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DEMYSTIFIED
A GUIDE TO TRADING AND
THE GLOBAL SUPPLY CHAIN
Commodities trading supply of the basic staples
that are converted into the food we eat, the
industrial goods we use, and the energy that fuels
our transport and heats and lights our lives is
one of the oldest forms of economic activity, yet
it is also one of the most widely misunderstood.
At no time has this been truer than in the last
20 years, with the emergence of a group of
specialist commodities trading and logistics firms
operating in a wide range of complex markets,
from metals and minerals to energy products.
This guide, Commodities Demystified, is an
attempt to explain the functions and modus
operandi of these firms, and the way they help
organise the supply chains that underpin todays
globalised world. Drawing on the expertise and
experience of Trafigura, one of the leading
independent trading firms, it describes operating
principles and techniques that are common to
the sector as a whole. We hope you will find it
interesting and informative, and that it sheds
some additional light on a critical global industry
that deserves to be better understood.
Disclamer. This publication has been prepared for general guidance on matters of interest only, and does not constitute professional advice. You
should not act upon the information contained in this publication without obtaining specific professional advice. Whilst reasonable efforts have
been made to ensure the accuracy of the content of this publication, no warranties or representations (express or implied) are made as to the
accuracy, currency or comprehensiveness of the information contained in this publication. The information, tools and material presented herein are
provided for informational purposes only, and are not to be used or considered as an offer or a solicitation to sell or an offer or solicitation to buy
or subscribe for securities, investment products or other financial instruments. Nothing in this publication shall be deemed to constitute financial
or other professional advice in any way, and under no circumstances shall Trafigura, its members, employees, or agents be liable for any direct or
indirect losses, costs or expenses nor for any loss of profit that results from the content of this publication or any material in it or website links or
references embedded within it. All express or implied warranties or representations are excluded to the fullest extent permissible by law.
3
COMMODITIES
DEMYSTIFIED
A GUIDE TO TRADING AND
THE GLOBAL SUPPLY CHAIN
Credits. Commodities Demystified was commissioned by Trafigura Group from a team of writers and
designers, comprising: David Buchan (Lead Writer), Senior Research Fellow, Oxford Institute for Energy
Studies; former Energy Editor, Financial Times; author, with Malcolm Keay, of Europes long energy journey:
towards an Energy Union?; Charlie Errington (Associate Editor), Owner, Go Tell Communications;
Group Charlescannon Sarl (Design and Production); and eBoy (cover illustration). This report is the
property of Trafigura. You are not permitted to copy, adapt, reproduce or use the content of this report for any
purpose whatsoever without the prior written permission of Trafigura. E-mail: CorporateAffairs@trafigura.com
4 Section Introduction
INTRODUCTION
The story of the modern commodities trading Industry estimates suggest that around $10trillion
industry is part of the history of our time. The vast of commodities are produced and consumed each
expansion of international trading in fuels, year around the world. However, commodities are
minerals and food in recent decades is one of the rarely produced and consumed in the same place at
vital building blocks and enablers of globalisation. the same time. Production occurs in locations that
Independent commodity traders have been at the are often far away from the principal consumption
centre of key economic events, such as the upheaval centres. Commodities traders provide vital support
of global oil markets, since the 1970s. A business once for this global model of production and consumption
controlled by the integrated oil majors is now largely in a complex value chain that includes refining,
open to the forces of supply and demand. Traders have processing, storage and shipping.
harnessed the development of modern capital markets This guide sets out to present a thumbnail portrait
to finance trade and of futures markets to offset risk. of commodities trading. Taking the dramatic
They have helped the world cope with seismic and integration of the global economy over recent
sometimes disruptive shifts in production and decades as a backdrop, it describes the functions and
consumption, and reversals in the economic cycle. practices of modern commodities trading firms: their
In particular, they have provided the logistical basic economic purpose; the different ways in which
and risk management services that have enabled they provide service to their customers and add
the dramatic rise of new centres of economic value; and, their approach to managing the individual
growth - and especially the emergence in this components of the supply chain and to mastering
millennium of China as the worlds premier the many and various risks involved.
manufacturing hub. Moving the huge volumes of The aim is to inform readers about the specialist
basic materials needed to fuel and feed this modern nature of the business and the services it provides, as
industrial revolution requires the services of well as to dispel some of the myths that have grown
specialist firms with the appropriate logistical and up around trading over the years. It makes clear that
financial capabilities, global scale and scope, and this is at its core a physical and logistical business, and
expertise in and appetite for risk. not the dematerialised, speculative activity that is
5
sometimes suggested. It presents a business focused business and the links in the supply chain, from
on moving commodities from where they are produced sourcing the commodities from producers,
to where they are needed with efficiency and at the transporting them by land and sea, and storing them
lowest possible cost, and thus serving the interests of in terminals, tanks and warehouses, to blending them
both producers and consumers. to meet ever-varying customer specifications and
The Trafigura Group, one of the worlds largest delivering them to the right places at the right time.
independent commodity traders, with a focus on oil Part C drills into the more challenging details of risk
and petroleum products and metals and minerals, is management, price-hedging and finance.
at the centre of the narrative. The company focus is The available literature on this topic elsewhere is
designed to provide concrete case studies and surprisingly sparse, so we hope that, however
illustrations. But it also imposes some limitations and imperfectly, this study has added to the sum of
we do not claim that this is a definitive guide to all knowledge on the subject. Its complexities deserve
facets of the industry. Other firms than Trafigura will to be properly explored by anyone with a serious
have their own unique characteristics which are not interest in the functioning of the contemporary
reflected here. Deliberately and inevitably, we have global economy.
focused on energy, metals and minerals trading,
and have made only passing reference to trading
agricultural products.
But we have tried as far as possible to capture
factors that are generic to commodity trading firms
and their basic functions and techniques.
The document is divided into three sections.
PartA establishes some basic definitions and
parameters of commodities, the recent history of
energy and metals markets, and the firms that trade
them. PartB explores the nuts and bolts of the trading
Section A
FUNDAMENTALS
OF COMMODITIES
Chapter 1 Chapter 3
What are physical The structure of the
commodities? global supply chain
p.8 p.22
Chapter 2 Chapter 4
Development of Who are commodity traders
commodities trading and what do they do?
p.14 p.26
8 Section A. Fundamentals of Commodities
Chapter 1. What are physical commodities?
Chapter 1
WHAT ARE PHYSICAL
COMMODITIES?
Physical commodities underpin the global economy. They are traded in
vast quantities across the globe. We depend on them for the basics of
everyday life for the electricity we use, the food we eat, the clothes we
wear, the homes we live in and the transport we rely on.
The trade in physical commodities underpins the we can examine how commodities work, we have to
global economy. These are the fundamental raw be clear about what they are.
materials from which we build and power our cities, Commodities are basic products, but not every
run our transport systems and feed ourselves the basic product is a commodity.
basic stuff of life. So what makes them different? It is important to
But ask the average person what they think of stress their physical nature. Ultimately, one
when they hear the word commodity and they are way or another, all commodities come out Physical commodities
more likely to talk about financial markets, Wall of the ground. Fundamentally, these are are created by
natural forces
Street and speculation. products created by natural forces.
While it is true that commodity markets can be That has certain implications. The first
volatile, and a certain breed of financial trader will is that every shipment is unique its chemical form
always be attracted by that, this conception is a world depends on exactly when and where it originated.
away from the complex, intensely practical business There is no such thing as a standard physical
of getting resources out of the ground, moving them commodity. To be saleable, commodities have to be
across the globe and turning them into the raw put into a usable form and moved to where they
materials we use every day. can be used, at the time they are needed. This
This guide tells the story of how physical relationship between space, time and form is a
commodities get transformed into things we actually key driver for this business, which will be discussed
need and use, and traders role in that. But before at a later point.
9
Bitumen
Condensate
NON RENEWABLES
Diesel
Coals
Gasoline
Crude oil
Jet fuel
Natural gas liquids
Fuel oil
Natural gas
Liquefied natural gas (LNG)
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
Naphtha
PRIMARY SECONDARY
RENEWABLES
Biodiesel
Biofuels
Ethanol
Agricultural
Commodity trading dates back to agrarian societies. By the mid-1970s the global grain trade was five times
Trading agricultural commodities got underway in its size in the 1930s, and it continues to increase.
an organised way in the US when the Chicago Board It is significant, in terms of the way the world
of Trade (CBOT) was established in 1848. Farmers economy is moving, that most of the traditional
traded commodity futures with speculators on the agricultural commodity trading houses such as Cargill
CBOT to lock in harvest prices in advance. or Louis Dreyfus have over the years added energy,
It continued to expand over the following century, metals and minerals to their portfolios.
and then took a leap forward in the early 1970s when The main categories of agricultural commodity
the Soviet Union started to buy massive amounts of include grains and oilseeds (corn, soybean, oats, rice,
foreign grain to compensate for its failing harvests. wheat), livestock (cattle, pigs, poultry), dairy (milk,
At one stage, Moscow was buying a quarter of US butter, whey), lumber, textiles (cotton, wool) and
grain crops, a level of demand almost comparable to softs (cocoa, coffee, sugar).
the impact of China on oil and metals markets today.
Milk Rice Pig Cattle Chicken Wheat Soybeans Maize Sugar cane Tomatoes
$198bn $191bn $173bn $171bn $137bn $86bn $69bn $67bn $61bn $60bn
Energy
After crude oils discovery in economic quantities in nationalism to help producing countries national
Pennsylvania in 1859, it burst onto the scene as a oil companies sell their output, and they have used
cheap alternative to whale oil in lamps. Petroleum capital markets to finance trade and futures markets
products facilitated new possibilities for transportation to offset risk. They are helping to export the US
and mechanisation. The trade in primary shale revolution by bringing its oil, gas and
and secondary energy commodities has petrochemical feedstock to world markets and are
Energy commodities propelled industrialisation and global engaged in the pivot of energy markets towards the
have been pivotal in
growth ever since. faster-growing Asian economies.
the development of
globalised markets In recent decades, global trading firms Primary energy commodities such as crude, natural
have emerged that specialise in primary gas, natural gas liquids, coal and renewables are refined
and secondary energy commodities. and processed into many different petroleum products
They have played a central part in globalising the and fuels, from bitumen to gasoline, biodiesel and LNG
oil trade. They have ridden the wave of resource (liquefied natural gas).
Total
13,594.11
Coal Crude oil Natural gas Nuclear Hydro Biofuels and Other
3 958.10 4 215.64 2 908.64 646.50 325.96 waste 163.72
1 375.55
26 29 13 28 30 82
Fe Cu Al Ni Zn Pb
Iron ore Copper Aluminium Nickel Zinc Lead
$225bn $130bn $90bn $40bn $31bn $15bn
Steel making Electronics, Transport, Used to make Used for Batteries, alloys,
plumbing automotive, stainless and galvanising iron radiation shielding
construction, specialty steels and steel and
packaging making brass
Commodity futures
Commodity futures have evolved alongside commodity A COMMODITY FUTURE IS A CONTRACTUAL
trading to support price risk management. Physical AGREEMENT TO TRADE A DEFINED
traders use futures to hedge against the risk of adverse COMMODITY ON A LISTED EXCHANGE.
price movements while they are transporting THE QUANTITY, QUALITY, DELIVERY
commodities from the producer to the consumer. LOCATION AND DELIVERY DATE ARE ALL
Rudimentary futures markets existed in SPECIFIED. UNDER THE TERMS OF THE
Mesopotamia and Japan several thousand years ago. CONTRACT THE SELLER IS REQUIRED TO
Farmers needed to protect themselves from the DELIVER THE SPECIFIED PHYSICAL
vagaries of the weather. They managed that by fixing COMMODITY ON THE DELIVERY DATE.
a future price for their crops. This gave them the
confidence to start sowing the next years crop before
they received any money from the current years crop.
The possibility of physical delivery
Commodity futures imposes an important price discipline on Commoditisation
prices converge futures markets. It ensures that the price The term commoditisation conveys the sense
with physical of the commodity future and that of the of total standardisation. This is misleading
commodities
underlying physical commodity converge when applied to commodity trade.
as the delivery date approaches. However, Metals may end up pretty much the same
physical delivery against futures contracts almost once they have been through the homogenising
never happens in practice. Instead, sellers close out process of smelting but raw materials and
their positions by buying back the equivalent number minerals can be very diverse, not only in location
of contracts on the exchange on or before the but also in physical characteristics. Even oil from
delivery date. the same well, or indeed coal extracted from
A futures trade occurs when a buyer and seller the same pit, will alter over time as different
agree on a price. The exchange acts as the counterparty levels of the deposits are exploited.
for both buyer and seller so every futures trade Both smelters and refineries are optimised
generates two transactions, a long position for the to process specific grades of a commodity.
buyer and a short position for the seller. With over 150 different grades of crude oil
Futures traders maintain a cash buffer, or margin, and oil products, searching out and matching
for each contract they own. This protects the sellers products with buyers preferences is a
exchange against the risk of a credit default. Profits core competence for commodity traders.
and losses are recalculated daily and the margin
account is adjusted accordingly. Traders must ensure
they have sufficient margin in their account at the
start of each trading session.
14 Section A. Fundamentals of Commodities
Chapter 2. Development of commodities trading
Chapter 2
DEVELOPMENT
OF COMMODITIES
TRADING
In both the metals and minerals and the energy sectors, institutionally
agreed approaches to commodity pricing have been superseded by the
increased efficiency of market-led mechanisms.
Oil and petroleum control over the oil industry. They prospected for oil,
extracted, transported and priced it, controlled
products refineries and sold oil products to end-users. This
vertical integration from upstream to downstream
OPECs (The Organisation of the Petroleum meant they dominated the market. The Seven Sisters'
Exporting Countries) decision to flex the collective dominance fed concerns that they were operating
muscles of its member nations was the catalyst as a cartel. There were calls for increased competition
that wrested monopolistic control from the oil from both producers and consumers.
majors a trend that continues to the present day. By the 1970s, this monopolistic position was being
At one time, the international oil majors (often eroded as oil-producing nations, especially in the Middle
described as "the Seven Sisters") exerted almost total East, asserted national sovereignty over their natural
7sisters
Edwin Drake becomes the Formal oil-trading exchange Standard Oil Company of New Jersey The largest conventional oil
first person to successfully is established. Mass Standard Oil company of New York (SoCoNY) field in the world, Ghawar
drill for oil in Titusville, production techniques and Standard Oil of California (SoCal) Field, is discovered in
Pennsylvania, US technologies help oil-trade Texaco Saudi Arabia
become a large-scale industry Royal Dutch Shell
Anglo-Persian Oil Company
Gulf Oil
15
resources. Initially, OPEC members emulated the oil Vertical disintegration has continued. Higher oil
majors and set prices directly, but they soon switched prices encouraged the majors to sell off refineries
to market-based methods, affecting price by varying and non-core downstream distribution to focus more
production. The 1973 oil embargo was a vivid on highly capital-intensive and specialised upstream
demonstration of the oil producers ability exploration and production. Some commodity
Producing nations to exert pressure by constraining supply. trading houses seized the opportunity to buy
took back control of At the time of the embargo, OPEC refineries, around which to build their trading
their oil assets
controlled half of global crude production business. Others, like Trafigura, are less interested in
and 80 percent of proven reserves. In a outright ownership of refining. They see independent
market with very low demand elasticity they were refineries as important new customers.
able to exert a high degree of control. Independent, specialist operators became
Over the course of the 1970s and 1980s many increasingly influential with the collapse of the old,
oil majors upstream concessions were nationalised. vertically integrated supply chain model. A diffuse,
Producing countries established national oil actively traded market created more openings for
companies (NOCs) to market production. Starved of independent commodity traders and shippers.
crude to fuel their refineries and petrol stations, the Before OPEC, the majors owned a third of all
majors set up trading operations that could source tankers and chartered another third on long-term
crude from other producers. In time, they developed time charters. The rise of the oil spot market,
new sources of supply, but the old model of vertical particularly in Rotterdam, in the early 1970s brought
integration was gone forever. in more independent charterers of tankers.
As markets developed, oil futures contracts were By 2015, majors owned just 9.4percent of all
increasingly used to enable trading along the supply tanker tonnage. BP, Kuwait Oil Tanker Company,
chain between producers and consumers. Chevron, Sonangol, Petrobras, Pertamina and PDVSA
Standardised contracts equipped the still have small market shares, but most of the oil
Active futures industry with price benchmarks and industry relies on chartering other peoples tankers.
markets gave effective tools for hedging price risk. This Ironically, the National Iranian Tanker Company is
traders effective risk provided an opening for commodity the worlds biggest tanker owner. Sanctions in recent
management tools
traders. They could act as middlemen years have made it very hard for it to put its
and insure themselves against the 2.8percent of world tanker tonnage to use.
financial risk of carrying large, valuable cargoes In todays markets, around a third of the worlds
around the world. crude oil some 30m barrels a day is traded
As time went on oil majors reduced their trading through intermediaries. Trafigura, the second largest
operations. Mega-mergers at the turn of the century independent trader, has a five percent share of the
consolidated trading operations. ExxonMobil for traded market - that is volumes that are not handled
instance now only markets its own oil, but in the late directly between producers and consumers.
1990s Mobil was a very active trading firm.
OPEC (Organisation of The Arab oil embargo on Oil reaches a record high of Oil price falls to $34 Four-decade Iran embargo
Petroleum Exporting exports to the US causes $147.27 per barrel per barrel is lifted
Countries) founded in prices to rise from $2.90 to
Baghdad, Iraq $11.65 per barrel
16 Section A. Fundamentals of Commodities
Chapter 2. Development of commodities trading
Producers
United States: 11,810
Saudi Arabia: 11,630
Russia: 10,947
Canada: 4,202
China: 4,190
UAE: 3,578
Iran: 3,442
Iraq: 3,419
Kuwait: 3,100
Mexico: 2,797
Consumers
United States: 19,343
China: 10,421
Japan: 4,297
India: 3,860
Russia: 3,637
Brazil: 3,218
Saudi Arabia: 3,216
Canada: 2,413
Germany: 2,399
South Korea: 2,350
Bilateral metal trade 2002 2002 vs. 2014 Bilateral metal trade 2014
1,200 100,000 60,000
1,000 50,000
80,000
800 40,000
60,000
600 30,000
40,000
400 20,000
20,000
200 10,000
0 0 0
Australia Brazil Canada Chile Russia 2002 2014 Australia Brazil Canada Chile Peru
1,043 605 90 784 196 2,718 88,370 52,153 12,851 2,496 15,249 5,621
million $ million $ million $
Source: IMF World Economic Outlook, October 2015, p.47
*The metals included are aluminium, copper, iron ore, lead, nickel, tin, zinc and uranium
18 Section A. Fundamentals of Commodities
Chapter 2. Development of commodities trading
The changing nature, as well as the increased volume, of With lower quality ore more is needed and it takes
Chinas imports of copper the second most important more energy to crush and mill it into concentrate with
base metal by value had favourable implications for 20-30 percent pure copper content. Lower quality ore
commodity traders. frequently has more impurities in it, such as arsenic, but
China used to import vastly more refined copper variable quality also opens up more trading opportunities.
than copper concentrate, but in recent years that With fewer big mineral finds, more smaller mines
relationship has changed. In 2015, the proportion are operating. But a small mine producing copper with
between the two types was about equal with the a high arsenic content may find it hard to market itself
proportion of concentrate continuing to increase. as a sole supplier to a smelter.
Importing the raw material and processing copper Traders can assist smaller mines by Traders help
at home is more cost-effective for the Chinese. As providing marketing know-how and working producers access
the country has grown its smelting capital. They often combine concentrate global markets
More Chinese capacity there has been a corresponding from different sources. From the smelters
smelting capacity increase in investment around the world perspective, trading firms play a number of useful roles.
fuels demand for in concentrate production. They aggregate smaller mines output into larger, more
concentrates
Global consumption of aluminium and cost-effective shipments. Traders with blending capacity
steel has grown significantly in the past two can also combine output from different sources to meet
decades. China is playing a dual role here too, as both specific smelters quality requirements.
producer and importer. It is now the worlds largest Traders also work with the leading players. Large
producer of steel and primary aluminium. Its adoption of mines want to develop relationships with trading
a cheaper technique for producing nickel pig iron is firms, as back-up for long-term, institutional sales.
disrupting the global stainless steel market, where it has Buyers of refined metals beyond the smelting stage
gone from being a substantial importer to a major exporter. cultivate a range of suppliers in case of a shortage.
The increasing focus on importing concentrates The extraordinary recent surge in Chinas appetite
plays to the strengths of commodity traders. for metals and minerals created openings for commodity
Feeding Chinas growing demand has put a strain traders. One might therefore imagine that the current
on world mining resources. In the pursuit of more and slowdown in Chinas economic growth would squeeze
more quantity, quality has suffered. For instance, in some traders out of the market. This is unlikely. A key
the 2000s the copper content in raw ore would legacy of the commodity supercycle is the arrival of
typically have been around 2-3 percent; the average spot trading in metals and minerals. If an actively traded
now is less than 1.5 percent. spot market is here to stay, so are commodity traders.
300,000
200,000
100,000
0
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
80
60
40
20
0
2000 2005 2010 2015
The same regional pattern exists for gas, where method of transport, with relatively less delivered
consumption in non-OECD countries now exceeds directly by pipeline to geographically tied customers,
that in OECD countries. Again, Asia is exerting its and more as individual LNG cargoes that can be
magnetic pull on the market. China is now the third shipped and traded between many destinations.
largest gas consumer behind the US and Russia. Of the two biggest gas import markets in the
Because of its low density compared to other world today, Europe is expected to take more LNG
fossil fuels, gas is expensive and difficult to transport. from all points to balance pipeline gas from Russia,
Only around 30 percent of global gas is traded Norway and Algeria, while Japan and Korea will
between major regions of the world, and this is remain very substantial LNG importers. Although
unlikely to alter. But what is changing, and in a China imports pipeline gas from Russia and
manner very relevant to commodity traders, is the Turkmenistan, its LNG imports will also rise.
FROM THEN TO NOW: THE CHANGING DYNAMICS OF THE GLOBAL SUPPLY CHAIN
Source: Bloomberg, L.P.; World Bureau of Metal Statistics; and IMF staff calculations
22 Section A. Fundamentals of Commodities
Chapter 3. The structure of the global supply chain
Chapter 3
THE STRUCTURE
OF THE GLOBAL
SUPPLY CHAIN
An efficient supply chain promotes prosperity by ensuring smooth
transmission of the energy and raw materials that underpin our
civilisation. The market-based mechanism aligns supply and demand
highly effectively.
TRANSPORT TRANSPORT
WELL TERMINAL
TRANSPORT TRANSPORT
DELIVER
DELIVER STORE / BLEND SOURCE
DEMAND PETROLEUM PRODUCTS SUPPLY
TRANSPORT TRANSPORT
MINE TERMINAL
SOURCE
TRANSPORT
SCRAP / RECYCLE
TRANSPORT
TRANSPORT TRANSPORT
DELIVER
DELIVER STORE SOURCE
DEMAND COPPER CATHODE SUPPLY
24 Section A. Fundamentals of Commodities
Chapter 3. The structure of the global supply chain
OFTEN
PERFORMED
BY
COMMODITY REFINING FURNACE
USUALLY DONE TRADERS ELECTROLYTIC INDUSTRIAL
MINE AT MINE SMELTER REFINING COMPANY
Primary and secondary commodities Trading firms manage global storage inventories
Supply chain connectivity is most direct between that help keep markets in equilibrium. They use
primary and secondary commodity markets. futures markets as a hedge against
Primary commodities, such as crude oil and copper changes in commodity prices. Typically, Storage acts as a
market shock
concentrate, are extracted from wells and mines. They they build up inventory in buyers absorber; rising
are prepared for transportation at the production site. markets and reduce inventory in sellers when there is
Heavy crude may be blended with distillates or a lighter markets. In doing this, they both profit excess supply and
crude to reduce its viscosity and improve pipeline flow. from market volatility and help to reduce falling when there
Copper ore is crushed and milled into concentrate. it by smoothing underlying supply- is excess demand
The end-users for primary commodities use them demand imbalances.
as feedstock for processing into secondary commodities
that can then be sold on to manufacturers, utilities "VOLATILE ECONOMIC CONDITIONS INCREASE
and energy users. VALUE CREATION OPPORTUNITIES. SUPPLY
Refineries and smelters act as both consumers AND DEMAND SHOCKS CAN CAUSE
and producers of commodities. Refineries take crude GEOGRAPHIC IMBALANCES THAT CREATE
and produce gasoline, distillates, fuel oil, etc. Copper SPATIAL ARBITRAGE OPPORTUNITIES FOR
smelters acquire concentrate and fuel for their TRADERS. GREATER VOLATILITY ALSO MAKES
furnaces to produce the refined metal. Both require STORAGE MORE VALUABLE, THEREBY
precisely specified products. CREATING INTER-TEMPORAL ARBITRAGE
Traders act as conduits between producers and OPPORTUNITIES. GREATER ECONOMIC
consumers in both primary and secondary commodity VOLATILITY IS ALSO ASSOCIATED WITH
markets. They transform and transport commodities to GREATER VOLATILITY IN RELATIVE PRICES, AND
meet customers timing, delivery and quality requirements. IN PARTICULAR TEMPORARY MISPRICINGS
THAT CREATE TRADING OPPORTUNITIES".
Links between markets Professor Craig Pirrong, University of Houston
Economic fundamentals link markets and affect key
trade routes. For instance, the US shale revolution has Traders and volatility
had a big impact on the pattern of global energy trade. Markets function most effectively when there is deep
It has reduced US net oil imports, increased the export and consistent liquidity. Traders help create liquid
of US refined products and required traditional commodity markets and thereby lower transaction costs.
suppliers of the US, like Nigeria, to find alternative They are especially active in volatile markets.
Traders thrive in
markets. It has not only made the US self-sufficient Traders thrive on volatility and volatile conditions,
in gas but transformed it into an exporter of LNG; and commodity markets are often highly volatile. but their actions
as US shale gas pushed US coal out of the domestic But in the same way that traders profit from dont make markets
power market, it has created further negative bottlenecks in the logistical supply chain, but more volatile
repercussions for the international coal market. The do not cause them, it does not necessarily
multi-dimensional consequences illustrate the follow that they encourage volatility.
interconnectedness of markets. Take world oil markets. Oil is a staple in economic
life. In the short-to-medium term, price movements
Storage promotes market stability will have relatively little effect on consumption - we all
Inelasticity in the supply and demand for commodities need fuel for our cars. So small supply changes can lead
increases the potential for volatility in the markets. to big price movements. There are also geopolitical
Shutting down a mine is very expensive. Once a mine forces at play, with some oil producing nations subject
has closed down it is very difficult to start it up again. to sanctions and others riven by internal conflicts.
Miners will therefore often prefer to go on producing, Seasonality, government fiscal policy and the
even at a loss. In the medium term, this may mean management of strategic oil stockpiles for countries
that a reduction in demand results in persistent, like the US and China all have a big impact.
excess supply. Without any kind of circuit breaker Commodity traders do not create these general
prices would fall even faster. conditions; they do not promote volatility. Traders
Storage plays a key role in the global supply chain. It are not speculators their job is to match buyers
acts as a shock absorber, reducing overall price volatility. with sellers. They do that through arbitrage. Far from
When supply is outstripping demand, inventories rise. making markets more volatile, arbitrage actually
When demand exceeds supply inventories can be drawn helps to re-establish balance and improve efficiency
upon to meet consumers requirements. and transparency in physical markets.
Source: The Economics of Commodity Trading Firms, Craig Pirrong, 2014
26 Section A. Fundamentals of Commodities
Chapter 4. Who are commodity traders and what do they do?
Chapter 4
WHO ARE COMMODITY
TRADERS AND
WHAT DO THEY DO?
Commodity trading firms play a pivotal role in the global supply chain by
bridging gaps between producers and consumers, and by balancing
supply and demand both within and between connected markets.
Vitol 1966 168 billion Crude oil, fuel oil, gasoline, middle distillates, naphtha, methanol, ethanol,
chemicals, LPG, natural gas, LNG, carbon emissions, coal, iron ore, power,
Private
Trafigura 1993 97.2 billion Crude oil, fuel oil, middle distillates, gasoline, naphtha, LPG, LNG, biodiesel,
condensates chemicals, coal, iron ore, concentrates and ores (copper, lead
Private
, zinc, alumina, nickel, tin, cobalt) refined metals (copper, aluminium, zinc,
blister, nickel, tin, cobalt).
Noble Group 1986 66.7 billion Crude oil, LNG, distillates, gasoline, fuels, coal gas, aluminium, alumina,
bauxite, copper, iron ore, chrome, manganese ore, zinc, lead, nickel,
Public
Gunvor 2000 64 billion Crude oil, heavy fuel and feedstocks, middle distillates, gasoline, naphtha,
LPG, biofuels, natural gas, LNG, carbon emissions, copper, aluminium, zinc,
Private
lead, tin, nickel, manganese, steel, coal, coking coal, iron ore, timber.
Mercuria 2004 56 billion Crude oil, fuel oil, middle distillates, gasoline, naphtha, biofuels,
petrochemicals, natural gas, LNG, power, coal, iron ore, manganese,
Private
chrome, carbon emissions, base metals, food and feed grains, oil seeds,
vegetable oils.
Archer Daniels 1902 67.7 billion Food (acidulates, beverage alcohol, edible beans, fiber, tree nuts, lecithin,
vitamin e, oils, plant sterols, polyols and gums, proteins, rice, soy isofla-
Public
Midland vones, starches, sweeteners) animal feed, corn, oilseed, ethanol, biodiesel,
industrials.
Louis Dreyfus 1851 55.6 billion Oilseeds, grains, rice, freight, coffee, cotton, sugar, juice, dairy,
fertiliser, metals.
Private
Company
Bunge 1818 43.5 billion Oilseeds, sugar, bioenergy, edible oils, wheat, corn, rice, fertiliser. Public
Wilmar 1991 38.8 billion Palm oil, oilseed, edible oils, sugar, specialty fats, oleo chemicals, biodiesel,
fertiliser, flour, rice.
Public
International
Olam 1989 19.1 billion Cocoa, coffee, edible nuts (cashew, almonds, hazelnuts, peanuts, sesame),
rice dairy, grains, palm oil, fertiliser, rubber, wood, cotton.
Public
International
Oil trading:
a multidimensional
discipline
Commodity traders need excellent
peripheral vision to understand the
interconnected nature of the global 4 5
economy. Conditions in commodity
2
markets can change rapidly and
traders have to remain alert to
many micro and macro factors. 3
Economic cycles, geopolitical
developments and technical factors
1
all have an impact.
1 Availability of tankage worlds largest emergency supply. 4 Bottlenecks, peaks transporting it by barge may be
On several occasions, the US more cost-effective than bringing
Supply of oil and petroleum government has bought and and troughs the same shipment to port using
products does not come solely from released stocks to and from the SPR Traders monitor the impact of the road network.
wells and refiners. Traders, to reduce and supplement supply. natural cycles, economic trends and
producers, consumers and countries Traders need to be aware of global events on supply and 6 Product specifications
all maintain large inventory stocks changes in policy. consumption levels in different parts Generally, commodity traders are
in oil tanks located strategically of the world. They also need to know less directly interested in the
around the globe. Traders keep tabs 3 Benchmarks about a range of technical factors; absolute level of commodity prices
on tankage to know what capacity The spot market (for immediate these might include a lack of local than in geographic or quality price
is available to them should they delivery or receipt) in oil is a small infrastructure constraining supply or differentials between different
need to store stocks at particular fraction of the world oil market, but it seasonal variations in demand. grades of the commodity. They aim
locations. They also monitor sets prices for a much larger volume to identify a price differential that
tankage to identify potential 5 Locations and logistics
of trade. Every shipment has specific makes it profitable to move
sources of supply. qualities and each is priced Product can come from multiple commodities around the world
individually. Almost always this price sources. In a competitive industry, and transform them. To do that,
2 Geopolitical developments many transactions are only doable
is expressed as premium or discount they need a solid working
Conflict in oil-rich areas and to a benchmark price. Traders with narrow margins. Traders can knowledge of the chemical
international sanctions can have a monitor the key benchmarks to gain secure competitive advantage constituents of the commodity.
major impact on supply. Both fiscal insight into both absolute and relative through a combination of keen
and security policy can affect price movements. pricing and efficient logistics. They 7 Blending opportunities
supply and demand for oil. The US need to assess the real cost of the Traders may decide to acquire
700-million-barrel Strategic product at the point of delivery. For commodities with a view to blending
Petroleum Reserve (SPR) is the instance, acquiring oil inland and multiple commodities. They must
29
12
11
6 7
10
9
15
14
13
8
assess the cost and effectiveness of traders can act today. As the
combining commodities to create a most actively traded market, 12 Counterparty and 14 Existing trade flows
synthetic blend. They also need to futures provide the most political risk Understanding trade flow
identify when and where blending can accurate, timely indication of Commodity trades are large-scale fundamentals is critical. Traders are
take place and know where other changing market sentiment. transactions. Traders try to limit continually assessing relative and
blending ingredients can be acquired. credit risk by partnering with absolute pricing levels. Spreads
financial institutions, but they also between prices often relate to the
8 Cost of financing 10 Contango and backwardation need to calibrate their exposure to direction of trades. When trade
Trading firms attract short-term Traders monitor whether futures are specific counterparties and be flows shift, price differentials change.
secured finance to bridge the time trading at a premium (contango) or a aware of sovereign risk.
lag between buying and selling discount (backwardation) to the spot 15 Cost / availability of freight
commodities. Finance is more price. This gives an indication of 13 Cost / availability of The cost of freight varies according to
expensive when commodity prices whether inventories are rising or falling. substitute products the availability of shipping. Dealers in
and interest rates are higher. This is When markets are in contango there The price and availability of substitute physical commodities factor in
an unavoidable cost of doing may be an opportunity to conduct a products can affect the supply and transportation cost when assessing
business, which the trader must cash-and-carry arbitrage (see page 46). demand for a physical commodity. the profitability of a trade. They often
factor in to determine the Close substitutes, including different sit alongside freight traders who can
profitability of a transaction. 11 Risk management grades of the same commodity, fix prices for particular journeys in the
Trading teams use futures and options impact on price by changing the wholesale markets.
9 Futures markets to minimise exposure to market economics for traders who are
Futures markets provide valuable volatility. Many trading desks include blending commodities. More indirect Play the video online
information about expected specialist risk management teams that substitutes affect prices in linked
www.downloads.
future supply and demand on manage the traders overall exposure markets by affecting the demand for commoditiesdemystified.info
which producers, consumers and to absolute price risk. related energy products.
30 Section A. Fundamentals of Commodities
Chapter 4. Who are commodity traders and what do they do?
Unlike financial markets, where pricing Forward prices reflect the market's Most blending-based arbitrage is
relationships are relatively stable expectations about tomorrow given about optimising grades to satisfy
because products are basically the reality of today. When today's oil pools of demand, but arbitrage
interchangeable, in the physical price is lower than prices on the opportunities can also arise out of
trading world there is a lot more forward curve, the oil market is said government regulation. Until the end
disjunction in prices. If there is a to be in contango. This is when oil of 2015, US regulators prohibited
refinery accident or bad weather and storage comes into its own, and oil exports of unrefined oil products. This
there is a sudden need for a product, traders have profited. created a profitable trade in the
there might be a perfect substitute, but See Chapter 7, p.44 export of lightly refined US oil.
not if the substitute is 500 miles away. See Chapter 8, p.48
See Chapter 6, p.38
31
Physical arbitrage
What is in this for the commodity traders profit by buying in the cheaper market and selling in
themselves? Their business model is based on the more expensive market.
identifying and acting on market inefficiencies An arbitrage opportunity opens up when the value
which present themselves as excess price differentials of transformation the difference between the prices
between untransformed and transformed of the transformed and untransformed commodity
commodities. They act on these pricing signals to is more than the cost of making that transformation.
direct commodities to where they are most valued, For instance, in a contango market the forward price
reducing market mispricing. In doing this they is higher than the spot price. Traders can buy and
make markets more competitive and in exchange store the commodity today and simultaneously sell
earn profit. it a higher price on the future date (see page 47).
Traders focus on spotting any gaps in the market, Arbitrage depends on careful execution of a large
mispricing or dislocation in distribution. They monitor volume of transactions with generally very thin
relative prices for different grades of a commodity margins. The trader must be able to identify worst-
(the quality spread), for the same commodity with case revenues and costs from the outset. They can
different delivery locations (the geographic spread) only undertake these large-scale, low-margin
and for different delivery dates (the forward spread). transactions if they have reliable access to funding
Where they identify a mismatch, they can lock in and the expertise to manage risk effectively.
BUY SELL
COMMODITY ADD VALUE COMMODITY
LIMIT RISK
REDUCE COST
Hedging
Finance
Insurance
Operational efficiency
Regulatory compliance
Infrastructure / logistics
Best practice
/ volume
Responsibility
TRANSFORM
COMMODITY
Arbitrage:
how it works
In practice, a commodity
trading firm will often employ
more than one arbitrage
technique in a single
transaction. The following
example shows how arbitrage
Transformation in space: Transformation in time: Transformation in form:
techniques may be combined geographic arbitrage time arbitrage technical arbitrage
to optimise copper Trafigura subsequently identifies Trafigura ships concentrates to The US smelter requests a
concentrate trading flows. a geographic arbitrage opportunity. the Finnish smelter according to particular specification for its
It switches its supply source for the originally agreed schedule, concentrate. Trafigura can meet
Existing trade flows the Finnish smelter and finds but the US smelter wants delivery this requirement cost-effectively
Prior to this transaction, Trafigura a different buyer for the in six months time. by blending the Peruvian
had arranged to source copper Peruvian concentrates. concentrate in its warehouse
concentrates via an offtake With the copper market in to create the required grade
agreement with a Peruvian mine Next, Trafigura sources contango, Trafigura now identifies synthetically (6). This technical
(1). It had also agreed to deliver concentrates for the Finnish a time arbitrage. arbitrage earns it additional margin.
copper concentrates to a market at a Spanish mine (3). It
Finnish smelter (2). delivers the Peruvian concentrates The US smelter is prepared to pay Finally, the blended concentrates
to a US smelter (4). These two a premium for forward delivery in are shipped to the US smelter,
transactions result in much shorter six months. Trafigura stores the arriving six months later as
delivery journeys and yield a Peruvian concentrate safely and agreed. The combination of
significant reduction in overall securely at an Impala Terminals arbitrage techniques has
freight costs compared with the warehouse (5). increased Trafiguras profitability
original Peru to Finland route. and price competitiveness.
te h
el wit
r
s m nt
er e
pp em
co re
h g
is y a
an
n n pl
ic
Fi u p
er
s
S
r te
Am
2.
te a
el nt r
n th
s m n ce
t io o r
ca N
US c o
i f i to
d
w ise
to e l l
ec d
1. Pe
s p le n
flo tim
S
O ru
4.
de op
f f vi
6.
tra on -
ta an
ke c
N
3. S p
ag o p p
B an
re er
u y is
em m
co h c
e n in e
nc op
Source
tw
e n pe
tr r m
it
h
at i
5. Te
es n e
S rm
Store
fr
to i
om
re na
co l s
n c wa
en re
Blend
tr ho
at u s
es e
in
Im
Deliver
pa
la
33
How arbitrage destroys arbitrage the commodities sector smelters, refiners, even
Physical arbitrage depends on identifying and manufacturers are backing into extractive industries
exploiting pricing anomalies, but paradoxically the with investments that assure security of supply; Arcelor
arbitrage transaction itself will cause the anomalies Mittals acquisition of iron ore mines is just one example.
to disappear. The mechanism is as follows:
Arbitrage can occur when traders identify relative Price differentials
mispricing in connected markets. They buy the Generally, commodity traders are not interested in
commodity where it is underpriced, and sell it the absolute level of commodity prices, high or low,
following transformation in the connected market but in the geographic or technical price differentials
where it is overpriced. of commodities that make moving them around the
This increases demand in the first market, which world and transforming them profitable.
exerts upward pressure on the price. In the second Commodity traders might trade the difference in
market, the increase in supply pushes prices down. value between one grade of gasoline and another
The net result is to reduce the price differential grade of gasoline, or the difference in value between
between these two markets. gasoline in New York and the same grade of gasoline
Over time, the effect of the arbitrage on supply in Rotterdam, or the difference between one
and demand moves the two markets into balance concentrate of copper with a high content of gold
and the anomalies disappear. In their pursuit of and another with a high content of cyanide.
physical arbitrage opportunities, commodity traders The concept of price differential sets
Physical traders care
create increasingly efficient and competitive markets. commodity traders apart from many other less about market
Both producers and end-users are the beneficiaries. intermediaries in business. Most middlemen prices. They want to
take a fixed percentage of a financial maximise price
More transparency and increased transaction, and therefore have a self- differentials
competition interest in the value of the transaction being between buyers
Price anomalies occur where there has been poor as high as possible. In contrast, commodity and sellers
information or limited competition. Pricing traders like any trader who buys and sells
differentials are getting smaller, more transient and are less interested in the absolute level of commodity
harder to identify. prices than in the price differential between purchase
Commodity traders can still generate and sale, and in the degree to which this spread can be
More arbitrage
sustained profitable opportunities wherever increased by transforming commodities to suit the
and increasing
transparency limit they can develop a competitive advantage. varying needs of their customers.
anomalies and Many firms are building alliances and
make markets developing efficient logistics to execute TRAFIGURA'S ABILITY TO INVEST IN THE
more efficient transformations more cost-effectively than SUPPLY CHAIN HAS GROWN, BUT THE MODEL
their competitors. HAS BEEN CONSISTENT OVER TIME. WE ARE
Increased transparency encourages commodity AGNOSTIC ON THE PRICE OF COMMODITIES.
traders to exert control across the whole logistics chain, WE WANT TO DELIVER A SERVICE IN ORDER TO
including storage. As markets have become more ADD VALUE. IF YOU ARE JUST BUYING AND
competitive and information has improved, the emphasis SELLING THERE IS A LIMIT, AND TO BE A
has shifted towards cost reduction. LONG-TERM SUCCESS YOU NEED TO PROVIDE
REAL VALUE ADDED TO YOUR CUSTOMERS.
Reducing costs with improved logistics FOR INSTANCE, WE CAN HELP A MINE IN THE
Trafiguras approach has been to acquire interests in CONGO WITH ITS ENERGY INPUT, MAKE ITS
industrial assets, where it identifies opportunities to TRUCKING OPERATIONS MORE EFFICIENT,
strengthen its supply chain. These may include terminals, ENSURE BETTER RELIABILITY, AND THEN SHIP
storage and transportation facilities. It sometimes ITS PRODUCTS TO ONE OF OUR IMPALA
acquires assets to address transport bottlenecks and TERMINALS, AND HANDLE ALL THE RISK
sells them on once it has resolved them. INVOLVED ON A VOYAGE THAT WILL TAKE
Patterns of asset ownership by commodity traders WEEKS ALL THE WAY TO CHINA. SO WE ARE NOT
are diverse, complex and dynamic, which makes JUST AN ARMS-LENGTH BUYER AND SELLER.
generalisation difficult. Commodity traders involvement Pierre Lorinet, Director and
in industrial assets should also be seen as part of a wider former Chief Financial Officer, Trafigura
trend of backward integration.Many other players in
Section B
HOW COMMODITY
TRADING WORKS
Chapter 5 Chapter 8
Sourcing commodities: Blending commodities:
working with producers transformation in form
p.36 p.48
Chapter 6 Chapter 9
Transporting commodities: Delivering commodities:
transformation in space meeting customer specifications
p.38 p.56
Chapter 7
Storing commodities:
transformation in time
p.44
36 Section B. How Commodity Trading Works
Chapter 5. Sourcing commodities: working with producers
Chapter 5
SOURCING
COMMODITIES:
WORKING WITH
PRODUCERS
Trading firms aim to maximise the price differential between the price
they pay for (untransformed) commodities and the revenue they earn by
selling (transformed) commodities. Minimising the overall cost of
acquiring commodities is therefore a priority. They work with producers
to secure long-term, cost-effective supply.
*Mining majors: BHP Billiton, Glencore, Rio Tinto. Oil majors: BP, Chevron, Exxon Mobil, Shell, Total
37
This matters for the trading firm. In a world that is Pre-payment agreements
moving towards increased transparency, suppliers that More typically the commodity trading firm makes a
source from mines with poor social, environmental and pre-payment for future supply. This arrangement is
production performance run a significant reputational risk. popular in many resource-rich but cash-poor
developing countries that might resist outright
Improving competitiveness and marketability foreign ownership of their natural resources.
Many trading firms develop specialist logistics to Commodity pre-payments are a useful substitute
support multiple smaller producers. Trafigura is for the loans that emerging economies find
investing heavily in Colombian transport infrastructure. increasingly hard to get from international banks.
In Brazil, its state-of-the-art multimodal cargo For commodity traders making the pre-payment
terminal, a joint venture with Mubadala, has direct there is a risk that the commodity to be delivered
rail links to miners in the countrys iron ore quadrangle. will fall in value. However, there are mechanisms to
Traders can gain a sustained competitive advantage deal with this. The producer can for instance agree
by developing advanced logistics in countries where to make up any fall in commodity value with a cash
there are no viable alternatives. Their logistics payment or extra supply of the commodity.
networks can transform and transport commodities Offtake agreements give producers security of
at lower cost than their competitors. But these are demand and commodity traders security of supply.
long-term investments and they need to work in Commodity traders are unlikely, in every case, to tie
partnership with local communities. a specific volume of crude to a specific agreement to
Firms will also provide technical or financial supply one particular refinery, or dedicate copper
resources to help producers modernise and extend concentrate to serve a particular smelter. They
production. These are often linked to long-term wouldnt be traders if they were to forego the
purchase arrangements, known as offtake opportunity of getting the best price for their offtake
agreements, where the trader agrees in advance to volumes. But the existence of some steady long-term
buy a minimum percentage of the mines output over supply coming into their commodity portfolios does
several years. allow traders to sign longer-term supply agreements
with refiners, smelters and processors.
Securing supply
There are many ways of securing supply, one of which
is ownership of oil and gas fields and mines. Common WAYS COMMODITY TRADING FIRMS SECURE
ownership of the raw material and of all the means RELIABLE LOW-COST SUPPLIES
to process, transport and market it can make sense.
There are several examples of upstream integration.
Glencore, after its merger with Xstrata, has effectively
become an integrated mining company. Mercuria has 1 Upstream integration
upstream oil and coal assets, and Vitol owns upstream
oil assets. Trafigura owns mines in Spain and Peru.
However, a more usual way to secure supply is
through long-term offtake agreements
Offtake agreements with producers. Sometimes such 2 Joint ventures
and upstream agreements follow on from a spell of
integration secure asset ownership by the commodity
long-term supply
trading firm. Trafigura, for example,
bought a Peruvian mine in 1997 and Pre-payment and offtake
spent the following 16 years improving the 3 agreements
efficiency and extending the life of the mine. When
it sold the mine in 2013 it signed an agreement to
take 100 percent of its output for the duration of
the mines life.
Commodity trading firms sometimes combine an 4 Technical support
initial investment (perhaps in the form of a joint venture)
with offtake agreements in order to get supply flowing.
38 Section B. How Commodity Trading Works
Chapter 6. Transporting commodities: transformation in space
Chapter 6
TRANSPORTING
COMMODITIES:
TRANSFORMATION
IN SPACE
Many producers are found in remote locations, often in emerging
economies. Traders need to deliver commodities to consumption centres
on the other side of the world. They can increase their profitability and
generate more physical arbitrage opportunities by lowering
transportation costs.
Developing infrastructure
Commodity trading firms rely on efficient logistics to transport. These may be situated inland or at the
transport commodities cost-effectively. Where the coast and will usually take advantage of automated
existing infrastructure is sub-optimal, there are strong processes that streamline transferral. For instance,
commercial grounds for investing in midstream assets a small-scale miner in Brazils iron ore quadrangle
road, rail or river transportation linked to modern sends trucks to a local collection terminal at an inland
ports and terminals that increase the efficiency of their railway station. The product is transferred directly
supply chains. onto rail freight carriages. It then travels by rail to
an Atlantic terminal, where it is automatically
Multimodal logistics unloaded onto a conveyor belt. This transfers the
Trading firms design multimodal logistics systems to product to a feeder system for a bulk dry freight
optimise economies of scale and reduce shipment tanker, which is berthed and ready for export.
costs. They select the most efficient
Multimodal logistics
transportation for each stage along the
networks optimise
transportation and supply chain to reduce the overall cost of
minimise transferral the delivered commodity. Multimodal
costs at each stage terminals optimise the transfer of
of the supply chain shipments between different modes of
39
Inland transportation
Getting product from one part of the world to
another brings many different modes of
transport into play. The main inland
modes of transportation include:
SHIP
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41
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) markets Commercial arrangements limited sales to a defined
Gas, the greenest of the fossil fuels, is difficult to set of buyers (who in turn would often have
transport globally and that restricts its tradability. monopolistic franchise areas).
Russia, the most landlocked of major energy As more re-gasification capacity has come on-
producers, delivers most of its gas by pipeline. Pipeline stream, particularly on mobile, floating barges,
gas generally goes straight from the producer to the international LNG trading is opening up, taking on more
consumer, with no real role for intermediaries. of the characteristics of a standard commodity market.
But pipelines are impractical where producers and A small but growing share of international LNG trade
consumers are separated by sea. LNG transportation is taken by trading firms selling gas from a global
provides an effective solution. portfolio and benefiting from arbitrage opportunities
LNG works by cooling natural gas to minus 162 between the various regional import prices.
degrees centigrade. This liquefies the gas and shrinks An estimated 20 percent of LNG volumes is now
it to 1/600th of its gaseous volume. The liquid traded on the spot market (though in this long-term
concentrate is transportable in purpose-built business, spot contracts can last up to four years)
refrigerated tankers. through aggregators and traders.
The technology was developed several decades The evolution of LNG markets demonstrates that
ago and began to be used commercially in the mid- a requirement for significant investment in long-term
1960s. Liquefaction and re-gasification capacity capital projects technology is no bar to the development
developed rapidly until the 1980s, then stagnated of effective traded markets. Craig Pirrong has observed
until the mid-1990s, but has picked up since. that expensive, durable investments in specialised
Qatar is the global industry leader, but is now capital [projects] are completely compatible with spot
being joined by new exporters, chiefly Australia but market pricing complemented by market risk transfer
also the US and, countries in east Africa. mechanisms. In essence, liquid markets create security
Early LNG contracts were long-term arrangements, of supply and security of demand.
locking producer and consumer into a virtual pipeline
that did not allow any intermediary trading.
Source: Fifty Years of Global LNG, Craig Pirrong, 2014
8
(billion cubic metres) 5.5
42
7.76
12
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n ce
Jap
43
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Turkey 48.01
Malaysia
Ind
Germany
50 86.81
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41
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48
74
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.40
Ch
Netherlands 50.62
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km enis tar
Tur 126
.22
.66
Norway 1
77
07.28
Bitumen markets
Not too long ago, the bitumen trade was regarded
as a regional business. The specialised ships required
to transport the product tended to be relatively small,
making it difficult to achieve the economies of scale
needed for worthwhile trade on a larger scale. In
recent years, however, this has started to change.
Bitumen shipping and trading go hand in hand,
because the ship is needed to make the trade. And
bitumen carriers are highly specialised, built with
containers that continually heat the bitumen at
150C so it does not solidify.
Puma Energys bitumen carriers are some of the
largest in the world. Weighing in at 30,000 tonnes
each and 40 percent more fuel-efficient than their
traditional counterparts, these kinds of ships are
helping to globalise the market. They can transport
bitumen from the US Gulf to Australia and back again
without having to stop to refuel.
Budgets for road construction and maintenance
which account for about 85 percent of bitumen
use globally are largely tied to government spending.
Public investment has been lacking since the 2008
< TRANSPORTING GAS financial crisis in the developed world, but China and
countries in Africa are major growth markets.
VESSEL
vs 2000 2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
PIPELINE
Vessel
Pipeline
Chapter 7
STORING COMMODITIES:
TRANSFORMATION
IN TIME
With inelastic supply and demand in commodity markets, supply and
demand shocks have the potential to create volatile market conditions.
Trading firms store commodities to help bridge this gap and keep
markets in balance. They own and control midstream infrastructure and
maintain large inventories at strategic locations around the globe.
Traders earn profits over time by reducing stocks when there is excess
demand and building up inventory when there is excess supply.
Trading firms facilitate the process. They earn Security and optionality
arbitrage profits by releasing or increasing their Control of midstream infrastructure also gives traders
inventory while simultaneously creating offsetting security of supply. This enhances their strategic
positions in futures markets. flexibility and improves their ability to deliver globally,
Arbitrage opportunities are, by definition, at times that suit their customers.
transient. The cost of even a short delay in obtaining
goods can be considerable. Firms that store their Partnerships and trading relationships
commodities in a facility they do not own or control Infrastructure to make exports more competitive is
risk not being able to exploit such opportunities. welcome in many economies, especially in those that
To execute arbitrage successfully, traders need do not have the resources or the expertise to do this
unpredictable, rapid and timely access to their assets. themselves. This kind of investment unlocks new
Knowing this, facility owners may try to charge markets and opens doors to new suppliers.
premium rates, by, for instance instituting delivery Trafigura subsidiary Impala Terminals investment,
delays and enforcing an artificially high price for an along with Mubadala, at Porto Sudeste in Brazil offers
express service. Such hold ups dont occur if the firm smaller independent iron ore miners an export outlet.
executing the arbitrage also owns the asset. It is also a platform for the company to develop new
As markets become more transparent, arbitrage relationships in the region. Its river infrastructure
opportunities are increasingly transient. The more programme is strategically vital for Colombia. Its
acute this temporal specificity becomes the greater involvement is generating goodwill in the country
the incentive to invest in midstream infrastructure. and helping it forge crucial long-term partnerships
Traders do not face the same risks with floating with private and public sector concerns.
storage facilities. Most commodity traders own
terminals and storage facilities, but very few have Ownership and control
their own bulk carriers or tanker fleets. The owners All of these factors help to explain the increased asset
of fixed logistic assets face little competition. There intensity of trading firms in recent years. It also raises
is little to stop them holding up delivery. However, a question: if midstream infrastructure assets are so
bulk ships and tankers are mobile. If a ship owner valuable, why do commodity trading firms sometimes
tried to delay delivery the charterer would simply choose to sell them?
take their business to a competitor. It partly comes down to culture. Trading firms
exist to service the need of producers and consumers
Adding value though logistics as such they buy and sell opportunistically. That
As commodity producers have got better access to extends to fixed assets, especially when there is a
price information and become more sophisticated capital gain that outweighs the trading advantage
at marketing their products, the profit margin on of holding onto the asset.
pure trading activities has declined. Trading firms It is also strategic. Unlike Glencore and Noble, the
increasingly need to add value by offering integrated four big private commodity trading firms, Vitol,
logistical services for their customers. They are better Gunvor, Mercuria and Trafigura, cannot raise equity
equipped to do that if they invest in infrastructure. finance on stock markets. They need regular capital
Global trading firms with substantial infusions to build up their balance sheets or make
Trading firms throughput are best placed. Trading firms further infrastructure investments. Asset sales can
benefit more from that control a substantial fraction of the be an important cash raising tool.
investing in assets at a particular midstream facility And it is important to remember too that control
midstream assets benefit from the advantages of scale. Being does not necessarily require ownership. A good
where they have
able to deliver more efficiently gives them illustration is Trafigura's construction, then partial sale,
substantial
throughput
a competitive edge in the region. of an oil storage and export facility at Corpus Christi,
Texas (see page 54). The company sold a majority stake
to a specialist operator in 2015, but before doing so it
made sure it retained the rights to all future production.
46 Section B. How Commodity Trading Works
Chapter 7. Storing commodities: transformation in time
Contango and backwardation The opposite situation, when futures fall below the
A trader can buy a commodity for delivery on a date current spot price, is known as backwardation.
in the future in one of two ways. He or she could The period starting in mid-2014 was one of
either borrow money now to buy the commodity extreme volatility in crude. The oil price collapsed
today, and store it until the desired delivery date from over $100 per barrel in June to less than $50
(at which point he or she repays the borrowing) or at the end of the year. And the market moved into
he or she could buy a commodity futures contract. a contango pricing structure.
Since these are different ways of achieving the Traders were incentivised to buy physical oil in the
same objective, their relative costs are connected. spot market and increase storage levels. In doing this,
Prices in commodity spot and futures markets are they were also helping to balance supply and demand.
linked by arbitrage. When one purchase method All the leading traders sought to make the most
becomes relatively cheap, traders can arbitrage the of the situation by taking on additional storage
price differential. They buy in the cheaper market capacity. As most of the world's available on-land
while simultaneously selling in the more expensive storage tanks filled up, some of them fixed long leases
market. This adjusts supply and demand, and on supertankers to store surplus oil on the high seas
therefore relative pricing, in the two markets. for periods of up to 15 months. This practice was last
But there are also times when, for technical reasons, seen when oil demand collapsed during the 2008
the markets can move apart. When futures prices drift financial crisis.
higher than spot prices, markets move into contango.
100
80
$/barrel
60
40
20
0
May-14 May-15 Nov-15 May-16
Source: http://www.tradingeconomics.com/commodity/brent-crude-oil
15
12
6
$ premium/discount to
Brent spot rate
0
1 10 20 30 36
-3
-6
-9
May-14
-12 May-15
Nov-15
-15 May-16
Months to delivery
Chapter 8
BLENDING
COMMODITIES:
TRANSFORMATION
IN FORM
To be fit for purpose, physical commodities need to match customer
specifications. Since commodity producers derive their product from
the ground, its quality and characteristics are variable.
Traders and intermediaries bridge the quality gap by zinc, lead and other metals they use blending
blending commodities from multiple sources to make techniques to reduce the levels of arsenic, phosphorous
products that match customer requirements. They and other unwanted materials in shipments in return
earn profits by identifying and exploiting market for a higher price. In iron ore and coal markets, blending
inefficiencies in the price / quality relationships is primarily a mechanism for enhancing profitability.
between different shipments of a physical commodity. Traders need to be able to store products from
Suppliers provide products that meet customer multiple sources at a strategic location where there
specification, but the complexity of the refining process is the capability to blend at scale. They could in theory
is such that to do this they will sometimes present an rent such facilities from third parties, but most prefer
over-specified product. Traders and intermediaries use to control or own their own infrastructure. Transaction
blending to optimise shipments so they can meet economics and the concept of temporal specificity
customer specifications at a competitive price. shed light on the reason for this.
Arbitrage opportunities are fleeting. If a change
Strategic infrastructure in relative pricing between two grades of a commodity
In metals and minerals markets, traders often combine creates a blending opportunity the trader must be
materials from two or more mines to create able to react swiftly to exploit that. A third-party
commodities with the desired qualities synthetically. owned facility will not prioritise its interests and may
In concentrates markets copper in particular but also even use the situation to extract premium rates.
49
ARSENIC 7 ARSENIC
4% +
CONTENT 'CLEAN'
CONCENTRATE
UNITS
= CONTENT
0.5%
Blending in copper markets techniques such as oxidisation can reduce arsenic
Chinese copper consumption has grown markedly content, these are costly and they also affect copper
since 2000. In 2002, China had already overtaken levels. For instance, processing at Toromocho which
the US to become the worlds largest copper reduces arsenic from 1 percent to 0.7 percent, also
consumer. By 2014, it was consuming 8.7 million cuts the copper grade in the concentrate
metric tonnes of refined copper products, 40 percent from 26 percent to around 22 percent. Blending
of global demand. Another solution is to blend the concentrates
China processes increasing amounts of its copper concentrate. Mines producing arsenic- reduces toxicity
domestically; it accounts for over a third of global rich concentrate sell at a discount to
smelter production. But with few exploitable trading firms, like Trafigura, which also
reserves domestically, it has to source most of its have access to cleaner stocks. The traders then
copper overseas. blend the material with cleaner concentrates before
The quality of concentrate available has suffered selling on to smelters.
with the growth in demand. As existing mines get Low-quality concentrate requires larger inventories
depleted, smelters are more reliant on new, sometimes and more extensive processing. This is reflected in
arsenic-rich, sites for their concentrate. The the price. The premiums payable on cleaner
Toromocho mine in Peru, which came on stream in concentrates vary according to market conditions.
2014, and Codelcos Ministro Hales project in
northern Chile, which began production in 2015, are Blending coal for power plants
significant new sources of copper supply. Both The rationale for blending coal is purely economic.
produce concentrate with high arsenic content: Trading firms source products from multiple locations
1 percent at Toromochu and around 4 percent at and blend to meet customer specifications in the
Ministro Hales. most cost-effective way possible. Utilities running
These new flows of arsenic-rich copper concentrate coal-fired power plants are important customers.
present fresh challenges for the industry. Concentrate Japanese and Korean plants have more exacting
containing arsenic poses health and safety risks for quality requirements. They typically negotiate long-
smelters and China insists on a maximum 0.5 percent term contracts, often direct with producers, to
arsenic content for imports. Although processing secure consistent quality product.
50 Section B. How Commodity Trading Works
Chapter 8. Blending commodities: transformation in form
Power plants in China, which face less exacting Market forces dictate spreads between lumps and
environmental standards and more stretching fines and for the different grades. Trading firms blend
demand conditions, are often more flexible about accordingly to maximise their margins, aiming to
the grades of coal they use. They are also active in source the most economic and supply the most
spot markets and prepared to deal with multiple popular grades by adjusting combinations of lumps
suppliers. Global trading firms sell direct or via and fines. This is a scale business, which is most
intermediaries. They blend coal from different profitable for firms with access to blending terminals
sources to supply the right quality product as cost- and multiple sources of supply.
effectively as possible. Most traders have cornerstone contracts with key
customers for the bulk of the ore they supply. They
Iron ore and steel mills build up inventories comprising different grades and
The steel industry is a major source of demand for types of ore to meet their requirements and will
coal and iron ore. Its market dynamics differ from supplement this by trading on spot markets with
the utility business in one key respect: demand is intermediaries and other steel mills.
much more volatile.
Historically, steel mills maintained large iron ore Crude oil benchmarks and characteristics
inventories, allowing them to respond rapidly to In its natural, unrefined state, crude oil ranges in
shifting demand conditions. But in recent years, as density and consistency, from a very thin, lightweight
credit has become more difficult for the steel mills to fluid to a thick, semi-solid oil. There is tremendous
obtain, inventories have shrunk from 40 to 10 days. variation in colour, from golden yellow to very dark
The mills increasingly rely on steel sales to black. The viscosity, toxicity and volatility (i.e.
Steel mills have
generate cashflow and have outsourced tendency to evaporate) of oils determine how they
outsourced storage storage to trading firms. can be used and transported.
to trading firms Their lack of inventory contributes to Key measurements for crude include American
a see-sawing iron ore price. Rather than Petroleum Institute (API) gravity (inversely related
consuming iron ore and coal at a constant to density) and sulphur content (low sulphur grades,
rate, the mills ramp-up production when pricing is known as sweet, are less toxic).
advantageous and slow it down as steel demand falls. Grades are described by location and specified in
Trading firms maintain large stocks and supply detail. Benchmark grades are used as pricing indices
the mills according to need. They buy ore with and for hedging.
different purity levels from various suppliers and With over 160 tradeable crude oil products, many
blend it according to customer demand. different refined products and numerous end-users
Iron ore can be supplied as lumps or in a fine- with highly specific requirements, blending
ground powder (fines) at various grade of purity. Mills opportunities abound in oil markets.
pay a premium for high-quality lump ore as it can
be charged directly into the blast furnace. Fines first
have to be agglomerated into lumps, in a process
known as sintering, to prevent it smothering the
furnace. Lower grade ores must go through a series
of processes before they can be used to make pig
iron and ultimately steel.
51
4.0%
Sour
Liquefied Gasoline Jet Fuel Diesel fuel Heavy fuel oil Bitumen Other products
Petroleum Gas Regular gasoline Jet A1 Home-heating Normal (4%) Naphthas Kerosene
Propane Premium gasoline Low sulphur (petrochemicals) Light marine
fuel Special gasolines
Butane Unleaded content (2%) Diesel
Premium Very low sulphur White spirit Special fuel oils
content (1%) Aviation gasoline Coke
Lubricant base
stocks
Paraffins - waxes
Products need to be shipped reliably and safely to develop a product that meets the specification
over large distances. Efficient hub-and-spoke refinery more precisely and therefore more cost-effectively.
network and global operations offer great flexibility,
and are highly responsive to changes in demand, Balkanisation and US gasoline markets
supply shocks and other market adjustments. Most of us dont think twice about the fuel we put
Transportation and storage are increasingly into our cars, but the convenience of the local service
pivotal in todays global oil market, but blending still station and the ubiquity of this seemingly simple
plays an important role. With the emergence of the product belie the complexity of the markets and
super refineries, more blending opportunities have processes required to deliver it.
opened up as plants gain the ability to accept a wider It is a common misconception to think of gasoline
range of input. simply as an oil product derived from crude oil
through the refining process. While straight-run
The great gasoline giveaway gasoline, also called naphtha, is distilled directly from
Refiners try to manipulate ingredients to meet crude, gasoline as a product is far more complex.
market specifications, but they cannot always achieve The product specification varies according to where
this precisely. Depending on the ingredients available it is consumed, by whom and for what purpose. At the
and the processes they employ they may arrive at top level, refiners make at least two versions. Regular
an over- or under-specified blend. For the refiner, it gasoline is blended for standard vehicles. Premium
may make economic sense to deliver an over- grade gasoline is blended for high-performance
specified blend. It could be that there is a shortage vehicles with high-compression engines that require
of raw materials or perhaps the complexity of high-octane fuel to operate at peak efficiency.
optimisation outweighs its economic benefits. In the US there is a proliferation of standards.
Even so, these are market inefficiencies and they Several US states have regional regulatory
create profitable opportunities for traders and other requirements. The Environmental Protection Agency
intermediaries. In oil trading parlance these sub- (EPA) enforces strict environmental controls. Unique
optimal blends are known as "giveaways". By fuel regulations have created gasoline zones across
modifying such blends with other ingredients traders the country where only certain fuels can be sold.
are able to supply products that meet This balkanisation of the US fuel supply
Gasoline giveaways market specifications more precisely and has made it more expensive to produce There are different
are profitable for more cost-effectively. and deliver fuel, but it also creates fuels in different US
traders Giveaways erode refiner margins. A trading opportunities. states at different
times of the year
150,000 barrels-per-day refinery may Gasoline is a blend of 15 to 20 different
forego anything up to $30 million annually components. The aim is to produce a
in giveaways on gasoline, distillate and heavy oil sales. clean-burning, energy-efficient, cost-
For gasoline blending, refiners often focus on effective grade with low toxicity levels. Achieving
minimising octane giveaways. Other dimensions of the right combination is a complex process. Often,
giveaways can be more complex to manage. adding one ingredient strengthens one attribute at
Volatility in fuel fluctuates according to altitude the expense of other desired characteristics.
and ambient temperature. Far more than in, say, Butane for instance is a relatively cheap fuel with
Europe, the US caters for these fluctuations by good burning properties. Gasoline with more butane
allowing states or regions to specify particular blends is cheaper to produce and has higher octane levels,
to reflect climatic differences; not only seasonal, but but butanes high vapour pressure (HVP) makes it
also geographic, such as between the low-lying sub- prone to rapid evaporation. That limits the extent to
tropical Gulf, the high plains near the Rockies, and which it can be incorporated into blends.
California's Mediterrean-type climate. A refiner Volatility a gasolines tendency to vaporise is
producing gasoline for multiple US states may have the key gasoline characteristic for good driveability.
to make blends with several different volatilities and Liquids and solids dont burn; vapours do. Gasoline
change the volatility from month to month. has to vaporise before it can ignite in an engines
Not surprisingly, given the amount of capital combustion chamber. In cold conditions, gasoline
involved, optimisation is going on all the time. It is that vaporises easily helps a cold engine start quickly
not always a case of the traders physically combining and warm-up smoothly. Warm-weather gasoline is
elements themselves but the aim is always the same: blended to vaporise less easily to prevent fuel
54 Section B. How Commodity Trading Works
Chapter 8. Blending commodities: transformation in form
US GASOLINE REQUIREMENTS
California
Oxygenated Fuels
CA RFG
CA OXY RFG
AZ CBG
Conventional
N RFG w/Ethanol
S RFG w/Ethanol
Chapter 9
DELIVERING
COMMODITIES:
MEETING CUSTOMER
SPECIFICATIONS
As markets become more efficient, commodity trading is evolving
into a low-margin service business. Increasingly, traders make their
living by providing a solidly reliable logistics service between producer
and consumer.
There is growing emphasis on service in the company, for instance, it needs to deliver its cargo
commodity industry. With more intense competition in the right volumes, at the right quality, at the agreed
and better information, markets are more transparent, time and at the agreed place. Should it fail to deliver,
margins thinner and arbitrage opportunities more there is a high price for the end-user, with the risk of
fleeting. The most successful trading firms are power outages and even popular unrest.
focusing on producer and end-user priorities. This is a low-margin business. Trading firms
In an industry governed by economies of scale typically earn 3percent or less on a given transaction.
and close trading relationships, there is space for Given the cost of transportation, insurance and the
niche players that cater to specialist markets and operational risks they take on, this is by no means
regions, and for larger global trading firms that excessive. The trading firms that deliver service
can afford to invest in logistics and infrastructure most efficiently will gain a competitive advantage.
that benefit their customers. Market conditions The trading firms role is far broader
Trading firms rely on
are much more challenging for medium-sized than that of a mere broker. It justifies its high-quality
trading firms. involvement by the high level of service operations to
The customers for commodity trading it provides to commodity producer and execute
Key tenets for firms are often strategic organisations in their consumer alike. Ensuring execution transactions
successful delivery respective economies, such as government progresses smoothly and within budgeted profitably
agencies, energy-intensive manufacturers parameters is therefore critical to
and utilities. Any disruption in their supply business profitability.
chains can have far-reaching consequences. Like any other multinational business, commodity
Reliability is fundamental. If a trading firm wants traders may be operating in places that are blighted
to forge strong trading relationships, it has to be able by geopolitical division, subject to international
to deliver commodities on spec and on time, every political sanctions, and prone to corruption and
time. If it is supplying coal to a power generating money laundering.
57
While most commodity consumers are in All documentation needs to be accurate and up
industrialised nations and emerging economies, to date. The firms trade finance department ensures
mines and wells are scattered across the globe. They that the documents accompanying a letter of credit
are usually located away from major urban areas, are in order. Before the ship carrying its cargo can
often in developing economies. Trading firms may embark its master needs to sign a bill of lading, a
need to create, supplement or enhance local standard form document that confirms the title
infrastructure to make transportation affordable. holder of a cargo shipment and obliges the carrier to
Commodity trades span the globe. They can release it to them on arrival at the destination port.
involve counterparties that may not know each other, Insurance provision needs to be in place.
let alone trust each other. One way that trading firms It takes great care and skill to execute deals
add value is by building up trusting relationships with precisely, managing continuing operational risks
their counterparties. They set up detailed protocols while preserving corporate reputations. Companies
for trading and delivery to minimise risk and maximise not disciplined enough to fulfil their various
certainty. These need to be followed to the letter. obligations and responsibilities may find themselves
Large trading firms manage significant numbers taking on large risk exposures quite unintentionally.
of transactions. They must consider all aspects of As competition has intensified, alliances
operational risk, put systems in place, take out between trading firms and other market They strengthen
insurance and audit the delivery process. A company participants based on shared interests, supply chains by
like Trafigura takes on more than 2,000 ship voyages complementary capabilities and mutual supporting their
customers
a year. The sheer volume of activity makes it hard to benefit have become increasingly common.
monitor each and every risk on a given flow of For consumers, long-term arrangements
business without a clear system and well-understood, increase certainty and reduce volatility. The trading firms
carefully thought through procedures. gain from having consistency of supply. Trading is a
Commodity trading firms employ a
They appoint WAYS COMMODITY TRADING FIRMS SECURE
specialists and
relatively small number of people to
handle numerous high-volume, high- RELIABLE CONSUMPTION OUTLETS
independent
inspectors to value transactions. They put protocols in
manage processes place to supervise and monitor processes
on the ground so they can identify and pre-empt any
problems or issues that may arise. 1 Downstream integration
Once the trader concludes the deal,
he hands the execution to an operator. The operator
coordinates logistics to make sure all the right
resources are in place for the right dates. That means
working with the contracts department and the 2 Joint ventures
shipping department, appointing inspectors to
measure the quantity and quality of whats in the
tanker, appointing vessel brokers and agents, dealing
with those responsible for loading and discharge, the
terminal operator and, of course, maintaining 3 Financial support
relations with the customer. The operator also has
to keep the deals desk up to date with any information
that could affect hedging strategy or the profitability
of the trade.
Operations teams focus in depth on cargo 4 Technical support
certification. They assess whether the quantity and
quality of the cargo needs to be certified by an
independent inspector. This may be specified as a
requirement in an accompanying letter of credit.
Trading firms will normally appoint agents to act as 5 Long-term supply contracts
their representatives, certify cargo and manage
delivery of shipments.
58 Section B. How Commodity Trading Works
Chapter 9. Delivering commodities: meeting customer specifications
Top 10 countries: In 2014, world copper smelter to 59percent in 2014 as smelter smelters use copper scrap as their
Copper smelter production reached 18.0 million production in China expanded feed. In 2014, at the refinery level,
tonnes. Asias share of world rapidly. Primary smelters use secondary copper refined
production in 2014
copper smelter output more than mine concentrates as their main production reached 17percent of
doubled from 27percent in 1990 source of feed. Secondary copper total copper refined production.
Germany China
US
A 3% 37.1%
mbia 3%
Za
3%
d
lan
%
Po
3.4
a
3.5%
Kore
4.4%
India
5.0%
sia
Rus
7.
7%
Ch
ile
9.2 %an
Ja p
Executing
the trade:
operations
in action
Structuring and maintaining an 3
efficient operating model is at the
2
heart of profitable commodity
trading. The operations team of
any commodity trader has an
important role in helping to define
and refine protocols that help the
trading firm minimise risk and
reduce costs. 1
1 Loading and discharge weather systems affect shipping administrative tasks, supervise
Managing efficient
speeds, fuel consumption and loading and unloading of cargo,
execution Every day a vessel remains in dock
trade routes. Charterers that and are responsible for arranging
In commodity trading firms, or at sea waiting to load or
exceed the agreed rental period pilot and tug boat services.
the trading operation is at the discharge results in both
must pay a demurrage fee. The
hub of the company. It opportunity costs and actual costs 4 Appointing inspectors
operations team monitors
controls the commodity for the trading firm. The contract
demurrage risks and notifies Both the volume and the quality
inventory and has overall between the charterer and the
trading teams when schedules of commodity shipments can
responsibility for managing shipowner specifies agreed time
come under pressure. change while in transit.
the supply chain activities for loading and unloading
Sometimes, this is anticipated
required to transform (laytime). The operations team 3 Vessel brokers and agents with crude oil shipments for
transactions into profit for the needs to coordinate chartering
Global trading firms undertake instance, there is always some
company and value for its dates, arrival and loading, and
numerous high-volume, residue left in the tanker. In other
customers. From the moment destination and discharge
high-value transactions involving cases, the cargo may have been
the deal is closed until schedules to minimise lost time.
thousands of journeys each year. stored incorrectly, its chemical
ultimate delivery, the 2 Demurrage They liaise with brokers to charter properties may have changed, or
operations team is responsible vessels. They use agents to there is a discrepancy in volumes
for execution of the myriad Trading in the physical world
manage logistics and represent loaded and unloaded at various
processes required to achieve doesnt always go according to
their interests while their ships stages. To prevent the expense
this objective. plan. Ships develop faults, and
are in port. They oversee and disruption of disagreements
61
4
7
between buyers, sellers and costs, warehousing rental and coverage. Trading firms maintain And what is the best strategy to
logistics providers, trading firms chartering costs as well as for separate insurance programmes recover value on distressed cargo?
appoint independent inspectors the material itself via suppliers for property, liability, political risk
to certify the quality and the and receivers. Financing and trade credit general 8 Auditing
quantity of cargo. arrangements are put in place insurance. The shipper may cover Most operations go to plan but
(e.g. letter of credit) and if a specific cargo with its own where this does not happen it is
5 Accounting for applicable an operator tracks and policy. If not, the trading firm the job of the operations team to
physical flows controls the pricings of cargo may take out special marine work out who is at fault and
Profit and loss (P&L) can be and allocates them to shipments policies to cover shipment. establish how best to recoup
affected by many known or for invoicing purposes, while money for the firm. With a
unknown factors. Effective and monitoring exposures. There 7 Troubleshooting complex supply chain, issues can
vigilant contract management is will also be unknown or Most transactions work like arise during storage, blending and
mandatory. The operations team unpredictable factors, such as clockwork, but when things get transportation. The operations
will keep the trading back office force majeure by a supplier, bad more complex the operations team team will reconcile volumes and
up to date with the latest news weather or engine failure, which has to negotiate the best remedial qualities at every stage in the
while monitoring the life cycle may result in P&L impact. action. Who is at fault if a correctly process to pinpoint discrepancies.
of the trade. This includes loaded cargo arrives off-spec or the
tracking payments and receipts 6 Insurance quantities can't be reconciled? Play the video online
for known costs such as port The operations team checks that Does the trader sue the inspector, http://www.downloads.
fees, agency fees, inspection insurance provides adequate claim insurance or accept the loss? commoditiesdemystified.info
Section C
COMMODITY
TRADING AND
FINANCIAL
MARKETS
Chapter 10 Chapter 11
Managing risk Funding commodity trading
p.64 p.72
64 Section C. Commodity Trading and Financial Markets
Chapter 10. Managing risk
Chapter 10
MANAGING RISK
Risk management is a core competence for trading firms. They store
and transport physical assets across the globe and earn slim margins
on high-value, high-volume transactions. They use sophisticated
risk management techniques to link revenues to costs and operate
effectively in volatile markets.
Major traders have annual turnover that dwarfs their The integrated nature of their operations provides
own capital resources and puts them firmly in the ranks another natural hedge within the overall business.
of the worlds largest companies. They rely on sizeable In the copper market, for instance, a decline in end-
infusions of short-term capital to buy the demand for the refined metal may or may not lead
Trading firms can commodities they need to trade. This would to reduced smelter production and lower demand
only stay in business not be available to them were they not able for concentrate. It all depends on market dynamics.
as competitive, to demonstrate to financial institutions the Either way, the demand for storage (either of
low-risk operations
sustainability of their business models. concentrates or refined copper) is likely to increase.
Managing financial risk effectively is In an integrated trading operation, lower demand
therefore an absolute priority for trading firms. They for shipping a commodity is offset by increased
use derivative markets to hedge against absolute demand for storing it.
price (also known as flat price) risk. They also take But diversification and integration provide little
out commercial credit risk and political risk policies protection in the event of a systemic change in market
in the insurance market. sentiment. Both the global financial crisis and the
economic slowdown in China would have been
Diversification and integration reduce risk catastrophic for any trading company that took no
Global trading firms handle a variety of commodities additional steps to hedge its activities.
and manage processes across the supply chain.
As diversified operations they enjoy limited natural
protection from commodity price changes. Different
price pressures in various commodity markets will be
offset by the breadth of their activities. Most are
trading both primary and secondary commodities and
will usually have their own storage facilities.
65
Physical transaction
Agree to sell crude in 3 months
$60 at Brent + $1.50
Hedge
Sell Brent futures
at $60 / contract
TRANSACTION DATE BRENT
Physical transaction
Deliver crude
receive $56.50 / barrel
$55 Hedge
Buy Brent futures
at $55 / contract
Realised profit = $5
DELIVERY DATE BRENT Net revenue
$61.50 ($56.50 + $5)
Managing flat price risk It can avoid this by simultaneously taking out
The practice of hedging is fundamental to commodity futures contracts against both parts of the transaction.
trading. Trading firms like Trafigura systematically It fixes the purchase price in advance by buying futures
eliminate their flat price exposure the risk of a on the transaction date and selling them back when
change in the benchmark price for a barrel of oil or it collects the shipment. At the same time, it fixes the
a tonne of copper concentrate. sale price by selling futures on the transaction date
In a typical transaction, a trader will agree purchase and buying them back when the crude has shipped.
and sale prices with two different counterparties to The simplified example above illustrates how traders
lock in a profit margin. The transaction is agreed before use futures to remove flat price risk when selling a
shipment and the convention is that final prices are physical commodity.
not fixed until the commodity is delivered. So on the Hedging flat price risk does not eliminate price risk
transaction date, the parties agree both trades at fixed altogether because physical price and futures prices
margins against a benchmark index price. For crude, dont stay completely aligned, but it does leave the
for instance, the purchase price might be set at 50 trading firm with a smaller, much more manageable
basis points over the Brent index on the day the trader market risk. This is known as basis risk.
takes delivery and the sale price at 150 basis points
over Brent when the shipment is delivered.
Left like this the transaction leaves the trading firm
exposed to fluctuations in the actual price of Brent
crude. It clearly has to take delivery of the crude before
it can ship it, so if the Brent price is higher on the earlier
date it could make a substantial loss.
66 Section C. Commodity Trading and Financial Markets
Chapter 10. Managing risk
Physical spot market prices Daily assessments of spot markets by Price Reporting Agencies
chiefly Platts and Argus.
Relationship between Oil contracts can be priced according to a premium / discount to either Platts or
futures and physical Argus spot prices or to the futures benchmark prices. But hedging can usually only
prices be done by taking out one of the futures contracts. Futures and spot prices will
tend to move up or down together, and will converge when futures contracts
become deliverable.
This raises the question of how the market The LME requires margin payments on all futures
determines reference prices in the physical markets contracts to minimise its risk in the event of default.
for energy and metals. In the main, the market relies On opening the futures contract, the broker lodges
on prices published by two Price Reporting Agencies. initial margin, underwriting the traders ability and
Platts and Argus are private companies that perform willingness to honour the contract. In normal trading
a vital public role. They report daily on a vast array times on the LME, this initial margin is around 5-8
of markets trading different physical commodities percent of the underlying physical transaction (higher
as well as some specially tailored derivative contracts. at times of high volatility). This is usually funded with
The development of oil spot markets, in parallel with a credit line from a bank.
that of the futures markets, created a need for price Variation margin payments are also required
assessments, first as a contribution to transparency but to reflect the daily fluctuations of the aluminium
gradually for use in trade. The spot market in oil is still price. At the end of each trading day the futures
a small fraction of the world oil market, but it sets prices position is marked to market, with profits posted
for a much larger volume of trade. Most energy trade to the brokers account and losses met with
is still conducted on a long-term basis, but often at additional funds. For instance, if the price drops
prices in contracts that are set at an agreed differential by $50 to $1,450, the trader, as the party that is
to a Platts or Argus benchmark. This in turn is based on short on aluminium, would post a variation margin
the prevailing spot market price. of $50 a tonne.
The trader can now make physical deliveries of
Hedging an aluminium transaction on the LME aluminium each month, with changes in the market
Trading firms use futures to protect themselves against price having no effect on its net cash flow. If prices
the risk of adverse market movements. To hedge go above $1,500 a tonne its gains in the physical
aluminium sales, they will often use LME futures. market are offset by equal losses on the financial
By way of example, take a physical transaction transaction. If prices fall, the opposite occurs.
where a trader contracts to sell 10,000 tonnes of
aluminium a month to a manufacturing counterparty.
The two parties agree to trade at the prevailing LME
Official Settlement Price at the end of each month.
At the time the physical transaction is agreed, the
price of aluminium is $1,500 a tonne. The trader
hedges his exposure with an LME monthly average
futures contract. He places an order with his broker
to open futures contracts to sell 10,000 tonnes of
aluminium a month at $1,500 a tonne.
68 Section C. Commodity Trading and Financial Markets
Chapter 10. Managing risk
DAY 75
Dubai crude = $75 Trafigura earns $154m Buying back Dubai futures
from the sale of crude realises a $35m loss
($77 x 2m) [($57.50 - $75) x 2m]
Total revenue $119m
($154m - $35m)
Volumes and trading profitability merchants provide. Net margins also increase as
Commodity traders are largely indifferent as to volumes increase, because this is an industry with
whether markets go up or down. Successful hedging substantial economies of scale. The unit cost of
largely removes both the risk and reward of changes delivery can fall dramatically as volumes grow,
in absolute prices. What they do care about is the because of logistics savings.
margin between their purchase and sale prices. A The link between margins, volumes and prices is
trade is only profitable when this margin is greater more indirect. There is a correlation between margins
than the unit cost of doing the business. Net margin and price volatility. Managing price risk is not a core
is the critical metric for profitability. competence for producers and consumers. In volatile
For trading firms, volumes, not prices, markets, the value added by traders is more evident
Traders focus on are the key factor for profitability. and their services are in demand. This is reflected in
margins not market Professor Craig Pirrong highlights the the higher margins that are generally available in
prices
danger of confusing the riskiness of more volatile market conditions.
commodity prices with the riskiness of As it happens, the surge in oil and metals prices
commodity trading. He points out that the metric until 2014 was also good for margins and volumes.
to judge riskiness in commodity trading operations But when prices collapse, margins and volumes do
should be the level of commodity shipments, not not always follow. The recent sharp fall in the oil
commodity prices. price did not stem from a fall in oil demand. It was
While it is the case that large trading firms have simply that more was being produced than being
more at stake by virtue of the large volumes they consumed. Price rather than demand took the hit
ship, they also have more opportunities to reduce from an excess of production over consumption and
risk through flexible management of their trading unused supply was placed in storage. Inventories
system. Larger businesses tend to be more diversified cannot rise forever though and a sustained lower
and therefore their risks are less concentrated. price environment will eventually subdue supply.
It is true too that margins and volumes tend to
rise and fall together, because both reflect demand
for the transformation services that commodity
71
Managing operational risk, credit risk companies) and political or country risk (i.e. action by
and political risk governments to block payment or seize assets). But
Global trading firms encounter many different kinds not every risk can be managed directly.
of risk. They are active around the world. They Insurance is a critical business enabler.
operate in multiple jurisdictions. Their counterparties Traders cannot afford not to insure their They take out
include governments, state agencies, banks, and operations. The loss of a single cargo, insurance to cover
private and public limited companies. quite apart from the social and / or business risks they
One liability that looms large for any company environmental cost, could cost tens or cannot manage
internally
transporting, loading and offloading big volumes of even hundreds of millions of dollars.
oil and petroleum products is the danger of an oil Having insurance allows trading firms to
spill. Oil, by definition, is a hazardous chemical. deal with a range of counterparties, operate in
There is the potential for injuries, fatalities and challenging environments and compete more
extensive environmental damage; and rightly, as effectively worldwide.
Exxon, Total and BP have all discovered in recent If trading firms cannot satisfy themselves, through
decades, that brings massive financial penalties and their own internal checking process, of the
huge reputational damage. Trading firms mitigate creditworthiness of a counterparty, then they can
this risk through best practice operations in their usually take out a guarantee or insurance on
own procedures and by ensuring their commercial the counterparty from a bank. This transfers the
partners comply with similarly high standards. For credit risk to the bank, though this comes at a cost
instance, when chartering ships, most insist on to the trading firm.
double-hulled, certified tankers. Many Insurance against political risk, as well as credit
Trading firms
also impose an age limit on the ships risk, can be taken out on the Lloyds market in London.
apply best practice
and invest in they charter. One widely used policy known as CEND provides
modern equipment More generally, operational cover against confiscation, expropriation,
to manage effectiveness is a critical business nationalisation and deprivation.
operational risk attribute and not just to avoid the Some commodity traders, notably those with
potentially calamitous liability incurred global operations, spend a lot of money on political
through an industrial accident. and credit risk insurance. For the largest firms,
Global traders depend on forging strong, self-insuring most of their operations through a
sustainable trading relationships. They themselves captive insurer is a viable alternative. A captive
are under scrutiny as many of their commercial insurance company takes on the risk of each
partners have their own reporting and regulatory transaction, but just like an external insurer it
requirement s . To do busine ss with the se spreads the cost across multiple transactions. The
organisations, they need, as a minimum, to be largest traders have sufficient volume to make this
meeting internationally accepted health, safety and possible internally, with the captive insurer using
environmental standards. the reinsurance market to protect the business
Trading firms take numerous steps to protect against worst-case outcomes.
themselves from credit risk (i.e. non-payment by
72 Section C. Commodity Trading and Financial Markets
Chapter 11. Funding commodity trading
Chapter 11
FUNDING
COMMODITY
TRADING
Trading firms buy and sell commodities with an aggregate value
that far exceeds their own capital resources. They achieve this by
attracting funding from financial institutions. Banks are willing to
lend because their loans are secured against commodities.
1 BARREL 1 BARREL
OIL + BL OIL + BL
$1
LC FOR PROFIT FOR LC FOR
$100 $100 TRADER $101
LC FOR LC FOR
$100 $101
LC = Letter of credit BL = Bill of lading Purchase price = 1 barrel for $100 Sale price = 1 barrel for $101
Banks facilitate a trade by providing a letter of by the carrier, the seller receives a BL, which he
credit (LC) to the seller on the buyers behalf. This then presents to his bank to get paid. So the seller
document is a bank-backed guarantee does not rely on payment on the creditworthiness
that the seller will receive payment in full of the trader, but on that of his own bank, which
Traditional trade
finance uses letters
so long as certain delivery conditions are in turn relies on the creditworthiness of the
of credit (LCs) with met. The seller has the assurance that traders bank.
bills of lading as should the buyer be unable to make Step Two. A copy of the BL passes to the trader,
collateral payment on the purchase, the bank will giving him title to the cargo in question.
cover the outstanding amount. In some Step Three. The buyer issues a LC to the trader. This
emerging markets, sellers are legally required to gives the trader the security that the buyer is able
demand letters of credit from buyers to register sales and willing to pay. The trader presents the BL to the
and make transactions more transparent. buyers bank and gets paid.
One of the conditions that must be satisfied for the This system works well. It suits the seller. He knows
LC to be honoured, and payment made, is presentation he will get paid once the BL is presented and he does
of the bill of lading (BL). The BL is a formal document not have to depend on the creditworthiness of either
that confers title of ownership to goods in transit to the trading firm or the importer. It also allows
the holder. It acts as receipt that the goods have been commodity trading firms to hold far more bank debt
loaded on board and delivered to the buyer. on their balance sheet than a normal company could,
because this trade finance debt is dependent on
Bilateral trade finance another counterparty. But arranging this kind of
Step One. The trader or traders bank issues an bilateral finance for individual cargoes with LCs and
LC to the seller via the sellers bank. The precise BLs is very labour-intensive. So trading firms also use
sequence of events is that the seller puts the other techniques to fund commodity trades.
goods on a ship. When these have been checked
74 Section C. Commodity Trading and Financial Markets
Chapter 11. Funding commodity trading
2
PRODUCER
TR
1 3
AN
SP
O
RT
BANK
TRADER
4 5 6
CUSTOMER
7
SPV
SPECIAL PURPOSE
VEHICLE
1 Trader purchases oil, 3 Once the bank makes payment 5 Trader sells encumbered trade
payment terms = 30 days after on letter of credit, a bilateral loan receivable to SPV
bill of lading is created
6 SPV repays bilateral loan
2 Bank issues letter of credit to 4 Trader agrees to sell oil to
producer and makes payments as customer and issues an invoice 7 Customer pays the invoice
per agreed payment terms on 30-day payment terms directly to an SPV account
creating a trade receivable
77
long for payment, the trading firm sells the invoice professional terminal operator. Critically, it retained
immediately to its securitisation vehicle. The special a minority stake and exclusive commercial rights
purpose company uses the funds raised from its bond to use of the terminal. The sale released over $800
facility to acquire these receivables. In turn, these million for reinvestment.
receivables support a revolving bond facility giving the Another popular mechanism for trading firms
trading firm longer-term credit. The mechanism wanting to extend control over strategic assets is
shortens the trading firms liquidity cycle, enabling it through participation in joint ventures. Many firms
to trade more. have strategic partnerships with asset-rich
Some trading firms have become active in the institutions, such as sovereign wealth organisations.
corporate syndicated bank market and in the capital Typically, trading firms contribute a share of the
markets, and have issued bonds of up to five years. financial resources and manage operational issues in
However, the price for soliciting investors in the bond return for shared ownership.
market is the regulatory requirement for greater
transparency of private commodity trading firms Balance sheet management
finances. Trafigura passed a milestone in 2013 when Ultimately, the quality of the trading firms balance
it issued a perpetual bond, which has no repayment sheet will dictate its ability to compete effectively.
date and is classed under generally accepted accounting Concerns about leverage increase yields on its bond
rules as equity. The company was only allowed to debt, impacting its ability to borrow in capital
issue this type of bond after a binding commitment markets. The cost of insuring its debt is also likely
to issue financial statements twice a year. to rise.
More immediately, maintaining its debt They need to
Asset sales within investment grade parameters maintain a strong
In today's more competitive landscape, the determines whether it is able to continue credit rating to
profitability of arbitrage-led transactions has to trade competitively. Trading firms depend trade effectively
declined. Commodity trading firms depend on a strong credit profile to access the
increasingly on strategic assets that lower funding essential for the shipment of
their overall cost of delivery, reduce millions of tonnes of oil and metal.
Trading firms dont
have to own assets storage costs, enhance channels of
to benefit from distribution or provide preferential access
controlling logistics to sources of production.
Control of such assets confers long-term
competitive advantage, which can be
extremely valuable for a trading firm. Trafigura, for
example, has invested over a billion dollars to improve
Colombias transportation infrastructure. It has built
a new terminal by the countrys main river and
developed a fluvial transportation system. With
improved logistics it will be able to transport goods
far more cost-effectively than its competitors. The
expected larger share of the countrys international
trade coming from this competitively advantageous
position will more than outweigh this substantial
initial investment.
Control does not necessarily imply ownership.
Trafigura has a track record of buying underperforming
assets, developing them and then divesting without
relinquishing control. For instance, it acquired an
oil terminal complex in Corpus Christi, Texas in 2011
just as shale production was gathering momentum.
Three years later, with Trafigura having developed
the complex, Corpus Christi had become a major
hub for oil products. It sold a majority interest to a
78 Section Postscript
POSTSCRIPT
The story presented in these pages has two main strands. become cheaper to use, transactions that used to
First, it documents the role played by massive take place within vertically integrated firms can be
flows of raw materials in enabling the global economic undertaken in markets instead, and the upstream
integration of recent decades. The scale of and downstream parts of the firm can be separated.
commodities on the move across the world since the By facilitating liquid, competitive markets for
turn of millennium has been without precedent in example in crude oil and refined products
human history. Achieving that required a new type commodity trading firms have made it more
of organisation able to deploy a combination of economical and efficient to use them.
logistical, financial and risk management skills to Similar logic applies in newer traded markets,
connect centres of production, processing and including iron ore and LNG, where traded supplies
consumption. Without these organisations or are seen as an attractive alternative to pipeline gas
something like them, the modern industrial revolution from such sources as Russia. In effect, the vertical
and emergence of China and other Asian countries structures that used to be seen as essential to secure
as centres of manufacturing and consumption would reliable flows of commodities from producers to
simply not have been possible. consumers are being found wanting. In their place,
Second, it illustrates the utter supremacy of free-market trading has become the guarantor of
market forces in todays global economy. The history security of supply.
of modern commodities trading shows sectors that These are reasons to suppose that the commodities
had previously been dominated by vertically- trading growth of recent decades is not a transient
integrated oligolopies opening up to competition and phenomenon, but that the extension of trading from
disintermediated trading based on various forms of the soft commodities of agriculture to the hard
market pricing. Whether in oil as a result of resource commodities of energy, minerals and metals is here
nationalism and the rise of OPEC, or in metals and to stay.
mining under the impact of Chinese demand, or more What issues are the leading commodities trading
recently in LNG in the face of a surge of tradeable firms going to have to confront in order to ensure
product, supply chains that had once been tightly- this is so?
knit have fractured, creating space into which Recent history suggests three principal challenges.
independent commodity traders could move. The first relates to finance and financial markets. The
In fact, the trading firms have been both success of commodities trading firms is inextricably
beneficiaries and catalysts of this trend. As markets entwined with the existence of a banking sector with
79
an appetite to finance trade and of deep and liquid to operate by becoming more transparent about their
derivatives markets in which they can lay off their activities and demonstrating a commitment to
price risks. Without both of these elements and the acting responsibly.
financial confidence underpinning them, the trading Third is the need for firms to stay nimble and
business would dry up. fleet-of-foot as the trading industry consolidates and
Sustaining that access requires commodities matures. Trading firms have thrived and prospered
trading firms to continue to manage their financial through the years by surfing the waves of economic
risks carefully on the one hand, and governments change and market volatility. They will fail if they
around the world to maintain a conducive regulatory become complacent or miss the waves of change to
system on the other. The latter cannot be taken for come whether in the form of new competitors,
granted. There is a constant risk that regulators, in opportunities for partnership, political upheavals or
their understandable concern to limit systemic shifts in global trade flows. If change created the
financial risk of the kind that nearly brought the modern trading industry, being alive to continuing
global banking industry down in the financial crisis change will ensure its survival.
of 2008, will adopt measures that create unintended
negative consequences for trading. It is not hard to
imagine circumstances in which regulation could
diminish banks appetite to provide trade finance
or impose capital or hedging constraints on the
trading business itself. It is in the interest of the
global economy that such unintended consequences
be avoided.
The second challenge concerns sustainable
business models. Todays global commodities markets
are more competitive and transparent than ever, and
profit margins for the firms that operate in them are
wafer-thin. That makes trading a scale business,
demanding that firms invest heavily in state-of-the-
art systems, processes and technology. Sustainable
success also requires firms to protect their licence
80 Glossary
GLOSSARY
AluminaAluminium oxide, also called traded in the international marketplace. Charter party (CP)A signatory in a
alumina, is the raw material required to It is set periodically by the country or contract to charter a vessel between
produce primary aluminium. It is a through negotiation between the major the vessel owner and the charterer.
white powder produced by the refining producer and consumer organisations
of bauxite. that consistently sell or buy large ChartererA company that hires a ship
quantities of the commodity in a and its crew for a single voyage or for a
ArbitrageThe simultaneous purchase marketplace, and is used to serve as fixed period.
and sale of an asset to profit from a a point of reference against which
difference in the price. It is a trade that sectors can be evaluated. CollateralSecurity pledged in
profits by exploiting the price exchange for a loan.
differences of identical or similar Bid / offerA market maker quotes a
financial instruments on different two-way price for a commodity with ConcentrateThe tradable commodity
markets or in different forms. the bid price lower than the offer price. created by initial processing of lead, zinc
Customers can sell to the market maker or copper ore. Concentrates are used as
BackwardationSituation where early Bill of lading (BL)A document issued CondensateAn ultralight oil found in
periods in a price curve are valued at a by the master of a ship when loading is huge quantities in shale deposits. When
premium to later periods. This can be a completed. This acts as receipt for the underground it is mostly in gaseous
result of short supply or a peak in goods, document of title to the goods form. It condenses into a liquid when
demand in the short term. and evidence of the contract of pumped to the surface.
carriage. The rightful receiver of the
Basis riskThe risk that the value of a cargo presents the BL to claim it at the ContangoA market environment
derivatives-based hedge will not move discharge port. where early periods in a price curve are
in line with its underlying exposure. valued at a discount to later periods. It
Blister copperAn impure form of can be the result of over-supply or lack
BauxiteThe main raw material for copper produced in a furnace. of demand in the present. This is
aluminium metal production. Bauxite normally a temporary phenomenon.
deposits are mainly found in a wide belt BunkersThe fuel used by ships. The
around the equator. term for fuelling a ship is bunkering. Copper cathodeA 99 percent pure
form of copper the primary raw
Benchmark (crude)A crude oil
specification that serves as a reference
price for buyers and sellers. There are
C material for copper wire and cable.
D GiveawaysRefined petroleum
products, especially gasoline, that
exceed a required specification.
M
Deadweight tonnage (DWT)The Mark-to-market An accounting
cargo-carrying capacity of a vessel, in
metric tonnes, plus the weight of
bunkers, stores, lubes, fresh water, etc. It
H mechanism that revalues trading
positions against current market
prices. Profits and losses are realised
does not include the weight of the ship. HedgeA position taken to counteract at each revaluation.
an exposed position intended to
Demurrage The compensation paid minimise or remove price risk. This is Middle distillatesThe range of refined
by charterers to the owners of a usually achieved using futures contracts products situated between lighter
vessel for extra time used at the port, and other derivatives. fractions, such as gasoline, and heavier
beyond what has been granted under products, such as fuel oil. They include
the charter.
I jet fuel, kerosene and diesel.
L N
F LaytimeThe amount of time in port
NaphthaA flammable liquid made
from distilling petroleum. It is used as a
Flat positionHaving no outright position granted by the owners of the vessel, as diluent to help move heavy oil through
either because nothing is held or stated in the charter party, for the pipelines and as a solvent.
because long and short positions net off. loading and discharging of cargo.
CME Group The Quest: Energy, Security and the World Steel Association
http://www.cmegroup.com/education/ Remaking of the Modern World by https://www.worldsteel.org/
getting-started.html Daniel Yergin (Simon & Schuster, 2011)