximum intensity of 5 6 kV/m, but P. S. Astridges 1993 study
confines it to a value of only 1.5 kV/m [12.20]. The situation is similar for those
people with implanted defibrillators or other implanted biomedical devices. It has
to be mentioned that in the case of such a level exceeding there appears a small
probability of device malfunction, but not a danger at all.
12.3.6. Effects on vegetation

In 1748, LAbbe Nollet, a French researcher, realized that the plants placed
under electrically charged electrodes are growing faster than the unexposed ones.
Later, in 1775, the priest Gian Battista Baccaria wrote it appears manifest that
nature makes extensive use of atmospheric electricity for promoting vegetation
and we have also observed that artificial electricity has the same effect [12.23].
In 1978 G. W. Mc. Kee and D. T. Poznaniak concluded a complex research
concerning the influence of the electric field on a big number of plants, in
laboratory conditions [12.24].
The researches in this field are not too many, from the analysis of the
literature resulting less than 10 papers. This is probably due to the fact that the first
researches in the USA, between 1965 1977, showed insignificant influences of
the electric field with an intensity of less than 20 22 kV/m, while the electric
field intensity within the right of way of the high and extra high voltage lines does
not exceed 16 kV/m, in the case of 1,500 kV lines, for the lower voltages the
intensity being lower.
In the most important study, W. Mc Kee and D. T. Poznaniak analysed, in
laboratory conditions, the effect of an electric field with an intensity varying from 0
to 50 kV/m in seven steps [12.24]. The influence on 74 species was studied at that
time, but important efforts were concentrated on four species of economic
importance i.e.: the alfalfa (Medicago sativa), the hybrid field corn (Zea mays), the
soft red winter wheat (Triticum Aestivum) and the Scotch Pine (Pinus Sylvestris).
The experiments with the alfalfa exposed to an electric field of 25 and
40 kV/m respectively for a period of 2 3 weeks showed no effects. For an electric
field of 50 kV/m intensity over the same period of exposure, the flowers were not
affected, but some yellowish or brownish stains appeared on 5 7 % of their leaf
surface.
In the case of the hybrid field corn, it was concluded that the germination
process is not affected even at 50 kV/m exposure. When the 5 10 cm tall plants
were exposed to 50 kV/m electric field intensity for four days, the leaf tips were a
bit damaged. The damage was bigger for the 20 25 cm tall plants exposed to the
same electric field. After 24 hours the damaged length of tips was 4mm, after three
days it was 9.6 mm and after 114 hours it was 28.8 mm. The critical intensity at
which the plants start to be affected is 15 20 kV/m, depending on their geometry
and water content.
The soft red winter wheat was affected at 50 kV/m electric field intensity
when the leaf tips started to become first yellowish and then brownish. After the
exposure of the Scotch Pine to an electric field with intensities of 25, 35 and
respectively 50 kV/m, during a period of ten days, there resulted some damages of
some terminal needles, the affected length being of 0.2, 1.1 and 2 mm respectively.
Other researches developed in the USA between 1971 and 1974 observed
some wheat and soy bean crops under 765 kV electric overhead lines or even
within the fence of a 765 kV switchyard, concluding that the electric field with the
intensity which may be met under these circumstances does not affect the normal
growth [12.24].
There must be also mentioned a recent paper of the Thailand researchers
[12.25] on the influence of 10 and respectively 25 kV/m electric field on bean
sprouts. The results show that after 5 days of exposure the height of the stems and
the length of the roots are effected, the increase being of 11%, respectively 23% if
the electric field intensity is 10 kV/m and 25%, respectively 33% and the electric
field intensity is 25 kV/m.
In conclusion, since the electric field intensity of the high voltage and extra
high voltage lines does not exceed 16 kV/m in the line right of way there are no
risks concerning the partial or total damages of any type of vegetation.
12.3.7. Audible noise

The audible noise due to the corona discharge on the energized elements of
the extra high voltage lines and substations depend on: the operating voltage, the
meteorological conditions and the geometrical characteristics of the energized
elements. The audible noise consists of the superposition of a big number of
harmonics which are self combining randomly [12.1, 12.8, 12.11]. The corona
audible noises are composed by a broadband noise (crackling) and discrete tones
(humming), the first being characterized by a significant energy in medium audio
and high audio frequencies and the last ones by frequencies as multiples of twice
the power frequency.
In Figure 12.3 the spectrum of the audible noise developed by a 765 kV line
under raining (A) is described compared to the spectrum characterizing other
noises as: suburban ambient noise during daytime (B), ambient noise in rural
areas during daytime (C), respectively during the night (D) [12.8].
70
60
Noise level [dB]
Fig. 12.3. Under raining 765 kV 50 A

electric overhead line audible noise
40
spectrum compared to normal B
ambient noises in different areas.
30
Redrawn with permission from C
CIGRE W.G.36.01 Electric Power D
20
Transmission and the Environment:
Fields, Noise and Interference, 10
Preliminary Report, 1993, Copyright 31 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000 16000
CIGRE 1993. All rights reserved. Frequency [Hz]
Figure 12.4 shows the diagram of the audible noise as function of the
distance from a 400 kV double circuit line axis. It may be seen that the audible
noise decreases with the square root of the distance to the line axis [12.1].
46
45.5
45
Hcond=11.5 m
44.5
44
Hcond=15.5 m
43.5
43
dBA
Hcond=19.5 m
42.5
42
41.5
41
40.5
40
-50 -45 -40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Distance from the axis [m]
Fig. 12.4. Audible noise of a 400 kV double circuit with hexagonal disposal of phases.
Redrawn with permission from CIGRE W.G.22.14 High Voltage Overhead Lines
Environment Concern, Procedures, Impacts & Mitigations, Final Draft Report,
July 1998, Copyright CIGRE 1998. All rights reserved.
The maximum levels of noise are recommended in different international

(ISO RI 996) and national standards for specific types of areas.
In residential rural areas the maximum recommended noise level during the
night is 20 35 dB, in urban residential areas 30 45 dB and in industrial areas
45 60 dB. The audible noise is practically not audible if no rain or air humidity,
the electric field intensity on the energized parts of the utility being less than the
critic field intensity at which the corona discharge starts. The normal values of
audible noise measured in different European countries and in the USA are within
the range of 56 61 dB. There has to be considered, for comparison, an allowable
noise level of 55 dB, which corresponds to the level of a normal conversation.
There has to be mentioned that, except the audible noise of the corona
discharge in the electric overhead lines, aeolian noises may be met [12.8]. These
noises are occasionally produced by the wind action on the line structural elements
like: towers, insulator strings or conductors. The noise level and frequency depend
essentially on the velocity and direction of the wind.
From literature, in the field of the corona or aeolian generated audible noises,
there does not result much evidence on any negative interference with the sleep or
community reactions [12.1, 12.8].
12.3.8. Interference on AM reception

The high voltage electric overhead lines and substations interference on AM
(amplitude modulation) radio and TV video reception is done by the high
frequency electric field (0.15 3 MHz) generated by the utilities, if the corona
discharge occurs [12.8]. This field depends on the utility voltage, its geometry, the
distances to the nearest buildings and the meteorological conditions.
The electric overhead line radio interference level is defined as the electric
field value, expressed in dB at 2 m above ground level, at a distance of 15 m from
the outer phase at 0.5 MHz frequency, in accordance with CISPR (IEC
International Special Committee for Radio Interference) prescriptions.
The radio interference generated by the corona discharge depends on
frequency, the diagram being showed in Figure 12.5 [12.8] the interference level is
the rated one (to 0.5 MHz reference level) and is measured in dB. A dispersion area
may be seen and this covers almost all the electric line configurations.
-5
Relative radio noise [dB]
0 Fig. 12.5. Radio interference as

5 function of frequency [12.8].
Redrawn with permission from
10 CIGRE W.G.36.01 Electric
15 Power Transmission and the
Environment: Fields, Noise and
20 Interference, Preliminary Report,
1993, Copyright CIGRE 1993.
25
0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 All rights reserved.
Frequency [Mhz]
[MHz]
The interference intensity decreases strongly with the distance from the
source. In Figure 12.6, the radio interference level is described as function of the
distance between the reception point and the source [12.8].
10
5
Relative radio noise [dB]
-5
Fig. 12.6. Radio interference level
variation with the distance between -10
the reception point and the source.
-15
Redrawn with permission from
CIGRE W.G.36.01 Electric Power
-20
Transmission and the Environment:
Fields, Noise and Interference, -25
Preliminary Report, 1993, Copyright 0 15 30 45 60 75
CIGRE 1993. All rights reserved. Distance [m]
The radio reception quality is defined by the signal/noise ratio at the

reception point. This ratio depends mainly on the minimum level of the signal, the
distance from the receptor to the interference generating utility and the
meteorological conditions.
The limit value of the interference, as per CISPR, is the level which is not
exceeded during 80% of the time. This is, in the case of the temperate weather
countries, the level during raining time.
The Table 12.1 represents the CIGRE scale used to indicate the signal/noise
ratio values for different radio reception qualities [12.8].
Table 12.1
Signal/noise ratio values for radio reception qualities
Signal/noise [dB] Reception quality
30 No audible interference
24 Just perceptible interference
18 Audible interference, but perfect speech reception
12 Intelligible speech, but unacceptable music reception
6 Difficult understandable speech
0 Unacceptable
There has to be also mentioned the IUT (International Union of

Telecommunications) recommendation of 30 dB signal/noise minimum limit.
12.3.9. Interference on FM reception

The interference on the frequency modulation, as the audio TV and FM
radio signals, is generated by the high voltage utility high frequency electric field
(30 300 MHz) [12.8]. These harmonics are usually generated by the sparking at
bad contacts or the partial discharges of the polluted insulators, especially in wet
weather. The corona discharge has a limited influence in this frequency range. In
special operation cases of high voltage utilities with electric field on the
energized parts over 2 MV/m in bad weather conditions it is possible to have
harmonics within the range 30 40 MHz.
For the quality reception of VHF signals, the CCIR (International Radio
Consultative Committee) recommendations have to be observed, as mentioned in
the Table 12.2. [12.1].
Table 12.2
VHF Signal minimum level
Frequency [MHz] Signal level [dB]
TV ( First band) 47 68 48
FM (second band) 87 108 48 mono
54 stereo
TV (third band) 174 230 54
The reception quality diagrams as function of noise/signal ratio are shown in

Figure 12.7 [12.1].
(50dB Signal)
Picture unusable
Definitely objectionable
Quality of reception
Somewhat objectionable
Perceptible not annoying
Noise just perceptible
Noise imperceptible
(70dB Signal)
10 20 30 40 50
Signal To Noise Ratio [dB]
Fig. 12.7. Reception quality vs. signal/noise ratio. Redrawn with permission from
CIGRE W.G.22.14 High Voltage Overhead Lines Environment Concern, Procedures,
Impacts & Mitigations, Final Draft Report, July 1998, Copyright CIGRE 1998.
12.3.10. Ions and ozone generating

The energized high voltage electric overhead lines and the substations are
generating free electrons and positive ions of oxygen and nitrogen. The positive ion
and electron mobility are different, resulting separate clouds of negative and
positive ions. The ions, in permanent movement under wind influence, have the
property to easily attach to the existing particles of air pollution [12.25]. The
electrically charged particles are carried by the wind at considerable distances.
These distances are usually of 400 500 m, but in special cases such particles were
found at 2.7 7 km from the generating electric line [12.26, 12.27].
There has to be mentioned that even in normal conditions, without the
presence of electric power utilities, there are positive and negative ions in the air,
generated by ionizing cosmic radiation, natural radioactivity and thunderstorms
[12.8]. The air ion concentration varies between 100 1200 ions per cubic
centimetre, the positive ion concentration being 20 % higher than the negative one.
Under some special circumstances like the case of: storm conditions, close to
combustion and vehicle exhausted gases, this may increase to 20,000 per cubic
centimetre.
The preliminary report of the Working Group CIGRE 36.01 published in
1993 indicated an amount of maximum 1000 ions per cubic centimetre of air at the
ground level due to the corona discharge on high voltage overhead lines, therefore
insignificant for the health of the people leaving around or of those working in
substations [12.8]. Moreover, in the final report of CIGRE, published in 1998

[12.1], no reference is given to this subject.
The ozone is an unstable form of oxygen, its molecule being formed by three
oxygen atoms. The ozone is generated as a result of a complex photochemical
reaction under the sun radiation. The ozone concentration is of 50 to one billion of
normal oxygen molecules, in unpolluted areas.
The ozone may be generated by the corona discharge too, but the performed
studies showed no concentration increasing in the case of electric lines of
maximum 345 kV voltage. In the case of 765 kV, the mathematical calculations
and performed measurements, at no dangerous distances from the electric point of
view, showed an increased concentration of ozone, by 7 9 molecules to one
billion of normal oxygen molecules [12.8].
First of all there has to be mentioned that the ions existing in the air may
affect the human health, the first researches in the field being done at the beginning
of 20th century. The researches continued and are on the way even now. It has been
established the benefice influence of negative ions for the general health state and
for the treatment of some cardiovascular diseases, asthma and hay fever [12.28].
As to the positive ions influence, there is not a unified opinion, some researchers
suspecting a performance reduction, others reporting no effect at all. Laboratory
experiments on mice under influenza exposure showed an increased mortality in
the case of positive ion enhancement environments and a decreased one in the case
of negative ion enhancement, compared to the normal environment [12.28].
It may be concluded that the presence of the positive and negative ions in air,
in the low increased concentrations due to the corona discharge does not affect the
human health directly. The same conclusion is valid for the ozone molecules.
But, there is a new opinion of Prof. Denis L. Henshaw, a Bristol University
researcher, who considers that there exists an indirect negative impact of the air
ionization [12.26, 12.27]. The pollution particles existing in the air, especially
those resulting from car exhausting systems, are electrically charged by the corona
ions existing near the high voltage utilities at distances of up to 300 400m,
normally. These electrically charged particles are much more adherent to the
human tissues and therefore the people living close to such utilities are inhaling
2 3 times higher quantities than the limit dose. Their depositions in the tracheae-
bronchial lung region are 2 3 folds higher than those of uncharged particles. Dr.
Alan Preece from Bristol Medical School came to complete this conclusion by his
epidemiological studies, showing that the people living at distances less than 500 m
from high voltage lines have a chance of 29% higher than other people to contract
a lung cancer, the causing agent being the electric charged particles existing in the
air from car exhausts [12.27].
Another negative effect of the corona ions resulted from the studies
performed by A. P. Fews, showing that the natural radon decay products are
electrically charged by the corona ions becoming aerosols of about one nm in
diameter. These aerosols are attracted by the strong power frequency electric field,
as it is the case of the human heads, the ambient electric field increasing 18 fold at
head surface [12.27]. It was reported a 1.4 2.9 fold increases in radon decay
product depositions on the human head models placed in under high voltage lines
as compared to the control heads placed far from the line.
In his preliminary report, Prof. D. L. Henshaw showed there are increased
risks for human health due to the indirect action of the corona ions, the main
diseases implied being: childhood leukaemia, lung cancer and skin cancer. Prof. D.
L. Henshaws hypothesis was considered interesting by other researchers, but has
to be confirmed by further studies.
12.3.11. Final considerations and recommendations

From the above analysis of the possible negative effects of the electric field
generated by the high voltage utilities results:
The induced currents in conductive objects may be calculated for the
different shapes and sizes of the different objects placed in the vicinity or
under the high voltage utilities. In the case of peoples residential
exposure, a maximum 10 mA/sqm. current density is recommended and
this value is not reached even if people live under extra high voltage lines,
which is not allowed, either, by the existing technical prescriptions. There
may be special cases of houses built near the high voltage substations,
where a cumulative effect of the electric field intensities generated by the
substation itself and by the high voltage transmission line entries to
substations lead to the allowable current density exceeding. Therefore
measurements have to be done in the houses placed in the strong
neighbourhood of such substations and then mitigation techniques need to
be used. Inside the substations the recommended limit may be exceeded,
but then protective equipment for the electricians operating and
maintaining the substations have to be used. In the case of live
maintenance of transmission lines and substations, where huge current
density may be met, special screening suites and accessories have been
designed and manufactured to be used for.
The voltages induced in insulated objects may reach high values if the
respective objects placed under or in close vicinity to high voltage utilities
have significant sizes. Grounding protection measures for permanent, as
wood pole fences, and temporary, as trucks, have to be taken into
consideration.
A direct perception on humans cannot be sensed in areas with public
access, since the electric field intensity is not strong enough. But for the
occupational exposure, as for the operation and maintenance workers in
substations there is a possibility to be encountered, but none to become
dangerous. In the case of live maintenance of transmission lines and
substations, the screening protective equipment used by the electricians
avoids such perceptions.
Even if they have been researched and discussed for long, the direct
biological effects on humans and animals resulted to produce no harm on
people and animals at the electric field intensities met under and in the
vicinity of the high voltage utilities, for both residential and occupational
exposures.
The effects on vegetation resulted to be of no harm at all at the electric
field intensity to be met under the transmission lines and even inside the
switchyards.
The audible noise generated by the high voltage utilities is generally not
hearable if no rain or air humidity, but even in bad weather, the measured
noises showed to be within the allowed range.
Since the AM interference depends directly on the corona discharge, the
level is higher during bad weather. The recommended limits are not
exceeded but accidentally.
The FM interference has an increased level during bad weather too,
especially due to bad contacts and polluted insulators. If the technical
conditions of the utilities are suitable, the interference level is kept,
generally, under the recommended levels.
The ions and ozone generation have not a direct harmful action on the
human health , but the indirect action of the corona ions, as described by
Prof. D. L. Henshaw, may present an increased risk of some disease
development and although Henshaws hypothesis has not been confirmed
by other studies, special measures of the corona discharge mitigation have
to be taken, especially in substations and at the transmission line entries to
those substations which are situated close to residential areas.
Governmental and professional organizations have issued exposure
guidelines for the public and for the electric workers (occupational exposure). The
limits range from the maximum allowed current density through human body of 10
mA/sqm., at which physiologic effects may occur, to lower densities with which no
negative effects could be stated following the performed analysis. Different values
were obtained, mainly because of the different electric resistance to ground
considered in calculations.
For general public exposure, the limit is within the range of 2 10 kV/m, but
mostly 5 kV/m. For occupational exposure, the limit is within the range of
5 30 kV/m, but mostly 10 kV/m.
Table 12.3 shows all the acknowledged recommended limits [12.29].
Table 12.3
Maximum limits of the recommended exposure to electric field of industrial frequency
Occupational General public
exposure exposure
No Organization / Year Country
j E j E
mA m-2 kV m-1 mA m-2 kV m-1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
European Committee for Electrotechnical
1 303) 12
Standardization, 1995
International Commission on Non-
2 101) 10 21) 5
Ionizing Radiation Protection, 1998

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 Council of the European Union, 2001 21) 5
4 Energy Government Office, 2001 Argentina 5 3
National Health and Medical Research 52)
5 Australia 10303)
Council, Canberra 2001 105)
5
Austrian Standards Institute and Austrian
6 Austria 10303) 105)
Electrotechnical Association, 2002
206)
7 Moniteur Belge, 2001 Belgium 5
8 Bulgarian National Standards Bulgaria 25
27)
9 1998 Costa Rica
88)
Croatian Parliament, Ministry of Health,
10 Croatia 101) 10 21) 5
1999
Czech
11 2000 101) 10 21) 5
Republic
Ministry of Social Affairs and Health,
12 Finland 10 5
2003
13 2002 France 5
5
14 Federal Government, 2001 Germany
109)
15 2002 Greece 4
10 5
16 MVM Rt., 2002 Hungary
306) 105)
5
17 2003 Italy
105)
Ministry of International Trade and
18 Japan 3
Industry, 1973
Health Council of the Netherlands, 25 62.5 5
19 Netherlands 8
Electromagnetics Fields Committee, 2000 1004) 2504) 204)
Polish Ministry of Labor and Social 10
20 Poland
Policy, 2002 206)
Russian Parliament, Ministry of Public
21 Russia 5
Health, 2002
22 Ministry of Environment, 2002 Slovenia 10 5
Ministry of Information and
23 South Korea 10 5
Communication, 2001
24 Bundesrat, 1999 Switzerland 5
National Radiological Protection Board, United
25 10 25 10 12
1993 Kingdom
American Conference of Governmental
26 USA 25
Industrial Hygienists, 2000
27 USA, 2002 USA 711
2
1) average on 1cm central nervous system 6) few minutes / day
2) 24 h in open areas 7) limit of right of way
3) time of exposure < 80/E 8) right of way axis
4) limbs only 9) < 5% / day
5) < 2 h / day
12.3.12. Mitigation techniques

As it was concluded above, normally the allowable limits of exposure to the
electric field of power frequency are not exceeded in residential areas. It is possible
however to be exceeded in the special cases of the houses located close to
substations, even at an allowed distance from them or from the transmission lines
coming to the substations, because of the cumulative effect of the implied fields.
Measurements have to be performed and mitigation techniques have to be applied
afterwards.
In case of the electric field its intensity reduction is possible by:
increasing the height of towers and of course of the transmission line
conductors;
choosing phase sequences of the lines in such a way as to get a minimum
vector sum at the house locations;
using the compact design of line towers;
screening shields.
The use of screening shields is both an economical and efficient method. The
electric fields are very easy reduced by that. In the case of the houses the screening
panel has to be fixed on the building walls. This way the electric field intensity
inside the building is much reduced.
Outside there are not any possibilities to screen a transmission line electric
field, because of the big height of the line. In such cases the other methods have to
be applied, the most frequent and highly efficiency being the line height increasing
and compact design use. Results of such methods are presented together with the
magnetic field induction mitigation in 12.4, where these practices are much more
important.
Concerning the indirect biologic effect of the corona ions mitigation methods
have to be applied especially in the case of the new utilities, to decrease the
probability of the corona discharge as any partial discharges on insulators. This is
possible by:
using a higher number of subconductors on the phases of the substation bus
bars and at the transmission line entry sections to substations;
a higher insulation level in the switchyard and at the transmission line
entry towers.
12.4. Magnetic field impact
12.4.1. General considerations

The magnetic field, characterized in magnitude by its flux density or
induction, is generated by the currents flowing through the transmission or
distribution electric overhead line conductors, underground cables of high, medium
or low voltage, substation bus-bars and equipment and all the post-transformers.
The magnetic induction depends on current values, phase configuration and

conductor height above ground, in the case of electric overhead lines, respectively
on the laying depth and phase configuration, in the case of underground cables. In
the case of substations and post-transformers, the magnetic induction depends also
on the involved electric power and, of course, on the equipment quality and layout.
The effects of the magnetic field are:
induced voltages on long metallic structures paralleling to inducting
currents;
direct biological effects on humans and animals;
indirect biological effects;
direct perception on humans;
effects on vegetation.
Generally, these effects are generated by the magnetic field at the ground
level or close above it, with the exception of the effects which magnetic field may
cause in close vicinity of the energized parts of the electric overhead lines or other
utilities, when performing live-work maintenance.
The electric overhead line magnetic induction at ground level is decreasing
by the square root of the distance between the measurement or calculation point
and the line axis. In Figure 12.8 there are described the variation diagrams of
magnetic induction as function of the distance to 132, 220, 380 and 765 kV electric
overhead line axis [12.8].
25
765kV
20
Magnetic field [T]
400kV
15
10
220kV
5
132kV
0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Distance from centre of line [m]
Fig. 12.8. Magnetic induction diagrams as function of the distance to single circuit lines
of 132, 230, 380 and 765 kV. Redrawn with permission from CIGRE W.G.36.01
Electric Power Transmission and the Environment: Fields, Noise and Interference,
Preliminary Report, 1993, Copyright CIGRE 1993. All rights reserved.
The underground cable magnetic induction in a transversal plane to the cable

axis is shown in Figure 12.9 [12.8].
There are three horizontal single-phase cables carrying 1000 A, each, buried
at 1 m below the ground surface. The magnetic induction was calculated at ground
level (A), 1m above ground (B) and 2m above ground (C).
150 Fig. 12.9. Underground cable magnetic

A induction diagram. Redrawn with
Magnetic field [T]
permission from CIGRE W.G.36.01

100 Electric Power Transmission and the
Environment: Fields, Noise and
Interference, Preliminary Report, 1993,
50 Copyright CIGRE 1993. All rights
B
reserved.
C
0
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Distance from centre [m]
A general idea of magnetic induction met on other circumstances than

power electric utilities is described by Figure 12.10 [12.8].
Under transmission lines Fig. 12.10. Magnetic

Close to transmission lines induction generated by
Under distribution lines different electric utilities and
appliances. Redrawn with
Close to distribution lines permission from CIGRE
In home and buildings W.G.36.01 Electric Power
Transmission and the
Next to electrical appliances Environment: Fields, Noise
Next to electric blankets and Interference,
In some occupations Preliminary Report, 1993,
Copyright CIGRE 1993.
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Magnetic field [T]
Generally, typical values of the magnetic induction at ground surface are

[12.1], [12.8]:
5 10 T under a 400 kV single circuit with horizontal configuration;
0.5 1 T at 30 m from the above line axis;
0.2 T at 65 m from the above line axis;
10 50 T inside switchyards;
100 150 T at ground level above a three single-phase cable circuit
charged with 1000 A, laid at 1 m below ground surface;
20 40 T at 1 m above ground level for the above underground cable
circuit.
The magnetic induction measurements and calculations, for the points in the
close proximity to high voltage electric overhead line conductors, simulating the
live-working conditions, showed 0.7, 1.0, 1.2 and 1.4 mT at 20 cm from the
conductor surface, in four different phase configuration: with one, two, three or
four ACSR 240/40 conductors, each conductor charged with 645 A [12.30, 12.31].
The distance of 20 cm is the average distance of live-line worker from the
conductor surface. At 6 cm distance the measured magnetic induction were 2.4,
2.8, 3.3 and 2.5 mT.
12.4.2. Induced voltages on long metallic structures parallel

to inducting currents
The magnetic field of the power frequency generated by the electric overhead
lines or underground cables induces electric voltages in the grounded metallic
structures placed in their vicinity. These voltages may become dangerous in case of
long structures parallel to the inducting utilities. There may be mentioned: the
underground or overhead pipes, the metallic fences, the irrigation pipes and the
telecommunication lines [12.8, 12.11].
The induced voltage magnitude depends on the magnetic field induction
acting on the loops constituted by the respective structure, earth return path and
structure connections to the ground. These voltages may be calculated for each
particular situation by applying special software, taking into account a multitude of
electric and geometric parameters.
In case of overhead pipes, fences or irrigation pipes the voltages may become
dangerous for the people touching normally or by accident these structures,
especially during wet weather.
In the case of the underground pipes, the induced voltages lead to pipe
corrosion; for their protection has to be installed the cathode protection.
The induced voltage in telecommunication lines has to be carefully
calculated, considering all the necessary protective means to lower the voltages
under the allowed values.
12.4.3. Direct biological effects on humans and animals

As mentioned in 12.3, in 1979 the first epidemiological study was
published, suggesting the relation between magnetic field and the childhood
leukaemia [12.14]. This study showed that in areas with high underground electric
cable density childhood leukaemia frequency was high too. This idea took the
scientific world by surprise and met a lot of scepticism, first, because the
toxicological data lack to attest any magnetic field carcinogenic potential and
second due to the importance of the problem. If the study conclusions were the
right ones, the cancer risk of the children living under exposure of 0.2 T magnetic
field should be doubled. And if this affirmation is correct, what could be thought
about the risks of cancer in personnel working for the electric power companies
under a ten times stronger magnetic field exposure? Despite the fragility of these
study arguments, the idea of magnetic field health risks took root. Several
epidemiological studies were started thereafter in various countries, but especially
in the USA and Canada, observing the people living in magnetic field exposure
conditions and the professional personnel working in the electric power companies.
But studies on cells, animals, and even on voluntary peoples, in laboratory
conditions, were started later, being finalized after 1990.
In order to obtain a right scientific conclusion on this matter there had to be
gathered cohesive positive answers from two directions: the epidemiological
studies and the laboratory studies. If, from the epidemiological studies there may
be concluded the relative risk factors for the incidence of different possible
diseases (not only cancer), i.e. higher than 5 strong evidence, 1.5 3 weak
association and less than 1.5 meaningless, from the experimental research could
be evinced the biophysical mechanisms for the systematic initiation or promotion
of cancer and other illnesses [12.20].
Many epidemiological studies and laboratory experiments were performed
and are under way at this time too, in many countries.
There will not be analysed all these studies and experiment results, but the
most comprehensive work in this field, the so named California Report [12.32].
Since 1993 the California Department of Health Sciences has led a project The
California EMF Project. The cost of the project was of over 7 millions US$. The
project included the review of all the studies and experiments performed all over
the world till June 2000 and of course the latest comprehensive study of National
Institute of Environmental Health Sciences of U. S. A. (NIEHS report) published
on May, 4, 1999 [12.33] and other own performed studies. On behalf of the
California Public Utilities Commission three scientists working for California
department of Health (DHS) were asked to review all the mentioned studies. These
scientists had more than 10 years of experience in the field of the electromagnetic
fields and had a very low initial confidence that the electromagnetic fields could
cause epidemiological detectable diseases (less than 12%). The project was
released for public comment on June, 13, 2001. The final draft was already issued
in June, 2002 and took in consideration other studies finalized after June 2001 and
articles brought to attention during the public comment period.
From the epidemiological studies taken into account in California EMF
Project and the other finalized after June 2002, as mentioned by J. Moulder [12.20]
there were enlisted the following relative risk factors (RR) for the residential
exposure:
childhood leukaemia (20 studies) RR = 0.80 2.00 (average 1.25);
childhood brain cancer (9 studies RR = 0.80 1.70(average 1.20);
childhood lymphoma (8 studies) RR = 0.80 4.00 (average 1.80);
all childhood cancer (7 studies) RR = 0.90 1.60 (average 1.30);
adult leukaemia (6 studies) RR = 0.85 1.65 (average 1.15);
adult brain cancer (5 studies) RR = 0.70 1.30 (average 0.95);
all adult cancer (8 studies) RR = 0.70 1.35 (average 1.10).
In the case of the electric occupational exposure:
leukaemia (45 studies) RR = 0.80 2.10 (average 1.20);
brain cancer (35 studies) RR = 0.90 1.90 (average 1.15);
lymphoma (12 studies) RR = 0.90 1.80 (average 1.20);
lung cancer (15 studies) RR = 0.65 1.45 (average1.05);
female breast cancer (10 studies) RR = 0.85 1.50 (average 1.10);
male breast cancer (10 studies) RR = 0.65 2.80 (average 1.25);
all cancer (15 studies) RR = 0.85 1.15 (average 1.05).
Other health conditions as: miscarriage, reproductive and developmental,
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Alzheimers disease, acute myocardial
infarction, suicide and other were considered in California EMF project, too.
Experimental research works on animals showed different results, sometimes,
contradictory. It is clear that fields with an induction of mT levels have negative
effects, but this level was not considered relevant for the present evaluation. There
are still difficulties in choosing the right species to test, but it was a slight
confidence by the mammary tumour and chicken evidence.
The geno-toxicity studies indicated that EMF may be a risk factor at some
stages of cancer, but not an initiator. The signal transduction studies concluded the
blocking of anti-proliferate effect of melatonin at 1.2 T (not replicated in vitro till
now). Also, prolonged exposure to magnetic induction of over 50 T leads to
negative effects on signal transduction [12.32].
The three DHS reviewers conclusions concerning the effects of the
electromagnetic field on health were not identical, each one quoting a different
degree of certainty for the different analysed conditions.
The main conclusions [12.32] are:
to one degree or another, all three of the DHS scientist are inclined to
believe that EMFs can cause some degree of increased risk of childhood
leukaemia, adult brain cancer, Lou Gehrigs Disease and miscarriage;
all three scientists had judgements that were close to the dividing line
between believing and not believing that EMFs cause some degree of
increased risk of suicide;
for adult leukaemia, two scientists are close to the dividing line between
believing or not believing and one was prone to believe that EMFs cause
some degree of increased risk.
But there are some associated findings of the California Project pointed out
by Prof. D. L. Henshaw from the University of Bristol [12.34], which may explain
a possible mechanistic connection between the magnetic field and some disease
increased risk. There were five studies showing the effect of the low frequency
magnetic field induction of 1.2 T on the ability of melatonin to inhibit cancer cell
proliferation [12.35]. At the same time magnetic fields lower than 0.2 T may
reduce the nocturnal production of melatonin in the pineal gland of human
populations [12.34]. Even if this possible mechanistic understanding is not full
confirmed, The absence of clear mechanistic story and the failure of many
experiments with aspects of the EMF mixture to produce any mechanistic effects,
did not pull confidence of causality much below what it was initially, as Prof. D.
L. Henshaw wrote.
But, it is a specific field of occupational exposure, which was not covered by
California Report. This is the live maintenance of the high and extra high voltage
transmission lines and substations. The magnetic induction met is relatively high,
of maximum 100 T, if hot sticks techniques are used and of mT order, as much
as 7.5 mT, if barehanded techniques are used. Records of magnetic induction
annual exposure were performed in the Republic of South Africa [12.36, 12.37]
and in the USA [12.38]. In Republic of South Africa the maximum yearly exposure
reached 40.83 mThours, the maximum peak magnetic induction being less than
200 T. If live working barehanded techniques are used, the yearly dosages are
much higher, but no records were available. This is the case of Ukraine, where on
750 kV lines a magnetic induction of 7.5 mT may be achieved at conductor surface
[12.39]. But at 10 20 cm distance the magnetic induction level is ten times lower.
From Kheifets 1999 study [12.20], reanalyzing three previous occupational
exposure studies done on nine company workers from Canada, USA and France,
there may be pointed out that at cumulative exposures of more than
40 Thours/year there is a weak relative risks for brain cancer (RR more than 2)
and a strong one for leukaemia (RR more than 3).
A separate attention has to be given to people using peacemakers or other
implanted similar devices, since the device operation may be affected by the
magnetic induction. The minimum level of interference may be considered at 40 T
as resulted from a 2002 theoretical study of T. W. Dawson and K. Caputa [12.20].
12.4.4. Indirect biological effects
An indirect effect of the magnetic field of power frequency is the inducing of

currents of the same frequency in the nearby conducting objects and circuits. The
magnitude of these currents depends on the magnetic induction, exposed electric
loop surface and object conductivity.
Such currents are induced in live bodies as well. In case of a human being
under 10 T inductions there are induced current densities of about 40 A/sqm
[12.10] and circulation currents through torso of about 2 A. Generally these
current values and the corresponding current densities are less than those induced
by the associate electric field.
12.4.5. Direct perception on humans

The magnetic field cannot be perceived directly by people. In case of
elevated magnetic induction, over 5 mT, which, generally, it is much higher than
those to be met, even in the situation of professional access. In this last case is
possible sometimes to experience a flickering sensation in eyes (magneto-
phosphenes) [12.8].
12.4.6. Effects on vegetation

In 1979, John W. Baum discovered possible negative effects of the stationary
magnetic fields on the Tradescantia plants. He exposed the plants to magnetic
induction between 2 mT to 3.7 T, concluding the effects as influencing the
development of the germ cells, producing alterations and finally going to
carcinogenesis [12.23].
In 1989, Dr. Krizak, from Yugoslavia, tested the Lepidum Sativum plants
under 50 Hz magnetic fields of 6, 12 and 18 mT, for a period of four days. The root
lengths were most affected being shortened with 13 42% but the shoot length was
not affected mainly.
Stephen Smith in the U. S. A. conducted some experiments on the effect of
power frequency magnetic induction on vegetation. In 1984 he started to use 0.2 to
2 mT magnetic induction influence on four species: Impatiens Sultani, Begonia,
Forsythia and Ilex Japonica. All species demonstrated decreased root elongation,
the highest being in case of the Forsythia, but Forsythia and Begonia developed
twice roots than the controlled ones.
Later, in 1991, S. Smith started other experiments on Raphanus Sativus, the
common radish. Smith found out that the plants under low power frequency
magnetic field and calcium ion coupling possibility are slower to generate but grew
more rapidly. In 1996, Mark Davis from U. K. checked the Smith results testing the
AC magnetic field on barley (Hordeum Vulgare), radish (Raphanus Sativus) and
mustard plant (Sinapsis Alba).
In the case of radishes and barley the wet root weights, dry leaf weights, dry
whole weights and stem diameter were greater than the control ones. The
researches performed by Amador Valley High School from Plesanton, USA
[12.23], by applying a magnetic induction of 3.9 mT at 60 Hz on the Brassica rapa
plants over a period of 43 days, were concluded that even during the first 15 days
no significant differences were observed, except a lighter colour of the leaves in the
case of the tested plants, during growing cycle (between 15th and 43rd day)
significant differences could be seen as taller tested plants by 10.5%, heavier pod
mass by 208%, larger pod width by 96.46%.
12.4.7. Final considerations and recommendations

From the above possible negative effect analysis results:
Induced voltages on long metallic structures parallel to inducing currents
may become dangerous because of their magnitudes, in normal operation
conditions of inducing circuits but especially if a single-phase short circuit
occurs. The induced voltage magnitude may be calculated for each case
and the mitigation practices should be applied properly to each type of
structures: fences, underground pipes and telecommunication lines.
Even if a clear mechanistic connection between the magnetic field and the
human and animal health has not been discovered yet, epidemiological and
laboratory studies have showed some direct biological effects with
different disease risk increasing. The level at which the risk becomes major
has not been established yet, either generally, or for each disease, but there
are already opinions as to limiting the residential exposure to very low
values, under 1 T. Concerning the occupational exposure the risks are the
same, but the exposure is not permanent and may be limited to a defined
time per working day not to exceed a cumulative yearly exposure.
The indirect biological effects due to the induced currents through human
body are the same as the ones studied in the case of the electric field. The
physiological limit of 10 mA/sqm. has to be applied here also. But, for a
magnetic field induction of 10 T, for example, the induced current density
is only of 40 A/sqm. [12.10]. A magnetic induction of 2.5 mT may lead
to a current density of 10 mA/sqm., but this induction is not to be usually
encountered either in the residential areas, or in the occupational areas,
with the exception of the live working maintenance of the high voltage
utilities.
Direct perception cannot be met with residential or occupational exposure.
Even in the case of live working maintenance with bare hands technology
the hands may only be placed in the magnetic field with induction
over 5 mT.
There are not magnetic field effects on vegetation at the levels of induction
to be met under the transmission lines or even inside the switchyard fences.
Exposure guidelines have been issued by governmental and professional
organizations both for the public and occupational exposures. In Table 12.4 there
are all the acknowledged recommended limits of induction [12.29]. A huge
divergence of the values for both public and occupational exposures may be
noticed.
Concerning the public exposure, the values are in the range of 1 1,200 T
for long time exposure, but most of them are of 100 T. In case of occupational
exposure the limits for whole body and normal shift working time are in the range
of 100 1,760 T, but most of them are of 500 T. At these levels no harmful
effects of indirect biological or direct perception may occur.
Table 12.4
Maximum limits of the recommended exposure to magnetic field of industrial frequency
Occupational General public
exposure exposure
No Organization / Year Country j B j B
mAm-2 T mAm-2 T
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
European Committee for
1 Electrotechnical 1600 660
Standardization, 1995
International Commission on
101)
2 Non-Ionizing Radiation 500 21) 100
Protection, 1998
Council of the European Union,
3 21) 100
2001
Energy Government Office,
4 Argentina 5 25
2001

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
National Health and Medical 500
1002)
5 Research Council, Canberra Australia 50004)
10004)
2001 250003)
Austrian Standards Institute and 10004)
50004)
6 Austrian Electrotechnical Austria 100
500
Association, 2002 20005)
Bulgarian National Standards,
7 Bulgaria 1200
1999
8 2001 Costa Rica 156)
Croatian Parliament, Ministry
9 Croatia 101) 500 21) 100
of Health, 1999
Czech
10 2002 101) 500 21) 100
Republic
Ministry of Social Affairs and 100
11 Finland
Health, 2003 10
12 2002 France 100
100
13 Federal Government, 2001 Germany
2007)
14 2002 Greece 80
500 100
15 MVM Rt., 2002 Hungary
50004) 10004)
100
16 2003 Italy
10004)
Health Council of the
25 5
17 Netherlands, Electromagnetics Netherlands 600 120
1003) 203)
Fields Committee, 2000
Polish Ministry of Labor and 251
18 Poland
Social Policy, 2001 25135)
Russian Parliament, Ministry of
19 Russia 1760
Public Health, 2002
20 Ministry of Environment, 2002 Slovenia 500 100
Ministry of Information and South
21 500 100
Communication, 2001 Korea
22 Bundesrat, 1999 Switzerland 100 1
National Radiological United
23 10 1200 10 1200
Protection Board, 2002 Kingdom
American Conference of
24 Governmental Industrial USA 12001)
Hygienists, 2000
25 USA, 2002 USA 27101) 20
2
1) average on 1cm central nervous system 5) few minutes / day
2) 24 h in open areas 6) limit of right of way
3) limbs only 7) < 5% / day
4) < 2 h / day
Taking into account the possible direct biological effects, as they result from
the epidemiological and laboratory studies, despite a border value has not been
established yet; the levels have to be decreased drastically. Therefore since 1996
the Swedish Advisory Bodies suggested that the power distribution should avoid
the exposures above 0.2 T. In 1999, the Swiss Government established for the
new utilities the levels of 1 T for public and 100 T for occupational exposures.
In 2000, three Italian regions: Veneto, Emilia-Romagna and Toscana established
for new utilities to be built the maximum level of 0.2 T [12.40]. In 2002, in
Queensland, Australia, the Planning and Environment Court imposed a magnetic
field exposure limit of 0.4 T on a new substation at Tanah Merah [12.40].
In 2001, the World Health Organization endorsed a policy of prudent
avoidance to elevated levels of magnetic induction. This policy was first adopted in
1991, in Australia and was described by the former Chief Justice of the High Court
of Australia, Sir Harry Gibbs as; doing whatever can be done at modest cost
and without undue inconvenience to avoid the possible risk (to health) [12.41]. In
1993, the California Public Utilities Commission in the U.S.A published an order
to define the modest cost at maximum 4% of the cost of the new electric utility.
In the 2002 Final Report called Static and extremely Low-frequency (ELF)
electric and magnetic fields, the International Agency for Research on Cancer
(IARC) concluded that there is a limited evidence in humans for the
carcinogenity of ELF in relation to childhood leukaemia and inadequate evidence
for other disease increasing risk and they placed the power-frequency magnetic
fields in Class 2B as being possible carcinogenic [12.42]. It has to be
mentioned that the same class contains: automobile exhaust, chloroform, coffee,
gasoline and pickled vegetables [12.20].
12.4.8. Mitigation techniques

If from the point of view of indirect biological and perception effects the
allowable limits are not exceeded, either in case of public or occupational
exposure, the only mitigation measures have to be taken to solve the problems
arisen from the induced voltages on long metallic structures and the increased risk
of diseases.
If for the first category the mitigation and protective measures are already
classical as: efficient grounding of the metallic fences, cathodic protection of the
pipes and special design and auxiliary devices for the telecommunication lines, the
attention will be focused on the techniques to be applied to diminish the magnetic
induction magnitudes. An overall reduction of the magnetic induction, even if
theoretically can be proved as possible, may become onerous from an economical
point of view and therefore these techniques have to be applied to solve the
problem at those places where a frequent access of the public or of the
professionals is expected.
The main techniques are:
screening by conductive panels;
optimal phase arrangement, tower compact design and clearance to ground

increasing;
passive and active loops on transmission line sections;
12.4.8.1. Screening by conductive panels

This solution was initially developed to decrease the magnetic induction level
in post transformer neighbourhood, since this electric network element is the most
dangerous for the public due to its high induction level, high density in residential
areas and excessive nearness to private, public buildings and access roads and
paths [12.43, 12.44, 12.45].
The screening panel efficiency is higher if the screen conductivity is higher,
as results from Table 12.5 [12.46].
Table 12.5
Shielding efficiency as functions of different materials
Material Conductivity Relative permeability Shielding efficiency
(Sm-1) r
Al 3.77 1 10.49
Cu 5.98 1 11.22
Ag 6.29 1 11.28
Fe 1.03 500 3.67
Fe 1.03 1000 2.45
Fe 1.03 2000 1.49
In Figure 12.11 the screening efficiency is shown as function of the distance

between the screen and the magnetic field generator, such as post transformer bus
bars, for screens made of steel and respectively, aluminium [12.46].
4
3.6
3.5 3.38
3.5
3.2
3 2.98
2.68 2.69
2.5 2.46
B [ T]
2.19 Aluminum
2 1.82
Iron
1.5 1.36
1
0.79
0.5
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
d [m]
Fig. 12.11. Magnetic field induction for two different shielding materials, Fe and Al, as
function of the distance bus-bars to shielding plate. Redrawn with permission from
Salinas, E. Passive and active shielding of power - frequency magnetic fields from
secondary substation components, Proc. of IEEE on Power Delivery, 0-7803-6338-8/00-
2000 2000 IEEE.
Table 12.6 [12.46] shows the aluminium screening efficiency for different
screen thicknesses between 1 and 12 mm. It is obvious that from the cost/efficiency
point of view a 3 mm thick shield is the optimum solution.
Table 12.6
Shielding efficiency of aluminium plate as functions of thickness
(mm) 1 2 3 5 8 10 12
S 6.1 9.6 10.5 11.1 11.3 11.4 11.5
The test performed with twin screens (steel+aluminium) showed a better

efficiency if the higher conductivity panel is closer to the magnetic field generator
and the distance between the screens is a very small one, of 1 mm, if possible.
These techniques may be applied to post transformer walls and ceilings, and
to substations by indoor wall plating, screen panel mounting in front of the outdoor
bus-bars and transformers and to the switchyard fences.
A special type of screening is that of the active screening. This makes use of
screening panels as previously described with electric supplied coils to compensate
the magnetic field. A performed simulation [12.46] showed a reduction factor of
4 5 times for the exterior field regions. This solution is appropriate in the case of
the post transformer and interior substations.
12.4.8.2. Optimal phase arrangement, tower compact design

and clearance to ground increasing
The optimal phase arrangement and tower compact design are very efficient
means to reduce the magnitudes of both magnetic induction and electric field
intensity. These solutions have been developed for high voltage electric overhead
lines [12.47].
In Figure 12.12 the electric field intensity and magnetic induction diagrams
may be observed in transversal plane to a 400 kV double circuit line axis. There are
two alternatives, the symmetric phase and the optimal phase arrangements. At 50 m
from the line axis the magnetic induction is reduced from 2 to 0.4 T in case of the
optimal arrangement. The measurements were performed at a height of 1.5 m
above the ground surface, on a real line of 400 kV, in Greece. The phase current
considered in calculations was of 1,000 A, the measurements being made under the
same loading conditions of the line.
The compact phase tower design for a 150 kV single circuit line reduces the
magnetic induction by 61% in the line axis and from 1.6 to 0.7 T at 25 m from the
line axis, as shown in Figure 12.13 [12.47].
A significant reduction of both electric field intensity and magnetic induction
may be obtained by phase conductor to ground clearance increasing (Fig. 12.14).
Increasing this clearance from 6 to 15 m, in the case of a 150 kV single circuit line
with horizontal phase arrangement, the magnetic induction in the line axis is
reduced from 20 to 5 T and in the case of the same line but with compact
arrangement, from 12.5 to 2 T [12.47]. From this figure there has to be concluded
that all compact, vertical and triangular arrangements lead to about the same
reduced magnitude of the magnetic induction.
For 400 kV single circuit lines, with horizontal phase arrangement, increasing
the phase conductor clearance to ground from 8 to 25 m (Fig. 12.15), the magnetic
induction in the line axis decreases from 25 to 5 T; for the vertical compact
arrangement it decreases from 17.5 to 2.5 T and for the triangular phase
arrangement, from 16 to 4 T [12.47].
5
11.6
4
18.8 8.5 3
E [kV/m]
12.8 8 2
1
Conductor distances (m)
0
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
x [m]
a.
B B
10
A A 8
C C 6
B [T]
Symmetrical arrangement 4
0
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
B C x [m]
b.
A A Symmetrical arrangement (before)
Calculations
C B + + + + + Measurements
Optimum arrangement (after)
Optimum arrangement Calculations
x x x x x Measurements
Fig. 12.12. Electric (a) and magnetic (b) field values under a 400 kV line before and after the
optimum arrangement. Redrawn with permission from Tsanakas, D. et al. Compact and
optimum phase conductor arrangement for the reduction of electric and magnetic fields of
overhead lines, CIGRE Report 36-103/2000, Copyright CIGRE 2000. All rights reserved.
1.5 10
Emax Bmax
8
0.73 Emax
E [kV/m]
1.0
6
B [T]
4 0.39 Bmax
0.5
2
0.0 0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
x [m] x [m]
a. b.
Conventional line
Compact line
Fig. 12.13. Electric (a.) and magnetic (b.) field under single circuit 150 kV conventional and
compact lines as functions of the horizontal distance x from the line axis. Redrawn with
permission from Tsanakas, D. et al. Compact and optimum phase conductor arrangement
for the reduction of electric and magnetic fields of overhead lines, CIGRE Report
36-103/2000, Copyright CIGRE 2000. All rights reserved.
2.8
6.2 6.2
2.8
Conventional line Compact line

5 20
4 15
E max [kV/m]
Bmax [T]
3
10
2
5
1
0 0
5 10 15 20 25 5 10 15 20 25
[m] [m]
a. b.
Conventional line
Compact line
Fig. 12.14. Electric: (a.) and magnetic field (b.) maximum values under single circuit 150 kV
conventional and compact lines as functions of the lower conductor to ground distance h.
Redrawn with permission from Tsanakas, D. et al. Compact and optimum phase conductor
arrangement for the reduction of electric and magnetic fields of overhead lines, CIGRE
Report 36-103/2000, Copyright CIGRE 2000. All rights reserved.
7
5.8
8.6 8.6
5.8 5.8
Conventional line Compact Triangular compact line

vertical line
10.0 20
7.5 15
E max [kV/m]
5.0 Bmax [T] 10
2.5 5
0.0 0
10 15 20 25 30 10 15 20 25 30
h [m] h [m]
a. b.
Conventional line
Vertical compact line
Triangular compact line
Fig. 12.15. Electric: (a.) and magnetic field (b.) maximum values under single circuit 400
kV conventional and compact lines the same conductor distances as for Fig. 12.13, as
functions of the lower conductor to ground distance h. Redrawn with permission from
Tsanakas, D. et al. Compact and optimum phase conductor arrangement for the reduction
of electric and magnetic fields of overhead lines, CIGRE Report 36-103/2000, Copyright
CIGRE 2000. All rights reserved.
The compactness of the single circuit lines leads to great reductions of the
values of the magnetic induction, but lower reductions of the electric field
intensities.
For the 400 kV double circuit lines it was performed a comparison of four
types of lines, the conventional with hexagon phase disposal and the compact with
vertical disposal of the phases, both with symmetrical and with optimum electric
phase arrangements, for different clearances of the lower phases to ground in the
middle of the span. Significant reductions are got for the clearance to ground
increasing (from 8 to 25 m). There have to be specially mentioned the compact
lines with optimum arrangements for which the magnetic induction comes to 1 T
from 17 T and the conventional lines with optimum arrangement, for which the
magnetic induction comes to 3 from 22 (Fig. 12.16) [12.47]. From this figure there
has to be underlined that the best solution for both the normal and the increased
clearance to ground of 8 m is the compact line with the symmetrical arrangement.
11.6 7
18.8 8.5 5.8
12.8 8 5.8
Conventional line Compact line

10.0 20
7.5 15
Emax [kV/m]
Bmax [T]
5.0 10
2.5 5
0.0 0
10 15 20 25 30 10 15 20 25 30
h [m] h [m]
a. b.
Symmetrical arrangement Optimum arrangement
Conventional line Conventional line
Compact line - - - - - Compact line
Fig. 12.16. Electric (a.) and magnetic field (b.) maximum values under double circuit 400
kV, barrel type conventional and compact lines with the optimum and the symmetrical
arrangement, as functions of the lower conductor to ground distance h. Redrawn with
permission from Tsanakas, D. et al. Compact and optimum phase conductor arrangement
for the reduction of electric and magnetic fields of overhead lines, CIGRE Report 36-
103/2000, Copyright CIGRE 2000. All rights reserved.
The use of optimal phase arrangement, compact tower design and higher
phase conductor to ground clearances is highly efficient for the electric overhead
lines with routes close to residential areas. The phase conductor to ground
clearance increasing and the optimal phase arrangement are techniques valid both
for the substation bus-bars, too.
12.4.8.3. Passive and active loops

These techniques have been developed for the high voltage electric
overhead lines [12.48]. Five possible passive loop locations have been taken into
consideration, as shown in Figure 12.17.
Fig. 12.17. Different sE

E
loop locations
analysed for flat C
phase configurations. hE
Redrawn with A dm
dm d
permission from
D dm
Cruz et al.
Magnetic field B
mitigation in power h
lines with passive sB
and active loops, hB
y
CIGRE Report 36- x
107/2002, Copyright /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
CIGRE 2002. All
rights reserved.
10
Fig. 12.18. Absolute field
Magnetic field [T]
8 with no loop, and loops A and

A B, for flat configuration (no
6 compensation). Redrawn with
permission from Cruz, P. et al.
4 Magnetic field mitigation in
B power lines with passive and
2
active loops, CIGRE Report
36-107/2002, Copyright
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 CIGRE 2002. All rights
Transversal distance x [m] reserved.
50
Magnetic field reduction [%]
40
B
A
30
20 D
C
10
E
0
-100 -50 0 50 100
Transversal distance x [m]
Fig. 12.19. Field reduction with different loops and flat configuration (no compensation).
Redrawn with permission from Cruz, P. et al. Magnetic field mitigation in power lines
with passive and active loops, CIGRE Report 36-107/2002, Copyright CIGRE 2002.
The A circuit was positioned at minimum distance to side phases, the

induced current in this loop circuit being maximal. The B circuit was positioned
to get a minimum magnetic induction magnitude at right of way border. The C
and D circuits were positioned arbitrarily and the E circuit was placed on the
shield wire locations. From the alternative comparison, as shown in Figures
12.18 and 12.19, to get a maximum reduction at 50 m from the line axis, the
alternatives A or B have to be applied to get 30, respectively 25 % reductions.
The compensated passive loops may be taken into account for better
performances, as well using the same line as above and the same loop locations,
but inserting electric capacitances in these loops and using higher conductive
conductors for loop circuits than in the case of the normal passive loops. From
Figure 12.20 and Figure 12.21 it may be concluded that the alternatives A and B
reduce the magnetic induction at the right of way border from 2.2 to 1 T and at
50 m from the line axis the magnetic induction is of 0.7 T only. It seems that A
alternative is more efficient for distances longer than 35 m from line axis (60 65%
reduction) and B alternative is more efficient at the right of way border (85%
reduction).
10
B
Magnetic field [T]
8
A
6
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Fig. 12.20. Magnetic induction with no loop, and compensated loops A and B, with flat
configuration. Redrawn with permission from Cruz, P. et al. Magnetic field mitigation in
power lines with passive and active loops, CIGRE Report 36-107/2002, Copyright
CIGRE 2002. All rights reserved.
Compensated passive loops were previously proposed by two papers that

issued implementation possibilities on the 345 kV transmission lines in the USA
and the 750 kV lines, in Canada [12.49, 12.50].
The active loop technique may use the same locations used for the normal
passive loops, but injecting currents from external sources. The injected current
magnitude and phase angle depend on the line load, loop location and the distance
at which the magnetic induction reduction has to be maximized. For a single span
loop of 450 meters length, the electric power needed for compensating is between
1.4 and 63.3 kW, the lowest being for the loop types A and B.

80
A B
60
40
D
C
20
E
0
-100 -50 0 50 100
Fig. 12.21. Magnetic induction reduction with different compensated loops and flat
configuration [12.48]. Redrawn with permission from Cruz, P. et al. Magnetic field
mitigation in power lines with passive and active loops, CIGRE Report 36-107/2002,
Copyright CIGRE 2002. All rights reserved.
Figure 12.22 shows the reduction diagram of all five loop types, if the
magnetic induction at the right of way border is intended (x0=25m from the line
axis).
Figure 12.23 shows the reduction diagrams of all five alternatives if magnetic
induction reduction at long distances from the line axis is followed (x0=).
A previous paper proposing the active loop use to mitigate the magnetic field
induction of 400 kV single circuit lines in Sweden, using the line shield wires and
an optional auxiliary conductor at ground level or above, was not followed by
practical applications because of the difficulties which could arise for the line
operation, mainly from two points of view: first, the shield wires were used for
telecommunications or insulated from ground and second, a complicated automatic
system was needed to generate the external voltage in the amplitude and phase angle
necessary to fit simultaneously the line load for the best mitigation results [12.51].
C
80 A
60
B
E
40
20
D
0
-50 0 -100 50 100

Fig. 12.22. Magnetic field reduction with active loops in the same positions as for the
passive ones and x0=25 m. Redrawn with permission from Cruz, P. et al. Magnetic field

A
80
C E
60
40
20
0
B
-20
D
-40
-100 -50 0 50 100
Fig. 12.23. Magnetic field reduction with active loops in the same position as for the
passive ones and x0 . Redrawn with permission from Cruz, P. et al. Magnetic field
To choose the best alternative from the fifteen presented above, not the
efficiency itself in point of the magnetic induction reduction has to be applied only,
but also the installation costs, electric power, if the case, and the visible impact on
the environment. To satisfy at maximum all these criteria is practically impossible,
so a compromise solution has to be considered for. Anyway from the five
geometric alternatives, A and B have to be kept only, the others presenting low
efficiencies. From the point of view of the visual impact on the environment, B
alternative is a rough one, implying the erection of 6 m high poles in spans and
therefore has to be, avoided. So, the three electric sub-alternatives (passive,
compensated passive and active) of the geometric A alternative have to be analysed
for the specific locations and for the specific magnetic induction level request.
12.4.8.4. Use of three-phase cables and twisted three-phase

overhead conductors
Instead of the overhead lines, underground cables have been suggested for
the low voltage and medium voltage, as well. When absolutely necessary, the high
voltage underground cables have to be used, too. Instead of the flat configuration
of the single-phase cables inside the post-transformers and substations, the three-
phase cables have to be used and where the cross-sections are not allowing this, a
symmetrical arrangement of phases has to be found.
If from an economical point of view the overhead lines will be preferred,
twisted insulated conductor solution has to be used, for both low and medium
voltage.
Changing the classic bus-bars by three-phase cables in post-transformers is a
solution, too.
12.4.8.5. Modified layout for switchyards and post-transformers

For the new switchyards and post-transformers and even for the switchyard
upgrading projects, special layouts have to be designed to solve the problem of the
magnetic field mitigation. Back to back constructions [12.43] and mirror
symmetrical phase arrangement in case of two transformers, imply new layouts,
bigger surfaces, but less magnetic field induction.
12.4.8.6. Economical considerations

An economical criterion has already been mentioned as the prudent
avoidance policy which considers that an amount of up to 4% from the total value
of a new electric utility has to be spent to try to mitigate the magnetic filed effects.
The same is valid for any utility upgrading.
Taking into account the last performed studies on the magnetic field impact
on human exposure, showing dangerous effects, if the magnetic induction level is
higher than 1 T, a study was developed in Italy and published in 2002 [12.52],
estimating the economical impact of the 0.5 T maximum level being introduced to
all the existing and new electric utilities in Italy. Based on measurements of the
magnetic induction for high voltage, medium voltage and low voltage as well, all
the interventions needed in the existing utilities were taken into account, using the
mentioned mitigation methods, resulting an amount of 21,175 29,077 millions of
Euro altogether. The impact consists of 0.01 to 0.014 Euros more per kWh for a
period of 12 years.
12.5. Conclusions
All the analysed constructive impacts are of big importance for the
environment. The high voltage electric overhead lines contribute massively to the
impact on the environment, the other utilities not having too much importance in
this field. From the visual point of view, the high voltage electric overhead lines
are strongly impacting the environment and solutions to reduce this impact have
been developed, but unfortunately they are not easy to apply to the old lines.
Concerning the impact on land use, since 1980 there have already been taken
into considerations the solutions to minimize the impact of the high voltage electric
overhead lines, such as the use of the multi-circuit towers and compact towers or
poles. New technologies have been adapted for the erection works of the electric
overhead lines to minimize the impact on environment as much as possible. The
access roads have been limited, and the existing roads, of agricultural or forestry
use should be used. The direct impact on ecological systems is not so important in
the case of the wild animals, other than birds, but it is significant in the case of
birds. Therefore special devices have to be used to mitigate such effects. As to the
vegetation, the mechanical removal in the line right of ways is much appreciated,
even if its price is higher than that of the chemical one.
From the possible electric field negative impact analysis it resulted that,
normally, there can not occur dangerous effects from the induced currents in
conductive objects, direct perception, direct biological action and action to
vegetation. Regarding the voltages induced in insulated objects, specific grounding
protection has to be used. The audible noise, AM interference and FM interference
are, normally, within the recommendation ranges. To prevent some disease
enhancement due to the indirect biological effect, as per Henshaws theory,
mitigation methods have to be applied in substations and on the entry sections of
high voltage line to substations.
Analysing the possible negative effects of the magnetic field, it was
concluded that the indirect biological effect, the direct perception and the effects on
vegetation have not to be further dealt with.
The high induced voltages on the long metallic structures may be avoided by
using specific protective measures. It remains the problem of the direct biological
effect, which is considered more and more an increased risk factor for the human
health. Adopting low allowable values for the magnetic induction as 0.2 or 0.4 or
even 1 T, economical implications arise. If in the case of new utilities, there are
possibilities to reduce the magnetic induction with lower costs, for the old utilities,
the price is higher.
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from secondary substation components, IEEE Proceedings of International
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7 December, 2000.
[12.47] Tsanakas, D. et al. Compact and optimum phase conductor arrangement for
the reduction of electric and magnetic fields of overhead lines, CIGRE Report 36
103, 2000.
[12.48] Cruz, P. et al. Magnetic field mitigation in power lines with passive and active
loops, CIGRE Report 36 107, 2002.
[12.49] Memari, A.R., Janischewskyj, W. Mitigation of magnetic field near power
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[12.50] Walling, R.A., Paserba, J., Burns, C.W. Series capacitor compensated shield
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Chapter 13
OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION LINES

TECHNICAL DESIGN
13.1. Introduction
At the beginning of the Third Millennium four main restrictions [13.1] are to
be considered by the network specialists relating to the changes in the Overall
Environment in the Power Supply Sector, and are related to:
Changes of the operational environment;
Environmental changes;
Changes business environment;
New technological possibilities.
13.1.1. Changes of the operational environment

It is expected overhead lines and substations, especially at the transmission
voltage level not to be built to any large extent in some developing countries. In
developing countries the lines will be subject to more and more capital restrictions
as well as environmental constraints. It will not be possible to built lines in short
lead times less than two years in the future. At present the time to built new lines
with environmental constraints could be in excess of 20 years. Line designs will
need to be more environmentally friendly as well as being compact and low cost.
Maintenance needs to be kept to a minimum. The footprints of the towers are likely
to be constrained in most countries limiting use of guyed towers.
These drivers will lead to asset owners and operators having to get more out
of existing lines in terms of life expectancy as well as power transfer. The
assessment of condition of lines is also vital in determining the methods by which
the life expectancy can be determined as well as methods to increase the useful life
of the line. The power transfer of the lines will need to be increased either by
utilizing the weather conditions prevailing at the time or by utilizing devices that
can reduce the impedance of the line. Lines may also need to be uprated by
increasing the voltage of the line. This would depend on the reliability permitted on
the line as well as the ability to perform line maintenance on the line.
Reliability and effective maintenance are likely to become more critical as
the number of line decreases for a given load. Each servitude or power corridor
will be required to be utilized to the limit.
13.1.2. Environmental changes

The emphasis is put on use of land; visual impact of lines and substations,
pollution, energy efficiency, global warming aspects and various hazards (like
leakage, noise, and electromagnetic fields) are continuously increasing.
Requirements on minimum environmental impact during the life of the equipment
will necessitate Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), including recycling of older
equipment.
In industrialized countries and in metropolitan areas of developing countries
it is increasingly difficult to get new right-of-way for transmission lines. Asset
owners and operators are therefore more or less tied to present line routes with
increasing need to operate existing facilities closer to the limits, implying use of
more sophisticated control, monitoring, and data processing equipment. Right-of
way constraints may contribute to a wider use of cables and/or gas insulated lines
for power transmission.
Other environmental trends of importance are increased emphasis on energy
efficiency and use of renewable energy sources, and an increasing hostility in the
society necessitating the use of measures to ensure adequate security.
The increase in the past few years of devastating environmental events as was
experienced in France and Canada. These events have been wider spread than was
previously experienced resulting in disruption of networks far in excess of the
normal planned contingency.
13.1.3. Changing business environment

The changes in the power sector include the unbundling of the generation,
transmission and distribution activities, the abolishment of institutional barriers for
Independent Power Producers, changes in the financial structure of asset owners
and operators and an increased emphasis on competition. This party access to the
transmission system leads to a more intensive use of the system and will enforce an
improved power flow control increasing the demand for power transfer of the line.
Power quality will increasingly be specified and paid for. The return on investment
will need to be made in terms of three to five years.
The increasing competition is changing the traditional roles in the power
industry. The asset owners and operators are increasing their competitiveness by
means of focusing on their core business, by increasing their process efficiency and
by merging in order to utilize economy-of-scale advantages. Consequently it is
getting increasingly difficult for small and mid-size asset owners and operators to
justify the costs of maintaining a complete technical infrastructure. The
manufacturing industry on the other hand is also developing towards large
worldwide corporations with potential and resources to provide not only
components in the traditional way but also complete power system solutions. The
growth of the energy demand has slowed down in the industrialized countries and
the redundancy of the present transmission and distribution system is increasingly
Overhead transmission lines technical design 769
utilized. Consequently, the construction of new networks has partly stagnated and
greater emphasis is given to the maintenance and life extension of components.
The access to grid gives rise to short time horizons for planners as well as
situations whereby lines will be operated at the maximum thermal load soon after
construction.
The consequences of environmental events such as wind and ice storms are
more severe than ever before due to the reduction in the network redundancy.
13.1.4. New technological possibilities

The advent of Flexible AC Transmission systems (FACTS) will enable the
lines to be operated at the thermal limit more often. This is because the present
system limitations such as voltage and stability limits can be overcome. It will also
be possible to reduce the line impedance by FACTS devices without reducing the
phase spacing. This enables existing lines to be utilized to a greater limit was
possible before.
Further improvements of the line utilization may also result from real-time
monitoring of the conductor temperature.
13.2. Opportunities and threats

The changing working environment causes threats and opportunities to the
work of network specialists. The most important threats are listed in the following:
fragmentation/internationalisation of asset owners and operators: how to
reach the real customers?
different customer groups: how to asset and to advise owners and
operators;
increased cost pressure: how make international research activities and
international cooperation with less resources available;
increased competition makes asset owners more aware of the value of
intellectual property, resulting in tendencies to limit exchange of
technical know-how;
competition between different international organizations (CIGRE,
CIRED, UNIPEDE, IEEE, IEC, CENELEC);
differences in the expectations on the Network specialist from
industrialized and developing countries;
large manufacturing corporations: smaller amount of variety in offered
solutions.
On the other hand, the changes in the operational environment of CIGRE
offer also opportunities, for example:
possibility to meet new needs;
adaptation of new technologies;
satisfying specific needs of the developing countries;
increasing needs for refurbishment, up rating, life extension;

new types of customers bring new interesting challenges;
mitigation of environmental impact;
co-operation between design, manufacture, construction and the research
and standardization organizations.
13.3. Objectives and strategy
13.3.1. Ambitions and objectives

The network specialists continue to play a pivotal role in the field of
overhead transmission lines.
Within their field of activity, the network specialists shall:
serve all theirs customers involved in the process of generating and
transmitting electric energy by means of:
being aware of customers needs;
monitoring and reporting on the international development;
promoting trends beneficial for theirs customers;
issuing guidelines and recommendations;
promote and recommend innovative solutions and concepts considering all
relevant factors (economical, technical, environmental and others);
see the line as an integral part of the network and ensure overall optimised
system solutions by means of active co-operation with the system oriented
study specialists;
be aware of the needs of the developing countries, actively work in order to
fulfil them and involve representatives for these countries in its work. This
implies increasing the scope to study especially the elements of the lines
with nominal voltages below 110 kV;
actively promote and support international co-operation.
13.3.2. Strategic technical directions

The above factors put the focus of OHTL Specialists on methods to get more
out of existing lines and substations, provide more reliable lines and substations
and ensure environmentally compatible lines as well as to operate lines at their
thermal limit. This can be expressed in terms of the present and future activities of
OHTL Specialists as is described below.
These factors lead to a number of important areas that need to be studied
together:
Assessment of the conditions of the Network components;
Improvement of tools and method for inspection;
Improvement of tools and methods for assessment;
Methods to increase the life span of existing lines and substations;

Factors that affect the reliability of the grid;
Methods that will increase the reliability of the grid;
Factors that limit the power transfer;
Methods whereby the power transfer capability of the lines can be
increased needs to be studied;
Design of supports that will allow for maintenance and upgrading;
Environmental restrictions and the likely future requirements need to be
studied;
Design improvement of the footing area;
Guidelines, on how to meet environmental criteria without jeopardizing the
integrity of the network, needs to be developed;
Using line structures to perform other functions than enabling transmission
of power. This could include communication and fibber circuits,
microwave transmitters, advertisements.
13.4. The future of overhead transmission lines (OTL)
13.4.1. Overhead transmission lines today

13.4.1.1. General
The majority of the OTL are based on the 1970 1980s technology level.
The main characteristics are:
conductors: ACSR (Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced) type, AAAC
(All Aluminium Alloy Conductor);
insulation: glass or porcelain;
towers: steel lattice type.
With these lines is necessary to transfer the today power with high safety
resulted from the customers requirements.
To build new lines is very difficult, considering the economical and
environmental aspects; so, the main destinations of the overhead transmission lines
companies are:
to maintain the optimal state of existing lines by proactive (maintenance
monitoring system) or reactive (Emergency Restoration Systems)
maintenance techniques;
to refurbish the existing lines to improve their initial mechanical capacities;
to up rate the lines if the studies goes to this solution as economical one;
to upgrade the lines to increase the power transfer capacity.
13.4.1.2. Maintenance
Overhead transmission lines traverses various relief areas such as high-
altitude mountains subjected to severe environmental and meteorological
conditions for a long distance. Maintenance offices have to react very promptly
when a fault appears. Taking into account the hard access to OHL and
meteorological conditions maintenance people need to know precisely where the
fault is and how long is does take to repair them. In this case, Maintenance
Monitoring System and Emergency Restoration System become mandatory.
Maintenance monitoring system
Electric utilities all over the world, have noticed that the construction of new
transmission lines is a very difficult activity to achieve due to multiple factors, such
as environmental restrictions. These factors are causing delays and the halting of
most of the construction of new transmission lines. That is why the utilities have
tried to rate the maximum transmission capacity of its electric lines.
The use of existing transmission lines, with the monitoring of the
transmission capacity using weather station and an adequate line thermal model,
becomes a strategy. In this way, Red Electrica de Espana (REE) and Iberdrola are
making several actions to monitor the 400 kV lines of the feeding ring of Madrid in
Spain using only weather stations to obtain in real time the dynamic ratings of its
transmission lines [13.2].
Four weather stations equipped with the following instrumentation were
installed: anemometer, weather vane, ambient thermometer (in one station only).
All these instrumentations are placed in a support tower of about ten meters high.
The monitoring of the capacity of the transmission lines is done in real time,
using the existing remote control units in the REE substation (Fig. 13.1). The
information data is sent to the remote units and from there to the Regional Control
Centre every 5 seconds. Then, an averaged value of each meteorological variable is
made every 15 minutes. These averaged values are introduced into the different
models. Finally the information of the rating goes to the National Control Centre.
MONITORED LINES
REGIONAL CONTROL CENTERS
NATIONAL CONTROL CENTER
Fig. 13.1. Monitoring information flow.
From the meteorological data coming from the four weather stations and sent
via remote units to the Regional Control Centre, and using a meteorological model,
the weather conditions existing along the overhead lines are simulated. The
determination of the maximum capacities of the overhead lines must take into
account the thermal restrictions (for both the conductors and the substation
equipment) and the technical conditions of exploitation.
From the simulated weather conditions of all the sections of the overhead
line, the dynamic thermal ratings are obtained for each section. Then the thermal
ratings of the substation equipment are calculated. The most restrictive value of all
the sections and the equipment will give the critical span and the dynamic thermal
rating for that transmission line.
With the monitoring of the ambient conditions in the influence zone, by
means of weather stations, in real time allows a more effective use, regarding to the
real capacity, of the existing transmission lines. Real time monitoring allows the
variations in the ambient conditions to be use for the benefit of the utility. It allows
the power system operators to use the actual line data for deciding on less
conservative line loading as compared to the usual practice of compared the
monitored in line current to the book value.
Due to the fact that the long overhead lines are exposed to, and affected by,
the ambient and terrain conditions, it may be possible to obtain a great increase in
power transfer above the design level.
A system using OPtical GroundWire (OPGW), transfer precise information
on the line for maintenance purposes. This system comprises three major functions:
(i) Meteorological and facility monitoring
Meteorological data on wind, icing and snow accretion are directly observed
from power line towers in altitudes where regular observations are not conducted
by the meteorological agencies. Additionally, the spans between towers are
especially long, and the lines cross difficult terrain. Based on these factors, strain in
tower structure, conductor vibration and other conditions of line elements are
monitored to determine if or when maintenance responses are necessary. These
data are accumulated to obtain basic parameters for analysis of the nature of strong
winds and snow accretion, and how the towers, their foundations and conductors
react to these elements.
(ii) Industrial TV monitoring
This is used to observe sites under abnormal weather or fault conditions. It is
performed by transmitting video signals from locations where lines cross difficult
terrain to maintenance offices in charge, and offers visual information on weather
and other circumstances, such as forest fires. It also provides information on
visibility, which is a consideration of helicopter inspection.
(iii) Fault location
The system is equipped with a function that can locate fault sections
accurately and determine the maintenance office to be responsible as well as the
most convenient access route.
Sensor output data for meteorological/facility monitoring and fault section
location are transmitted separately by fibre-optic data transmitters through the
optical fibres within the OPGW to the central processing station, where statistical
data processing and fault location is conducted.
Sensors include directional anemometers, ambient thermometers, rain gages,
snow-accretion samplers, lightning rods, load cells for conductors and ground
wires and insulator-inclinometers. The sensors are mounted on the top and on the
arms of the tower structure [13.3].
The fibre-optic data transmitter receives data coming from upstream, attaches
its own data at the end of the received data and relays them downstream.
The system can generate alarms for specific items to be observed by comparing
data for these with predetermined threshold values.
When electric faults occur on a power line, the ground wire current represents
characteristic distribution patterns along the line depending on where the fault
points are located. Using these features, the fault location subsystem measures
ground wire (OPGW) current distribution, and with this estimates the sections
where the faults occurred.
The OPGW current is measured by current sensors mounted on the OPGW at
various points along the line and the data are transmitted through an optical fibre.
The most serious problem with power transmission lines is electric fault
resulting in the cut-off of power transmission. Of the various kinds of power line
maintenance information, this situation requires the most rapid processing.
This system assures the precise location of fault and on-line monitoring of
weather conditions and allows the maintenance offices to be promptly in their
maintenance actions.
Emergency restoration system
Normally, the repairing of damaged elements of OHL is finished in times
measured in days. A series of interruptions of power transfer of some important
400 kV OHLs due to cascading tower collapse, has decided companies to
introduce emergency restoration systems for temporary repairing.
In the world, emergency restoration systems are use in a few countries (USA,
Germany, Norway, Belgium, Romania) successfully.
A restoration system contains the following components:
emergency towers;
module foundations;
insulators;
conductors and earth wire.
The main requirements of the emergency restoration system are:
easy to be stored;
easy to be transported in any places;
easy to be handled;
easy to be erected.
The solutions for the emergency tower are shown above (Fig. 13.2). The
tower is anchored type, made by steel, high tensile type and is stored in trunks.
Three anchors assure the stability of towers before and after conductors stringing.
The tower was designed to be use both as suspension and as tension. Insulation is
composite type, arranged as insulating cross-arm in case of suspension use of tower
and tension string in case of tension use. Foundations are modular type, steel plate
or grillage, designed for good soil characteristics. Prefabricated concrete type
foundations can also be used. For anchors are used plates or bars (steel or wood),
embedded into the earth. Depending to the local characteristics of soil, all variants
can be used.
Angle/suspension Angle/suspension Single/double circuit Single phase

chainette four pole herringbone tension
Angle/suspension Delta H-frame Running angle

horizontal-vee horizontal-vee
Fig. 13.2. Emergency towers.
The line conductors used could be new ones, or from the damaged area.
During winter and autumn seasons, earth wires are not installed.
The solution to make an emergency restoration of a damaged line is to install
towers, single circuit type, quite parallel to the damaged line [13.4].
13.4.1.3. Refurbishment
If we go to the definition, refurbishment means to maintain and to repair the
line elements to improve to the line the initial characteristics.
There are some phenomena, like Aeolian vibrations, wake-induced
oscillations, galloping of iced conductors, local meteorological overloads or heavy
corrosion, which necessitates special improvements of the OTLs elements.
Some of these aspects are described as follows:
Aeolian vibrations;
Wake-induced oscillation;
Galloping.
Aeolian vibrations
Wind-induced conductor vibrations are unavoidable. They may cause wire
fracture, mainly in the inner layers of the conductor (Fig. 13.3), which often are not
discovered until after several years of service, which in most cases is too late [13.5].
When fatigue failures of overhead line conductor wires occur, which are due
to aeolian vibration, it is generally observed that they only exist:
at the points of maximum bending of the conductor,
at the point of any transverse force to the conductor,
at a discontinuity of the mass distribution on the conductor, or

at the points of a fixation of the conductor.
Thus, typical locations are:
suspension clamps,
dead-end clamp and splices,
bundled conductor spacer clamps,
damper clamps.
Fig. 13.3. Broken wires in conductors second layer.
Whereas in single conductors, the majority of conductor fatigue failures

occur at suspension points; in bundled conductors additionally at the spacer
clamps. The fatigue process in transmission line conductors is worsened greatly by
a process in the conductor known as fretting fatigue or fretting corrosion. Fretting
fatigue occurs when two surfaces contacting each other with a normal force
experience a slight periodic relative motion. This fretting occurs:
between the wires of the conductor or,
between the conductor and the line accessories which are in direct contact
with the conductor.
In order to overcome this endurance reducing phenomenon two measures are
applied:
mechanical damping of the conductor (self-damping, dampers);
use of properly designed clamps to avoid early fatigues of the conductor
material.
Wake-induced conductor motions
Wake-induced oscillation encompasses several types of motion, observed in
conductor bundles, which are caused by the aerodynamic shielding of leeward-
lying conductors by windward ones. The leeward conductors that lie in the wakes
of windward conductors are subjected to forces not experienced by single
conductors, and these forces permit wind-induced motions to occur that are
peculiar to bundles. The motions occur in moderate to strong winds, usually in the
range of 7 to 18 m/s. Although they may occur with ice on the conductors or when
there is rain, the motions are most often observed when the conductors are bare and
dry. The four main types of wake-induced motion are shown in Figure 13.4 [13.6].
Vertical galloping
Subspan mode
or breathing
Horizontal Rolling
galloping or twisting
or snaking
Fig. 13.4. Wake-induced oscillations.
Most reports of wake-induced motions pertain to lines located in terrain that

is either generally flat or gently rolling, with low or sparse ground cover. The
major factors that influence susceptibility of occurrence of wake-induced
oscillations are:
Number and arrangement of subconductors;
Separation between windward-leeward pairs of subconductors;
Angle of attack or tilt of the bundle;
Type or positioning of spacing devices.
Between the bundles used extensively in operating lines (2, 3 or
4 subconductors), the 4-conductor bundle is the most susceptible to wake-induced
oscillations and the 3-conductor bundle is the least susceptible. It is thought that the
three-conductor bundle is the most stable because it has proportionately fewer
conductors lying in wakes. This view is one basis for expectations that a diamond-
oriented four-bundled would have low susceptibility to wake-induced oscillations.
The separation between members of windward-leeward pairs of
subconductors is commonly expressed in terms of the ratio a/d of bundle separation
(a) to conductor diameter (d). Increasing a/d tends to make bundles less susceptible
to oscillation and sufficiently large values appear to stabilize bundle for all winds.
The strength and character of the aerodynamic shielding of leeward
conductors by windward ones vary with the position of the leeward conductor in
the windwards wake. The lateral position of the leeward conductor, associated
with tilt of bundle, has strong effects upon the wake forces.
In general, there must be some tilt if the wake forces are to cause oscillation,
but the tilt must not be so great as to place the leeward conductor out of the wake.
The use of more spacers, hence shorter average subspan length, increases the
threshold wind velocity.
Observation of normal static strength requirements, coupled with care in
providing flexibility in suspension systems and in spacers, appears to result in a
line design that is tolerant of large wake-induced motion relative to fatigue.
Several basic approaches to suppressing wake-induced oscillations have been
applied in operating lines. There are:
Use of wide subconductor separations (large a/d);
Tilting of bundles to remove leeward conductors from windward conductor
wakes;
Use of bundles configurations that reduce the proportion or subconductors
lying in wakes;
Use of short subspan lengths;
Use of staggered subspan lengths with spacers or with damping spacers.
The effectiveness of a protection scheme can be rated in several ways, such
as threshold wind velocity, maximum amplitudes of motion that are permitted, or
probability that damage will occur.
Galloping
Galloping of iced conductors has been a design and operating problem since
early in last century. The slow progress in galloping studies has resulted from
several things. Galloping is difficult to study in nature because of its sporadic
occurrence, both in time and location. Quantitative data are difficult and sometime
risky to obtain. The varied character of ice deposits from one occasion to another
makes generalization of a few observations chancy [13.6].
Galloping of iced conductors is associated with their altered aerodynamic
characteristics, relative to those of nominally-cylindrical bare conductors (Fig. 13.5.).
Galloping of iced conductors occurs when the aerodynamic lift on the
conductor can be modulated by the periodic motion of the conductors in such a
way that the variations in lift act to augment or at least sustain that periodic motion.
The frequencies involved in galloping are less than a tenth and usually less
than one hundredth of those for aeolian vibration for the same wind velocity.
Conductor amplitudes in galloping often exceed a meter, whereas they rarely
exceed a few millimetres in aeolian vibration. Iced conductors experience a lift
force that varies with the angle of attack of the iced section with respect to the
wind. The lift arises from the asymmetry of the section about the plane containing
the conductor axis and the wind vector (Fig. 13.6.).
The character of the terrain through which a line passes influences the
likehood of galloping. Smooth-contoured terrain with few large obstacles favours
galloping. Broken terrain or a high density of such obstacles as buildings and
coniferous trees seems to prevent galloping by causing turbulence in the winds
flow. Certain localized areas, often near lakes or rivers, show a much higher
incidence of galloping than do nearby regions.
Galloping has caused various kinds of structural damage in overhead lines.

Some types of damage result directly from the large forces that galloping waves or
loops apply to supports.
Wind
Drag
Fig. 13.5. Lift and drag on iced conductor.
Ice Conductor
Wind
Drag
Wind
Drag
Lift
Lift
Wind
Drag
Fig. 13.6. Lift and drag on iced conductor.
Galloping has caused various kinds of structural damage in overhead lines.

Some types of damage result directly from the large forces that galloping waves or
loops apply to supports.
When galloping amplitudes are great, enough to permit flashover between
phases or from phase to ground, arcing damage to conductor surfaces results. There
are three main classes of countermeasures employed against galloping:
Removal, or preventing formation, of ice on conductors;
Interfering with the galloping mechanisms to prevent galloping from
building up or from attaining high amplitude;
Making lines tolerant of galloping through ruggedness in design, provision

or increased phase clearances or controlling the mode of galloping with
interphase ties.
Interphase ties are phase-to-phase insulating struts that are placed at one or
more points in a span to enforce phase separation. Galloping is not prevented, but
the motion that occurs is forced into a mode that reduces the relative motion of the
phases, and thus the likehood of flashover. Devices that interfere with the galloping
mechanisms fall generally into two groups: those that intervene in the energy
balance of a galloping span to damp the motions, in a manner similar to that by
Stockbridge dampers control aeolian vibration and those that seek to control
torsional vibration of the conductors in a manner that prevents large vertical
amplitudes from developing.
Controlling torsional response of a span by means of a tuned system is
attractive, since it can permit effective control with a less massive device than is
required where pendulums are used.
Aerodynamic drag dampers augment the damping effect of the conductors
aerodynamic drag and thus narrow the conditions under which lift forces may
supplies enough energy to sustain galloping.
At present, line designers have available different protection schemes that
differ widely in cost, effectiveness, evaluation degree and level of usage. None of
these schemes has been validated as fully effective: some are known to be partly
effective; some are through to be promising.
13.4.1.4. Uprating
The quest for reduction in transmission costs, either due to legal and
economical restriction to obtain land to built new lines, or due to the need to make
the investment economically attractive, lead to the realization of research programs
aiming to maximizing the ratio of transmission power to investment cost and
occupied land. The compact lines technology was already full consolidated and is
useful to attain this purpose.
The surge impedance loading (SIL) of a transmission line, for a given voltage
level, depends on the number and cross-sectional area of the subconductors and on
the field intensities at conductor surfaces. It is possible to proceed to a convenient
optimisation of the conductors arrangement, maximizing the fields at the
conductors surfaces thus increasing the transmitted power with the same
conductor area.
The Table 13.1 shows typical SIL values for both designs (traditional
transmission lines and High Surge Impedance Loading-HSIL) [13.7].
Table 13.1
Traditional transmission HSIL transmission lines
Voltage (kV)
lines (MW) (MW)
69 9-12 10-40
138 40-50 50-120
230 120-130 130-440

500 950-1000 1000-2000
Expanded bundle concept, developed by Chesf and Cepel, is derived from the
HSIL theory, and is a simpler technique to increase transmission lines SIL, by
means of a new positioning of the conductors, usually obtained by a changement of
the hardware fitting of the line (suspension and spacers). Through an adequate
adaptation of the design it is possible to utilize the original structures, with changes
only in the hardware fittings, modifying the bundle geometry. The increase in the
line SIL is smaller than in the full HSIL solution; however the cost/benefit ratio is
quite attractive, which makes this solution applicable to new lines as well as
upgrading of existing ones.
The natural power is inversely proportional to the positive sequence
impedance being given by SIL = U 2 Z1 . Increasing the distance between phase
conductors reduces the magnetic coupling, causing the self impedance ( Z p ) to
decrease for each phase. Since the positive sequence impedance is given by
Z1 = Z p Z m , the reduction in Z p causes a corresponding reduction in Z1 , thus
increasing the line SIL. Using the technique of transmission line compactation the
increase in SIL is obtained in a rather different way. The conventional bundle
geometry is maintained and, placing the phases closer together their respective
coupling is increased, and consequently the mutual impedance ( Z m ). Thus Z1 is
also reduced, due to the sign of Z m in its calculation.
In the complete HSIL concept, the SIL is further increased through the
actuation in both variables, the positive sequence impedance Z1 having a more
pronounced reduction. HSIL concept proposes modifications in the geometry of
phase and bundle arrangements in a full technical break of old practices and mainly
of old concepts. HSIL transmission line concept provides economically attractive
options to upgrade transmission corridors, being its most striking feature the
optimisation and suitability of transmission lines SIL.
The proper insertion of an HSIL transmission line, or the upgrading of
existing ones, introduces global advantages in the systems that refer not only to the
proposed line, but extend far beyond it. There is an effective interaction with other
components in the system, like production of reactive power and reduction in series
reactance, that improves the flow of active power, gives better voltage profiles and
increases system reability.
13.4.1.5. Upgrading
As alternative to the construction of new lines due to the necessity of the
increasing power transfer or as necessity to increase the OTLs characteristics:
maximizing the ratings,
minimizing the Aeolian vibrations,
minimizing galloping effects,
increasing of transmission capacity,

reinforcing lattice steel towers,
reinforcing foundations,
introducing diaphragms,
installing the composite fibre optic groundwire,
installing the composite insulators,
improving the lightning performance of the OTL by surge arresters,
constitutes the upgrading solutions for existing OTL.
Maximizing the ratings. Solutions. New conductors.
The existing Overhead Transmission Lines are normally equipped with
ACSR or AAAC types, profiled for temperatures of 40 C and/or 5 C and ice
which in case of heavy ice conditions, correspond to critical temperatures in
range of 5060 C. If is necessary to transfer more power than the power
transferred on those temperatures, by using the existing structures, the following
options can be analysed:
Increasing the operating temperature of existing conductor;
Increasing the aluminium cross area of conductor:
by applying conductor core aluminium clad steel wires instead of steel
wires;
by applying aluminium wires with large size;
by using compact conductor type;
Using heat resistant conductors - thermal resistant aluminium alloy type;
Using heat resistant conductors - low sag up-rating type:
special material: invar core;
special design: Gap type conductor.
Increasing the operating temperature of existing conductor
The conductor itself can be operated up to 75 C 80 C elevated
temperatures without affecting its strength characteristics. At 75 C 80 C
temperatures, the ground clearance and clearances to the other lines or
constructions shall be checked before adopting the solution. The transferred power
can increase up to 10% considering critical temperatures.
High cross area conductors
a) ACSR/AS conductors
ACSR/AS conductor has the core of Aluminium Clad Steel, with an electric
resistance of 5 8% lower than ACSR.
b) Small loss conductors
Small loss SLAC/AS conductor has the inner aluminium layer arranged as
compact smooth body and the core of Aluminium Clad Steel, with an electric
resistance of 10 15% lower than ACSR.
c) Compact conductors
The compact conductors can reduce the electric resistance up to 23% in case
that both aluminium layers are arranged as compact smooth body and up to 25% in
case that all conductor is manufactured from alloy with smooth body layers. The
maximum power transfer is higher than Small Loss Conductors power transfer, but
not very high. It is clear that this conductor type can transfer more power than the
classical ones.
Heat resistant conductors
The expansion of the economy imposed on the Utilities to maximize the
ratings available from existing routes. In response to this, high temperature
aluminium-zirconium-yttrium always was developed with annealing temperatures
substantially higher than the 100 C or so associated with standard hard drawn, EC-
grade aluminium (ECAL). The basic, high temperature alloy is referred to as
TAl, with versions having specific enhanced properties designated by a prefix,
such as UTAl. The characteristics are shown in Table 13.2 and Figure 13.7,
together with those of ECAl (HAl) and standard AAAC alloy for comparison.
Table 13.2
Alloy Characteristics.
UTS Conductivity Max. Cont.
Alloy
MPa % IACS* Temp. C
TAl 160 60.0 150
UTAl 160 57.0 200
ZTAl 160 60.0 210
XTAl 160 58.0 230
KTAl 225 55.0 150
ECAl 160 61.0 90
AAAC 295 56.5 90
*IACS = International Annealed Copper Standard
60
Conductivity
50
ZTAI
60
TAI
60
HAI (1350) 300
61 )
Oa
200 (M
th
Op 200 eng
erat r
ing 150 St
te m ile
per ens
atu 90 T
re ( oC) 100
Fig. 13.7. Operating temperature for different Al wires.
These high temperature alloys have been incorporated into two special types
of conductors, which have low values of coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE).
Thermal resistant aluminium alloy conductor
Thermal resistant aluminium alloy conductor - TACSR/AS, can be operated
at temperatures of 150 C without loosing the strength capacities. TACSR/AS can
transfer at 150 C a maximum power of more than 70% compared to the classical
ones.
Low sag up-rating conductors
a) Invar core conductor
First type of low sag conductor was developed using a core made from an
iron-nickel alloy, known as Invar. Invar is derived from invariable and is
intended to mean that the length is invariable with respect to changes in
temperature. A high strength Invar is used together with TAl, ZTAl, 60% or 58%
conductivity, or XTAl wires in a standard ACSR-form of construction. ZTAl
conductor, Invar reinforced type, abbreviated ZTACIR can transfer at 230 C the
maximum power of double value compared to the classical ones.
XTAl conductor, Invar reinforced, abbreviated XTACIR can transfer the
maximum power of more than double compared to the classical ones. To reduce
the possible limit of the electric resistance, the aluminium layers are smooth type.
The maximum transfer power is in ranges of that mentioned for ZTACIR type, but
the electric resistance at 20 C is 4% lowest. The abbreviation is ZTACEIR.
b) Gap type conductor
The second of these special conductors is known as gap type and consists of
an extra high strength steel core surrounded by stranded layers of a TAl alloy. The
inner alloy layer is made from trapezoidal wires to form a tube. The inner diameter
of this layer is slightly larger than the outer diameter of the steel core, forming a
radial gap, which is filled with high temperature silicone grease (Fig. 13.8.).
Heat-resistant aluminum alloy or

super-resistant aluminum alloy
Gap-filled
with grease
Extra high strength

galvanized steel (EST)
Fig. 13.8. Gap type conductor. Construction.
The conductors low value of CTE relies on the fact that the CTE of steel is
half that of aluminium and its alloys. In order to take advantages of this, the
conductor must be tensioned on the steel core alone, requiring special stringing
techniques. Since the TAl layers expand faster than the steel core, then in
principle at all temperatures above the erection temperature, the alloy carries no
mechanical load and the conductor has a CTE equal to that of steel (11.5 x 10-6/C).
Conversely, at all temperatures below the erection temperature, the TAl contracts
faster than the steel core, resulting in the full conductor carrying mechanical load.
The CTE under these conditions is similar to that of a standard ACSR.
In case of using TAl wires type, the conductor is named Gap heat-resistant
aluminium alloy conductor steel reinforced (GTACSR). At 150 C temperatures,
the maximum power transfer of GTACSR is more than 70% compared to the
classical ones.
By using ZTAl wires types, the conductor is named Gap super heat-resistant
aluminium alloy conductor steel reinforced (GZTACSR). The GZTACSR can
reach 210 C temperatures and can transfer a maximum power of more than 90%
compared to the classical ones.
It is apparent from the foregoing that the erection of gap type conductor is
more complex than that of ordinary conductors such as AAAC and ACSR,
requiring special procedures and taking longer.
Sags at temperatures close to stringing temperature of low sag up-rating type
conductors
When Invar reinforced aluminium conductor is used for overhead power
lines, as the temperature of the electric conductor rises, the aluminium alloy wire
undergoes thermal expansion and its apportionment of the tensile stress is zero.
Thus, the Invar alloy wire bears the entire tensile load. The temperature at this time
is called the transition point temperature. When the temperature rises above this
transition point temperature, the increasing in sag is extremely small, and a sag-
inhibiting effect is obtained. However, the value of the transition point
temperature is typically around 90 C. Since the OTLs are originally designed for
ACSR at 50 C 60 C, by the time an Invar reinforced aluminium conductor had
reached its critical temperature, the available clearance would already have been
infringed and no advantage could be taken of its low sag, supercritical
performance. In contrast, the critical temperature for a Gap conductor type occurs
at the erection temperature and in consequence it is recommended to use on
existing OTLs. In Figure 13.9 are shown the diagrams of sag vs. temperature of
Low-sag conductors as compared to the ACSR type. It can be seen the transition
point temperature of Invar reinforced aluminium conductor (ZTACIR) type.
Conductor size 240 mm2

12
Span: 300 m
R
CS
Z)TA
G( ZTACIR
Sag (m)
10 R
C S
9 A
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Temperature (oC)
Fig. 13.9. Sag vs. temperature of low-sag conductors compared to ACSR type
(Sumitomo Electric Industries document, issued for 240 mm2 conductor type).
Installation work of low sag up-rating type conductors

A high strength invar is used together with TAl, ZTAl, 60% or 58%
conductivity, or XTAl wires in a standard ACSR-form of construction and can
therefore be installed using standard methods. It is apparent from the foregoing that
the erection of gap type conductor is more complex than that of ordinary conductors
such as AAAC and ACSR, requiring special procedures and taking longer.
One end of the conductor is secured using a two-part compression dead-end
clamp. The conductor is pulled to sag on the steel core alone, the gap allowing the
steel to slide through the alloy tube as the steel stretches under the erection tension.
The steel core is then marked and cut, and the steel part of the second dead-end
joint compressed onto the core. In order to grip the core and hold it under tension
while carrying out these tasks, the alloy layers must be destranded over a length of
about 2 m. After the steel part of the joint has been compressed, the alloy strands
are trimmed to length and put back into lay over the steel joint. The aluminium
sleeve of the second clamp is then slid back over the restranded alloy and
compressed.
Table 13.3
Comparison of Up-rating conductors (Sumitomo Electric Industries document).
Max. Sag ratio at Up-
Conductor Installation Material
Operating Max. operating rating
type work cost
Temp. (oC) temp. * work
Conventional
ACSR 90 1 1 1
method
GTACSR 150 1.02 1.6 Special 1.3
tensioning
GZTACSR 210 1.13 1.5
work required
2.0
Conventional
ZTACIR 210 1.02 3.5
method
*) ACSR = 1
In Table 13.3 is resumed a comparison between existing conductor - ACSR

type and Low-sag types regarding maximum operating temperatures, sag ratio, up-
rating ratio, installation work and cost.
It can be seen the difference in cost is in favour of Gap Conductors types, as
compared to ZTACIR type.
Insulator strings behaviour for lines equipped with of Low Sag Up-rating
conductors
In Figure 13.10 the results of the temperature tests of the conductor and
strings elements are represented.
300 ZTACIR
250 Suspension
clamp
200
Temp.(oC)
150 U-Clevis
100 Link
Insulator
50
Ambient temp.
0
800 900 1000 1100 1200
Fig. 13.10. Temperature tests of the conductor and strings elements.

(Sumitomo Electric Industries document).
Up-rate existing OTL
- Increase the operating

temperature of existing
conductor Use Heat resistant material No modification on
- Increase the cross area in aluminium part the existing tower
of conductor:
- Apply large size
- Use compact type
Electrical clearance
can be kept
Reinforcement or Enough
modification of the Not enough
Thermal resistant
existing towers is aluminium alloy Low Sag Up-rating
necessary conductor conductor type
Market price Moderate price Normal stringing Special stringing

Very high price High price
Special material: Special design:

- Invar core conductor - Gap type conductor
ACSR, SLAC/AS TACSR ZTACIR, XTACIR GZTACSR, GTACSR
Fig. 13.11. Up-rate existing OTLs. Conductor analysis.
Figure 13.11. shows the principles of selecting the type of conductors for up-
rating the existing OTLs. A number of different conductors are also available for
use in up-rating and new line applications.
Minimizing the aeolian vibrations
Self-Damping Conductor (SDC) [13.8] was patented by ALCAN but now is

manufactured by all major conductor suppliers. It always has a steel core. The
innermost layers of aluminium (and sometimes outer layers) consist of trapezoidal
strands sized such that a gap exists between the steel core and the innermost layer
of aluminium strands even with the conductor under full tension. The mass and
tension of the aluminium and steel sub-components of this conductor yield
different natural vibration frequencies and this in turn leads to frequent impacts
between the vibrating steel core and the enclosing tube of aluminium. The impact
of the steel core upon the inside of the innermost layer of aluminium strands is
sufficient to damp any aeolian vibration to a low level.
Since SDC conductor exhibits high self damping, it can be tensioned to much
higher levels than standard conductor without the need for separate dampers. The
use of trapezoidal strands also results in a 5% reduction in conductor diameter
when compared to standard conductor of the same AC resistance per mile.
In summary, the major advantages of SDC conductor are:
High self-damping allows one to increase the unloaded tension levels
resulting in reduced sag and thus reduced structure costs;
Reduced diameter for a given AC resistance, yield reduced structure
transverse wind and ice loading.
The major disadvantages of SDC in uprating existing lines are:
There may be increased installation and clipping costs;
The conductor design always requires the use of a steel core even in light
loading areas.
Compact Trapezoidal Wire Conductor (TW) [13.8] is also produced by all
major conductor manufacturers. It is essentially similar to the SDC conductor
except that the gap between the steel core is eliminated and all layers of aluminium
strands consist of trapezoidal wires. TW has none of SDCs self-damping
properties but it presents a diameter that is approximately 10% less than a standard
ACSR conductor of the same AC resistance, whereas SDC is only 5% less.
Reconductoring with a new TW conductor having the same diameter as the
old conductor would yield an increase of about 10% in a static rating of the line
without changing the structure loading significantly.
Minimizing the galloping effects
Twisted 2 Conductor (T2, called also VR) was invented by Alex Shealy of
Kaiser Aluminium in the 1960s and consists of two standard conductors twisted
about one another with a twist length of approximately 3 meters [13.8]. The
subconductors can be any type of standard conductor.
The major advantages are:
The amplitude and frequency of occurrence of large amplitude ice-
galloping motions are reduced or eliminated;
The non-round shape of this conductor reduces the amplitude of aeolian
vibration and the accompanying fatigue inducing strains near clamps. As a result,
T2 conductor can be installed to higher tension levels and reduced sags.
The major disadvantages are:

The non-round cross-section yields wind and ice loading which are about
11% higher than standard conductor of the same AC resistance per mile;
The installation of, and hardware for this conductor, can be somehow more
expensive than standard conductor.
Increasing of transmission capacity
An increase of transmission capacity can be achieved by modification of
circuit components leaving the operation voltage unchanged or by conversion to a
higher operation voltage. For single and double-circuit lines the first alternative
might be more suitable while for multi-circuit lines the second alternative is of
interest as well.
While the first alternative is technically simple the modification of lines,
predominantly of the multi-circuit type, is more challenging in view of operating
voltage and conductoring [13.9].
2 circuits 380 kV
4 circuits 220 kV Triple bundle ACSR 340/30
Twin bundle ACSR 240/40 Pn = 3300 MVA
Pn = 2080 MVA
2 circuits 110 kV
Single conductor ACSR 560/50
Pn = 400 MVA
Fig. 13.12. Converting a 220 kV four-circuit line into two 380 kV and two 110 kV circuits.
For the implementation of the modification new tower tops with adjusted
insulation, new conductoring and reinforcement of foundations and tower bodies is
necessary.
2 circuits 380 kV 2 circuits 380 kV

Twin bundle ACSR 560/50 Quad bundle ACSR 265/35
Pn = 2735 MVA Pn = 3550 MVA

Single conductor ACSR 560/50 Single conductor ACSR 560/50
Pn = 400 MVA Pn = 400 MVA
Fig. 13.13. Converting a 380 kV/110 kV line in view of modified design criteria.
The reconductoring required adjusting the conductor arrangement. A

conductor suspension rigid orthogonal to the line direction allow retaining the
right-of-ways previous width. The supports of the redesigned line had to be
checked and strengthened to allow for higher loads because of modified conductors
and new loading assumptions, especially higher ice loads.

Twin bundle ACSR 240/40 Triple bundle ACSR 340/30
Pn = 2080 MVA Pn = 3120 MVA
2 circuits 110 kV
Single conductor ACSR 265/35
Pn = 1040 MVA
Fig. 13.14. Converting a 220 kV four-circuit line into two circuits 380 kV
and two circuits 220 kV.
The necessary clearances to the crossarm below required the arrangement of
380 kV circuits at the end of the crossarms resulting in more unfavourable loadings.
As a consequence, new conductors, adjusted insulators and replacement of several
tower members were necessary when implementing the project. As specified above,
the increase of real capacities of existing OHL, determine new loading assumptions
that require the reinforcement of foundations and tower bodies.
Reinforcing lattice steel towers
The leg members, however, can only be reinforced with limited efforts by
implementing additional redundant members to reduce the buckling lengths if the
load increase is less than 10%. This method is additionally limited by the cross-
sectional slenderness of the profile (ratio of the profile width to thickness), and by
given tensile strength [13.9]. A significant reinforcement can only be achieved by
additional profiles.
Reinforcing the cross-arms is even more difficult. Individual bracings may be
exchanged and additional redundant members to stabilize the lower chords can also
be arranged in this case. Reinforcing upper and lower chords by additional angles
is not advisable since the transfer of the forces into the tower shaft requires
sophisticated nodes. In case of higher loads a complete exchange of the cross-arm
is recommended as a technically approved and economically acceptable solution.
Reinforcing foundation
Sufficient foundation strength can be determined by examining as-built
dimensions, soil investigations and record of foundation testing.
The reinforcement of existing foundation in view of higher tensile forces was
achieved by arranging flat reinforced concrete strips between the two permanently
uplift-loaded footings. The increase of strength capacity results from the dead-
weight of the concrete strip and the soil while the uplift capacity of the remaining
concrete blocks can be used as long as it remains unaffected by the reinforcing
measures [13.9].
When upgrading lines for higher meteorological loads reduction of risk of
failure, at least one order of magnitude should be aimed because of the
uncertainties in the basic data.
The conversion of existing lines, multi-circuit lines offering favourable
conditions for conversion to higher transmission voltages and capacities, is
economically interesting if supports and foundations can be reinforced with
acceptable effort.
Introducing diaphragms
Diaphragms play an important role for the overall integrity of a steel support
for both structural integrity and for providing necessary support during
construction.
Considering an existing 400 kV transmission line, designed and constructed
45 years ago, a non-linear analysis was conducted to determine if the capacity of
the towers in this line could be upgraded to carry larger and heavier conductor
loads and to devise appropriate practical upgrading schemes for the towers [13.10].
Tower analysed has a square base of about 9.5 m 9.5 m and a height of about 49 m.
The tower self-weight was calculated to be 127 kN. Seven loading conditions were
specified based on the revised wind and incorporating larger conductor loads. In
the non-linear analysis, the vertical loads were applied first up to 100% of their
specified values, followed by the incremental application of the transverse and

longitudinal loading. Results from the non-linear analysis indicated that the tower
did not reach the new ultimate design loads in four out of the seven loading
conditions. Load factors at failure ranged from 0.87 to 1.32. Based from the non-
linear analysis including the failure pattern, the tower was upgraded by adding a
horizontal diaphragm. The upgraded tower was reanalysed using the same seven
loading conditions. With this modification, the tower was able to carry the
increased loads without any difficulty with the lowest load factor being 0.99.
Diaphragms have proved a valuable tool for the purpose of upgrading or
repair of transmission line supports. Diaphragms may be use to increase the
support resistance by providing additional rigidity and overall stability
Installing the composite fibre optic groundwire
Optical fibre communication systems have major technical advantages over
conventional methods, such as large capacity, high-speed and long-distance
transmission, as well as freedom from electromagnetic interference. Being an ideal
conductor for providing huge communication capacity along with electric power
transmission, the demand for OPGW (Optical Ground Wire) has rapidly expanded
all over the world.
In order to provide highly reliable OPGW, it is important to consider the
design from the viewpoint of the optical fibre cable (housed inside), the ground
wire (outer layer) and the combined properties of both as completed OPGW. The
following flow chart describes the development process for Hitachi OPGW
(Fig. 13.17.) [13.11].
Max. diameter
Max. temperature
Properties Short-circuit current
as groung-wire Compatibility with conventional ground-wire
Reliability
OPGW
Number of optical fibers
Properties
Type of optical fiber (SM or MM)
as optical cable Optical attenuation
Operation
Accessories
Equipment and tools
Installation Stringing
Jointing and splicing
Fig. 13.15. Design of OPGW.
The properties of OPGW as optical fibre cable are usually designed taking
into consideration of factors such as the number, type and attenuation of optical
fibres, factors that must be determined in accordance with requirements of the
optical system design, such as transmission capacity, wavelength and system
interface. Several types of fibre unit (so called OP unit) construction have been
developed and utilized, three of which are shown in the Table 13.4.
Table 13.4
Type Surplus lay length type Tight type Slide type

(sponge type) (spacer type)
Aluminum tube Aluminum tube Aluminum tube
Cross-sectional view of
Glass tape
Aluminum PFA
Optical fibers spacer
optical fiber unit
Optical fibers
Foamed silicone
rubber Optical fibers
FRP FRP
Approx. 5 - 6.5 mm Approx. 5 - 6.5 mm Approx. 5 - 6.5 mm
No. Of
fibres 4 - 27 9 - 30 6 - 12
Strain reduction of optical Suitable for multi - numbers Replacement of optical fibers
Features
fiber is achieved of optical fibres is theoretically possible
Various kinds of OPGW construction can be realized, using standard

thickness AS (Aluminium-clad Steel) wire, thick aluminium cladding AS wire,
round AS wire, compact AS wire with a round steel core and compact AS wire
with a trapezoidal steel core. This presentation chart (Fig. 13.16) is only an
example of typical OPGW design, the actual dimensions and short circuit current
capacity for specific uses should be selected in accordance with individual
requirements and conditions.
30
Higher capacity under same diameter
Short circuit current (kA x 0.3 sec.)
20
Subject to required diameter,

breaking strength and current capacity
ith
iam ity w
eter
er d pac
10
larg her ca
Hig
Recommended as standard type

Less diameter under equivalent
cross-section, but expensive
0
10 15 20 25
OPGW diameter (approx. Mm)
Fig. 13.16. Typical OPGW design in relation to diameter and fault current.
Consideration must be given to the reability of installation, in order to
prevent breakage of the optical fibre. Special design is necessary for some of the
accessories (Fig. 13.17, 13.18, 13.19), such as dead-end clamps, suspension clamps
and joint boxes [13.12]. It is necessary to pay careful attention during OPGW
installation in order to avoid alteration not only of its mechanical and electric
properties, but also its optical properties. Installation procedure for OPGW is
basically similar to that for conventional overhead ground wires, but particular
attention must be paid to the protection of optical components and the jointing of
optical fibres.
3
5 4 1
1. OPGW
6 2. Earthpeak
3. C - shapeed support
4. Armor grip suspension
2 5. Vibration damper
6. Shunt
Fig. 13.17. Suspension set for OPGW. Reprinted from RIBE Catalogue, Jan. 2004 [13.12].
3
4
5 6
7
8 9
1 10
2 11
1. OPGW 7. Helical dead end
2. Earthpeak 8. Protection rods
3. Tension support 9. Vibration damper
4. Pair of straps 10. Parallel groove clamp
5. Twisted double eye 11. Shunt
6. Thimble
Fig. 13.18. Tension set for OPGW for the towers without joint boxes. Reprinted from RIBE
Catalogue, Jan. 2004 [13.12].
3 4
5 6
7
8 9 1
2 1
10
11
1. OPGW
2. Earthpeak
3. Tension support
4. Pair of straps
12 5. Twisted double eye
6. Thimble
2 7. Helical dead end
8. Protection rods
9. Vibration damper
10. Parallel groove clamp
11. Shunt
12 12. Fixing clamp
13. Filler bol
Fig. 13.19. Tension set for OPGW for the towers without joint boxes. Reprinted from RIBE
Catalogue, Jan. 2004 [13.12].
As one of the most advanced conductors in the field of overhead transmission

lines, OPGW was developed and has been widely utilized. Since OPGW is playing
an important role both as communication line and as ground wire, it is necessary to
establish highly reliable design criteria, taking into consideration compatibility
with existing ground wire, requirements of the optical system, maintenance and
economic factors.
Installing the composite insulators
High-voltage insulators are of decisive importance for the operational
reliability and economy of system for the transmission of electric energy, and it is
therefore no wonder that particularity high reliability requirements are demanded
of them. Alongside the porcelain long-rod insulators in the traditional design and
cap-and-pin insulator strings mad of glass or porcelain which have been common
in the past, composite insulators are gaining increasing importance in insulation
technology for high-voltage overhead transmission lines. When correctly designed,
from the point of view of construction as well as choice of materials, composite
insulators possess convincing qualities. While for conventional systems (porcelain,
glass) a separate optimisation of mechanical and electric functions cannot be
carried out due to material-related technical reasons, these features can be
considered individually in the selection of materials for composite insulators. The
resulting construction can be divided into three sections (Fig. 13.20, 13.21) [13.13]:
1. Rod having mechanical strength to bear the tensile forces;
2. Surrounding the rod, a coating of polymeric material formed in the shape

of sheds to increase the creepage distance, to perform the insulating
function;
3. Metal fittings at both ends of the rod for the transfer of load.
END FITTINGS
End fittings are made of forged steel or ductile iron
and are galvanized to resist corrosion.
SILICONE RUBBER WEATHERSHEDS A silicone sealent is placed around the rod and end
Silicone rubber weathersheds are manufacture fitting interface to prevent moisture entry.
by a compression molding process to provide a A variety of end fittings are available to meet every
smooth surface resistant to contamination. line application: socket, ball, eye, clevis, tongue and y-clevis.
The sheds are installed over the sleeved rod at
pre-selected intervals and high temperature
vulcanized to insure a seamless, track resistant,
chemically bonded interface.
ARC CONTROL LIP

An arc control lip is designed into each end
fitting to provide a termination point for power
flow current during an insulator flashover.
Designed to divert the heat generated from flashover
currents away from the crimped portion of the end fitting
the lip insures mechanical strength integrity of the end
fitting to rod interface.
SILICONE RUBBER SLEEVE

Silicone rubber is extruded onto the fiberglass resin rod to a controlled thickness and is high
temperature vulcanized to the rod to form a seamless protective covering.
This silicone rubber sleeve hermetically seals the rod and provides resistance to hydrolysis,
ultraviolet radiation, corona and ozone degradation. Along with weathersheds, the rod sleeve
provides a hydrophobic surface that minimizes leakage currents.
Fig. 13.20 Composite insulator description (1).

FIBERGLASS ROD
The mechanical load bearing element of all composite insulators is a pultruded fiberglass resin rod. Because
a composite insulator is only as strong as its core rod, only those rod materials and manufacturing processes
that can provide high mechanical strength under dynamic loading conditions and stability under elevated
temperatures are selected. Each core rod must meet stringent quality control standards for dielectric strength,
glass content and moisture absorption, which insure long consistent service life.
CORONA RINGS
Corona rings are recommended for applications at 230 kV and above.
Rings are designed to fit over the arc control lip of the insulator end
fitting.
Fig. 13.21 Composite insulator - description (2).
One of the main advantages of the composite insulator is its low weight,
which facilitates transport and erection and also allows lower weight towers. In
high voltage transmission lines the weight of conventional insulators can amount to
almost 20% of the total vertical load on the tower. Composite insulators make
possible a weight reduction of the insulator string up to 90% as compared with
conventional insulators.
The shock sensitivity of the composite structure with reference to electric
arcs or mechanical shocks (bullets) is considerably lower than that of conventional
insulators. Their slender shape also makes the composite insulator a much more
difficult target to hit when aimed at by vandals, an aspect of considerable
importance in countries outside Europe. This property of the composite insulator
makes the design of completely new types of overhead lines possible. As a result of
the low weight, composite insulators can be used as interphase spacers in long
spans which on the one hand can prevent conductor galloping and clashing and on
the other, can enable extremely compact lines to be built. In this case the distance
between conductors can be reduced to the minimum distance determined by the
insulation value of the air. Hence lines can be built on a narrower right-of-way,
making less of an impact of the environment (Fig. 13.22).
Fig. 13.22. Double circuit 400 kV OTL.
Improving the lightning performance of the OTL by surge arresters

As countermeasures against lightning that causes the majority of overhead
line faults, reduction in tower footing resistance, unbalance insulation, multiple
groundwire, etc., have been applied. In recent years, line arresters with zinc oxide
elements have been developed and applied to service lines. This type of arresters
can eliminate lightning overvoltages without interruption of power supply, even
without temporary voltage drop.
There are two ways of categorizing the types of arresters. These are either by
the air gap in series with the arrester body or by the housing of the arrester body.
Under the first category with or without air gap, there are two main types of
arresters. These are those with direct connection of the main arrester body and
conductor and the other with air gap between the main arrester body and conductor.
The former is gapless type that is in principle the same as those in substation and
there is no substantial time delay in discharge and, thus, reliable surge absorption is
possible. On the other hand, the latter is gapped type that has a construction adding
the function of arrester of the conventional arcing horn. The main difference
between the two is that there is a continuous flow of very small current in arrester
in case of the former while there is a power follows current, triggered by a
discharge in the air gap by lightning, only for a short time to interruption.
In the other category by housing, the majority of line arresters is of long-rod
type and is used in parallel with the insulator string assemblies. And almost all of
them are gapped type. The suspension type arrester, on the other hand, is a disc
insulator of new concept in whose shed zinc-oxide elements are embedded and air-
tightly sealed by using inorganic material. Namely, the suspension type arrester
insulator is the one having the conventional function of electric insulation and
mechanical support with additional function of arrester. In the application of this
type of arrester to the line, there are two methods namely; the direct connection of
these insulator units only and the other is the combination of these and ordinary
suspension type insulator units equipped with arcing horns.
The line arrester works as shown in Figure 13.23. [13.14].
Circuit breaker
operation
Trip-out
Insulator flashover
Without line arrester
With line arrester

lightning
No operation
Line arrester
Follow current interruption Line arrester operation
Fig. 13.23. Arrester impact to lightning performance of a line.
The application philosophy may be categorized into three according to the

number of circuits and phases [13.15]. That is, application to:
1. All three phases of one circuit of a double-circuit tower;
2. All three phases of two circuits of a double-circuit tower;
3. One or two phases of one circuit of o double-circuit tower.
Application philosophy (1) is for protection of the route from shutdown due
to double-circuit trip-outs.
Application philosophy (2) is for protection of the route from any shutdown
due to lightning attack. Limited use of this philosophy is made in case of a line of
heavy lightning area or a line that requires high reability.
Application philosophy (3) was for economical trial use to see the economy
effectiveness of the application.
While the needs for quality of electric power are increasing on one hand, the
cost reduction is required on the other hand. Above all, since the installation of the
line arresters is costly, a study is necessary on the effectiveness of their application
including economical factor, for example, partial installation of them, comparison
of reduced tripout rates of line installed with arresters and those without.
13.4.2. Overhead transmission lines medium and long terms

forecasting. New overhead transmission lines
13.4.2.1. General
Because of prevalent slow economic conditions, most utilities are currently
under tight budgetary control. At the same time, public concern about overhead
power lines, particularly potential health effects, is on rise. The combination of
these makes it difficult for utilities to justify, let alone obtain proper permitting, to
add new additions to the overhead line bulk power transfer system.
13.4.2.2. Design of the new lines

Compact lines
The increase of a length of network and interconnecting transmission lines
determines the necessity to increase their operating voltage. The increase of
operating voltage leads to the increase of electric field strength under lines up to
the value, which are considered as dangerous for people and animals. For this
reason it is necessary to find the manners of improvement the line structure, which
provide suitable value of electric field strength under lines, the minimum possible
width of right-of-way with increased electric field strength, as well as necessary
limitation of electric field strength on the conductor surface in order to limit radio
noise.
The maximum electric field strength under line with the same distance
between each phase and the ground at the height of 1.8 m above the ground at
given value of line natural power Pn = U n2 Z is determined by two geometric
dimensions: the minimum distance between phase axes, Dmin. and the spacing
between phase axes and the ground, Hmin. When Hmin increases, the maximum field
strength Emax decreases. But in this case the height of towers or their number
increases. In both cases this leads to the increase of tower mass and respectively
their cost. The decrease of phase spacing is more favourable. In this case it is
possible to decrease the expenditure of metal for towers. For this reason the
decrease of phase spacing is more favourable means of the limitation of the electric
field strength under lines. But the decrease of phase spacing leads to the increase of
electric field strength on the conductor surface. For this reason with the minimum
number of subconductor in a phase it is impossible to decrease significantly phase
spacing, because in this case the minimum field strength on the conductor surface
increases. The most effective means of the field strength decreasing in the case of
decreased phase spacing is an increase of the subconductor number and radius. A
decrease of field strength on the conductor surface can be provided by means of
optimisation of phase disposition and subconductor disposition in each phase. In
this case the distance between the outside phases and the width of the area with
increased electric field decreases significantly. Design of tangent towers permitting
to limit an influence of electric field strength at the ground level and radio noise
from overhead lined are considered (Fig. 13.24, 13.25) [13.16].
Fig. 13.24. Tangent V-tower for a 1150 kV compact line.
Fig. 13.25. Tangent rigid tower for a 500 kV compact line.

The problem related to magnetic fields in the vicinity of power lines has to an
ever-increasing extent been discussed during the last years. Because of the debate
over possible health effects from magnetic fields the acquisition of new
transmission right-of-way is very difficult. Therefore, two power companies and
the national grid operator in Sweden joined in a project to develop power lines with
low magnetic field emission for areas where other designs are not accepted.
By compaction the magnetic field from power lines will be reduced. The
most efficient reduction is achieved with the split phase configuration (Fig. 13.26)
[13.17]. The practice of overhead line designing and construction has shown that at
the up-to-date state of technique compact lines of high capacity meeting norms
requirements for limiting electric field strength at the ground level near overhead
lines and requirement of electromagnetic compatibility can be created.
Fig. 13.26. Split phase configuration
Visualization of OHL aesthetic impact

Visualization of OHL aesthetic impact is necessary in the OHL design
process in order to overcome the difficulties to obtain the construction
authorizations.
Three visualizations are now operational [13.18]:
1. A first advanced technique is based on the simultaneous projection of
video images taken by a stabilized camera fitted to a helicopter and
cartographic documents linked up by an intelligent data bank.
The video images of the route of an existing or new overhead line are
finally stored on laser-video-disk. The reference map is generally a
superposition of a regional map or on orthophotomap and a digitised map
showing the streets and other relevant infrastructure.
The position coordinates of the helicopter are measured by the Global
Positioning System (GPS) and are recording with the map for each video
shot. With the help of a Geographic Information System (GIS), a number

of attributes can be attached to the network elements on the map, making
the visualization system even more valuable: for instance, one can ask the
names of the streets crossed by the line or vice versa the relative situation
of a street with regard to the line.
2. With a second technique the video shot or the terrain photograph can be
overlaid with a coherent perspective view of a tower generated from its
vectorial 3D model, created and drawn by CAD.
The impact of the position, the orientation, the colours and even the type of
tower can be compared by moving the tower in the image and by replacing
it by other modelised structures.
3. A third advanced technique for the assessment of the presence of a line in a
site is based on a manipulation of geometrically corrected aerial
photograph or orthophotomaps. The orthophotomaps are at the same time
characterized by their visual information wealth as well as by their
geometric accuracy.
Introduced in the GIS, they allow o correct and intelligible visualization of
the concerned terrains. The combination of the orthophotomaps and
numerical terrain models allow creating virtual 3D landscape models in
which new structures can be visualized. At present, various line projects
are the object of visualization.
The visualization tools of the new overhead lines are now obtained,
developed, tested and operational. These tools and the images should be utilized in
order to present and compare the alternative of new projects to the authorities, the
public and the residents along the line for a better integration of overhead lines in
the environment.
Chapter references
[13.1] CIGRE Regional Meeting on Large Regional Networks within the Black Sea
Region and the European Interconnection in the Third Millennium Black Sea
EL-NET 2001, Section 1: Technical Aspects and Large Networks, Keynote
Address, Suceava, Romania, 2001.
[13.2] Soto, F., Alvira, D., Lattore, J., Wagensberg, M. Increasing the capacity of
overhead lines in the Spanish transmission network: Real time thermal rating,
CIGRE Rep. 22-211, 1998.
[13.3] Ooura, K., Kanemaru, K., Matsubara, R., Ibuki, S. Application of a power line
maintenance information system using OPGW to the Nishi-Gunma UHV line,
IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol.10, No.1, January 1995.
[13.4] Radu, C., Gheorghita, G., Matea, C., Tencu, C., Lazar, M. Emergency
restoration system for overhead transmission lines, CIGRE Regional Meeting on
Large Regional Networks within the Black Sea Region and the European
Interconnection in the Third Millennium Black Sea EL-NET 2001, Suceava,
Romania, 2001.
[13.5] CIGRE, SC 22. WG 04. Endurance capability of conductors, ELECTRA, No. 124.
[13.6] EPRI Transmission Line Reference Book.

[13.7] Regis, O. Jr., L.A. de M.Cabral Domingues Expanded Bundle Technique: The
application of HSIL TL concept to increase the capacity of overhead lines, CIGRE
Report 22-207, 1998.
[13.8] Douglass, D. et al., Overhead Transmission Systems Power Technologies, Inc.
NOVEL Transmission Conductors,
http://www.pti-us.com/pti/consult/overhead/novel.htm.
[13.9] Kiessling, F., Hussels, D., Juerdens, C., Ruhnau, J. Upgrading high-voltage lines
to increase their capacity and mitigate enviromental impacts, CIGRE Report 22-
208, 1998.
[13.10] Da Silva, J.B.G.F., Hughes, D., Gheorghita, G. Diaphragms for lattice steel
supports, ELECTRA, No.199, December 2001.
[13.11] Shigeru Terada, Tsuyoshi Sato, Nobuo Ohmori, Masahiro Imazawa Advanced
Properties of Hitachi OPGW, Hitachi Cable Review, No. 6, August 1987.
[13.12] RIBE RIBE Catalogue, RIBE Internal Edition, January 2004.
[13.13] RELIABLE Power Products.
[13.14] NGK, Release No. 105/1994.
[13.15] Kawamura, T., Inoue, A., Murusawa, I., Iria, T., Naito, K., Yamada, T.,
Yamamoto, Y., Mochizuki, M. Experience and effectiveness of application of
arresters to overhead transmission lines, CIGRE, Rep. 33-301, 1998.
[13.16] Alexandrov, G.N., Dikoi, V.P., Nikitin, O.A. Overhead Line Designing in view
of environmental constraints. Compact Overhead Lines, CIGRE Report 22/33/36-
05, 1998.
[13.17] Henning, G., Eriksson, A., Jonsson, U. Compacted Overhead Lines with low
magnetic fields, CIGRE, Report 22-204, 1996.
[13.18] Rogier, J., Goosens, L., Robberechts, W., Jadot, A. Visualization of overhead
line projects, CIGRE, Report 22-209, 1996.
Chapter 14
DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
14.1. General issues

New generation and storage technologies include a variety of energy sources, as:
Diesel Generators;
Low Inertia Gas Turbines;
Fuel Cells;
Biomass Systems;
Wind Energy Conversion Systems;
Small Hydro Turbines;
Photovoltaic Systems;
Solar Thermal;
Geothermal;
Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage;
Battery Energy Storage;
Compressed Air Energy Storage;
Flywheels.
Deployment of these generation units on distribution networks is termed
Distributed Generation (DG) (also known as dispersed or embedded generation).
On-site Generation is another term frequently used in the USA.
CIRED WG 04 [14.1] and CIGRE WG 37-23 [14.2] have published reports
dealing with the level and impacts of Distributed Generation connected at the
distribution level. According to CIGRE WG 37-23 Dispersed Generation is not
centrally planned, today not centrally dispatched, usually connected to the
distribution network, smaller than 50100 MW. It should be noted however, that
new generation technologies are also found in larger installations of some 100
MWs, e.g. recent developments of off-shore Wind Energy Conversion Systems
(WECS). CIREDs report is based on replies from a questionnaire of 22 questions
from 16 countries. On the question of definition of Distributed Generation a great
diversity among the answers is noted, i.e. definitions are based on voltage levels,
type of prime mover, e.g. renewable or co-generation (CHP), maximum power
rating or its availability for dispatch.
There is a general agreement that penetration of DG is increasing, as
governments are working towards ambitious targets of incorporating considerable
amounts of dispersed renewable generation (DRG) and Combined Heat and Power
(CHP). For example, the European Union in the White Book on Renewable Energy
Sources (RES), adopted in 1998 [14.3], has set as target 12% of electricity supplied
by renewable generation by 2010. According to the 2000 Directive of the European
Parliament [14.4], this is translated to an electricity production of 22.1% from
renewable energy sources. In Table 14.1 the potential for exploitation of the
different renewable energy sources is presented within the framework of the
European Commissions Strategy and Action Plan. In particular, the progress in
wind power development in recent years is impressive. In autumn 2002, almost
27260 MW of electricity-generating Wind Turbines are operating in fifty countries.
Of these, about 75% (20280 MW) are installed in the European Union, with
leading countries, Germany, Spain and Denmark, covering more than 89% [14.5,
14.6]. More than 35% of total US industrial electric power demand is met by DG.
For industry with stable demand is usually cheaper to generate on-site to avoid
charges for transmission, distribution or billing. The potential for smaller users,
such as housing developments and office buildings to switch to on-site power is
also high. In addition, considerable developments have been recently made on the
technological front, and potentially most challenging in the above respect, is the
development of micro-turbines and novel energy storage technologies. The
increasing penetration of DG has several technical implications and opens
important questions, as to whether the traditional approaches to operation and
development of power systems are still adequate. This is particularly true at the
distribution level, where the bulk of DG is connected.
Table 14.1
Estimated Contributions in the EU in the 2010 Scenario
Type of Energy Share in the EU in Projected Share by
1995 2010
Wind 2.5 GW 40 GW
Hydro 92 GW 105 GW
Large (82.5 GW) (91 GW)
Small (9.5 GW) (14 GW)
Photovoltaics 0.03 GWp 3 GWp
Biomass 44.8 Mtoe 135 Mtoe
Geothermal
Electric 0.5 GW 1 GW
Heat (incl. Heat 1.3 GWth 5 GWth
pumps)
Solar Thermal 6.5 Million m2 100 Million m2
Collectors
Passive Solar 35 Mtoe
Others 1 GW
Electricity produced by conventional, large scale central generation requires

high voltage transmission networks, high, medium and low voltage distribution
Distributed generation 807
networks to reach its consumers, while DG, often located closer to loads, requires
less transporting facilities, may reduce network losses and increase service quality.
This indicates that electricity produced by DG may have a higher value than that
produced by central generation. Figure 14.1 provides an overview of DG
dominated electricity networks [14.7].
The vision..
Yesterday Tomorrow: distributed/ on-site
generation with fully integrated
Central power station
network management
Photovoltaics
Transmission Network power plant
Storage Storage
Flow
Control
Storage Storage Power

House
quality
Distribution Network Power
device
Local CHP plant quality
device
Wind
power House with domestic CHP
plant
Commercial
Factory
building
Fig. 14.1. Vision of future power networks with increased penetration of DG.
One of the basic objectives of the ongoing reforms of electricity supply

industries around the world is to promote competition in the generation and retail
segments of the industry in the belief that this will lead to lower electricity prices
and improvements in service quality. Both generators and retailers require access to
network services in order to consummate business transactions with their
customers. Therefore, a necessary pre-condition for competition to develop is open
and non-discriminatory access to transmission and distribution networks by all
players in the energy market. The issue of competitiveness of DG is a network-
pricing problem and the problem of allocating the benefits/costs to DG is an
extension of the more general question of how to price distribution services in a
fully competitive electricity market. At present however, commercial arrangements
for electric power systems do not recognise this impact which then leads to
economic distortions in general and may adversely affect the development and
competitiveness of DG, and its positioning in the electricity supply market. This
chapter aims to identify the technical and economic implications of a large
integration of DG in power distribution systems. Present power system planning
and operation principles, standards and tariff structures are critically reviewed and
key issues that enable efficient operation and long term development of power
systems with considerable penetration of DG are identified. This review is based
on [14.8, 14.9].
14.2. Technical issues of the integration of DG in

distribution networks
In Figure 14.2 the basic connection arrangements applied to DGs are shown.
DGs are usually connected at the MV lines, where other installations are also
connected or at the MV busbars via dedicated MV lines. In some countries simple
design rules based on the voltage level at connection point are used to provide the
maximum capacity of DG that may be connected at different points of a
distribution system.
Distribution
network
MV network or MV busbars of
junction HV/MV substation
Energy
M production
Point of Common Coupling (PCC)
y Network point where other meter
installatons are connected Dedicated MV line to DG
y Evaluation criteria are applied installation (formally part of
at this point the network) Coupling point
y Actual point of coupling
to the network
Typical Energy
M consumption
DG Installation
meter
Coupling
substation
Generator
switch
G G G
Generators
Fig. 14.2. Typical DG connection arrangements.
Table 14.2 shows some of the rules used. An alternative simple approach is
to require that the three-phase short circuit level (fault level) at the point of
connection is a minimum multiple of the DG rating. Multiples as high as 20 or 25

have been required for wind turbines/wind farms in some countries. These simple
rules attempt to include the effect of a wide range of issues including voltage rise
and power quality in a single simple parameter, they tend however to be rather
restrictive and more detailed calculations often show that more generation can be
connected with no serious implications.
Table 14.2
Design rules commonly used for DG connection.
Network location Maximum capacity of DG
Out on 400 V network 50 kVA
at 400 V busbars 200-250 kVA
Out on 11 kV or 11.5 kV network 2-3 MVA
at 11 kV or 11.5 kV busbars 8 MVA
on 15 kV or 20 kV network and busbars 6.5-10 MVA
on 63 kV to 90 kV network 10-40 MVA
Modern distribution systems were designed to accept bulk power from the
transmission network and to distribute it to customers. Thus the flow of both active
power and reactive power was always from the higher to the lower voltage levels
and, even with interconnected distribution systems, the behaviour of the network is
well understood and the procedures for both design and operation long established.
However, with significant penetration of DG the power flows may become
reversed and the distribution network is no longer a passive circuit supplying loads,
but an active system with power flows and voltages determined by the generation,
as well as the loads. In general, the approach adopted has been to ensure that any
DG does not reduce the quality of supply offered to other customers and to
consider the generators as negative load. No real attempt has been made to
consider how the overall performance of a distribution system with a significant
penetration of dispersed generation may be optimised.
14.2.2. Network voltage changes

Every distribution utility has an obligation to supply its customers at a
voltage within specified limits. This requirement often determines the design and
expense of the distribution circuits and so, over the years, techniques have been
developed to make the maximum use of distribution circuits to supply customers
within the required voltages. The ratio of the MV/LV transformer has been
adjusted so that at times of maximum load the most remote customer will receive
acceptable voltage. During minimum load the voltage received by all customers is
just below the maximum allowed. Connection of a DG at the end of the feeder
changes power flows and hence voltage profiles. The most onerous case is likely to
be when the customer load on the network is at a minimum and the output of the
DG flows back to the source.
In some cases, the voltage rise can be limited by reversing the flow of
reactive power either by using an induction generator or by under-exciting a
synchronous machine and operating at leading power factor. This can be effective
on higher voltage overhead circuits, which tend to have a higher X/R ratio.
However, on LV cable distribution circuits the dominant effect is that of the active
power and the network resistance. Only very small DGs may therefore generally be
connected to LV networks.
Some distribution utilities use more sophisticated control of the on-load tap
changers of the distribution transformers including the use of a current signal
compounding the voltage measurement. One technique is that of line drop
compensation and as this relies on an assumed power factor of the load, the
introduction of dispersed generation and the subsequent change in power factor
may lead to incorrect operation if the DG is large compared to the customer load.
Clearly, this technique is entirely appropriate for circuits feeding loads. For well-
designed distribution circuits there is then little scope for DG, when simple
deterministic rules are used.
A simple and straightforward evaluation procedure for determining the
interconnection of DG, adopted by several utilities [14.10], is the following: The
maximum steady-state voltage change (%) at the PCC is evaluated and compared
to the limit, using the following relation:
Sn 100
(% ) 100 cos( k + ) = cos( k + ) 3%
Sk R
where S n is the DG rated apparent power, Sk the network short circuit capacity at
the Point of Common Coupling (PCC), k the phase angle of the network
impedance and the phase angle of the DG output current. R = S k S n is the short
circuit ratio at the PCC. The 3% limit imposed (some European national
regulations impose an even more stringent 2% limit) is strictly for two reasons.
First, the grid voltage levels are determined by the aggregate effect of all connected
consumers and generators and hence no single connection could be allocated the
full variation limit. Second, in order to achieve a 10% variation limit at the LV
level, the MV grid voltage should be more narrowly bounded.
This equation is accurate enough for most practical purposes (its error being
less than 0.5% for R 15). Depending on the grid angle k and the power factor
angle of the installation, short-circuit ratios down to 15 or even lower may be
acceptable, as illustrated in fig. 14.3,a. The effect of the DG power factor on the
voltage variations is also important, as it is evident from fig. 14.3,b, drawn for
k 55 (corresponding to ACSR-95 MV overhead network) and DG power
factor varying from 0.95 inductive to 0.95 capacitive.
The above procedure is generally unsuitable for cases of high DG
penetration, multiple DG installations on the same feeder or when generators are
connected to long feeders serving significant consumer load. In such cases, the
resulting voltage variations are caused by the aggregate effect of all generating
facilities and the existing (or planned) network loads. Therefore, load flow
calculations are required, taking into account the actual network configuration and
loads. Four basic load-generation combinations should be examined:
A. Minimum load-Minimum generation;
B. Minimum load-Maximum generation;
C. Maximum load-Minimum generation;
D. Maximum load-Maximum generation.
10.0 9
R=10
7.5 8
PF=0.95 cap.
R=20 7
5.0
2.5
R=40 6
(% )
(%) 5
0.0 PF=1.0
-180 -135 -90 -45 0 45 90 135 180 4
-2.5
3
-5.0
2
-7.5 1 PF=0.95 ind.
-10.0 0
k+ (deg) 0 10 20 30 40 50
Short circuit ratio R
a. b.
Fig. 14.3. a. Voltage change (%) as a function of angle k+, for three values of the short
circuit ratio R; b. (%) as a function of R, for three power factor values of the DG (unity and
0.95 inductive and 0.95 capacitive).
In typical rural overhead grids, case B yields the maximum and case C the
minimum voltage levels. The maximum and minimum voltages, of each node must
be appropriately bounded. This practice significantly limits the connection of DG.
As these conditions may only apply for a few hours per year it is clearly desirable
to consider stochastic voltage limits, as proposed under European standard EN
50160 [14.11]. The application of probabilistic load flow [14.12, 14.13] and
Monte-Carlo simulation techniques provide probabilities of voltage limit violations
and thus leads to objective decision-making. In Figure 14.4 an example of a
probabilistic load flow analysis is provided [14.9] showing the probability density
functions of the voltage at the connection bus of a Wind Park for various levels of
installed capacity. Assuming that the overvoltage limit would be set to 1.05 pu, it
can be clearly seen that deterministic criteria would limit the maximum wind
power penetration to 10%, while a probabilistic approach shows that 20% or even
30% of installed capacity would provide voltage limit violation with a very low
cumulative probability.
This analysis would also allow DG to decide to be constrained off in certain
circumstances to limit voltage rise. Further, many DGs have the ability to operate
at various power factors and may even be able to act as sources/sinks of reactive
power when not generating.
50
a
40
Prob. (x 10-2)
30
b
20
c
10 d
e
0
0.98 1.02 1.06 1.1 1.14
V ( p.u. )
Fig. 14.4. Probability density function of voltage at connection bus for
a) 0%, b) 10%, c) 20%, d) 30% and e) 40% wind power penetration.
For some overhead distribution circuits (i.e. those with high reactance) then
the DGs could contribute to circuit voltage control provided suitable control and
commercial systems were in place. This is further discussed in Section 14.3.2.1.
Future active networks likely to be characterised by interconnected operation and
significant DG integration, will require both new advanced control systems and
accompanying commercial arrangements [14.8]. The overall benefits of this
integration include:
(1) effective operation and use of distribution circuits to accommodate DG;
(2) enhancement of the value of dispersed sources and hence of their
competitiveness.
This could be achieved by a co-ordinated (but most likely distributed) control
of the system through new Distribution Management System (DMS) applications
that need to be developed to allow this integrated operation to be implemented.
14.2.3. Increase in network fault levels

Most DG plant uses rotating machines and these, when connected directly to
the network, will contribute to the network fault levels. Both induction and
synchronous generators will increase the fault level of the distribution system
although their behaviour under sustained fault conditions differs. A synchronous
generator will contribute sustained fault current to a balanced three-phase fault at
its terminals if it is equipped with a suitable excitation system. An induction
machine is not capable of this, as its excitation will be removed when its terminal
voltage drops. Both synchronous and induction generators can contribute to
asymmetrical faults and computer based simulations are required for accurate
calculation of this effect.
For rural areas this issue is unlikely to be important, as the existing fault
levels of rural distribution networks are generally low. However, in urban areas
where the existing fault levels approach switchgear ratings, the increase in fault
level can be a serious impediment to the connection of DG. The fault level
contribution of a DG may be reduced by introducing some impedance between the
generator of the network by a transformer or a reactor but at the expense of
increased losses and wider voltage variations on the generator. In some countries,
explosive fuse type fault current limiters are used to limit the fault level
contribution of DG plant. Overall however, the technical solutions, other than
replacing switchgear, are limited and uprating of distribution network switchgear
can be extremely expensive. The situation is clearly different for DG connected
through power electronic interfaces, in which case, fault contribution can be more
easily controlled.
14.2.4. Effects on power quality

Two aspects of power quality are usually considered to be important: (1)
transient voltage variations and (2) harmonic distortion of the network voltage.
Depending on the particular circumstances, DG plant can either decrease or
increase the quality of the voltage received by other users of the distribution
network.
Transient voltage variations are induced either by switching operations
within the premises of the DG installation (usually start/stop operations of
equipment), or by the variability of the output power during normal operation. The
magnitude of the change and the resulting flicker emissions should be limited, to
avoid disturbing other nearby installations. Measures of the flicker emissions are
the short term, Pst, and long term, Plt, flicker severity indices [14.14, 14.15,14.16].
Regarding switching operations, the limits imposed depend on the voltage
level (LV or MV) where the customer is connected, the size of the equipment and
the frequency of the operations. Based on the requirements of the relevant IEC
standards and recommendations, [14.16 14.20], the limits set for the relative (%)
voltage change are presented in Table 14.3.
Table 14.3
Fast voltage change magnitude limits
Frequency of switching operations, r (h-1: per hour, d-1: per day)
LV MV
r > 1 h-1 2 d-1 < r < 1 h-1 r < 2 d-1 r > 100 h-1 10 h < r 100 h-1 r 1 h-1
-1
Steady-state
3% -
change, dc
Maximum 4
change, dmax 4% 5.5 % 7% 2% 3%
%
The magnitude of the current transients can, to a large extent, be limited by

careful design of the DG plant, although for single generators connected to weak
systems the transient voltage variations caused may be the limitation on their use
rather than steady-state voltage rise. Synchronous generators can be connected to

the network with negligible disturbance if synchronised correctly and anti-parallel
soft-start units can be used to limit the magnetising inrush current of induction
generators to values lower than rated current. However, disconnection of the
generators when operating at full load may lead to significant voltage drops. Also,
some forms of prime mover (e.g., fixed speed wind turbines) may cause cyclic
variations in the generator output current, which can lead to flicker nuisance, if not
adequately controlled.
Conversely however, the addition of DG plant acts to raise the distribution
network fault level. Once the generation is connected any disturbances caused by
other customers loads, or even by remote faults, will result in smaller voltage
variations and hence improved power quality. It is interesting to note that one
conventional approach to improving the power quality of sensitive high value
manufacturing plants is to install local generation.
Similarly, incorrectly designed or specified DG plants, with power electronic
interfaces to the network, may inject harmonic currents which can lead to
unacceptable network voltage distortion.
For LV systems specific compatibility levels are given in IEC 61000-2-2
[14.21] and IEC 61000-3-6 [14.22], which also serve as planning levels, and are
included in Table 14.4. Planning levels for harmonic voltages in MV and HV
systems are not presented here since similar data was given in Table 6.4, Chapter 6.
However, the generators can also lower the harmonic impedance of the
distribution network and so reduce the network harmonic voltage at the expense of
increased harmonic currents in the generation plant and possible problems due to
harmonic resonances. This is of particular importance if power factor correction
capacitors are used to compensate induction generators.
Table 14.4
Planning levels for harmonic voltages in LV networks (IEC 61000-3-6, [14.22])
Odd harmonics 3k Odd harmonics = 3k Even harmonics
Harmonic Harmonic Harmonic
Order Order Order
voltage voltage voltage
h h h
(%) (%) (%)
5 6 3 5 2 2
7 5 9 1.5 4 1
11 3.5 15 0.3 6 0.5
13 3 21 0.2 8 0.5
17 2 >21 0.2 10 0.5
19 1.5 12 0.2
23 1.5 >12 0.2
25 1.5
>25 25
0.2+ 1.3
h
Note: THD at LV = 8 %
A rather similar effect is shown in the balancing of the voltages of rural MV

systems by induction generators. The voltages of rural MV networks are frequently
unbalanced due to the connection of single-phase loads. An induction generator has
very low impedance to unbalanced voltages and will tend to draw large unbalanced
currents and hence balance the network voltages at the expense of increased
currents in the generator and consequent heating.
Power quality is an increasingly important issue and generation is generally
subject to the same regulations as loads. This tends to work well in practice and it
is generally possible to meet the required standards by careful design. The effect of
increasing the network fault level by adding generation often leads to improved
power quality. A notable exception is that a single large dispersed generator, e.g., a
wind turbine, on a weak network may lead to power quality problems particularly
during starting and stopping.
14.2.5. Protection issues

A number of aspects regarding protection can be identified:
Protection of the generation equipment from internal faults;
Protection of the faulted distribution network from fault currents supplied
by the DG;
Anti-Islanding or loss-of-mains protection;
Impact of DG on existing distribution system protection.
Protecting the DG from internal faults is usually fairly straightforward. Fault
current flowing from the distribution network is used to detect the fault and
techniques used to protect any large spinning load are generally adequate. In rural
areas, a common problem is ensuring that there will be adequate fault current from
the network to ensure rapid operation of the relays or fuses.
Protection of the faulted distribution network from fault current from the
DGs is often more difficult. Induction generators cannot supply sustained fault
current to a three-phase close up fault and their sustained contribution to
asymmetrical faults is limited. Small synchronous generators require sophisticated
exciters and field forcing circuits if they are to provide sustained fault current
significantly above their full load current. Thus, for some installations it is
necessary to rely on the distribution protection to clear any distribution circuit fault
and hence isolate the dispersed generation plant, which is then tripped on
over/under voltage, over/undervoltage protection or loss-of-mains protection.
Loss-of-mains protection is a particular issue in a number of countries
particularly where auto-reclose is used on the distribution circuits. For a variety of
reasons, both technical and administrative, the prolonged operation of a power
island fed from the dispersed generator but not connected to the main distribution
network is considered unacceptable. Thus a relay is required which will detect
when the dispersed generator, and perhaps a surrounding part of the network, has
become islanded and will then trip the generator. This relay must work within the
dead-time of any auto-reclose scheme to avoid out-of-phase reconnection.

Although a number of techniques are used, including rate-of-change-of-frequency
(rocof) and voltage vector shift, these are prone to mal-operation, if set sensitively
to detect islanding rapidly. There is considerable scope for improvement in this
area, particularly with the emergence of digital integrated protection, control and
monitoring systems.
The neutral grounding of the generator is a related issue as in a number of
countries it is considered unacceptable to operate an ungrounded system and so
care is required as to where a neutral connection is obtained and grounded. Finally,
DG may effect the operation of existing distribution network by providing flows of
fault current which were not anticipated when the protection was originally
designed. The fault contribution from the dispersed generator can support the
network voltage and lead to relays under-reaching.
14.2.6. Effects on stability

Traditionally, distribution network design did not need to consider issues of
stability as the network was passive and remained stable under most circumstances,
provided the transmission network was itself stable. Further, for the early DG
schemes, whose objective was to generate kWh from new renewable energy
sources, considerations of generator transient stability tended not to be of great
significance. If a fault occurred somewhere on the distribution network to depress
the network voltage and the dispersed generator tripped, then all that was lost was a
short period of generation. The DG tended to overspeed and trip on its internal
protection. The control scheme of the DG would re-start it automatically, once the
network conditions were restored. Of course if the generation scheme is intended
mainly as a provider of steam for a critical process, then more care is required to
try to ensure that the generator does not trip for remote network faults. However, as
the inertia of dispersed generation plant is often low and the tripping time of
distribution protection long, it may not be possible to ensure stability for all faults
on the distribution network. A particular problem in some countries is nuisance
tripping of rate of change of frequency (rocof) relays. These are set sensitively to
detect islanding but, in the event of a major system disturbance, e.g., loss of a large
central generator, mal-operate and trip large amounts of dispersed generation. The
effect of this is, of course, to depress the system frequency further.
Synchronous generators will pole-slip during transient instability but when
induction generators overspeed they draw very large reactive currents, which
depress the network voltage further and lead to voltage instability. The steady-state
stability limit of induction generators can also limit their application on very weak
distribution networks as a very high source impedance, or low network short circuit
level, can reduce their peak torque to such an extent that they cannot operate at
rated output.
At present, stability is hardly considered when assessing dispersed renewable
generation schemes. However, this is likely to change as the penetration of these
schemes increases and their contribution to network security becomes greater. The
areas that need to be considered include transient (first swing stability), as well as
long term dynamic stability and voltage collapse.
14.2.7. Effects of DG connection to isolated systems

Isolated power systems, like the ones operating in islands, face increased
problems related to their operation and control. In most of these systems, the cost
of electricity production is much higher than in interconnected systems due to the
high operating costs of their thermal generating units, mainly diesel and gas
turbines, and the import and transportation costs of the fuel used. In these systems
the production of electric energy from renewable energy sources, mainly wind,
presents particular interest, especially when the wind energy potential allows
significant displacement of conventional fuels.
The large volatility of these sources makes accurate wind forecasting a very
important EMS function and the high degree of resource uncertainty makes
economic scheduling a challenging task. Moreover, mismatches in generation and
load or unstable system frequency control might lead to system failures much
easier than interconnected systems. Thus, next to the more common angle and
voltage stability concerns, frequency stability [14.23, 14.24] must be ensured. This
depends on the ability of the system to restore balance between generation and load
following a severe system upset with minimum loss of load. The control of
frequency and the management of system generation reserves are of primary
importance [14.24]. The introduction of a high penetration from wind energy
causes additional difficulties, since the majority of Wind Turbines cannot
participate in frequency control. In Figure 14.5 the frequency variation and the
thermal Unit response of a large island system during disconnection of a 20 MW
Gas Turbine for operation without and with Wind Production and different types of
spinning reserves is simulated. The need for spinning reserves optimisation is
obvious. Moreover, fast wind power changes and very high wind speeds might
result in disconnection of wind turbines and thus frequency excursions and
dynamically unstable situations. In addition, frequency oscillations might easily
trigger the frequency protection relays of the wind parks, thus causing further
imbalance in the system generation/load.
Advanced control systems can substantially help operators to manage
efficiently these systems allowing increased penetration of renewable energy
sources in a secure way, as shown in a series of EC projects [14.25 14.27]. In
particular, the control system CARE has been developed comprising advanced
software modules for load and wind power forecasting, unit commitment and
economic dispatch of the conventional and renewable units and on-line security
assessment capabilities integrated in a friendly Man-Machine environment. CARE
has been fully installed in Crete, the largest Greek island and Madeira and its wind
forecasting modules in Ireland. Its on-line dynamic security assessment functions
allow operators to retain acceptable security levels by assessing in a fast way
expected system frequency excursions and df dt values, for selected critical

disturbances and by helping them in defining robust operating strategies
[14.28 14.30]. In this way penetration of renewable energy sources in isolated
systems can be increased in a secure and reliable way.
Fig. 14.5. Frequency variation and thermal production in a large island system during
disconnection of a 20 MW gas turbine for operation without and with wind power and
different types of spinning reserves.
14.3. Commercial issues in distribution systems

containing DG
In order to facilitate the competition between various generators, central and
dispersed, setting of appropriate connection and use of transmission and
distribution tariffs, as well as an equitable loss allocation policy is essential. Due to
its location, DG not only acts as another source of electricity, but it can potentially
substitute for transmission and high voltage distribution facilities, as well as reduce
losses in those networks. It should be noted, that electricity prices at wholesale
electricity market in Europe, average at about 20 30 $/MWh while the retail price
of electricity is currently about 60 100 $/MWh. Transmission and distribution
networks, together with the supply business are responsible for the difference
between retail and wholesale prices. This indicates that kWh produced by DG has a
higher value than kWh generated at transmission level. As in a fully competitive

environment DG competes directly with central generation, the importance of a
consistent commercial framework for pricing of network services is essential for
the establishment of fair competition among generators. In the following, the
impact of DG on distribution network operating and capital costs is discussed.
Particular emphasis is placed on the relationship between network pricing practices
and the economic impact of DG on power networks.
14.3.2. Present network pricing arrangements

14.3.2.1. Connection costs and charges
Legislation requires Distribution Companies to provide a supply of electricity
required. In meeting such a request, the company may set connection charges at a
level which enables it to recover the cost incurred in carrying out any works, the
extension or reinforcement of the distribution system including a reasonable rate of
return on the capital represented by the costs. From DG perspective, two questions
related to the policy of connecting DG are of considerable importance:
a. voltage level to which generation should be connected, as it has a major
impact on the overall profitability of generation projects, and
b. question of whether connection policy is based on shallow or on deep
charges.
Voltage level related connection cost
The overall connection costs may considerably alter the cost base of a DG.
Primarily the voltage level to which the generator is connected drives these costs:
the higher the voltage, the larger the connection cost. Generally, in order to secure
the viability of a generation project, developers and operators of DG would prefer
to be connected at the lowest possible voltage level. On the other hand, the higher
the connection voltage level, the lower the impact that DG has on the performance
of the local network. Therefore, network operators may prefer such solutions.
These two conflicting objectives need to be balanced appropriately, and may
require not only an in depth technical and economic analysis of the connection
design but also the presence of an appropriate network pricing policy.
The determination of the voltage level to which a generator should be
connected to is driven by its impact on the voltage profile of the local network. In
the majority of European countries the accepted steady state voltage variations are
much stricter than the European Norm, EN 50160. In this respect, particularly
critical is the voltage rise effect which generator connected to a weak network
could produce. It is important to remember that adequate reactive or/and active
power control could be used as a means for controlling the voltage rise. However,
the commercial framework for the voltage regulation policy through active or
reactive power control is not yet very well developed. For example, VAr
management as a means of reducing the voltage fluctuations in distribution
networks is not supported by appropriate pricing mechanisms. Instead, the majority
of distribution companies charge for the consumption of reactive power implicitly

through peak kVA or explicitly in terms of penalising reactive power consumption
above a threshold. Furthermore, VAr injections are not considered to be useful. In
fact present reactive power pricing in some distribution networks is that generators
which absorb reactive power are charged by the distribution company on the basis
of the active power demand taken by the plant, not its generation. As active power
input is much lower than the active power output, reactive power taken by the
generator is seen as reactive excess, and consequently, the generator is expected to
pay the highest possible excess reactive charges. There are two different
approaches to charging for reactive power/energy. The majority of distribution
companies charge with respect to kVArh (reactive energy) in excess of 40-50% of
the total unit consumption in that month. Some other companies charge for
maximum kVAr (reactive power) of demand in excess of the value obtained by
multiplying the maximum kW of demand registered in any time during the month
by 0.4. There are also companies who base their distribution use-of-system charges
on kVA demand, which discourages consumption of reactive power.
Absorbing reactive power can be very beneficial to controlling voltage rise
effect in weak overhead networks with dispersed generation. Although this would
normally lead to an increase in network losses, DG does not have the opportunity
to balance the connection costs against cost of losses and make an appropriate
choice. Clearly, the above tariff structure discourages generators from participating
in voltage regulation. Conversely, synchronous generators are offered no incentive
by the distribution company to provide reactive support and take part in voltage
regulation. The philosophy behind the excess reactive charges has been derived for
passive distribution networks and cannot easily be justified in the context of a
distribution network with dispersed generation.
This mechanism does not, however, encourage the development of a reactive
power management as a component of the voltage regulation service.
Consequently, the inability of the present reactive power pricing concept to support
provision of voltage regulation may unnecessarily force generators to connect to a
higher voltage level, imposing significant connection costs.
It is important to remember that reactive power flows may have a significant
impact on active power losses. This fact is sometimes used to argue that VAr
absorption as a means of reducing the voltage rise effect may be not desirable, as it
generally leads to increase in losses. However, the generators are not given the
opportunity to balance the benefit from connecting to a low voltage level against
the cost incurred from increase in losses. Furthermore, presently used loss
allocation factors are related to active power and are not capable of capturing the
impact of reactive power consumption or absorption.
Similarly, constraining generation off could be used as a means of reducing
the voltage rise effect. The generator may find it profitable to shed some of its
output for a limited period if allowed to connect to a lower voltage level. However,
this option has not yet been offered to generators.
It follows from the above discussion that the inability of the present reactive
power pricing concept to support provision of voltage regulation may unnecessarily
force generators to connect to a higher voltage level, imposing significant

connection costs. Further development of market mechanisms and pricing policies
may lead to the development of a market for the provision of voltage regulation
services in distribution networks and provide more choice for dispersed generation
to control its connection costs. This is an area which has only recently received
noticeable attention. It is expected that it will develop in the near future and open
up further possibilities for dispersed generation to participate not only in the energy
market but also in a market for the provision of ancillary services. Appropriate
tools, which would enable the establishment of an ancillary services market in
distribution networks, are not currently available to network operators. This area is
increasingly receiving considerable attention by both industry and academia.
Deep versus shallow connection charges
Another issue that can significantly influence the profitability of a generation
project is related to whether connection charges should reflect only costs
exclusively associated with making the new connection or should also include the
additional costs which are indirectly associated with the reinforcement of the
system. In other words, should connection charges be based on so-called shallow or
deep connection costs.
One such situation is illustrated in Figure 14.6. Cost associated with
connecting the DG to the nearest point on the local distribution network system is
referred to as shallow connection. Clearly, the line between the new DG and the
system is used only by the generator, the generator is therefore required to cover
the cost of the connection through connection charges. These could be imposed
over a period of time if the distribution company invests and owns the connection,
or alternatively, as one off-payment in which case the generator is effectively the
owner of the line.
It has been argued that the advantages of shallow connection charges is in the
simplicity of their definitions, as it is relatively straightforward to identify cost
exclusively related to connecting the generator to the nearest point on the network.
On the other hand, the cost associated with a new connection might not be fully
reflected in the connection charge made, as such a connection may require
reinforcement of the system further away from the connection itself. The majority
of network operators charge new entries for the cost of connection itself and cost
incurred for any upstream reinforcement. For the purpose of the illustration of the
concept it is assumed that the new connection requires the circuit breaker to be
replaced, as the presence of the generator increases the fault level, as indicated in
Figure 14.6. If the DG is required to cover the cost of the reinforcement of the
circuit breaker, this would be referred to as deep connection cost.
It is, however, important to stress that this circuit breaker is installed because
of all generators, both central and embedded. The individual contribution of each
generator to the size of the circuit breaker can be readily computed using
conventional short circuit analysis tools. These contributions to the short circuit
current then may be used to allocate the cost of replacing the circuit breaker. This
is indicated in Figure 14.7.
CB DG
Shallow
Connection
Deep
Connection
Fig. 14.6. Illustration of shallow and deep connection.
CB Contribution from
embedded generation
Contribution from
central generation
Fig. 14.7. Contribution of central and dispersed generators to fault level.
It is important to emphasise that an argument such as there would not be a

need to replace the breaker if the new generator did not appear cannot be credibly
used to require the new entry to recover all system reinforcement cost. In
accordance with conventional economic theory it can be argued that in this case
distribution network owner should replace the circuit breaker, and recover its cost
through charging all generators with respect to their respective contribution. This
can be achieved by adjusting the use of system charges accordingly to all
generators in the following price review period. Clearly, the circuit breaker in
question should be considered as a system related investment and its cost recovered
through the use of system charges rather than through the connection charges.
Under such scenario, large generators connected to the transmission system would
be likely required to compensate the majority of these costs. It is, however,
important to observe that, in accordance with the present practice for pricing of
network services, central generators are not charged for the use of the distribution
network, as if these networks were not required for the use of their output.
14.3.2.2. Distribution use of system charges

The distribution network business is dominated by capital cost and it operates
in a near monopolistic or highly restricted competitive environment. Tariffs for the
use of distribution networks are set so as to recover the cost involved in serving
network users and to facilitate competition in the supply and generation of
electricity. This defines the following primary objectives of setting tariffs for the
use of distribution networks:
Revenue generation tariffs should yield adequate revenue to cover
network operating and capital costs but also should encourage justifiable
network investment and discourages over-investment.
Economic efficiency tariffs should reflect cost streams and should send
appropriate economic messages to users of the network avoiding any
temporal and spatial cross-subsidies.
Although these objectives have been well understood and recognised, the
implementation of such a tariff structure was always far from being
straightforward.
Determining an appropriate tariff structure is a complex procedure mainly
due to the mass of technical detail involved, constraints imposed by available
metering technology and the necessity to take into consideration various conflicting
standards of fairness and efficiency in the choice of a tariff structure. One of the
major challenges in tariff setting is establishing the trade off between the various
objectives of tariff making: the ability to reflect accurately cost streams, efficiency
in responding economically to changing demand and supply conditions,
effectiveness in delivering appropriate revenue requirements, stability and
predictability of the revenue and tariffs themselves, simplicity in terms of their
practical implementability. Clearly, the economic efficiency requirement may lead
to tariff complexity requiring a considerable amount of data handling, since strictly
speaking each node in the network would have its own unique set of tariffs for each
hour of the day. Tariffs also should provide a transparent framework in which
regulatory agencies can exercise their statutory responsibilities in terms of
monitoring the revenue, expenditure and performance of the distribution
businesses. The question whether or not to adopt a particular tariff structure is
settled by assessing the cost and benefits of its implementation.
From DG perspective, the fundamental issue is the economic efficiency of
these tariffs and their ability to reflect cost streams imposed by the users. The
impact of DG on the networks (in terms of costs and benefits) is very site specific.
It varies in time and depends on the availability of the primary sources (important
for some forms of renewable generation), size and operational practice of the plant,
proximity of the load, layout and electric characteristics of the local network. It is
not, therefore, surprising that the relatively simplistic tariff structures, with network
charges being averaged across customer groups and various parts of the network do
not appropriately reflect the economic impact of DG on distribution network costs.
This is because these tariffs have no real ability to capture the temporal and spatial
variations of cost streams.
As indicated in the introduction, the impact of DG on network operating and
capital costs is location specific. It is, therefore, essential to recognise that only
location specific tariff regimes are candidates for adequately recognising the
benefit/cost of DG to power networks. Furthermore, network operating and capital

costs are known as being influenced by variation of demand and generation in time.
Therefore, a further requirement of the ideal pricing policy is that it must possess a
time-of-use dimension. Consequently, in the development of the ideal pricing
mechanism for networks with DG the key requirements of spatial and time of use
discrimination must rank very highly.
14.3.2.3. Network security, service quality and distributed

generation
As stated already, system security in distribution networks tends to be
measured deterministically. The most widely applied security assessment method is
the so-called (N-1) security criterion. This method is conceptually simple to
understand and also relatively easy to programme. Unfortunately, evaluation of
system security by such deterministic approaches is inappropriate for the
deregulated environment. It is particularly unsuitable for systems with DG.
DG by definition is located deep in the distribution network, and often very
close to end customers. Therefore, apart from being another source of energy, DG
can potentially replace transmission and distribution network facilities. From this
perspective, DG can be regarded as a competitor to transmission and distribution in
the provision of network services. However, DG, particularly renewable with
stochastic output, is not and cannot be available at all times. Consequently the
potential of this type of generation to replace transmission or distribution network
facilities is mostly ignored in current transmission and distribution planning. The
argument used to justify this attitude is that transmission facilities would in any
case be required to ship power from central generation at times when DG is not
available. Therefore the level of security (and therefore capacity) designed into
transmission and distribution systems cannot be altered by the presence of DG.
This argument is, however, only valid in the narrow context of deterministic
security standards. For systems with significant penetration of DG with a wide
diversity of primary sources, it would be inconceivable and indeed most
improbable that all the generating units would be unavailable at exactly the same
time. And yet this is the assumption made to discount the value of distributed
generation as a potential provider of network service.
In order to quantify and evaluate the true value of DG in terms of its
contribution to improvement of quality of supply, it is necessary to abandon
present deterministic security assessment methods in favour of probabilistic ones.
In probabilistic security assessment each network element including all dispersed
generating units, is assigned an availability index. The required system generation
reserve and network capacity margin, which is optimal in probabilistic sense, is
then determined as a trade off between additional capital investments as well as
operating costs and the reduction in outage costs incorporating operating
constraints for the contingent systems into the optimisation process. This problem
can be solved within a stochastic optimisation framework for which methodologies
are available.
14.3.2.4. Allocation of losses in networks with DG

The presence of DG alters the power flows and hence losses that are incurred
in transporting electricity across transmission and distribution networks. Several
methods have been proposed in the literature to allocate losses, including the
proportional sharing loss formula, pro rata, incremental transmission loss, and
incremental bilateral contract path [14.31 14.36]. Amongst them, the ones based
on marginal losses come closer to an ideal policy that fulfils the following
requirements:
Economic efficiency; Losses must be allocated so as to reflect the true cost
that each user imposes on the network with respect to the cost of losses i.e.
it must avoid cross subsidies between users and between different times of
use;
Equity, accuracy and consistency; The loss allocation method must be
equitable, accurate and consistent;
Must utilise metered data; From a practical standpoint, it is desirable to
base allocation of losses on actual metered data;
Must be simple and easy to implement; In order for any proposed loss
allocation method to find favour, it must be easy to understand and
implement.
Because power system load as well as generation output vary in time and
space, any proposed loss allocation scheme must have the ability to capture and
accurately convey the spatial and temporal impacts that each user has on losses.
Figure 14.8 summarises graphically the impact of DG on marginal losses for
a particular study case network. It is evident that minimum losses in this network
occur when the DG output equals approximately 250 kW. Beyond this level of
output, DG ceases to have a beneficial effect on losses.
4
3.5
3
Total system Loss (kW)
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
DG output (kW)
Fig. 14.8. Variation of total system loss with DG output.
Figure 14.9 depicts the variation of marginal loss coefficients (MLCs) with
DG output at a certain DG bus for a whole day [14.38]. Notice that the MLC at this
node has a negative value for most of the day, indicating that this DG is
contributing to system loss reduction and should therefore be rewarded. In the

period 4.30-10.30 however, MLC becomes positive, and DG should be penalised.
This is shown in the lower curve of Figure 14.10, illustrating the revenue variations
at two DG buses.
Fig. 14.9. Daily variation of Marginal Loss Coefficients (MLCs) related to active
injections and payment factors at a DG bus.
Fig. 14.10. Daily revenue variations at two DG buses.
It is shown [14.37], that methods based on the evaluation of marginal

contributions that each user makes to the total system losses provide a consistent
policy for allocating series losses in distribution and transmission networks, that
ensures economic efficiency. These methods can be proven to be applicable for a
fully competitive electricity market.
It is important to emphasise that the above methods may not be appropriate to

allocate losses that do not depend on system loading, such as voltage driven core
losses in transformers. These charges associated should be dealt within the same
framework as charges for availability, and not as a part of half hourly settlement
process.
14.4. Conclusions
In this chapter the main technical and economic implications from the
connection of DG to the distribution networks is discussed. In particular, the effects
on steady state voltages, on fault level increase, on power quality, protection and
stability are discussed. The technical criteria and limitations are critically reviewed
and where possible alternative approaches proposed. Commercial issues and tariff
structures are discussed next, focusing on connection costs and charges, network
security and service quality and allocation of losses. It is argued that the adoption
of non-discriminatory tariffs would enable efficient operation and long term
development of power systems with significant presence of DG.
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Electric Power Systems

This book was financially supported by:

Yong Hua Song Nikos Hatziargyriou

ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS

EDITURA ACADEMIEI ROMNE

Mircea Eremia Yong-Hua Song

Volume I: ELECTRIC NETWORKS

Part one: BASIC COMPUTATION

1. ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS CONFIGURATION AND PARAMETERS

2. RADIAL AND MESHED NETWORKS (Mircea Eremia, Ion Tritiu) .....................83

3. AC TRANSMISSION LINES (Mircea Eremia, Ion Stratan, Ctlin Dumitriu) .....165

3.2.2. Apparent characteristic power. Natural power

4. HVDC TRANSMISSION (Mircea Eremia, Constantin Bulac) ...............................239

4.8. Comparison between DC and AC transmission ................................................302

5. NEUTRAL GROUNDING OF ELECTRIC NETWORKS (Adrian Buta) ..............325

6. ELECTRICAL POWER QUALITY (Adrian Buta, Lucian Toma) ...........................367

7. POWER AND ENERGY LOSSES IN ELECTRIC NETWORKS

Part two: LOAD FLOW AND POWER SYSTEM SECURITY

8. PERFORMANCE METHODS FOR POWER FLOW STUDIES

9. STATE ESTIMATION OF ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS (Mircea Neme) ......567

10. STEADY STATE OPTIMIZATION (Gheorghe Crin, Yong Hua Song).............597

11. LOAD FORECAST (Bucur Lutrea) .......................................................................671

11.3. Stages of a forecast study ................................................................................673

Part three: TECHNICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL COMPUTATION

12. ELECTRIC NETWORKS IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT

13. OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION LINES TECHNICAL DESIGN

14. DISTRIBUTED GENERATION (Nikos Hatziargyriou) .........................................805

Volume II: POWER SYSTEMS STABILITY AND ELECTRICITY MARKETS

Part one: POWER SYSTEM STABILITY AND CONTROL

Part two: ELECTRICITY MARKETS. DEREGULATION

Volume III: ADVANCED TECHNIQUES AND TECHNOLOGIES

Part one: FACTS TECHNOLOGIES

Part two: ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE TECHNIQUES

Part three: INFORMATION AND COMPUTING TECHNOLOGIES

Prabha Kundur, Ph.D., FIEEE, FCAE

Surrey, British Columbia, Canada

Modern power systems are the result of continuous development and

nominal value. Chapter 3 presents the theory of alternating current long

respond in real time; state estimation, provided in Chapter 9, is an efficient

Mircea Eremia, Professor

1.1. Classification and architecture of electric networks

1.1.1. Types of electric networks

interconnection networks provide the compensation transfer (Fig. 1.1). This

Fig. 1.1. Definition of systematic and Fig. 1.2. Radial networks.

1.1.2. Architecture of electric networks

Voltage level [kV]

0.4 Low voltage

Fig. 1.7. The architecture of the national power system.

750 kV, 400 kV

Fig. 1.8. Main power transmission and distribution chart

b. Transmission networks structure. The reason why transmission networks

low voltage: under 50 kW, it supplies domestic, residential and tertiary

Fig. 1.9. Architecture of supply

Figure 1.11 presents the architecture of a repartition network of 110 kV that

400 kV/110 kV 110 kV/MV

110 kV/MV transformer substations is presented in Figure 1.13. The transformer

Ring 1, 110 kV Ring 2, 110 kV

The medium voltage networks are composed of MV/0.4 kV lines and

Fig. 1.17. MV direct distribution through grid type cables.

Fig. 1.18. MV direct distribution through underground lines in double derivation.

The French MV underground distribution network uses interrupted artery

S - power supply (source) Backup feeder

ABT Automatic Bus Transfer

Fig. 1.21. Diagram of customer and mixed