Pagei

Paul
JeromeMurphyO'ConnorisProfessor
ofNewTestamentattheEcoleBiblique
etArchologiqueFranaise,Jerusalem.

 Pageii

TheKachereTreeBodyofChrist
(Photo:MISSIO,Munich)

TheKachereTreeispropagatedbybirdswhodepositthepitsofitsfruitonthebranchesofothertrees.Airbornerootsfloatdownandtakerootinthesoil.Asthe
Kacheretreegrowsitincorporatesandchangesitshost.MalawiansculptorsfromtheKun'goniArtCentreinMuasawthisdescentandtransformationasaprofound
symbolofGod'sgrace.FromatoweringKacheretreetheycreatedthis3mhighfigureinordertoconcretizePaul'svisionoftheBodyofChrist.Thetorsoandlimbs
aremadeupoftinycarvingsofthosewhohavebeentransformedthroughincorporationintotheChristiancommunity.Togethertheyarethefruitbearingphysical
presenceofChristintheworld.

 Pageiii

Paul
ACriticalLife

JeromeMurphyO'Connor,OP

OxfordNewYork
OXFORDUNIVERSITYPRESS

 Pageiv

OXFORD

UNIVERSITYPRESS

GreatClarendonStreet,OxfordOX26DP

OxfordUniversityPressisadepartmentoftheUniversityofOxford.ItfurtherstheUniversity'sobjectiveofexcellenceinresearch,scholarship,andeducationby
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JeromeMurphyO'ConnorOP,1996

Firstpublished1996FirstissuedasanOxfordUniversityPresspaperback1997

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Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
1.Paul,theApostle,Saint.2.ChristiansaintsTurkeyTarsus
Biography.3.ApostlesBiography.I.Title
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 Pagev

Preface
NottheleastofproblemsfacedbytheauthorofabiographyoftheApostle,PaulofTarsus,istofindatitlethatwilldistinguishitfromitsmanyeminentpredecessors.
MychoiceofPaul:ACriticalLifewasdictatedbythepolyvalenceoftheadjective,whoserangeofmeaningsmayservebothtoexplainmypurposeandtohighlight
thespecificcontributionsofthisvolume.

Onesenseofcriticalisinvolvingsuspenseastotheissue,butitcanalsomeandecisive,crucial.BothareapplicabletoPaul,andtomyownlifeinrelationtohis.
ThechurchofAntiochwasresponsibleforthemissionaryoutreach,whichdemandedofpaganconvertsonlyfaithinJesus.ItwasinthisspiritoffreedomthatPaul
labouredinAsiaMinorandGreece.WhenAntiochlaterchangeditsstanceandaligneditselfwithJerusalem,whichinsistedonobservanceoftheLaw,thestatusofits
churchestothenorthandwestcameunderattack.TheverynatureofGentileChristianitywasputatrisk.Paulwasitsmaindefender.Forfiveorsixyearsinthe
middleofthefirstcenturyADheinvestedeveryounceofhisenergy,andeveryscintillaofhisintelligence,indevisingaresponsewhichwasultimatelytoprevail.Even
ifhiswritingswerenotpartofthecanon,theincalculabledebtweowehimisadequatejustificationforyetanotherattempttounderstandhowandwhyheachieved
whathedid.

Onamorepersonallevel,IwrotemydoctoraldissertationattheUniversityofFribourg,Switzerland,onPaul'sunderstandingofthefunctionofpreaching,anditwas
toprovecrucialtomyfuturecareer.NotonlydiditleadtomynominationtothecoleBibliquein1965,whichhasbeenmyacademichomeeversince,butit
stimulatedalifetimeinterestinthePaulinewritings.Atfirstmyconcernwaswiththeexactinterpretationofpointsofdetail,withaviewtoabetterunderstandingofhis
theology,butalmostinsensiblymyfocusgraduallyshiftedtothehistoricaldimensionofhislifeandwork.ThemoreconsciousIbecameofthewaytheologicalthought
actuallydevelopsbyhistoricallyconditionedinsightsratherthanbylogicaldeductionfromadepositoffaiththemoreIwantedtoencounterthepersonalitybehind
theletters,andtodeterminethefactorswhichledhimtothinkinaparticularway.Thisbookcontainsthefruitsofthatquest,whicharedisplayedwithacertitudethat
allhistorianswillrecognizeasspurious.Onlydefiniteness,however,canprovokethereactionsthatindialogueleadtoprogress.ImakemyownwhatJ.A.T.
Robinsonsaidintheconclusiontoamuchmorechallengingwork,allthestatementsofthisbookshouldbetakenasquestions(1976:357).

 Pagevi

Itrytobeascriticalaspossibleinthesenseofexercisingcarefuljudgement,aboveallwithrespecttotheuseofmaterialfromtheActsoftheApostles.The
traditionoflivesofPaulhasbeentoaccepttheframeworkprovidedbyLuke,andintoittointegratematerialfromtheletters.Theappropriatenessofthisapproach,
whichsubordinatedthetestimonyoftheindividualconcernedtothatofatendentioustheologian,wasquestionedbyJ.Knox,who,inconsequence,laiddownthe
methodologicalprinciple,AfactonlysuggestedinthelettershasastatuswhicheventhemostunequivocalstatementofActs,ifnototherwisesupported,cannot
confer.Wemay,withpropercaution,useActstosupplementtheautobiographicaldataoftheletters,butnevertocorrectthem(1950:32).RecentlivesofPaul(e.g.
Fitzmyer,Baslez,Lgasse)allpaylipservicetothisprinciple,butinpracticetheynotonlypermitLuketoexercisedecisivecontroloverthepresentationofPaul's
career,butfailtorecognizetheproblemsofextractinghistoricaldatafromtheActsoftheApostles.ThesporadiccriticismsofLuke'sportraitofPaul,whichare
scatteredthroughmanycommentariesonActs,hasbeenrecentlycompetentlysynthesizedbyJ.C.Lentz,Jr.,inhisLuke'sPortraitofPaul(1993).

ImayhavegonetotheotherextremeinthewayIusethelettersastheprincipalsourceofPaul'sbiography,butthepublicationsofthreeofmycolleagueshavemade
itimpossibleformetocontinuetoreadtheActsoftheApostleswiththenavetythatcharacterizedsomeofmyearlierwork.Advancesintextualcriticismmeanthatit
isnolongeracceptabletomovewithoutcommentorjustificationfromtheWesterntexttotheAlexandriantextandbackagain.Moreover,intheirpresentformboth
arecorrupt.TodatetheonlyfullydocumentedcriticaltextisthatprovidedbyM.E.BoismardandA.LamouilleintheirmonumentalTexteOccidentaldesActesdes
Aptres(1984).AbyproductoftheirworkisaheightenedawarenessofthecomplexityoftheliterarydevelopmentoftheActsoftheApostles.

TheyhaveattemptedtodetermineitsvariousstagesintheirLesActesdesdeuxAptres,iiii(1990),whoseimplicationsforthehistoryoftheearlychurcharebeing
workedoutbyJustinTaylor,SM.Hisfirstvolume,LesActesdesdeuxAptres,v.Commentairehistorique(Act9.118,22),appearedin1994.Onlythosewho
haveattemptedtoreconstructhistorywillrecognizetheinestimableadvantageofworkingbesideacolleaguewhoapproachesthesamesituationsfromadifferent
perspective.TheinteractionenlightenedmeinwaysthatIwouldnothavethoughtpossible,andhispublicationsdispensemefromdealingwiththedataofActsin
greaterdetail.Ourbooksshouldbeconsideredcomplementary.

ThedecisiontousethelettersasthecontrollingsourceinthereconstructionofPaul'slifehashadimportantconsequencesfortheorganizationofthebook.The
authenticity,integrity,andorderofthelettershadtobeaddressedmorethoroughlythanincomparablebiographies.Astrictlychronologicalorder

 Pagevii

provedincapableofintegratingsuchdiscussions,whichoftenprovidedvaluableinsightsintoPaul'sattitudeatagivenmoment.ThusIdealwithallhiscontactswitha
givenchurchinthesamechapter,eventhougheventsconcerningotherchurchesmayhaveintervened.Alife,however,movesforwardthroughtime.Inordertokeep
thisdimensioninfocus,IbeginbyestablishingageneralchronologicalframeworkofPaul'scareer(Ch.1),whichsubsequentlyismademorepreciseforthecrucial
twoyearsandthreemonthsthathespentinEphesus,whencehewrotehalfofhisletters(Ch.7).

ThistwoprongedapproachhastheadvantageofthrowingintorelieftheessentiallydialogicalcharacterofPaul'sthought.Eachcommunitygeneratedquestionsto
whichhehadnoreadymadeanswers.Hisresponseineachcaseistailoredtotheparticularsituation,butrootedinaconsistentcore,whichishisvisionofChrist.I
havedevotedparticularattentiontoisolatingthenewideas,andtheimprovedormodifiedformulations,thatchangingcircumstancesforcedhimtodevelop.Onlythus
canonecometoaproperappreciationofthequalityofhisintellectualtrainingandtheextraordinaryflexibilityofhismind.

ThebibliographyrevealsmyindebtednesstothegenerationsofPaulinescholarsonwhoseshouldersIstand.ThreedeservetobesingledoutCeslausSpicq,OP,of
theUniversityofFribourg,ErnstKsemannoftheUniversityofTbingen,andCharlesKingsleyBarrettoftheUniversityofDurhambecause,inadditiontothe
illuminationoftheirwritings,theirfriendshipandpersonalexampleasteachersandministershavegreatlyinfluencedthewayIseetheroleofscholarshipinthechurch.

ImustalsoexpressmygratitudetoSantiagoMartinezCaroofAnkara,Turkey,whosurveyedGalatiaforme,andtoAnthonyWard.S.M.,erstwhileLibrarianofthe
coleBibliqueandnowChiefArchivistoftheBasilicaofSaintPeterinRome,mycolleagueJustinTaylor,SM,andTerrencePrendergast,SJ,whomtheCatholic
BiblicalAssociationofAmericasenttothecoleBibliqueasavisitingprofessoratjusttheopportunemoment.Thethreelastnamedreadthemanuscriptandsaved
mefrommanymistakes.Thosethatremainaremyown.

J.M.O'C.
1SEPTEMBER1995

 Pageix

Contents

ListofFigures xii

Abbreviations xiii

1 1
TheChronologicalFramework

TheEvidencefromthePaulineLetters 1

TheEvidencefromtheActsoftheApostles 8

DevelopingaChronologyforPaul'sLife 24

2 32
GrowingupinTarsus

TheCityofTarsus 33

TheFamilyofPaul 35

Education 46

3 52
APhariseeinJerusalem

AStudentinJerusalem? 52

PharisaicStudies 59

AMarriedMan 62

PersecutoroftheChurch 65

4 71
ConversionandItsConsequences

Conversion 72

Arabia 81

Damascus 85

Jerusalem 90

TheMissingYears 95

5 102
LearningwiththeThessalonians

ContactswithThessalonica 104

ThessalonicaandItsChristians 114

MaintenanceDiffersfromMission 119

6 130
MeetingsandMeals:JerusalemandAntioch

TheJerusalemConference 131

WhyDidJamesAgreewithPaulOnCircumcision? 138

TheAgreement 142

TheCollection 144

 Pagex

AntiochandItsJews 146

TheProblemsofaMixedCommunity 149

TheLawaRivaltoChrist 152

PastoralInstruction 154

7 158
TheYearsinEphesus

TwoJourneysthroughAsiaMinortotheWest 159

Ephesus 166

TheFoundingoftheChurch 171

MissionaryExpansion 173

Imprisonment 175

TheDateofGalatians 180

AnEphesianChronology 182

8 185
ConflictinGalatia

Galatia:LandandPeople 185

Paul'sMinistryinGalatia 191

TheCauseoftheCrisis 193

Paul'sResponse 199

9 211
PartnershipatPhilippi

Philippi 211

ASeriesofLetters 215

TheLetterfromPrison 220

TheLetterofWarning 228

10 231
ContemplationatColossae

TheLycusValley 231

MissionaryStrategy 234

Paul'sApostolicOffice 237

TheCosmicChrist 240

EschatologyandEthics 247

TheHouseholdCode 248

DidPaulVisitColossae? 250

11 252
ConfusionatCorinth

LetterstoCorinth 252

TheRoadfromAthenstotheIsthmus 256

TheNarrativeofActs 259

TheEvangelizationofCorinth 265

ATurbulentCommunity 273

ContactswithCorinth 278

TheKaleidoscopeLetter 280

 Pagexi

12 291
CorinthinCrisis

AnUnplannedVisit 291

ThePainfulLetter 297

DepartureforTroas 298

TheReportofTitus 301

WinterinMacedonia 308

PlansfortheCollection 314

OnceAgainaMissionary 316

BadNewsfromCorinth 317

13 323
LookingWestward

TheTextualProblemsofRomans 324

PlanningfortheFuture 328

TheWritingoftheLettertotheRomans 332

14 341
TheLastYears

AnUncertainFuture 341

AFarewellCircuitoftheAegeanSea 343

Paul'sReceptioninJerusalem 347

ARomanPrisoner 351

ThePastoralLetters 356

RomeandSpain 359

OnceMoretheAegean 363

TheProblemofTimothy 364

WhatdidtheFutureHold? 366

Martyrdom 368

Bibliography 372

IndexofPassagesCited:I:OldTestament 396

II:NewTestament 397

III:JewishWritings 405

IV:ChristianWritings 407

V:ClassicalAuthors 407

GeneralIndex 410

 Pagexii

ListofFigures

1.AsiaMinorattheTimeofPaul 160

2.CentralEphesusc.AD50 168

3.Ephesus:PrivateHouses 170

4.Paul'sGalatia 187

5.Corinth:TheWalls 260

6.CentralCorinthc.AD50 266

7.TheRomanProvinceofMacedoniaandtheViaEgnatia 318

 Pagexiii

Abbreviations

AARAS AmericanAcademyofReligionAcademySeries

AB AnchorBible

ABD AnchorBibleDictionary

ABRL AnchorBibleReferenceLibrary

AJ Josephus,AntiquitiesoftheJews

AJA AmericanJournalofArchaeology

AnBib AnalectaBiblica

ANRW AufstiegundNiedergangderrmischenWelt

AusBR AustralianBiblicalReview

BA BiblicalArchaeologist

BAGD W.Bauer,W.F.Arndt,F.W.Gingrich,F.W.Danker,AGreekEnglish
LexiconoftheNewTestamentandOtherEarlyChristianLiterature,
2ndedn.(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1979)

BASOR BulletinoftheAmericanSchoolsofOrientalResearch

BBB BonnerbiblischeBeitrge

BCH BulletindecorrespondanceHllenistique

BdeJ BibledeJrusalem

BDF F.Blass,A.Debrunner,R.Funk,AGreekGrammaroftheNew
TestamentandOtherEarlyChristianLiterature(Cambridge:
CambridgeUniversityPress,1961)

BETL Bibliothecaephemeridumtheologicarumlovaniensium

BHT BeitrgezurhistorischenTheologie

BJRL BulletinoftheJohnRylandsLibrary

BNTC BlacksNewTestamentCommentary

BR BibleReview

BZ BiblischeZeitschrift

BZAW BeiheftezurZeitschriftfrdiealtestamentlicheWissenschaft

BZNW BeiheftezurZeitschriftfrdieneutestamentlicheWissenschaft

CAH CambridgeAncientHistory

CBQ CatholicBiblicalQuarterly

CCSL CorpusChristianorumSeriesLatina

CD DamascusDocument(Qumran)

CGTC CambridgeGreekTestamentCommentary

CIG CorpusInscriptionumGraecarum

CIL CorpusInscriptionumLatinarum

 Pagexiv

CNT CommentaireduNouveauTestament

ConBNT Coniectaneabiblica.NewTestament

CRB CahiersdelaRevuebiblique

DBSup DictionnairedelaBible.Supplment

Digest TheDigestofJustinian,ed.T.Mommsentrans.A.Watson
(Philadelphia:PennsylvaniaStateUniversityPress,1985)

Bib tudesbibliques

ETL Ephemeridestheologicaelovanienses

ExpTim ExpositoryTimes

FRLANT ForschungenzurReligionandLiteraturdesAltenundNeuenTestaments

FS Festschrift

GNS GoodNewsStudies

HDB J.Hastings,DictionaryoftheBible,2dn.,revisedbyF.C.GrantandH.
H.Rowley(Edinburgh:Clark,1963)

HNTC HarpersNewTestamentCommentary

HSCP HarvardStudiesinClassicalPhilology

HTKNT HermeneutischeUntersuchungenzurTheologie

HTR HarvardTheologicalReview

HUZT HermeneutischeUntersuchungenzurTheologie

ICC InternationalCriticalCommentary

Int Interpretation

IcvEph DieInschriftenvonEphesos,ed.C.Borkeretal.(Bonn:Habelt,1979
81)

JB JerusalemBible

JBC JeromeBiblicalCommentary

JBL JournalofBiblicalLiterature

JCS JournalofClassicalStudies

JHS JournalofHellenicStudies

JQR JewishQuarterlyReview

JRS JournalofRomanStudies

JSJ JournalfortheStudyofJudaism

JSNT JournalfortheStudyoftheNewTestament

JSNTSup JournalfortheStudyoftheNewTestamentSupplements

JSNTSup JournalfortheStudyoftheOldTestamentSupplements

JSP JournalfortheStudyofthePseudepigrapha

JTS JournalofTheologicalStudies

JW Josephus,JewishWar

LCL LoebClassicalLibrary

LD LectioDivina

LSJ H.G.Liddell,R.Scott,AGreekEnglishLexicon,revisedbyH.S.
Jones,withsupplement(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1968)

 Pagexv

LXX TheSeptuagint

MAMA MonumentaAsiaeMinorisAntiqua,ed.W.M.Calder(London
ManchesterUniversityPress,1928).

MeyerK H.A.W.Meyer,KritischexegetischerKommentarberdasNeue
Testament

MQR MichiganQuarterlyReview

NAB NewAmericanBible

NCB NewClarendonBible

NEB NewEnglishBible

NH Pliny,NaturalHistory

NICNT NewInternationalCommentaryontheNewTestament

NIGTC NewInternationalGreekTestamentCommentary

NJB NewJerusalemBible

NJBC NewJeromeBiblicalCommentary

NovT NovumTestamentum

NovTSup NovumTestamentamentSupplements

NRSV NewRevisedStandardVersion

NRT NouvelleRevueThologique

NTAbh NeutestamentlicheAbhandlungen

NTOA NovumTestamentumetOrbisAntiquus

NTS NewTestamentStudies

OBO OrbisBiblicusetOrientalis

OCD OxfordClassicalDictionary(1989)

OCCL OxfordCompaniontoClassicalLiterature(1989)

PG PatrologiaGracca,ed.J.P.Migne

PIBA ProceedingsoftheIrishBiblicalAssociation

PL PatrologiaLatina,ed.J.P.Migne

PW PaulyWissowaKroll,RealEncyclopdiederclassischen
Altertumswissenschaft(Stuttgart,18941980)

PWSup SupplementtoPW

RB Revuebibliques

RechBib Recherchesbibliques

REG RevuedestudesGrecques

PL PatrologiaLatina

RHPR Revued'Histoireetdesphilosophiereligieuses

RNT RegensburgerNeuesTestament

RQ RevuedeQumran

RSPT Revuedessciencesphilosophiquesetthologiques

RSR Recherchesdesciencereligieuse

RSV RevisedStandardVersion

SBLDS SocietyofBiblicalLiteratureDissertationSeries

SBS StuttgarterBibelstudien

 Pagexvi

SBT StudiesinBiblicalTheology

SC SourcesChtiennes

SD StudiesandDocuments

SJLA StudiesinJudaisminLateAntiquity

SJT ScottishJournalofTheiology

SNTSMS SocietyforNewTestamentStudiesMonographSeries

SPB StudiaPostbiblica

StNT StudiaNeotestamentica

STRT StudiaTheologicaRhenoTraiectina

SUNT StudienzurUmweltdesNeuenTestaments

TDNT TheologicalDictionaryoftheNewTestament

THKNT TheologischerHandkommentarzumNeuenTestament

TPAPA TransactionsandProceedingsoftheAmericanPhilologicalAssociation

TS TheologicalStudies

TSAJ TexteundStudienzumantikenJudentum

TSK TheologischeStudienundKritiken

TU TexteundUntersuchungen

TyB TyndaleBulletin

TynNTC TyndaleNewTestamentCommentary

TZ VigiliaeChristianae

UNT UntersuchungenzumNeuenTestament

VC VigiliaeChristianae

WBC WordBiblicalCommentary

WUNT WissenschaftlicheUntersuchungenzumNeuenTestament

ZNW ZeitschriftfrdieneutestamentlicheWissenschaft

ZPE ZeitschriftfrPapyrologieundEpigraphik

ZTK ZeitschriftfrTheologieundKirche

 Page1

1
TheChronologicalFramework
ThechronologicalreferencepointswhichsituatePaul'slifeandministrywithinthehistoryofthefirstcenturyarenotnumerous.Paulhimselfprovidestwo,fromwhich
otherepisodescanbedated.OthersaregivenbyLukeintheActsoftheApostles.

TheEvidencefromthePaulineLetters

DateofBirth

InthelettertoPhilemon9Paulcallshimselfapresbyts.BoththeNABandRSVhavethetranslationambassador,whichmeanstheyacceptthevariantpresbeuts.
Thisreading,however,iswithoutmanuscriptsupport,andisnomorethanaconjecturebasedonamisunderstandingoftheletter.Anevocationofauthoritydoesnot
suitthecontextwherePaulhasjustrefusedtoorderPhilemontodosomething.Amentionofhisagefitsbetterwiththeappealheismaking.Hence,wemusttranslate
oldman(NRSV,NJB)ormoreaccuratelyelderly.1Themeaningoftheadjectiveisvague,butsomeprecisionasregardsthewayitwasusedinthefirstcenturycan
bederivedfromancientversionsofShakespeare'ssevenages:
Alltheworld'sastage,
Andallthemenandwomenmerelyplayers:
Theyhavetheirexitsandtheirentrances
Andonemaninhistimeplaysmanyparts,
Hisactsbeingsevenages.

(AsYouLikeIt11.7)

Allunattributedtranslationsaremyown
1
Lohse(1968),277Bomkamm,TDNT6.683againstKnox(1950),74.

 Page2

TheGreekTradition.

Shakespeare'suseofthefigure7reflectsavenerabletradition,buthesubstitutesvividdescriptionsfortheprecisefiguresoftheancients.AcontemporaryofPaul,
Philo,thegreatJewishphilosopherfromAlexandria,wroteinhisDeOpificioMundi(1035trans.Yonge):
Thegrowthofmenfrominfancytooldage,whenmeasuredbythenumberseven,displaysinamostevidentmanneritsperfectingpowerforinthefirstperiodofsevenyears,the
puttingforthoftheteethtakesplace.Andattheendofthesecondperiodofthesamelength,hearrivesattheageofpubertyattheendofthethirdperiod,thegrowthofthe
beardtakesplace.Thefourthperiodseeshimarriveatthefulnessofhismanlystrength.Thefifthsevenyearsistheseasonformarriage.Inthesixthperiodhearrivesatthe
maturityofhisunderstanding.Theseventhperiodisthatofthemostrapidimprovementandgrowthofbothhisintellectualandreasoningpowers.Theeightisthesumofthe
perfectionofboth.Intheninth,hispassionsassumeamildnessandgentleness,frombeingtoagreatdegreetamed.Inthetenth,thedesirableendoflivecomesuponhim,while
hislimbsandorganicsensesarestillunimpairedforexcessiveoldageisapttoweakenandenfeeblethemall.

AndSolon,theAthenianlawgiver(635560BC),describedthesedifferentagesinthefollowing
Insevenyearsfromthearliestbreath,
Thechildputsforthhishedgeofteeth
Whenstrengthenedbyasimilarspan,
Hefirstdisplayssomesignsofman.
Asinathird,hislimbsincrease,
Abeardbudso'erhischangingface.
Whenhehaspassedafourthsuchtime,
Hisstrengthandvigour'sinitsprime.
Whenfivetimessevenyearso'erhishead
Havepassed,themanshouldthinktowed
Atfortytwo,thewisdom'sclear
Toshunviledeedorfollyorfear
Whenseventimessevenyears,tosense
Addreadywitandeloquence.
Andsevenyearsfurtherskilladmit
Toraisethemtotheirperfectheight.
Whenninesuchperiodshavepassed,
Hispowers,thoughmildergrown,stilllast
WhenGodhasgrantedtentimesseven,
Theagedmanpreparesforheaven.

Solonthereforethuscomputesthelifeofmanbytheaforesaidtenperiodsofsevenyears.But[Pseudo]Hippocratesthephysiciansaysthattherearesevenagesof
maninfancy,childhood,boyhood,youth,manhood,middleage,old

 Page3

ageandthatthesetooaremeasuredbyperiodsofseven,thoughnotinthesameorder.Andhespeaksthus:
Inthenatureofmantherearesevenseasons,whichmencallages:
infancy,childhood,boyhoodandtherest:
Heisaninfant[paidion]tillhereacheshisseventhyear,theageofthe
sheddingofhisteeth.
Heisachild[pais]untilhearrivesattheageofpuberty,whichtakes
placeinfourteenyears.
Heisaboy[meirakion]tillhisbeardbeginstogrow,andthattimeisthe
endofathirdperiodofsevenyears.
Heisayouth[neaniskos]tillthecompletionofthegrowthofhiswhole
body,whichcoincideswiththefourthsevenyears.
Thenheisaman[anr]untilhereacheshisfortyninthyear,orseven
timessevenperiods.
Heisanelderlyman[presbyts]tillheisfiftysix,eighttimessevenyears
old.
Andafterthatheisanoldman[gern].

TheimportancebothSolonandHippocratesattachedtothefigure7ismanifest,butSolon'suseismuchmorerealisticthanthatofHippocrates.Forthelatter,
perfectionisachievedat49,becausethisisthesquareof7theartificialityisblatant.2After50itisalldownhill,andtheauthor'slackofinterestisunderlinedby.his
failuretocompletetheschema.Solon'sestimateoftheaveragelifespan3correspondstothatoftheBible,Thedaysofourlifeareseventyyears,orperhapseighty,if
wearestrong(Ps.90:10),4andheextendsthevigouroftheprimeoflifeto56.Thecharacteristicsofhisninthstage(gentlebutnotmarkeddecline)arethosewe
associatewiththeelderlyasopposedtotheold.

TheJewishTradition

Jewishtraditionconfirmsthisinterpretation.Theredemptionpriceof50shekelswasvalidonlyforamanintheprimeoflife,i.e.betweentheagesof20and60.Once
past60hisvaluedroppedto15shekels(Lev.27:27).5Thesuggestionthatdeclinebeginsat60isexplainedbytheDamascusDocumentwhichlegislates,

Letnomanbeinofficefrom60yearsandoverasjudgeofthecongregationforbecauseoftheunfaithfulnessofmentheirdaysarediminished,andintheheatofhisanger
againsttheinhabitantsoftheearthGodhasordainedthattheirunderstandingshoulddeclinebeforetheirdaysarefulfilled.

(CD10:710)

2
NonethelessitisacceptedbyFitzmyer(1990),14.
3
HerodotusquotesSolonassaying,Isetthelimitsofman'slifeat70years(Histories1.32).
4
Thentheyshallsay,Thedaysoftheforefathersweremany,evenuntoathousandyears,andweregood,but,behold,thedaysofourlife,ifamanhaslivedmany,arethreescore
yearsandten,and,ifheisstrong,fourscoreyearsandthoseevil(Jubilees23:15).
5
SeePhilo,Spec.Leg.2.33.

 Page4

Aslightlydifferentperspectiveisfurnishedbyarabbiniclistwhichspecifies60astheagewhenoneisclassedasanelder,

At5yearsoldoneisfitfortheScripture,
At10fortheMishnah,
At13forthefulfillingofthecommandments,
At15fortheTalmud,
At18forthebridechamber,
At20forpursuingacalling,
At30forauthority,
At40fordiscernment,
At50forcounsel,
At60fortobeanelder,
At70forgreyhairs,
At80forspecialstrength,
At90forbowedback,
At100amanisasonethathasalreadydied.

(m.Aboth5.21trans.Danby)

ThislistisattributedvariouslytoRabbiSamueltheYounger(endofthefirstcenturyAD)orR.JudahbenTema(endofthesecondcenturyAD)but,ifweexcisethe
referencestoMishnahandTalmud,thereisnoreasonwhytheremaindershouldnothavebeenincirculationatleastbythefirstcentury.Therearemanifestlinkswith
thelegislationoftheEssenes,6accordingtowhicheducationbeganinearlychildhood,theageofadulthood(includingtherighttomarry)was20,initialresponsibility
beganat25(cf.CD10:67),andamancouldbecomeajudgeat30(1QSa1.616).

Tosumup:forPaul'scontemporaries,anymaleinhislatefiftiesorearlysixtieswouldhavebeenconsideredelderly.WemustpresumethatPaulsharedthis
assessment.Hisconcern,itwillberecalled,wastopresenthimselftoPhilemonasapatheticfigure.Thus,if,asIshallarguelater,7thelettertoPhilemonwaswrittenin
AD53,Paulwouldthenhavebeenabout60,whichwouldputhisbirthinthelastyearsofthepreChristianera.Inotherwords,hewouldhavebeenbornaboutthe
sametimeasChrist.8

DateofDeparturefromDamascus

AtDamascus,thegovernor[hoethnarchs]ofKingAretasguardedthecityofDamascusinordertoseizeme,butIwasletdowninabasketthroughawindow
6
Ontheunderlyingcommontradition,seeBorgen(1961).
7
SeeCh.7,Imprisonment.
8
ForLgasse(1991),31,Paulwouldhavebeentenyearsyounger.Baslez(1991),22,dateshisbirthtoAD15onthegroundsthathewasyoung(Acts7:58)atthetimeofhis
conversioninAD34.Neanias,however,isapplicabletoanyonebetween24and40(BAGDs.v.).

 Page5

inthewall,andescapedhishands(2Cor.11:323).ThisironicaccomplishmentmustbeintegratedintodatasuppliedbyPaulinGalatians:Iwentawayinto
Arabia,andagainIreturnedtoDamascus.ThenafterthreeyearsIwentuptoJerusalemtovisitCephasandremainedwithhimfifteendays(1:1718).

ArabiawastheterritorycontrolledbytheNabataeansinwhatistodaytheKingdomofJordan.9TheAretasmentionedherecanonlybeAretasIVtheArabian.10
Accordingtoinscriptionsandcoins,11heruledtheNabataeansfor48years.Sincehisreignbeganin9BC,12hisdeath(giventheflexibilityofancientcountingsystems)
mustbeplacedbetweenAD38and40.AD39appearstobethemostprobable.13

ThesimplestwayofintegratingthedataofPaul'stwoallusionsistorecognizethatthepoliticalsituationofDamascusdiffersinthereferencesinGalatiansand2
Corinthians,14andtopostulatethathegotintotroubleamongtheNabataeans15inArabiaandwasforcedtoreturntoDamascusinsomehaste.Hethereenjoyedthree
yearsofpeaceuntiltheNabataeansobtainedcontrolofthecitywhichobligedhimtofleeagain,thistimetoJerusalem.

Thisreconstructionhighlightstheimportanceof2Corinthians11:323.Ifadatecanbeextractedfromit,wecanthendatePaul'sconversion,hisvisittoArabia,and
hisfirstvisittoJerusalemasaChristian.ItwouldbeakeychronologicalelementintheearlypartoftheApostle'slife.

NabataeanControlofDamascus

From65BCwhenPompeymarchedthelegionsintotheEast,thegreattradingcityofDamascuswasanintegralpartoftheRomanprovinceofSyria.16Whendidit
passintoNabataeanhands?Somedenythatiteverdid,17becausethereisnoindependentconfirmationofPaul'sinformation,andbecausewhenLukerecountsthe
Apostle'sflightheblamesthehostilityoftheJewstheNabataeansarenotmentioned,WhenmanydayshadpassedtheJewsplottedtokillhim,buttheirplotbecame
knowntoSaul.Theywerewatchingthegatesdayandnighttokillhim,butthedisciplestookhimbynightandlethimdownoverthewallinabasket(Acts9:235).
9
FordetailsseeCh.4Arabia.
10
Josephus,JW2.682Macc.5:8.
11
Meshorer(1975),4163.
12
Josephus,AJ16.294.
13
SorightlyJewett(1979),30,whofollowsGutschmid(1885),849seealsoPW2.674.
14
Burton(1921),57.
15
WhathappenedwillbediscussedlaterseeCh.4,Arabia.
16
Josephus,AJ14.29JW1.127.ThehistoryoftheprovinceisgiveninSchurer(197387),1.24266.
17
e.g.Ldemann(1984),31n.10,who,inconsequence,attachesnochronologicalvalueto2Cor.11:323,andthusisofnecessityratherspeculativeinthedatesheassignstothe
earlypartofPaul'scareer,namelyconversioninAD30,orlessprobably33,andfirstvisittoJerusalemin33,orlessprobably36(p.262).

 Page6

Onmethodologicalgroundsalone,Paul'sfirsthandaccountiscertainlytobepreferredtoLuke'ssecondhandversion,whichmoreoverisatissueofimplausibilities.18
WhyshouldtheJewstaketheriskofkillingPaul?TheirpurposewouldhavebeenfulfilledbydeclaringhimpersonanongrataintheJewishpoliteuma,andasking
theauthoritiestoexpelhimfromthecity.WhyshouldtheJewswatchthegates,whenitwouldhavebeenperfectlyeasytofindoutwherePaulwaslivingandarrange
anaccidentthere?ThesevengatesofDamascusweremannedbyofficialguards,whosepresencewouldhavemadeanassassinationattemptunwise.Manifestly,
LukeknewonlythemeansofPaul'sescapefromDamascus,andtoexplainitinventedthemotiveofJewishhostility,whichoccursasarefraininActs(20:3,1923:
30).

OthersascribethedangertoNabataeans,butdenythattheycontrolledDamascus.19OneversionclaimsthatthetroopsofAretaswerelyinginambushforPaul
outsidethecity.This,ofcourse,issheernonsense.2Corinthians11:323clearlyindicatesthatthedangertoPaulwasinsidethecitytheopencountryoutside
promisedsafety.20Anotherversionsuggests,onthebasisofaparallelwiththeJewishcolonyofAlexandria,whoseheadhadthetitleethnarch,21thattheethnarchat
DamascuswasmerelyasortofconsulwhoheadedtheNabataeantradingcolonythere.22Theexistenceofsuchaninstitutionisveryprobable,eventhoughspecific
evidenceislacking.23Theauthorityofsuchaconsul,however,waslimitedtothemembersofhisowncolony.HehadnoneoveroutsiderssuchasPaul,andcertainly
couldnotguardthecity.ThemostsatisfactoryexplanationoftheuseofethnarchsinplaceofthestratgosnormallyusedofNabataeangovernorsisthatit
reflectedthegovernor'srankasaprinceofhisowntribe.24

Indefaultofanyreliableevidencetothecontrary,therefore,Paul'sassertionofaNabataeanpresenceinDamascuspriortothedeathofAretasIVmustbe
consideredtrustworthy.25Jewettconvincinglyarguesthatthiscouldnothavehappenedpriorto16MarchAD37,thedayonwhichtheemperorTiberiusdied.The
latter'spolicyfortheeasternfrontieroftheempiredemandedregularlyorganizedprovincesratherthanclientkingdoms.Inreaction,hissuccessor,Gaius(Caligula),
reinstatedanumberofclientkings,e.g.AntiochusandAgrippa,whogotCommageneandpartofTransjordanrespectivelyinAD37,
18
Harding(1993).
19
e.g.Haenchen(1966),2689Suhl(1975),31415.
20
Jewett(1979),31,addsotherobviouscriticismstheRomanswouldnothavepermittedahostileforcetocontroltheroadstoDamascustheloweringofabasketwouldhavebeena
certainwaytoattracttheattentionofobserversoutside.
21
Josephus,AJ14.117.
22
Knauf(1983),1457Lgasse(1991),75Klauck(1986),90.
23
Smallwood(1981),2256.
24
J.J.Taylor(1992),71928.
25
SlightconfirmationisfurnishedbyabreakintheRomancoinseries.TherearenocoinsofCaligulaandClaudius,thoughsomeexistfromNeroonwards.(Schrer(197387)2.129).

 Page7
26
andSohaemuswhogotItureainAD38.ThisattitudedidnotsurvivelongintothefouryearreignofGaius,whorevivedTiberiuspoliciestospitetheSenate.

NomentionismadeofanygrantofterritorytotheNabataeans,but,iftherewasanycitytheywanted,itwasthegreatcrossroadsofDamascus,whichtheyhad
controlledintheearlyfirstcenturyBC,27andGaiushadareasontobegratefultothem.WhenhewaswithhisfatherGermanicusintheeastinAD1819,hewas
witnesstothesupporttheNabataeansgaveGermanicusagainstGnaeusCalpurniusPiso,thegovernorofSyria,despitethedamagethatthelattercoulddototheir
northerntrade,whichhadtopassthroughSyria.28

TheImplicationsforPaulineChronology

Itisveryprobable,therefore,thattheNabataeansacquiredcontrolofDamascusinthelatterhalfofAD37.This,then,mustdatePaul'sdeparturefromthecity,and
hisjourneytoJerusalem.Fromitwecanworkbothbackwardsandforwards.

Lookingbackwards,itestablishesthatPaul'sthreeyearstayinDamascuswasfromAD3437,anddemandsthathisvisittoArabiatookplaceinAD33or34.
Moreover,sincePaulgivestheimpressionthathisconversionimmediatelyprecededhistimeinArabia(Gal.1:1617),hisencounterwithChristshouldbeassigned
toAD33.Atthisstage,aswehaveseen,Paulwouldhavebeeninhislatethirties.

Lookingforwards,itpermitsustodatePaul'snextvisittoJerusalemtotheyear51,becausehetellsus,Thenafter14yearsIwentupagaintoJerusalem(Gal.2:
1).29EarlierpedanticspeculationastowhetherornotthesefourteenyearsincludedthethreeyearsofGalatians1:18hasnowgivenwaytothecommonsense
recognitionthatthethenthenthenofGalatians1:18,21and2:1markthesuccessivestepsofachronologicalseries.30Acertainmechanical
26
Jewett(1979),323.ThesuggestionofBaslez(1991),74,thattheNabataeansacquiredcontrolofDamascuswithoutRomanconsentmistakesbothRomanfrontierpolicyand
Nabataeanmilitarymight.
27
Josephus,AJ13.38792JW1.99102.AccordingtoSchwank(1983),4345,Paul'sassertionofNabataeancontroloverDamascuswasamistakebasedonhisdiscoverythereof
coinsofAretasIII(8562BC)!
28
AccordingtoTacitus,PisowasheardtoremarkatabanquetattheNabataeancourt,whenmassivegoldencrownswereofferedtoGermanicusand[hiswife]Agrippina,andlighter
specimenstoPisoandtherest,thatthiswasadinnergiventotheson,notofaParthianking,butofaRomanprince.Atthesametime,hetossedhiscrownaside,andaddedadiatribe
onluxurywhichGermanicus,inspiteofitsbitterness,contrivedtotolerate(Annals2.57trans.Jackson).
29
Betz(1992),191datesthiseventtoAD4344onthegroundsthattheJamesmentionedinGal.2:9wasJamesthebrotherofJohnexecutedbyHerodin44.Infact,ofcourse,hewas
thebrotheroftheLordwhowasexecutedin66(Josephus,AJ20.200).
30
Burton(1921),68.SimilarlybutinmoredetailinJewett(1979),523.Withoutadequatejustification,Longenecker(1990),45,whileconcedingthatPaul'sintentionistolayoutin
successivefashionhiscontactswithJerusalem,nonethelessconsidersitmoreprobablethatthethreeyearsof1:18andthefourteenyearsof2:1aretobeunderstoodconcurrently
andnotconsecutively.

 Page8

literalism,however,hasledsomescholarstofindthereferentoftheninGalatians2:1,notintheApostle'sfirstvisittoJerusalem(Galatians1:18),butinGalatians
1:21ThenIwentintotheregionsofSyriaandCilicia.31Werethisinfactthecase,itwouldmakeGalatians2:1worthlessforchronologicalpurposes,becausethe
durationofthemissioninSyriaandCiliciacannotbedetermined.Thisinterpretation,however,cannotbemaintained.Paul'sconcerninGalatians1and2istoprove
hisindependenceofJerusalem.SyriaandCiliciaarementionedonlytoprovethathelefttheHolyCity,andfourteenyearsismanifestlythetimehestayedaway.32This
viewisconfirmed,notonlybytheagainprefixedtotoJerusalem,butbythementionofthechurchesofJudaeainGalatians1:22,whichistheproximatepointof
referenceinfluencingPaul'sformulation.

Whathasbeenlearntfromtheletterscannowbesummarizedasfollows:

Birth c.6BC

Conversion AD33

Arabia 34

Damascus 3437

Jerusalem(1stvisit) 37

SyriaandCilicia 37?

Jerusalem(2ndvisit) 51

Theseconclusions,however,mustbeconfrontedwiththeevidenceofActs.

TheEvidencefromtheActsoftheApostles

ItisnotmyintentionheretodiscussthedatingofallLuke'sallusionstosecularhistory.SuchmaterialishandledineverycommentaryonActswithgenerally
inconclusiveresults.ThebestpresentationintermsofbothprudenceandingenuityremainsthatofR.Jewett,33butanewapproachandnewdatademandthattwo
crucialpointsbeconsidered.
31
Betz(1979),83.SimilarlyLdemann(1984),634,whomanagestohavehiscakeandeatitbydeductingoneyearforthemissioninSyriaandCiliciafromthefourteen!His
methodfordeterminingthelengthofthemissioninSyriaandCiliciaisnotexplained.
32
ThisisthereasonwhyGal.2:Icannotbetranslatedonceagainin14yearsdespitetheevidencefordiathesenseofduring(Rom.11:102Thess.3:16)andthelogicofGiet
(1953),3238.ThegrammaticalandcontextualpointismadewithperfectclaritybyBurton(1921),68,whoconsidersthatPaul'sargumentforhisindependenceofJerusalemis
somewhatstrengthenedbytheuseoftheprepositiondia,which,meaningproperlythrough,andcomingtosignifyafteronlythroughthethoughtofaperiodpassedthrough,
alsosuggeststhattheperiodoffourteenyearsconstitutesaunitintheapostle'smindanunbrokenperiodofnoncommunicationwiththeapostles.
33
(1979),3362.

 Page9

TheEdictofClaudius

LukeopenshisaccountofPaul'svisittoCorinthwiththewords,AfterthisheleftAthensandwenttoCorinth.AndhefoundaJewnamedAquila,anativeofPontus,
latelycomefromItalywithhiswifePriscilla,becauseClaudiushadcommandedalltheJewstoleaveRome(Acts18:12).Oneveryimportantwitness,theCodex
Vaticanus,omitsthenameoftheemperorClaudius(AD4154),butthisiscertainlyduetoascribalaccident,becausethegrammaticalstructureofthephrase
demandsapropername.Luke'sintentioniscertainlytodatePaul'sarrivalinCorinth,buthisroundaboutwayofdoingitbetraysacertainhesitation,whichcontrasts
vividlywiththecertitudeofActs18:12(seebelow).34HeinsinuatesthattheApostle'sarrivalfollowedveryquicklyonthatofAquilaandPriscilla,whosepresencein
thecityisexplainedbyadecreeofClaudius,aneventwhosedateLukepresumesisclearinhisreaders'minds.Wearelessfortunate.

TheimperialedictevokedbyLukeisalsomentionedbySuetonius,HeexpelledfromRometheJewsconstantlymakingdisturbancesattheinstigationof
Chrestus(Claudius25.4).

TheEvidenceofOrosius

ThemodernconsensussuppliesthedateunfortunatelyomittedbySuetoniusonthebasisofthefifthcenturyChristianhistorianPaulOrosius,whociteshispagan
predecessor:
JosephusreferstotheexpulsionofJewsbyClaudiusinhisninthyear.ButSuetoniustouchesmemoreinsaying,ClaudiusexpelledfromRometheJewsconstantlymaking
disturbancesattheinstigationofChristus.ItcannotbedeterminedwhetherheorderedonlytheJewsagitatingagainstChristtoberestrainedandsuppressed,orwhetherhealso
wantedtoexpelChristiansasbeingmenofarelatedfaith.(Historiaeadversuspaganos7.6.1516)

AccordingtoRomancustomtheregnalyearsofanemperorwerecountedfromthemomentheassumedpower.SinceClaudiuswasacclaimedbythePraetorian
Guardon25JanuaryAD41,hisninthyearranfrom25JanuaryAD49to24JanuaryAD50.Inconsequence,themajorityofscholarsdatePaul'sarrivalinCorinth
toAD49.35

Suchcredence,however,isregularlyqualifiedbyexpressionsofdoubtaboutOrosius'reliability,becausenosuchreferenceappearsinJosephus.36Whythenis
Orosiusbelieved?Jewettgivestheonlypossibleanswer,whichrobsOrosius
34
Onthesourcecriticalposition,seeBoismardandLamouille(1990),2.247,301.
35
MostrecentlyJewett(1979),378Fitzmyer(1990),10Klauck(1984)6.
36
TheattemptofSmallwood(1981),21113,tofindindirectevidenceinsupportofOrosiusevaporatesoncloseanalysisseemy(1992e),1402.

 Page10

ofallindependentvalue,DespitethesometimesquestionableaccuracyofOrosius,thisconclusion[theexpulsionofJewsfromRomeinAD49]iscorroboratedby
thestrikingcorrelationwiththearrivalofPaulasreckonedonthebasisoftheGallioinscription.37Inotherwords,Orosiusisacceptedbecausehisdateharmonizes
perfectlywiththedateacquiredbysubtractingeighteenmonths(Acts18:11)fromthetimeofPaul'sencounterwiththeproconsulGallio(Acts18:12).Itisentirely
possible,however,thatOrosiusmadepreciselythesamedeductioninordertodateSuetonius'information!FollowingHarnack'slead,38Ldemannhasshownthat
OrosiushadnoknowledgeofJosephus,thathissourcesinBooks6and7wereEusebiusandSuetonius,andthattheawkwardnessofhisformulationbetraysthe
consciousnessofinvention.39

ThesilenceofTacitustendstoconfirmthisinterpretation.HisAnnalsarecompleteforAD49,butthereisnotasingleallusiontoanyaction,takenorcontemplated,
againsttheJewsofRomeinthatyear.

TheEvidenceofDioCassius

IfweextendourinvestigationtoincludethewholeofthereginofClaudius,DioCassiusfurnishesanimportantitemofinformationregardingtherelationshipofthe
emperorandtheJewishcommunity:
AsfortheJews,whohadagainincreasedsogreatlybyreasonoftheirmultitudethatitwouldhavebeenhardwithoutraisingatumulttoexpelthemfromthecity,hedidnotdrive
themout,butorderedthem,whilecontinuingtheirtraditionalmodeoflife,nottoholdmeetings.(History60.6.6trans.Cary)

GivenDioCassius'annalisticarrangement,thereisnodoubtthatthisepisodemustbedatedtothefirstyearofthereginofClaudius,AD41.40Isittheeventtowhich
Suetoniusrefers?Thesimilaritiessuggestanaffirmativeanswer,butthedifferencesdemandamorecomplexanswer.

SuetoniusandDioCassiushaveincommon:(1)anactionofClaudius,(2)evokingexpulsion(3)ofJews(4)fromRome,and(5)theideaoftumult.Theaccounts
differintworespects:(1)theformeraffirmsthatJewswereexpelled

thelatterdeniesit(2)thefearedtumultinthelatterhastakenplaceintheformer.
37
(1979),38.JewettalsomakesexplicitwhatallfollowersofOrosiuspresume,ReckoningseveralmonthsfortravelfromRomeandresettlementinCorinth,theencounter[ofPrisca
andAquilawithPaul]musthavetakenplacesometimebetweenspringofAD49andthespringofAD50(p.38).Suchprecisionisimpossible.
38
(1912),6756.
39
(1991),28998.Schwartz(1990),945,speculatesthatOrosiushadasourcewhichcorrelatedtheexplusionwiththeadventtopowerofanAgrippa,andconfusedAgrippaI,who
becamekingofJudeainAD41,withAgrippaII,whowascrownedinAD4849.
40
AclearsummaryoftheargumentisgivenbySlingerland(1988),3078.

 Page11

Anumberofauthorsaremoreimpressedbythedifferencesthanthesimilarities,andpostulatetwoimperialactionsagainstRomanJews,thefirstinAD41(Dio
Cassius)andthesecondinAD49(SuetoniusdatedbyOrosius).41Slingerland,themostrecentadvocateofthisview,attachesparticularimportancetotheagainin
DioCassius'account,andrelatesittothelatter'searliermentionoftheexpulsionofJewsfromRomewhichtookplaceinAD19underTiberius.42Inconsequence,he
maintainsthatDioCassius'narrativeiscompletelyintelligibleinitselfanddoesnotneedtobesupplementedbythatofSuetonius.43

Slingerland'spreoccupationwithmethodologyunfortunatelyhasblindedhimtothefactthattheaccountofDioCassiusisbothincompleteandimplausible.Incomplete
insofarasDioassignsnomeaningfuljustificationfortheactionofClaudius.Tiberius,onthecontrary,fearedtheproselytizationoftheupperclasses.44Implausiblein
sofarastherefusaltopermitassembliesofJewswouldhavecreatedmoreproblemsthanitsolved.Fromapurelyadministrativepointofviewitwouldhavebeen
preferabletoexpelthem.JewswereaccustomedtomeeteverySaturdaytostudytheLawprayerfully,45andtheeffectoftherefusalofthisright,whichhadbeen
guaranteedbyRomanlaw,46wouldhavebeentocreateaperpetualgrievancethatcouldnotbutleadtoperiodiceruptions,whichispreciselywhattheemperorwas
tryingtoavoid.Inotherwords,themeasurereportedbyDioCassiuswouldhaveexacerbatedthesituation.Hisreport,therefore,cannotbetakenatfacevalue,and
weareforcedtodelvebeneaththesurface.47

WhydidDioCassiuswriteashedid?ToanswerthiswemustrememberthathewroteinthefirstdecadesofthethirdcenturyADandnecessarilyhadtorelyon
sources.Whatexactlythesewere,wedonotknow,buttheymusthavebelongedtothesameannalistictraditionthatservedSuetoniusandTacitus.Thus,thereisthe
distinctpossibilitythatDioCassiushadtorelyoninaccurateinformation.Alternatively,hemayhavemisunderstoodwhatheread.

LightbeginstodawnwhenwecompareDioCassiusandSuetonius.Ihavetranslatedthelatter'stext(cf.above)insuchawayastobringoutitsmostnatural
interpretation,i.e.ClaudiusexpelledonlythetroublemakersamongtheJews.However,itcouldbereadinanotherway,namely,SincetheJewsconstantlymade
disturbancesattheinstigationofChrestus,heexpelledthemfromRome(LCLtranslation).ThiswouldmeanthatallJewswereexpelled.
41
Smallwood(1981),215Bruce(1985),281.
42
History57.18.5.
43
(1990),68690.
44
FordetailsseeSmallwood(1981),20110.
45
Josephus,AgainstApion,2.175Philo,VitaMosis2.216.
46
SeeSmallwood(1981),55860Saulnier(1981),16198.
47
ThepioneerofthisindispensableformandsourcecriticalapproachhasbeenLdemann(1984),16470(1991),28998.

 Page12
48
Withgreatperception,LdemannnotedthatDioCassius'textlooksverylikeaconsciouscorrectionofthisreading. TheRomanhistorianwasnotawareofany
punishmentofJewsonsuchamassivescale,andsosubstitutedwhatheconsideredalesserpenalty.Hedidnotknow,however,that,inoppositiontothecentral
organizationofAlexandria,theRomancommunitywasdividedintoanumberofdistinctsynagogues,49andsohethoughtofthepunitiveactionasaffectingtheentire
Jewishpopulationofthecity.Inrealityitwouldhavebeendirectedonlyagainstasinglesynagogue,whichwouldhavebeencloseduntiltherewasaguaranteethat
therewouldbenofurtherdisturbances.

This,ofcourse,doesnotatallsquarewithwhatSuetoniussays,forhespeaksofexpulsionandnotofclosure.Buttherearetwodifficultiesinhisaccountwhich
makesitsdetailssuspect.HenamesChrestusasthechiefagitatorbut,asallhaverecognized,50thisisamisunderstandingoftheroleofChrist,whosepersonwasthe
subjectofthedispute.InadditionitwasnotlegallypossibletosimplyexpelJewswhowereRomancitizenssuchameasurecouldbeappliedonlytothosewhohad
norightofresidence.51

IfneitherSuetoniusnorDioCassiuscanbetakenatfacevalue,wecannotconcludethattheyarereferringtotwodistinctevents.Itispreferable,accordingtotherules
ofnormalliterarycriticism,toseethemaspartialaccounts,confusedandinaccurate,ofthesameepisode.Thehistoricalkernelunderlyingbothaccountscanbe
reconstructedasfollows:astheresultofadisturbanceconcerningChristinaRomansynagogue,ClaudiusinAD41expelledthemissionarieswhowerenotRoman
citizens,andtemporarilywithdrewfromthatspecificJewishcommunitytherightofassembly.52

ThisreconciliationoftheaccountsofSuetoniusandDioCassiusisadmittedlytenuous,53butitisconfirmedbyPhilo.HecompletedhisLegatioadGaiuminAD41
atRomewhilewaitingforanaudiencewithClaudius.54Initwefindthefollowingpassage:
Augustusknewthattheyhadsynagogues,andtheywereinthehabitofvisitingthem,andmostespeciallyonthesacredsabbathdays,whentheypubliclycultivatetheirnational
philosophy.HeknewalsothattheywereinthehabitofcontributingsacredsumsofmoneyfromtheirfirstfruitsandsendingthemtoJerusalembythehandsofthosewhowereto
conductthesacrifices.Buthe

48
(1984),165.
49
Smallwood(1981),138.
50
Slingerland(1989)unconvincinglyarguesagainsttheidentification.
51
Smallwood(1981),216.
52
Ldemann(1984),166.SimilarlySchwartz(1990),946.
53
Slingerland(1988),321,listsnineotherhypotheticalreconciliationsofSuetoniusandDioCassiusasifthiswasinitselfanobjection.Theoppositeisinfactthecasethenumberof
suggestionsisevidenceofawidespreadconvictionthatthetwoaccountsconcernthesameevent.Ldemann'shypothesisisthesimplestithasbeenacceptedbyPenna(1982),331.
54
Smallwood(1981),30,151.

 Page13

neverremovedthemfromRome,nordidheeverdeprivethemoftheirrightsasRomancitizens,becausehehadaregardforJudaea,nordidheevermeditateanynewstepsof
innovationorrigourwithrespecttotheirsynagogues,nordidheforbidtheirassemblingfortheinterpretationoftheLaw,nordidhemakeanyoppositiontotheirofferingsof
firstfruits.(1567trans.Yonge)

Therelevanceofthetwophrases,whichIhaveitalicized,tothepointatissueisimmediatelyobvious,andtheybecomehighlysignificantwhenitisrecognizedthatin
nosourceisthereanyhintthatAugustusevencontemplatedsuchmeasures.TheirintentionbecomesclearifweassumewithSmallwood55thatinAD41Philohad
heardrumoursofsuchactionsonthepartofClaudius.ThelatterreveredAugustusasthemodelRomanruler,andbycitingAugustusasacounterprecedentPhilo
wasinfactmakingaprotesttowhichthetouchyemperorcouldnottakeexception.

Insum,therefore,averyhighdegreeofprobabilitycanbeaccordedtothehypothesisthatastheresultofanimperialactioninAD41someJewswereexpelledfrom
Rome.

TheAttitudeofClaudiustotheJews.

Ithasbeenobjected,however,thatthisconclusionconflictswithwhatisknownofClaudius'attitudetowardstheJewsatthebeginningofhisregin.Herestoredto
themalltheprivilegeswhichhadbeenabrogatedbyhispredecessorGaius(Caligula).TheletterhasbeenpreservedbyJosephusinhisAntiquitiesoftheJews(19.
28791).ThetenorofthisletterleavesnodoubtaboutClaudius'positiveattitudetowardsJewsthroughouttheempirealltheirtraditionalrightsarereaffirmedinthe
mostexplicitandpublicwaypossible.Thethirdparagraphoftheletter,however,containsawarningwhichshouldnotbeoverlooked,
Itwill,therefore,befittopermittheJews,whoareinalltheworldunderus,tokeeptheirancientcustomswithoutbeinghinderedinsodoing.ButIchargethemalsotousethismy
kindnesstothemwithmoderation,andnottoshowcontemptofthesuperstitiousobservancesofothernations,buttokeeptheirownlawsonly.(290trans.Whistonand
Margoliouth)

Claudiusdoesnotgivethemcarteblanchetherearelimitstowhatheispreparedtotolerate.ThispointismadeformallyinaletteraddressedbyClaudiustothecity
ofAlexandriaon10NovemberAD41,whichcomplementsthefulsomeletterrestoringJewishprivilegespreservedbyJosephusinAntiquitiesoftheJews(19.281
5).InthetranslationofC.K.Barrettthemostimportantparagraphreadsasfollows:

ontheotherhandIexplicitlyordertheJewsnottoagitateformoreprivilegesthantheyformerlypossessed,andnotinfuturetosendoutaseparateembassy

55
(1981),214.

 Page14

asiftheylivedinaseparatecity,athingunprecedented,andnottoforcetheirwayintogymnasiarchicorcosmeticgames,whileenjoyingtheirownprivilegesandsharingagreat
abundanceofadvantagesinacitynottheirown,andnottobringinoradmitJewswhocomedowntheriverfromSyriaorEgypt,aproceedingwhichwillcompelmetoconceive
serioussuspicionsotherwiseIwillbyallmeanstakevengeanceuponthemasfomentorsofwhatisageneralplagueinfectingthewholeworld.56

Thisdocumentmakesitperfectlyclearthat,fromtheoutsetofhisreign,Claudiuswaspreparedtoreactvigorouslyagainstanythingthatcouldbeinterpretedasa
threattopublicorder.InAD41ifcertainJews(fromwhomChristianswerenotthendistinguished)atRomehadbeenseenasagitators,theemperorwoulddefinitely
havemovedagainsttheminthewaysuggestedbySuetoniusandDioCassius.Thisyear,therefore,certainlyenjoysgreaterprobabilityasthedateoftheedictof
ClaudiusthanthealternativeofAD49,whichisbasedexclusivelyontheunreliabletestimonyofOrosius.

WearenowinapositiontotrytofixthebeginningofPaul'sministryinCorinth.LukegivestheimpressionthathearrivedmoreorlessontheheelsofAquilaand
Priscilla,whohadrecentlycomefromItalyasaresultoftheedictofClaudius(Acts18:12).Thus,PaulwouldhavearrivedinCorinthbyAD42atthelatest.

LdemanndistinguishesthisfoundingvisitfromasubsequentvisitwhenPaulencounteredtheproconsulGallio(Acts18:12).57Idoubtthatthiscanbemaintained.In
thefirstplace,Lukeismuchlessprecisethanappearsatfirstsight.TheedictofClaudius,aswehavejustseen,concernedonlyasinglesynagogueinRome,andLuke
doesnotsaythatAquilaandPriscillacamefromthatcitytheycamefromItaly.Moreover,theedictinvolvedonlybanishmentfromthecity,notexilefromthecountry.
WecannotassumethattheexpelledJewsimmediatelytooktotheboats.Itismorereasonabletoassumethattheytookupresidencesomewhereoutsidethecityin
ordertoseehowthesituationwoulddevelop.Howlongtheymighthavestayed,noonecansay.NorcanwedeterminewithanyexactitudewhatLukemighthave
meantbyrecently.Secondly,thedatumfromActsmustbeconfrontedwiththeevidencefromPaul'sletters.WehavealreadyseenthatPaul'smissionaryactivity
beganinlateAD37adatethatLdemanndoesnotacceptandasweanalysethepreCorinthphaseofthisactivity,itwillbecomeclearthatitcannotbefittedinto
thefouryearperiodpostulatedbyLdemann.

UnlesswearepreparedtoignorethechronologicaldatathatPaulhimselfgivesusinhisletters,wemustquestionwhethertherewasanyrealrelationshipbetweenthe
edictofClaudiusandthemovetoCorinthofAquilaandPriscilla.Lukeisunlikelytohavehadsolidinformationonsuchaminorpoint,andinall
56
(1958),46.
57
(1984),171.

 Page15

probabilitycombinedvaguememoriestoproduceascenariowhich,onothergrounds,weknowcannotbefactual.Ifthishypothesisiscorrect,Acts18:12isbut
anotherexampleofthephenomenonmanifestedinLuke2:2.InthislatterpassageLukeclaimsthatthemotiveforthejourneyoftheHolyFamilyfromNazarethto
BethlehemwasthecensusofQuirinius.Thiscensus,however,tookplaceinAD67,58sometenyearsafterthebirthofJesusinthedaysofHerodtheGreat,who
diedin4BC.InbothinstancesLukeattemptedtolinksacredandsecularhistoryandgotitslightlywrong.

Paul'sEncounterwithGallio

WhenGalliowasproconsulofAchaia,theJewsmadeaunitedattackonPaulandbroughthimbeforethetribunal(Acts18:12).ThisassertionthatPaul'sministryin
Corinthoverlapped,atleastinpart,withthetermofofficeoftheRomangovernorGallioisthelinchpinofPaulinechronology.59ItistheonelinkbetweentheApostle's
careerandgeneralhistorythatisacceptedbyallscholars.OuronlymeansofdatingthepresenceofthisofficialinCorinthisabadlybrokeninscriptioncontaininga
letteroftheemperorClaudius.

TheDelphiInscription

Fourfragments,discoveredduringtheFrenchexcavationsatDelphi,werefirstjoinedandpublishedbyEmileBourguetin1905.In1910hefoundthreemore
fragmentsbelongingtothesameinscriptionthesewerepublishedbyA.Brassacin1913.Furtherfragmentswerediscoveredsubsequently,butthefactthatthenew
fragmentswerenotincludedinthethirdeditionofW.Dittenberger'sauthoritativeSyllogeInscriptionumGraecarum(191524)meantthattheywereignoredinall
subsequentdiscussionsoftheinscription.In1967A.Plassartsucceededinjoiningthetwogroupsoffragments,andaddedtwomore.Hisofficialpublicationofthe
ninefragmentsappearedin1970.ThatsameyearanumberofhisreadingswereimprovedbyJ.H.Oliver.Theoneremainingdoubtwhetherlinesevenmentionsan
individual(Plassart)oragroup(Oliver)appearstoberesolvedinthelatter'sfavourbytheobservationthattwooftheoriginalfragmentsfittogetherattheback.60
Tiber[iusClaudiusCaes]arAu[gus]tusGe[rmanicus,investedwithtribunicianpo]wer[forthe12thtime,acclaimedImperatorfort]he26thtime,f[atherofthefa]ther[landsends
greetingsto].Foral[ongtimeIhavebeennotonl]y[welldisposedtowardt]heci[ty]ofDelph[i,butalsosolicitousforitspro]sperity,andIhavealwaysguar[dedth]ecul[toft]
he[Pythian]Apol[lo.

58
Schrer(197387),2.399427.
59
Acts18:12belongstooneofthemostprimitivelevelsofActsseeBoismardandLamouille(1990),2.249.
60
Hemer(1989),252n.19.

 Page16

But]now[since]itissaidtobedesti[tu]teof[citi]zens,as[L.Jun]iusGallio,myfri[end]an[dprocon]sul,[recentlyreportedtome,andbeingdesirousthatDelphi]shouldcontinue
toretain[inta]ctitsfor[merrank,I]ord[eryou(pl)toin]vite[wellbornpeoplealsofromot]hercities[toDelphiasnewinhabitantsandto]all[ow]them[andtheirchildrentohave
allthe]privi[legesofDel]phiasbeingciti[zensonequalandlike(basis)].61

DatingtheLetterofClaudius

TheletterwaswrittenafterClaudiushadbeenacclaimedemperorforthetwentysixthtime.Suchacclamationswereritualizedpublicapplausethatsanctioneda
triumphoftheemperor,e.g.theconclusionofasuccessfulmilitarycampaignoraspeciallysignificantvictory.Unfortunately,wehavenotextwhichdatesthetwenty
sixthacclamationprecisely.Theproblem,then,istodelimitastightlyaspossiblethetimespanwithinwhichitmusthaveoccurred.

Theupperlimitisfixedbythetwentyseventhacclamationwhichtookplacebefore1August52.Frontinus(AD30104),speakingoftwoaqueductsbegunbythe
emperorGaius,says,TheseworksClaudiuscompletedonthemostmagnificentscale,anddedicatedintheconsulshipofSullaandTitianus,onthe1stofAugustin
theyear803afterthefoundingoftheCity.(Aqueducts,1.13trans.BennettandMcElwain).Thededicatoryinscriptionononeoftheseaqueducts,theAqua
Claudia,readsinpart,TiberiusClaudiussonofDrususCaesarAugustusGermanicusPontifexMaximus,12thyearoftribunicianpower,consulforthe5thtime,
acclaimedemperorforthe27thtime,fatherofthecountry.62

Tribunicianpowerwasaccordedtoanemperoratthemomentofhisaccessiontothepurple,andforeachyearofhisreignheaddedoneunit.Sincethefirst
tribunicianyearofClaudiuswas25January41to24January42,histwelfthyearwas25January52to24January53.Thus,theyearmentionedbyFrontinusmustbe
wrong,because803AUC=AD50thatthisisduetoscribalerrorisconfirmedbythenamesoftheconsuls,becauseSullaandTitianusheldofficeinAD52.

Thetwentyseventhacclamation,therefore,tookplacebetween25January52and1August52.Thisperiod,however,canbenarrowdsignificantly.Acclamations
wererelatedtomilitaryprowess,andnormallynomajorcampaignswereundertakeninwinterthebattleseasonwasfromlateMarchtoearlyNovember.Thus,the
twentyseventhacclamationmustbedatedbetweenAprilandJuly52.Inconsequence,thetwentysixthacclamationmusthavetakenplaceinthesameperiodorinor
beforethepreviousNovember.

ThisambiguityremainsdespitetheperfectlypreservedinscriptionofKysinCariawhichreads,TiberiusClaudiusCaesarGermanicusEmperorGod
61
ThetranslationandrestorationbracketsarethoseofFitzmyer(1990),9.TheGreektextisgiveninmy(1992e),179.
62
CIL6.1256quotedinBrassac(1913),42.

 Page17
63
Augustus,PontifexMaximus,12thyearoftribunicianpower,consulforthe5thtime,acclaimedemperorforthe26thtime,fatherofthecountry.

Whilethisestablishesacorrelationbetweenthetwelfthyearandthetwentysixthacclamation,itdoesnotexcludethepossibilitythatthetwentysixthacclamationhad
beenaccordedpriortothebeginningofthetwelfthyear.Thelatterchangedautomaticallyon25JanuaryforClaudius,whereasacclamationsfollowednosetcalendar.
ItshouldbekeptinmindthatthereferencetothetwelfthyearinthelettertoDelphiisarestoration,andcannotbeusedasanargument.

Thelowerlimitisfixedbyaseriesofinscriptions(whosetextsaresubstantiallyidenticalwiththatontheAquaClaudiasaveforchangesinthenumbers),64whichaffirm
thatthetwentysecond,twentythird,andtwentyfourthacclamationstookplaceintheeleventhtribunicianyearofClaudius,i.e.25January51to24January52.No
inscriptioncorrelatesthetwentyfifthacclamationwithatribunicianyear.

Atthisstageweareforcedintospeculationonprobabilitiesconcerningtherelationofsixacclamations(thetwentysecondtothetwentyseventhinclusive)withtwo
timespans,namely,thebattleseasonsApriltoNovember51andApriltoJuly52.Sincewehavenodatesforthetwentyfifthandtwenthsixthacclamations,wehave
toassignthemtooneperiodortheother.Thepossibilitiesare:

(1)AprilNovember5122nd23rd24th AprilJuly5225th
26th27th

(2)AprilNovember5122nd23rd24th25th AprilJuly5226th
27th

(3)AprilNovember5122nd23rd24th25th AprilJuly5227th
26th

Thecriterionforadecisionbetweenthethreeoptionscanonlybetheassumptionthatthesymbolicvalueoftheacclamationswoulddiminishindirectproportionto
theirfrequency.Onthisbasis,possibilities(1)and(3)appearlessprobablethanpossibility(2).Inthefirsttherearetoomanyacclamationsin52,whileinthethird
therearetoomanyin51,butinthesecondwegetamuchbetterbalance,i.e.theacclamationsaverageoneeverytwomonths.Theargumentistenuousbut,giventhe
presentdearthofevidence,itistheonlyonepossible,andthismustbekeptclearlyinmindwhenassessingthevalueoftheconclusion.

Intheabovehypothesis,thetwentysixthacclamationwouldhavetakenplaceafterthefirstsignificantvictoryinthespringcampaignofAD52,i.e.in
63
BCH11(1887),3067quotedinBrassac(1913),44.
64
TheyarecitedinBrassac(1913),434.

 Page18
65
Aprilattheearliest.Thus,theletterofClaudiuswasprobablywritteninthelatespringorveryearlysummerofthatyear.

Thepurposeoftheletteristodealwithasocialproblem,thedepopulationofDelphi,towhichtheemperor'sattentionhadbeendrawnbyareportfromGallio.The
formulationmakesitcertainthatthelatterwasnottherecipientoftheletter,asolderstudieswouldmakeitappear.Theletterwasaddressedeithertoaproconsulof
AchaiaortoagroupsuchasthecitycouncilofDelphi.Thereisnojustificationforsupposingthatthecitywasempty,asinanevacuationwhichmighthavefolloweda
plague.Wehavetodowithasignificantdropinthenumberofcitizens,whichismostprobablytobeaccountedforbyachangeintheeconomicsituation.Delphiwas
notatradecentreitwaslocatedoffthemainroutesandinverydifficultterrain,particularlyinwinter.ItwasthesanctuaryofthePythianApollo,theoldestandmost
veneratedshrineofGreece,andanydecreaseinthenumbersofpilgrimswouldhaveaffectedtherevenuesofthecity.

Delphihadbeenindeclineforwelloveracenturybythetimethisletterwaswritten.Ithadbeenpillagedmanytimes,butmoreimportantlyitsprestigehadevaporated.
Itsurvivedonthememoriesofagloriouspast,butitwasnolongeravitalspiritualcentre.Asfewervisitorscame,morefamilies,unabletoprocurealivelihood,would
havedriftedaway,withtheinevitableconsequencethatevenfewerserviceswereavailableforthosewhodidcomeonpilgrimage.

Thisviciouscircleappearstohaveengenderedasenseofhopelessness,forthecouncilwhichranthecitydidnottaketheinitiativeinseekingimperialaid.The
formulationoftheletterclearlyindicatesthattheydidnotpetitiontheemperoreitherdirectly,orindirectlythroughthegoodofficesofGallio.Thefactthatthereaction
ofClaudiusisexpressedintheformofacommandhintsatacertainapathy,ifnotreluctance,onthepartoftheDelphians.Heiscertainlynotaccedingtoarequestfor
morecitizens.

DatingtheProconsulshipofGallio

Theviewthatprovincialofficeholdersbegantheirfunctionson1JulyisadeductionfromanordinancemadeinAD15bytheemperorTiberiusthattheyshouldtake
theirdeparture[fromRome]bythefirstdayofJune.66Itisreasonablethatadequatetimeshouldbeallottedforthejourney.Thedeparturedatewasadvancedby
ClaudiusinAD42:ThegovernorswhowerechosenbylotweretosetoutbeforethefirstdayofApril,fortheyhadbeeninthehabitoftarryingalongtimeinthe
city.67Sincethishadlittleeffect,presumablybecausetravelwasstilldifficultintheearlyspring,theemperorhadtorepeattheordinanceinaslightlymitigatedformthe
followingyear,insistingthat
65
SimilarlyBrassac(1913),45Hemer(1989),253.
66
DioCassius,History,57.14.5trans.Cary.
67
Ibid.60.11.6.

 Page19
68 69
governorshadtobeoutofRomebymidAprilatthelatest. Thishasledsometoconsiderthattheyearofofficebeganon1June. Thepurposeoftheregulation,
however,wastoensurethatgovernorsgottotheirdestinationsintime,nomatterhowslowlytheytravelled.

Assumingthattheaveragejourneytoapostwouldhavetakenamonth,thiswouldhavegiventhenewcomerafurthermonthinwhichtofamiliarizehimselfwiththe
localsituationbeforeassumingfullresponsibility.Somesucharrangementwasimperative,becauseproconsulsheldofficeforonlyoneyear,andonecouldnothavea
significantperiodofeachyearwastedwhilethenewappointeefoundhiswayaround.Wecansafelyassume,therefore,thataproconsul'stermofofficeranfromthe
beginningofJulytotheendofthefollowingJune.

SincetheletterofClaudiusinwhichGallioismentionedwasprobablywritteninAprilorMayAD52,theproconsularyearofGalliocannothavebeen5253,since
theemperor'sresponsecannotantedatethereport.70ThelastyearinwhichGalliocouldpossiblyhavebeenproconsulis1July51to30June52.However,we
cannotsimplyassume,fromthetitlegiventoGalliointheletter,thatthiswasinfacttheyear.71Evenifhewerealreadyoutofoffice,hewouldnaturallyhavebeen
giventhetitlewhichauthorizedhisreporttotheemperor.

ItisconsiderablymoredifficulttodeterminetheearliestyearthatGalliocouldhavebeenproconsul.Itdoesseemveryunlikely,however,thathecouldhavebeen
appointedbeforeAD49.Onlyinthatyeardidhisbrother,thephilosopherSeneca,returnfromCorsica,whitherhehadbeenexiledbyClaudiusinAD41.Inthe
Romansystem,thedisgraceofonemembertouchedthewholefamily.SinceGalliodoesnotappeartohavebeenamanofexceptionalcharacterorability,itisvery
probablethathisnominationasproconsulofAchaiawasmateriallyassistedbytheinfluenceofhisbrother,who,onhisrehabilitation,hadbeennamedtotheimperial
courtasthetutorofNero.

Theoretically,itisnotimpossiblethatGallioservedthetwoyears,AD5052,becausehemayhavebeenextrasortem,andofficialsofthistype,likelegatesinthe
imperialprovinces,servedattheemperor'spleasuretheirtenurewasnotlimitedtooneyear.Inreality,however,thequestionofGallio'sprecisestatusisirrelevant
becausehedidnotcompletehistermofoffice.Thus,heonlyservedpartof5051orof5152.WeknowthisfromanotebyhisbrotherSeneca:When,inAchaia,
hebegantofeelfeverish,heimmediatelytookship,claimingthatitwasnotamaladyofthebodybutoftheplace(Epistulaemorales104.1trans.Gummere).The
impressionofafussyhypochondriacisconfirmedbyPliny'sreportthatGalliofelttheneedforalongseavoyagetorecuperateafterhisconsulship(NH31.62).Ifwe
acceptwhatSenecasaysofamaladyofthe
68
Ibid.6017.3.
69
Fitzmyer(1990),9.
70
Ibid.
71
AsdoesLdemann(1984),163.

 Page20

place,itisnaturaltoassumethatGalliotookadisliketoAchaiaandusedaminorillnessasanexcusetoleavehispost.Suchanunreasoningaversiontoaplaceis
normallytheresultofafirstimpressionitmayintensifywiththepassageoftime,butitdoesnotusuallybeginlate.Ifthisassessmentiscorrect,itisunlikelythatGallio
remainedinAchaiamorethanfourmonths,i.e.fromJunetoSeptember.

Otherwise,hewouldhavebeenstuckthereforthewinter.ThedangerofwintertravelintheeasternMediterraneanisunderlinedbyLuke,Thevoyagewasalready
dangerousbecausetheFast[i.e.YomKippur,celebratedneartheautumnalequinox]wasalreadyover(Acts27:9cf.28:11).Plinymakesthesamepointmore
succinctly,Springopenstheseatovoyagers(NH2.122).72ThenoteofDioCassius,Ifanyoneeverriskedavoyageatthatseason[winter]hewassuretomeet
withdisaster,73isunconsciouslyconfirmedbySuetoniuswho,afterrecountinghowClaudiushadbeenmobbedbytheRomancrowdbecauseofthelackofgrain,
continues,AfterthisexperienceheresortedtoeverypossiblemeanstobringgraintoRome,eveninthewinterseason(Claudius,18trans.Rolfe).Inotherwords,
shipsputtoseafromNovembertoMarchonlyforthemostseriousreasons,becauseonecouldbetossedbystormsforthreecontinuousmonths.74Inwinterand
earlyspringnoonemadeatripthatcouldbedeferred.75

EvenifGalliodidnotdepartbeforethewinter,theclosedseahasobviousimplicationsforthetimeofthetransmissionofhisreportconcerningDelphitoRome.It
wasnotamatterofhighpriority,andsincewehavenoreportsofanyseriousdisturbancesinAchaiainAD5052whichwoulddemandimmediatecommunication
withthecapital,itmustbeassumedthatthereportwentwiththenormalcouriertrafficoutsidethewinterseason.

NothingsofarhaspermittedustochoosebetweenAD5051and5152astheyearofGallio'sproconsulship.Theonlybasisonwhichadecisioncanbemadeis
Claudius'administrativeability.Didhedealwithproblemsquicklyordidheletthemdragon?Asusual,itisdifficulttoanswerthisquestionwithanycertitude.Hislife,
asrecountedbySuetonius,producesaverymixedimpression.Claudiusappearsasextremelyerratic:Heshowedstrangeinconsistencyoftemper,forhewasnow
carefulandshrewd,sometimeshastyandinconsiderate,occasionallysillyandlikeacrazyman(Claudius,15trans.Rolfe).
72
Inthesamecontext,Plinymentions11Novemberand8Februaryasthetraditionaldatesforthebeginningofwinterandspring.Vegetius(Epitomareimilitaris4.39)extends
winterto10March,butconsidersthesafesailingseasontorunonlyfrom27Mayto14September(5.9).
73
History60.11.2.Insteadofwaitingforspring,JuliusCaesartookadvantageofaspelloffineweathertocrosstheAdriatic.Notallofhisarmywereabletofollow,forcinghimto
recognizethathisvoyagewasmorefortunatethanprudent(41.44.14).WhenCaesartriedtoreturntoItaly,astormforcedhimback(41.46.24).
74
Josephus,JW2.2003.
75
Forthestoriesofthoseobligedtogotoseainwinter,seeSpicq(1969),145n.2.

 Page21

Thisiscertainlytrue,ifonelooksattheemperor'slifeasawhole.Astrictchronologicalorder,however,imposesadifferentassessment.FromtheperiodAD4150
alargenumberofimperialenactments[surviveandshow]profoundadministrativecommonsense,butinthelastfouryearshispowersbegantofail(OCD197).
Justatthepointthatinterestsus,theweaksideofhischaracterbegantopredominateandwehavenowayofknowinghowquicklyhedisposedofbusiness.
However,onefactordisposesmetothinkthathereactedquicklytoGallio'sinformation,namely,hisknownfondnessforAchaia.AccordingtoSuetonius,
HegavenolessattentiontoGreekstudies,takingeveryoccasiontodeclarehisregardforthatlanguageanditssuperiorityandincommendingAchaiatothesenatorshe
declaredthatitwasaprovincedeartohimthroughtheassociationofkindredstudies.(Claudius,42trans.Rolfe)

ItwouldbeamistaketoimaginethatGalliohadanyparticularinterestinDelphi,orthathisreportwasmotivatedbyahighsenseofduty.Delphiwasthetraditional
centreoftheculturethattheemperoradmiredsoextravagantly,andGalliowasastuteenoughtorecognizethatevidenceofhisconcernforthatcitywouldplacehimin
thegoodgracesofClaudius.Perhapsheevenbroughtthereportwithhiminanefforttoassuagetheimperialangerathisabandonmentofhispost.Bethatasitmay,it
seemsprobablethatClaudiuswouldhavereactedratherquicklytoanythingconcerningDelphi.Inthiscase,Gallio'sreportwouldhavereachedhimattheearliestby
lateautumnAD51oratthelatestwhentheseawasagainopenedfornormalshippinginthespringofAD52.Gallio'stermofoffice,therefore,ismorelikelytohave
beenAD5152thanthepreviousyear.76

Thelineofargumentdevelopedtosupportthisconclusionisadmittedlytenuous,butsomesuchapproachisnecessaryinordertojustifythecurrentconsensus.It
shouldalsobenotedthatthisconsensusisnomorethanaluckyaccident,becauseitdependsonamisunderstandingofwhattheletterofClaudiuswasallaboutsince
onlyfourofthenineavailablefragmentswereusedtoreconstituteit.

InthelightofSeneca'sstatementthathisbrotherdidnotfinishhistermofoffice,itisimpossibletoplaceGallio'sencounterwithPaul(Acts18:1217)inthelatterpart
oftheproconsularyearAD5152.TheencountermusthavetakenplacebetweenJuly,whenGallioarrivedinCorinth,andSeptemberAD51,thelastdatewhenhe
couldhavesailedtoRome.

ThisconclusionfindspositiveconfirmationinGalatians2:1,whichplacesPaulinJerusaleminAD51.LukegivestheimpressionthatPaulleftCorinthforJerusalemby
shipshortlyafterhisencounterwiththeproconsul(Acts18:1822).ThiscannothavebeenlaterthanmidSeptember,becauseoftheclosed
76
SimilarlyHemer(1989),252.

 Page22

sea.Theruntothesoutheastwasthebestandfastestpointofsailingforshipsoftheperiod.PaulcouldeasilyhavebeeninJerusalembytheautumnofAD51,
preciselyaswehavealreadydeducedfromGalatians2:1.Thiscorrelationhastwoimportantcorollaries.First,thefigure14inGalatians2:1isnotaroundnumber.77
Secondly,thevisittoJerusalemofActs18:22isadoubletofthatinActs15:23.

NegativeconfirmationisfurnishedbythefactthatPauldidnotpreachthecollectioninCorinthduringhisfoundingvisit.78Theonlyexplanationisthatithadnotyet
beendecidedattheJerusalemConference.Hence,thefoundingvisittoCorinthmustbeplacedbeforeAD51.

ThereisnoindependentsupportforLuke'sassertionthatPaulstayedinCorinthforeighteenmonths(Acts18:11),butthefigureisplausiblewhenoneconsidersthe
timenecessarytomakeconversionsandestablishacommunity.Moreover,itmeansthat,ifPaulleftCorinthinSeptemberAD51,hewouldhavearrivedthereinApril
AD50.Inotherwords,itaccordswiththefactthattheancientsdidnottravelinwinter(cf.1Cor.16:6)exceptinabnormalcircumstancesconditionsweretoo
difficult.79Paulwouldhavesetoutfromhispreviouslocationonlywiththeadventofspring.

HearingsbeforeFelixandFestus

AfterPaul'sarrestinJerusalem,LuketellsusthathewassenttothegovernorAntoniusFelixinCaesarea(Acts23:24).Twoyearslater(24:27),80Felixwas
replacedbyPorciusFestus(Acts25:1).ThedatingoftheinceptionofFelix'stermofofficeisdeterminedbytworathervaguereferences.AccordingtoJosephus,
ClaudiussentFelix,thebrotherofPallas,totakecareoftheaffairsofJudea,and,whenhehadalreadycompletedthetwelfthyearofhisreign,hehadbestowed
uponAgrippathetetrarchyofPhilipandBatanea(AJ20.1378trans.WhistonandMargoliouth).

SinceClaudiuscametopoweron25January41,histwelfthyearranfrom25January52to24January53.ThegiftofterritorytoAgrippaII,thereforetook
77
Thisinturnmakesitprobablethatthreeyears(Gal.1:18)isalsoaccurate.Thefactthatsomeancientsfounditattimesconvenienttothinkinroundnumbers,e.g.twoyearsand
threemonths(Acts19:810)becomesthreeyears(Acts20:31),doesnotcreateanassumptionthatanygivenyearmighthavebeenroundedupwardfromaslittleasonemonth,
i.e.inthiscasethatthethreeyearsandfourteenyearsmightbeaslittleasoneyearandacoupleofmonthsandtwelveyearsandacoupleofmonths,respectively.Thesensible
remarksofJewett(1979),534,areanecessaryantidotetotheexcessiveprudenceofLdemann'sobservationaproposof2Cor.9:2,Theoretically,theexpressionayearagocan
coveraperiodofonetotwentythreemonths(1984),134n.178.
78
SorightlyLdemann(1984),813.
79
ThemostgraphicdescriptionisthatofAeliusAristides(Discourse,48),whotookahundreddaystoslogfromSmyrnatoRomeinJanuaryMarchAD143.
80
GivenLuke'sinterestsandthefocusofhisnarrative,thisperiodmostprobablyreferstothelengthofPaul'simprisonment,andnottothedurationofFelix'stermofoffice.

 Page23
81
placeinAD53,probablyinthesecondhalfoftheyear. ThejuxtapositiontothementionofAntoniusFelixgivesrisetotheassumptionthatthelatter'snomination
shouldbedatednotlongbefore,i.e.towardstheendofAD52orintheearlypartofAD53.TheformulationoftheJewishWarmakesatemporallinkbetweenthe
twoeventsevenstronger,althoughneitherisdated.AfterthisCaesarsentFelix,thebrotherofPallas,tobeprocuratorofSamariaandGalileeandPerea,and
removedAgrippafromChalcisuntoagreaterkingdom(2.247trans.WhistonandMargoliouth).

Forhispart,TacitusrecordsthedismissalofFelix'spredecessorasprocuratorasprocuratorofJudaea,Cumanus,amongtheeventsofAD52(Annals12.54).
Unfortunately,hisaccountofthecircumstancesleadinguptothedisgraceofCumanusistotallyimplausible,82andonewouldhavenoreasonforretainingthedate
unlessitharmonizedroughlywithwhatmightbededucedfromJosephus.

FestusdiedinofficeinAD62.83ThedateiscalculatedfromthefactthathissuccessorAlbuinuswasinJudaeabythefeastofSukkotfouryearsbeforetheoutbreak
oftheFirstRevoltinAD66.84

ThecrucialquestionforPaulinechronologyis:atwhatmomentinthetenyearperiod,AD5262,didpowerpassfromFelixtoFestus?Theonethingthatcanbesaid
withcertitudeisthatitwasafter13October54(thedeathofClaudius)becauseFelixwasdeposedbyNero,andwasonlysavedfrompunishmentbytheentreatiesof
hisbrotherPallas.85EusebiusdatesittothesecondyearofNero,butithasbeenwellarguedthatEusebiuswasfouryearsoutinhisestimateofNero'sregnalyearsin
otherwords,thesecondwasreallythesixth,i.e.betweenOctober59andOctober60.86Confirmationofthisdatemaybedrawnfromachangeoftheprovincial
coinageofJudaeainthefifthyearofNero,i.e.AD5859.AsSmallwoodpointsout,thisismorelikelytobetheworkofanewprocuratorthanofanoutgoingone
whohadalreadymintedalargeissue.87Hence,thechangeofprocuratorsisdatedtoAD59,88ortoAD60.89Inordertounderlinehowtenuousthisconclusionis,it
isimperativetorememberthatJosephuswasmuchlessinterestedingoodprocuratorsthaninthosewhosebadadministrationcontributedtotheoutbreakoftheFirst
Revolt.Luke,however,doessaythatFelixwasprocuratorformanyyears(Acts24:10).
81
Schrer(197387),1.472.
82
SeeHaenchen(1971),689Bruce(1985),2856.
83
Josephus,AJ20.197.
84
Josephus,JW6.3009.
85
Josephus,AJ20.182.
86
Bruce(1985),287.
87
(1981),269n.40.
88
Jewett(1979),43.
89
Schrer(197387),1.465n.42.

 Page24

DevelopingaChronologyforPaul'sLife

SubsequenttoPaul'sdeparturefromJerusalemintheautumnofAD37,thesecurelydatablefactsofhisministryare,aswehaveseen,hisencounterwithGalliointhe
summerofAD51,andhispresenceinJerusalemlaterthatsameyear.WhatdoweknowaboutPaul'smovementsintheperiodsprecedingandfollowingthisyear,
andisitpossibletodatethem?

PriortoAD51

InGalatiansPaulprovidesaformalstatementandaclearhintastowherehewasduringthefourteenyearswhichseparatedhistwovisitstoJerusalem.Onleavingthe
HolyCity,hewentintotheregionsofSyriaandCilicia(Gal.1:21).Hisactivitywasnotlimitedtotheseareas,forinGalatians2:5hesays,tothemwedidnotyield
submissionevenforamomentinorderthatthetruthofthegospelmightcontinueamongyou.Oldertranslationswhichgivethepurposeclauseanexclusivelyfuture
meaning(e.g.RSV,BdeJ,NAB)wereinfluencedbyLuke'spresentationoftheevangelizationofGalatia(Acts16:6)assubsequenttotheJerusalemConference(Acts
15).Theonlyattestedsenseofdiamenein,however,istoremain,continue,90whichnecessarilyimpliesthatatthetimeoftheJerusalemConferencethetruthofthe
gospelhadalreadybeenpreachedtotheGalatians.91ThuswecandeducethatPaulwentwestfromCilicia.HedidnothavetospellouttotheGalatiansthatitwasto
themhetravelled.92

GalatiaandaJourneyintoEurope

AtsomepointpriortoAD51,therefore,PaulhadbeenincentralAsiaMinor.HefurtherrevealsthathispresenceamongtheGalatianswastheresultofanaccident
youknowthatitwasbecauseofabodilyailmentthatIpreachedthegospeltoyou(Gal.4:13).Ifhisvisitwasunplanned,hemusthavebeengoingsomewhereelse,
andwemustassumethat,oncerecovered,hesetoutinpursuitofhisoriginalgoal.Wherewashegoing?

LukeinActs1618providesananswer,butitwouldbeillegitimatetoassumethathisinformationiscorrect.Theepistlesmustbeapproachedfirst,
90
LSJ403bBAGD186.
91
FirstemphasizedbyLdemann(1984),71,andapprovedbyJewett(1979),84,thisisnowthecommoninterpretationoftranslations(e.g.JB,NRSV)andcommentaries,e.g.
Longenecker(1990),53.TheattemptofRolland(1992),879,toretainafutureaspectbyinterpretingproshymantomeanforyourprofitisunconvincingseeBurton(1921),86.
92
TheinsistenceofDunn(1993),80,thatPauldidnotmoveoutsideSyriaandCiliciaismisplaced.

 Page25

andfortunatelytheycanbeseducedintoyieldingananswer,ifonetakesthetroubleofcorrelatingaseriesofratherclearhints.

Accordingto1Thessalonians,Paul'svisittoThessalonica,hadbeenprecededbyavisittoPhilippi,wherehehadbeenbadlytreated(2:2).Subsequently,hewasin
Athens(3:1),andthen,itwouldappear,inadifferentandunnamedlocationwhencetheletterwaswritten(3:6).TheanxietyPauldemonstratesfortheperseverance
oftheThessalonians,andthewarmlyaffectionatetoneinwhichhespeaksofhislongingforthem,suggest(1)thatthechurchatThessalonicahadbeenbutrecently
established,and(2)thatPaulhadnotyetachievedanythingsignificantinhisnewmissionfield.Combiningthesetwo,wecaninfer(3)thatitisquestionofPaul'sfirst
missionaryventureintoEurope.

InwritingtothePhilippians,Paulnotesthatinthebeginningofthegospel,93whenIleftMacedonia,nochurchenteredintopartnershipwithmeingivingandreceiving
exceptyouonlyforeveninThessalonicayousentmehelponceandagain(4:15).Theimplicationsofthistextaredouble:(1)sinceThessalonicaisinMacedonia,
themoneymusthavebeensenttoPaulsomewhereinAchaia(2)priortoestablishingthechurchinPhilippi,Paulhadfoundedothercommunitiescapableofaidinghim
financially.But(3),sincePaul'srouteinGreecewasfromnorthtosouth,theseotherchurchesmustliefurthereast,i.e.inAsiaMinor.

PaulevokesfinancialaidfromMacedoniain2Corinthians,Irobbedotherchurchesbyacceptingsupportfromtheminordertoserveyou[Corinthians].AndwhenI
waswithyouandinneed,Ididnotburdenanyone,formyneedsweresuppliedbythebrethrenwhocamefromMacedonia(11:89).Thepossibilitythatthe
allusionistohissecondvisittoCorinth(2Cor.1:23to2:1)isexcludedbythefactthatthislattervisitwasbriefandunplanned.Thetoneof2Corinthians11:710
betraystheangerofonefoundoutandisexplicableonlybyreferencetoPaul'sboastinanearlierletterthathehadbeenselfsupportingduringhisfirstvisittoCorinth
(1Cor.9:1518).Hisawarenessthatthiswasnotinfactthecasesurfacesinhis(unconscious?)useofthecompoundverbkatachrsasthaitomakefulluseof(9:
18b),94whichimpliesthathewasmakingpartialuseofhisrighttobesupported.HehadbeensubsidizedfromchurchesinMacedonia,notablyPhilippi,onthe
occasionofhisfoundingvisit.95

Onlyasinglehypothesisintegratesallthesehintsintheepistles.OnoneandthesamevoyagePaulfounded,inthefollowingorder,thechurchesofGalatia,Philippi,
Thessalonica,andCorinth,havingpassedthroughAthens,whereheaccomplishednothing.ConfirmationthatthisvoyagemustbedatedbeforeAD
93
TheusebyLdemann(1984),1047,ofthisphrasetodatethejourneyinquestionpriortoAD51isinvalidatedbytheinherentambiguityofthewords.
94
LSJ921bBAGD420Zerwick(1953),376.
95
SorightlyLdemann(1984),1034.

 Page26

51isfurnishedbyacomparisonofthesuperscriptionsof12ThessaloniansandGalatians.TheabsenceofanyselfidentificationintheThessaloniancorrespondence
revealstheconfidenceoftheemissaryofamajorchurch,i.e.theselettersdatefromatimewhenPaulwasmandatedbyAntioch.Thisrelationship,however,cameto
anendinAD5152(Gal.2:1114).TheverbosityofGalatiansbetraysthenervousnessofonewhohadlosthislegitimizingbase.Itmusthavebeencomposedona
laterjourney.

Preciselythesamepattern,eventofailureinAthens,ismanifestintheActswhere,onhisfirstjourneyintoEurope,PaulispresentedasmovingfromGalatia(16:6)
throughPhilippi(16:12),Thessalonica(17:1),andAthens(17:15)toCorinth(18:1).ItisimpossibletoavoidtheconclusionthatLukehadindependentinformation
aboutPaul'sfirstindependentmissionaryjourneythroughAsiaMinorandGreece.96Thisbeingthecase,weareentitledtotrusttheinformationwhichcomplementsthe
dataoftheepistles,namelythatthejourneybeganinAntioch(Acts15:30)andthattheroutetoGalatiapassedthroughSyriaandCilicia(Acts15:41),Derbeand
Lystra(Acts16:1),andPhrygia(Acts16:6).TheaccidentalcharacterofPaul'svisittoGalatia(Gal.4:13)indirectlyconfirmsthisroute,becauseitwouldhave
broughthimtoofartothewest.WerenorthGalatiahisgoal,hewouldhavegonenorthfromLystrathroughIconium.

DatingtheStagesoftheJourney.

Thenexttaskistoattempttodatethedifferentstagesofthisjourney.ThestartingpointisPaul'sarrivalinCorinthinthespringofAD50,i.e.eighteenmonthsbefore
hisdeparturefromCorinthinSeptemberAD51.Giventheobjectiontotravellinginwinter,hemusthavespentatleastthewinterofAD4950inMacedonia.Thisis
thebareminimum,butitisveryprobablethathestayedlonger.ThequalityofthecommunitiesheestablishedinThessaloniaandPhilippi97betraysprotractedcareful
formationwhichcouldhardlybeaccomplishedinasixmonthperiod.TheeighteenmonthsPaulspentinCorinth(Acts18:11)andthetwoyearsandthreemonthsin
Ephesus(Acts19:810)areillustrativeofthetimespanrequired.Hence,Ithinkithighlyprobablethathespentatleasttwowintersthere,whichwouldmeanthathe
arrivedinPhilippisometimeinthelatesummerorearlyautumnofAD48.

ThejourneyfromGalatiatothecoastwouldhavetakenPaulmostofthesummerofAD48.WhereexactlyhewasinGalatia,andthedetailsoftheroutehetookwill
bediscussedlater.98HereitisnecessaryonlytonoteJewett's
96
WhyLukedatedthisjourneyaftertheJerusalemConferenceisnotourconcernhere,butitmaybesuggestedthathewantedtogivetheimpressionthattheevangelizationof
AsiaMinorandGreecetookplaceundertheaegisofJerusalem.
97
SeeChs.5and9.
98
SeeCh.7,GalatiaandtheGalatians.

 Page27
99
estimateofthedistanceat771km.(463miles),whichwouldnotbesensiblydifferentwhicheverrouteischosen,andthetimerequiredassixweeks. Thisisan
averageof18km.(11miles)perday,whichislowintermsofthegeneraldailyfigure,100butmayrealisticallyreflectthemaximumfeasibleinthebrutalheatofthe
Anatoliansummer.

PaulmusthaveleftGalatiainthelatespringofAD48,afterthesnowshadmelted,havingcertainlyspentthewinterofAD4748holedupwithoneofhis
communities.101Aministryofsixmonths,however,isprobablytooshort.TheimpressiongivenbyGalatians4:13isthatPaul'sillnessmusthavebeenratherserious,
andsotimemustbeallowedforconvalescence.Moreover,onlyduringsummercouldheundertakethejourneyswhichmaybeimpliedinthefactthathefoundeda
numberofcommunities,thechurchesofGalatia(Gal.1:2).JewettassignsayeartoPaul'sstayamongtheGalatians.102Butthishypothesisinvolvesobvious
difficulties.PaulmusthavearrivedinGalatiaatthelatestbylateSeptember,whenitbeginstosnowontheplateauofAnatolia.Hissicknessandrecoveryprobably
occupiedmostofthefirstwinter.Thefollowingsummerhemadeconvertsandestablishedchurches.Bythen,however,itwouldhavebeentoolatetoundertakea
journeytothenorth.103Hence,wemustpostulatethathespenttwowintersinGalatia,namelyAD4648.Notallthistimewouldhavebeenactiveministry,owingto
hisillnessandthedifficulty,ifnottheimpossibility,ofevenlocaltravelinwinterthebrevityofhisministrybycomparisonwithhisstayisconfirmedbythefactthatthe
communitiesinGalatiasubsequentlyprovednotaswellgroundedinthefaithasthoseinThessalonicaandPhilippi.

JewettcalculatesthejourneyfromAntiochtoGalatiatobe1069km.(641miles)andestimatesthetraveltimetobefortythreedays.Thisisanaverageof25km.(15
miles)perday,whichisfeasible,particularlysincePaulwouldhavebeenstartingafterawinter'srest.104InadditionJewettpostulatesstopsofvaryingduration,
namely,tenweeksinSyriaCiliciaDerbeeightweeksin
99
(1979),60.
100
TheBordeauxPilgrimliststwelvecitiesandinnsforthe258RomanmilesbetweenNicomediaandAncyra,whichisanaverageof21Romanmiles(30km./18miles)perday.
101
Jewett(1979),137n.49,appositelyquotesRamsay,Alltravelacrossthemountains[ofAnatolia]wasavoidedbetweenthelatterpartofNovemberandthelatterpartofMarch
andordinarytravellers,notforcedbyofficialduties,butfreetochoosetheirowntimewouldavoidthecrossing[oftheplateau]betweenOctober(anextremelywetmonthonthe
plateau)andMay.AfterabattleagainsttheGalatiansneartheriverHalysinautumntheRomangeneralC.ManliusVulsohadtogoallthewaybacktoEphesusonthecoasttofind
suitablewinterquartersforhistroops(Livy,HistoryofRome38.27).
102
(1979),59.
103
Ifhedidsetout,hemusthavewinteredsomewhereenroutetotheDardanelles,whichleavesourrelativechronologyintact.
104
AsectionoftheroutewhichPaulwouldhavetakenisdocumentedbytheBordeauxPilgrim.ThesegmentAntiochTarsusFaustinopolisis202Romanmilesandtookninedays,an
averageof22Romanmiles(32km./20miles)perday.

 Page28
105
LystraIconiumandfourweeksinAntiochinPisidia. Thearbitrarycharacteroftheselatterfiguresisevident,butitisundeniablethatPaulwouldhavespenttimein
eachoftheseplaces.

IfweaddJewett'sfiguresforthesegmentAntiochGalatia,whichhedoesnotdo,aproblemimmediatelybecomesapparent.Thetotalistwentyeightweeks.The
earliestthatPaulcouldhaveleftAntiochisthelatterpartofApril,becausehewouldnotwanttofacetheCilicianGates,thenarrowpassthroughtheTaurus
MountainsbehindTarsus,untilwellintoMay.TwentyeightweeksfrommidApril,however,bringsustothemiddleofNovember,whichisfartoolatefortravellers
tobeabroadinAnatolia.PaulmusthavebeensettledinGalatiabymidSeptemberatthelatest.Whilethetraveltimecannotbereduced,andmightprobablybe
extended,itisperfectlyfeasibletoreduceJewett'srest/ministrytimebytwomonths,becausePaulhadnoresponsibilityforthechurchesinthecitiesmentioned.Aswe
shallsee,heparticipatedintheirevangelization,butonlyinasubordinateposition.106Theminimumtime,therefore,forthejourneyfromAntiochtoGalatiaisthe
summerofAD46.Itisnotimpossible,however,thatittookayearlonger.

Theresultsofthisanalysisandcalculationscanbetabulatedasfollows:

Antioch Winter4546

DeparturefromAntioch April46

JourneytoGalatia AprilSeptember46

MinistryinGalatia September46May48

JourneytoMacedonia Summer48

MinistryinMacedonia September48April50

JourneytoCorinth April50

MinistryinCorinth April50September51

JourneytoJerusalem September51

ConferenceinJerusalem October51

Thesedates,itshouldberememberedaretherockbottomminimum.107UndernocircumstancescanlessthanfivetosixyearsbeallowedforthejourneyintoEurope
whichendedwiththeJerusalemConference.Itgoeswithoutsaying,however,thatPaulmayhavetravelledmoreslowlyandlabouredlongerinanyoneplacethanmy
calculationsallow.Inwhichcase,theninehiddenyears(AD3746),aboutwhichweknowonlythathespenttimeinSyriaandCilicia(Gal.1:21Acts11:25),could
besignificantlyreduced.

AfterAD51

Luke'sstatementsthatPaulreturnedtoAntiochaftertheJerusalemConference(Acts15:30=18:22)areconfirmedbyPaul'splacingoftheepisodeat
105
(1979),59.
106
SeeCh.4,AGapintheRecord.
107
TheyaresubstantiallyidenticalwiththoseproposedbyJewett(1979),100.

 Page29
108
Antioch(Gal.2:1114)afterhisversionoftheConference(Gal.2:110). The600km.(360miles)journeyfromJerusalemwouldhavetakenbetweentwoand
fourweeks,109andPaulwouldhavebeencomfortablyinstalledinAntiochbeforewintersetin.Therewouldhavebeennopointingoinganyfurtheruntilweather
conditionsimprovedinthespring.GivenPaul'stemperament,thesenseofurgencyhebroughttohismission(2Cor.5:14),andtheintolerablesituationthatdeveloped
atAntiochduetotheinterferenceofJames(Gal.2:1114),itismostprobablethathelefthiserstwhilespiritualhomeandheadednorthoncethetheroadshad
becomepassable,i.e.April52attheearliest.

Ephesus

AccordingtoLuke,PaulpassedthroughthehighcountryofcentralAsiaMinor,i.e.Galatia(Acts18:23),onhiswaytoEphesus(Acts19:1).Againtheletters
furnishconfirmation.WeknowthatPaulwasinEphesussubsequenttotheJerusalemConference(1Cor.16:8),becausehementionsthecollectionthereagreed
upon(Gal.2:10),andweknowthathisroutetookhimthroughGalatia,becausewithregardtothecollectionhetellstheCorinthianstodoasIdirectedthechurches
ofGalatia(1Cor.16:1).ThatPaulhadvisitedGalatiaasecondtimebeforewriting1CorinthiansandGalatiansisperhapsalsosuggestedbytheformerlyof
Galatians4:13.110EvenifweallowamonthforhisstayamongtheGalatians,itwouldhavebeenperfectlyfeasibleforPaultohavereachedEphesusbyJuly,orthe
latestAugustAD52.

LukegivestwofiguresforthedurationofPaul'sstayinEphesus,twoyearsandthreemonths(Acts19:89),andthreeyears(Acts20:31).Thelatterisaround
figure,andthereforesuspect.Theformerisnot,andisintrinsicallyplausible.Ephesuswasasbigas,ifnotbigger,thanCorinthwherePaulhadspenteighteenmonths,
andwhileinthecapitalofAsiaPaulhadtoconcernhimself,notonlywiththeteethingproblemsofanewchurch,butalsowiththemoreseriousproblemsofother
communities,notably,Galatia,Philippi,Colossae,andCorinth.ThuswecanassumewithafairdegreeofconfidencethatPaulleftEphesusdefinitivelyinOctoberAD
54.

Hehadplannedtoleaveearlierthatyear,i.e.atPentecost(1Cor.16:56),whichthatyearfellon2June.111Infact,however,hespentmostofthesummer
108
Ldemann(1984),757,datestheincidentatAntiochbeforetheJerusalemConference.WhyIdonotfindhisreasonsconvincingwillappearinmydiscussionofthisepisode
inCh.6below.
109
Jewett(1979),59.
110
ThisisaffirmedbyKmmel(1975),302,butdeniedbyLdemann(1984),91,andLongenecker(1990),190.Thecontrasttheselatterperceivewithv.16isnotthemostnatural
interpretation.TheobjectionofBetz(1979),1011,toasecondvisitisautomaticallynegatedbyhisfailuretoappreciatethatPaulevangelizedGalatiabeforetheJerusalemConference.
111
Jewett(1979),48.

 Page30
112
ofAD54awayfromEphesus,becausecircumstancesdemandedaquickvisittoCorinth(2Cor.12:1413:12)heleftAsiabyboatinmidJune. Hisstayin
Corinthwasshortandpainful,andhereturnedoverlandviaThessalonicaandPhilippi(2Cor.1:23to2:1).736km.(460miles)separateCorinthfromNeapolis
(Acts16:11),todayKavalla,113anditisanother350km.(210miles)fromTroastoEphesus.Atanaverageof32km.(20miles)perday,thejourneywouldhave
takenlittleoverfiveweeks.ButtimehastobeallowedfordealingswiththechurchesinMacedonia.NonethelessPaulcouldwellhavebeenbackinEphesusby
earlyAugustAD54.LaterthatsummerhemovedfromEphesustoTroasandthencetoMacedonia(2Cor.2:137:5),presumablyjustbeforetheendofthesailing
season.

Macedonia

Atthispointfurthertravelwasimpossiblebecausewinterwassettingin,andweareforcedtoassumethatPaulspentthewinterofAD5455inMacedonia.This
inferenceisconfirmedbyareferencetothecollection.Duringhissojournamongthemhebecameawareofthegenerosityoftheircontributionstothecollection,and
whenhecouldagainsendalettertoCorinth,inthespring,hewrote,IboastaboutyoutothepeopleofMacedonia,sayingthatAchaiahasbeenreadysincelast
year(2Cor.9:2).TheallusionistotheenquiryoftheCorinthiansaboutthecollectiontowhichherepliedin1Corinthians16:14.Since1Corinthiansmustbe
datedinAprilorMayAD54,114wemustinferfromthementionofoneyearthatPaulwasstillinMacedoniainthespringofAD55.

Paul'splannedthirdvisittoCorinth(2Cor.9:412:1413:12)didinfacttakeplace,becauseinRomanshewrites,AtpresentIamgoingtoJerusalemwithaidfor
thesaints.ForMacedoniaandAchaiahavebeenpleasedtomakesomecontributionforthepooramongthesaintsatJerusalem(15:256).Thisisthefulfilmentofhis
promisemadeinthespringofAD55togotoCorinthinthenearfuture(2Cor.9:4).Beforegettingthere,however,PaulpreachedinIllyricum(Rom.15:19)untilhis
ministrytherewasbrutallyinterruptedbythecrisisatCorinthwhichtriggered2Corinthians1013.ThisemergencybroughthimtoCorinthsometimeduringthe
summerofAD55.

ThisminimalhypothesiswouldplacePaulatCorinthduringthewinterofAD5556.FromthereheplannedtoreturntoJerusalemwiththecollection(Rom.15:25
6).ForwhathappenedsubsequentlywearedependentonLuke,whoinformsusthatPaulhadbeenaprisonerfortwoyearsinCaesareawhenthe
112
Thisintermediatevisitisdeniedbysomescholars,e.g.Hyldahl(1973),3034.ThefactandtimingwillbejustifiedinthecontextofourdiscussionofPaul'srelationswith
CorinthinCh.11,ContactswithCorinthandCh.12,AnUnplannedVisit.
113
Rossiter(1981),229,384,418,499,562.
114
SeeCh.7,AnEphesianChronology.

 Page31

procuratorFelixwasreplacedbyFestus(Acts24:27to25:1).ThisshiftofauthorityistentativelydatedtoAD59or60.HencePaul'sarrestbythetribuneLysias
(Acts21:33)shouldbeplacedinAD57or58.HistransfertoRomeathisowninstance(Acts25:11)musthaveoccurredbeforethedeathofFestusinAD62.
AccordingtoLuke,PaulspenttwoyearsasaprisonerinRome(Acts28:30),afigurethattherearenoapparentgroundstoquestion.Subsequently,asweshallsee,
hemadeanabortivevisittoSpain,whichwasfollowedbyacircuitoftheAegeanSeatovisithischurches.HereturnedtoRomeinordertostrengthenthechurch
thereintheaftermathofNero'spersecutionandwashimselfarrestedandexecuted,probablyinAD67.115

Wearenowinapositiontocompletethetableonp.28.

JerusalemConference October51

Antioch Winter5152

JourneytoEphesus AprilJuly52

Ephesus August52October54

Macedonia Winter5455

Illyricum Summer55

Corinth Winter5556

JourneytoJerusalem Summer56

JerusalemCaesarea 57?61?

JourneytoRome September61Spring62

Rome Spring62Spring64

Spain EarlySummer64

DeathinRome 6466?

AroundtheAegean 67

115
Forthedetails,seeCh.14Martyrdom.

 Page32

2
GrowingupinTarsus
Pauldoesnottelluswherehewasborn,butanumberoftextscontainanimportanthint.ImyselfamanIsraelite,adescendantofAbraham,amemberofthetribeof
Benjamin(Rom.11:1)circumcisedontheeighthday,ofthepeopleofIsrael,ofthetribeofBenjamin,aHebrewbornofHebrews(Phil.3:5).Suchconcernto
affirmhisJewishcredentialsbetraystheexpatriate,i.e.aJewlivingintheDiaspora.1OnlythedescendantsofthosewhoemigratedfromIrelandtotheUnitedStates
finditnecessarytoinsistthattheyareIrish.ThosewhowerebornandbredinIrelandtakeitforgranted.Ifthishypothesisiscorrect,onewouldexpectaparticularly
passionateoutburstwhenPaulischallengedbyopponentsofJewishPalestinianorigin,andthisispreciselywhatwefindin2Corinthians11:2,AretheyHebrews?
SoamI!AretheyIsraelites?SoamI!AretheydescendantsofAbraham?SoamI!

WhereintheDiaspora?Thelettersofferonlyoneslenderclue.AfterhisfirstvisittoJerusalemasaChristian,PaulgoestothedistrictsofSyriaandCilicia(Gal.1:
21).Hisuseofdistrictsin2Corinthians11:10(cf.Rom.15:23)suggeststhatheisthinking,notintermsoftheRomanprovinces,butofsmallernonpoliticalareas.2
ThatheshouldhavebeendrawntoSyriaisunderstandable.Itscapital,Antioch,wasinmanywayssimilartotheDamascuswhichhewasforcedtoleave(2Cor.11:
323),anditmightalreadyhavehadaChristianpresence(Acts11:1921).Itcertainlyofferedmanyopportunitiesforministry.Why,then,didhegotoCilicia?The
simplestansweristhattherewassomepersonalconnection.

SuchconsiderationstendtoconfirmLuke'sinformationthatPaulcamefromTarsus(Acts9:11,3011:2521:3922:3),whichwasthecapitalofCilicia.Luke,
moreover,wouldhavenointerestininventingaDiasporaoriginforPaul.3FromtheperspectiveofhistheologicohistoricalprogramYoushallbemywitnessesin
Jerusalem,andinallJudaeaandSamariaandtotheendoftheearth(Acts1:8)LukewouldhavecertainlypreferredPaultobeaJerusalemite.4Hedoesinfact
attempttomakePaulaJerusalemitebyadoption,bysuggestingthat,althoughborninTarsus,Paulwasnotonlyeducatedbut
1
AgainstHengel(1991),1.
2
Betz(1979),80Longenecker(1990),40.
3
Burchard(1970),34n.41.
4
SorightlyKnox(1950),34.

 Page33
5 6
nurturedinJerusalem(Acts22:3cf.26:4). Thesubtletyoftheploydoesnothingtoenhanceitscredibility.

TheCityofTarsus

InthefourthcenturyBCXenophoncalledTarsusagreatandprosperouscity,7adescriptionwhichremainedtruewellbeyondthetimeofPaul,asDioChrysostom
testifiesinspeakingtotheTarsians,
Yourhomeisinagreatcityandyouoccupyafertileland,becauseyoufindtheneedsoflifesuppliedforyouingreatestabundanceandprofusion,becauseyouhavethisriver
flowingthroughtheheartofyourcitymoreover,TarsusisthecapitalofallthepeopleofCilicia.(Discourses33.17cf.34.7trans.Crosby)

Itsmerchantshadalwaysefficientlyexploitedbothitsnavigableriveranditspositionononeofthegreattraderoutesoftheancientworldtheeasiestandmost
frequentedlandroutefromSyriaandtheeasttoAsiaMinorandtheAegeancrossedtheAmanusbytheSyrianGates,andtheTaurusbytheCilicianGates.8The
surroundingfertileplainproducedcerealsandgrapes,andabovealltheflaxwhichprovidedtherawmaterialforthelinenindustry,whoseproductwasofsuchquality
thattheproductionofthewholeregionwasnamedforit.9

TarsushadhadalonghistorybeforeAntiochusIVEpiphanes(175164BC)in171BCconferredonitthestatusofaGreekcitystategovernedbyitsownelected
magistratesandissuingitsowncoins.10ItsnamewaschangedtoAntiocheiaontheCydnus(whichdidnotlastforlong),andGreekandJewishcolonistswere
broughtintoincreasetheproductivityoftheorientalpopulation.11ThecontinuityofJewishpresenceintothefirstcenturyADiswellattested.12

AbsorbedintotheRomansystemwhenPompeyreorganizedAsiaMinorin66BC,TarsusopposedCassius,themurdererofitspatronJuliusCaesar.13In42
5
VanUnnik(1962)hasshownconvincinglythatthisistheonlyinterpretationofActs22:3.HisonlymistakewastobelieveLuke,anerrorwhichhasbeenrepeatedbyBruce
(1977),43Richards(1991),1489)andLgasse(1991),345.
6
Seee.g.Haenchen(1971),624n.5.
7
Anabasis1.2.23.
8
Jones(1971),191.
9
Ibid.206.
10
2Macc.4:308Ramsay(1907),15961.
11
Ibid.16586.ThereisnodirectevidenceforJewishcolonistsinAntioch,butthereisaprecedentinthepolicyofAntiochusIIIwhosettledJewsfromBabyloniainPhrygiaand
Lydia(Josephus,AJ12.14753).
12
ThepresenceofJewsinCilicia,whichisguaranteedbyLuke(Acts6:9)andPhilo(LegatioadGaium281),isspecifiedforTarsusbyPhilostratus,LifeofApollonius6.34.
13
DioCassius,RomanHistory47.26.247.30.147.31.14.

 Page34
14
BCMarkAntonyrewardeditsloyaltybygrantingitfreedomandimmunity. Thisrareprivilegeforacitywhichwasnotacolonywasrenewedafterthebattleof
Actium(31BC)byAugustus,whoconferreduponitland,laws,honour,controloftheriverandoftheseainyourquarteroftheworld,andthisiswhyyourcitygrew
rapidly.15SuchmarksofRomaninterestareofconsiderablerelevanceforthequestionofPaul'sRomancitizenship.Ramsaypointsoutthattheywerelikelytohave
beenaccompaniedbygrantsofRomancitizenshiptoacertainnumberofcitizensbyJuliusCaesar,Antony,andAugustus.16

Insomerespects,however,thecitywasdecidedlyorientalratherthanWestern.17Whereasthemostprimitivebarbarian,accordingtoDioChrysostom,would
immediatelyhavediscernedtheGreekcharacterofRhodes,18hewouldhavehadproblemsatTarsus,WouldhecallyouGreeks,orthemostlicentiousof
Phoenicians?19ThetwofeaturessingledoutasillustrationsofthistendencybyDioChrysostomaremusicandwomen'sattire.Thefirsthereprobates,Nowitis
PhoenicianairsthatsuityourfancyandthePhoenicianrhythmthatyouadmiremost.20Thesecondheheartilyapproves,

Andyetmanyofthecustomsstillinforcerevealinonewayoranotherthesobrietyandseverityofdeportmentofthoseearlierdays.Amongtheseistheconventionregarding
feminineattire,aconventionwhichprescribesthatwomenshouldbesoarrayedandshouldsodeportthemselveswheninthestreetthatnobodycouldseeanypartofthem,
neitherofthefacenoroftherestofthebody,andthattheythemselvesmightnotseeanythingofftheroad.(Discourses33.48trans.Crosby)

TheunlikelihoodoftheorientalcharacterofTarsusbeingalatedevelopmentDiowaswritingatthebeginningofthesecondcenturyADisconfirmedbyhis
recognitionthatthewearingoftheallenvelopingblackchadortherewasanancientcustomwhichmustgobacktotheoriginalindigenouspopulation.

Althoughfirmlyrootedinthesoiloftheeast,TarsushadaHellenicrespectforeducation,andthemeanstopayforit.RamsayrightlyconsidersPhilostratus'low
estimateofitseducationalsystem21tobeadeductionfromthecriti
14
HemadeLaodiceaandTarsusfreecitiesandreleasedthemfromtaxesentirely(Appian,History5.1.7trans.White).Tarsusonthatoccasionwasalsothesceneofhisfirst
meetingwithCleopatra,whichmighthaveinfluencedthegenerosityofhismood(seePlutarch,Anthony2528).PlinyalsocallsTarsusafreecity(NH5.92).
15
DioChrysostom,Discourses34.8.Theprivilegeswereneverwithdrawn(Discourses34.25).
16
(1907),198.AccordingtoHengel(1991),90n.11,between18BCandAD14thenumberofRomancitizensincreasedbyalmostamillion.
17
Callander(1904),645.
18
Discourses31.163
19
Ibid.33.41.
20
Ibid.33.42cf.33.57.
21
Apolloniusfoundtheatmosphereofthecityharshandstrangeandlittleconducivetothephilosophiclife,fornowherearemenmoreaddictedthanheretoluxury:jestersandfull
of

(Footnotecontinuedonnextpage)

 Page35
22
cismsofDioChrysostomandofnoevidentialvaluefortheearlyfirstcentury. Strabo,onthecontrary,wasaneyewitness,
ThepeopleatTarsushavedevotedthemselvessoeagerly,notonlytophilosophy,butalsothewholeroundofeducationingeneral,thattheyhavesurpassedAthens,
Alexandria,oranyotherplacethatcanbenamedwheretherehavebeenschoolsandlecturesofphilosophers.Butitissodifferentfromtheothercitiesthattherethemenwhoare
fondoflearningareallnatives,andforeignersarenotinclinedtosojournthere.Neitherdothesenativesstaythere,buttheycompletetheireducationabroad.Andwhenthey
havecompletedit,theyarepleasedtoliveabroad,andbutfewgobackhome.FurtherthecityofTarsushasallkindsofschoolsofrhetoric,andingeneralitnotonlyhasa
flourishingpopulationbutalsoisthemostpowerful,thuskeepingupthereputationofthemothercity.(Geography14.5.13trans.Jones)

AclosereadingofthisencomiumrevealsthatwhatstruckStraboaboutTarsuswasnotthesuperiorityorantiquityofitsuniversity,whichattractednostudentsfrom
abroad,buttheenthusiasticseriousnesswithwhichtheTarsianssoughteducation,eventotheextentofleavingtheirhomelandinpursuitoffurtherknowledge.Ramsay
isinallprobabilitycorrectincorrelatingthissituationwiththebadlyneededadministrativereformsintroducedbyAthenodorus23around10BCandreinforcedbyhis
successorNestor.24

Thecity,therefore,intowhichPaulwasbornwaswellgovernedandprosperous.25ItsGreekorientationhadtostrugglewithastrongEasternspirit.Itstoodonthe
frontierofeastandwest,anditscitizenswerepreparedtofunctioninboth.

TheFamilyofPaul

Ourinformationissparse.PaultellsusthathewasaHebrewbornofHebrews(Phil.3:5).LukeaddsthathewasaRomancitizenbybirth(Acts22:278cf.16:
3723:27),inadditiontobeingacitizenofTarsus(Acts21:39),andthathehadasisterandanephewinJerusalem(Acts23:16).26

(Footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

insolencearetheyallandtheyattendmoretotheirfinelinenthantheAtheniansdidtowisdom(LifeofApollonius1.7trans.Conybeare).
22
(1907),234.
23
Strabo,Geography14.5.14.
24
(1907),2248.
25
Indaysgonebyyourcitywasrenownedfororderlinessandsobriety,andthemenitproducedwereoflikecharacter(DioChrysostom,Discourses33.48).
26
Certainnovelistswithscholarlypretensions,e.g.Ambelain(1972)andMessadi(1991),claimthatPaulmusthavebeenbornofagreatnoblefamilybecausehewasafosterbrother
ofHerodthetetrarch(Acts13:1).Onthisfoundationgreattowersofspeculationareraised.TheGreek,however,makesitclearthatManaenalonewasthefosterbrotherofHerod.

 Page36

AHebrew

ThemostextensiveuseofHebraiosinfirstcenturyGreekisintheworksofPhilo.Inthemajorityofinstances,itmeansamemberoftheJewishpeopleeitherbybirth,
e.g.thedescendantsofHebrews(Jos.42),orbyconversion,e.g.anEgyptianbybirthbutaHebrewbychoice(Abr.251).Anelementofcontrastisapparenton
occasion,thustheycallMosesanEgyptian,MoseswhowasnotonlyaHebrewbutofthepurestHebrewblood(Mut.117cf.Mig.141).Thisisintensifiedina
seriesoftextsinwhichHebrewandGreekmeaningsarecontrasted,e.g.aplacewhichinthetongueoftheHebrewsiscalledShinarandinthatoftheGreeks
shakingout(Conf.68).27

ThehintthatHebrewcarried,notmerelyreligiousorethnicovertones,butalsoalinguisticconnotationisconfirmedbytheresponsetoPtolemy'srequestfor
translatorstorendertheLawintoGreek.ThehighpriestsoughtoutsuchHebrewsashehadofthehighestreputation,whohadreceivedaneducationinGreekas
wellasintheirnativelore,andjoyfullysentthem(Mos.2.32).Theimplicationofthispassage,whoseemphasisisnotknowledgeoftheLawbutonlinguisticability,
isthat,whilefewJews,ifany,intheDiasporaknewHebrew,onlysomeoftheJewsinPalestinecouldwriteGreek.

AgainstthisbackgrounditisdifficulttoavoidtheconclusionthatthedivisionoftheearlychurchinJerusalemintoHebrewsandHellenists(Acts6:1)wasbasedon
thefactthattheformerspokeHebrewandthelatterGreek.This,however,impliesotherdifferences.SincetheTwelve,whoallcomefromGalilee,admittheir
responsibilityfortheHebrews(Acts6:2),itwouldseemthatHebrew,becauseofitslinguisticconnotation,impliedarelationshiptoPalestineinawaywhich
Hellenistdidnot.EventhoughtheselattermayhavebeenGreekspeakingJewsofJerusalem,28useoftheancestrallanguagecreatedadeeperbondwiththeland.

TheseconsiderationscreateapresumptionthatwhenPaulusesHebrewheintendstoimplyapositiverelationshiptoPalestinethroughtheuseofaSemitic
language29itisnotameresynonymforIsraelite.ThisisconfirmedbyJ.B.Lightfoot'sperceptiveinsightthatPaul'sprivilegesinPhilippians3:5arearrangedonan
ascendingscale.30Achildcircumcisedontheeighthdaycouldstillbedescendedfromproselytes.ButPaulisoftheraceofIsrael.SomeIsraeliteswereunableto
provideproofoftheirgenealogy.31ButPaulknewhewasof
27
AlsoConf.129Cong.37Mut.71Som.1.58Abr.17,27Jos.28.
28
TheyarenotnecessarilyDiasporaJewsorproselytesasGutbrodmaintains(TDNT3.389).
29
ItisimpossibletodecidewhetherhehadHebreworAramaicinmind.
30
(1908),146.Hisexegesis,however,whichisfollowedbyGutbrod(TDNT3.390),isaccurateonlyinpart.
31
Therewerealsoothersbesidesthese,whosaidthattheywereoftheIsraelites,butwerenotabletoshowtheirgenealogies(Josephus,AJ11.70).

 Page37
32 33
thetribeofBenjamin. ThelandofBenjamin,however,includedJerusalem wheretheinfluenceofHellenismwasparticularlymanifestinthemanyJewswhospoke
Greek.ButPaulcameofafamilywhich,despiteitslocationintheDiaspora,retainedtheancienttongueoftheJews.34

Thehypothesisofahighlyconservativeanddeeplyreligiousfamilyeverconcernedtokeeppaganinfluencesatbayisnotimpossibleinitself,butitcannotbe
harmonizedwiththetypeofeducationthatPaulreceived.Onemightarguewithslightlygreaterprobabilitythatthefamilyneededthelanguageforfrequentcommercial
contactswithPalestine,35butitisdifficulttoconceiveofPalestinianJewsintheexportimportbusinessfailingtolearnGreek.ThesimplesthypothesisisthatPaul's
ancestorshademigratedfromPalestinewithinlivingmemory.

CertainlyitistheoneadoptedbyJerometoexplainPhilippians3:5and2Corinthians11:22,

Wehaveheardthisstory.TheysaythattheparentsoftheApostlePaulwerefromGischala,aregionofJudaeaandthat,whenthewholeprovincewasdevastatedbythehandof
RomeandtheJewsscatteredthroughouttheworld,theyweremovedtoTarsusatownofCiliciatheadolescentPaulinheritedthepersonalstatusofhisparents.(Comm.inEp.
adPhilem.onvv.234)36

InthistextitisnotclearwhetherPaulhadbeenbornatthetimeofhisparentsemigration.TheambiguitynolongerexistsinJerome'ssecondreference,writtensome
fiveyearslater.37
Paultheapostle,previouslycalledSaul,wasnotoneoftheTwelveApostleshewasofthetribeofBenjaminandofthetownofGischalainJudaeawhenthetownwascaptured
bytheRomanshemigratedwithhisparentstoTarsusinCilicia.(Devirisillustribus5)38

ThesetestimonieshavenosupportineitherthelettersortheActs,andcontainseriousinternalcontradictions.

InthesecondtextPaulwasborninGischala,inthefirstprobablynot.InthefirstGischalaisaregionbutinthesecondatown.Inthefirstthemigrationof
32
OnclaimstobelongtothetribeofBenjamin,seeJeremias(1969),277.
33
TheHinnomvalleywasthesouthernboundaryofBenjamin(Josh.18:16,28)andthenorthernboundaryofJudah(Josh.15:8).LukeapparentlywasunawareofPaul'sBenjaminite
connections(Acts13:21).
34
Paul'sformulationaHebrewbornofHebrewsexcludesthepossibilitythatPaullearntthelanguageinJerusalem,asLightfoot(1908),147,seemstoimply.Ontheeffectofthis
SemiticlanguageonPaul'sGreek,seevanUnnik(1943).
35
OnbusinessrelationsbetweenCiliciaandPalestine,seeApplebaum(1976),716Hengel(1991),99n.47.
36
PL26.617.
37
Kelly(1975),145,174,datesthecommentaryonPhilemontoAD387388,andtheDevirisillustribustoAD392393.
38
TU14.9.

 Page38

Paul'sparentsappearstohavebeeninvoluntary,whereasintheseconditwasvoluntary.Manifestlythetwoaccountscannotbereconciled.Achoice,therefore,hasto
bemade.InviewofthewidespreadcriticismofFamousMen,39one'spreferencemustgototheCommentaryonPhilemonastheassertionwhichmeritshistorical
testing.

ThenoteintheCommentaryonPhilemoncannotbedismissedonthegroundsthattheonlyknownGischalaislocatedinGalileenotJudaea,40becauseeveninthe
NewTestamentJudaeaisusedtomeanthewholeofPalestine(e.g.Luke1:523:5).ThisusagewasreinforcedwiththeestablishmentoftheRomanprovinceof
JudaeaafterthefailureoftheFirstRevolt,andparticularlyfromthe12oswhenagovernorofconsularrankcontrolledtwolegions,theSixthFerratastationedinthe
northandtheTenthFretensisbasedinthesouth.41Itwouldhavebeennatural,therefore,forJeromeandhiscontemporariestothinkofPalestineasJudaea.42

ApartfromhispilgrimagewithPaula,whichbroughtthemonlyasfarnorthasCapernaum,43JeromehadlittlepersonalknowledgeofplacesinPalestine,andcertainly
didnotseekoutlocaltraditions.44Hisinformation,therefore,issecondary.ThereisevidencethatheknewJosephusthoroughly,45whichmightexplainhowhecame
acrossthenameofGischala,whoseinhabitantsfledwhentheRomansattacked.46ButinthiscaseitisalmostcertainthathewouldhavelocatedGischalainGalilee,
andthehypothesiscannotexplainwhyheassociatedthecitywithPaul.TheodoreZahnhasarguedthatJerome'ssourcewasOrigen'scommentaryonPhilemon,
whichisnolongerextant.47Withinthespaceofafewmonthsin387or388JeromewrotecommentariesonPhilemon,Galatians,Ephesians,andTitusinthatorderhe
explicitlyadmitshisdependenceonOrigen'scommentariesonGalatiansandEphesians,whichmakesitlikely,inZahn'sview,thathealsodrewonOrigenin
expoundingPhilemonandTitus.48Theargumentisrathertenuous,butithastheadvantageofexplainingwhyJeromenotesPaul'sparentageaproposofPhilemon24
25.

WhereOrigengothisinformationisevenmoremysterious.ThelikelihoodthatheoranyearlierChristianinventedtheassociationofPaul'sfamilywithGischalais
remote.ThetownisnotmentionedintheBible.IthadnoconnectionwithBenjamin.IthadnoassociationswiththeGalileanministryofJesus.Andthereisno
evidencethatithadChristianinhabitantsintheByzantineperiod.Itwouldseem,therefore,thatOrigenreliedonanoraltradition,whoseauthorityJeromeaccepted.
Hisclassificationofthestoryasafabuladoesnotnecessarilyimplythathedistancedhimselffromhissource.49
39
Kelly(1975),1768.
40
Abel(1938),2.338.
41
Schrer(197387),1.514.
42
Adinolfi(1969),161.
43
Letter108Wilkinson(1977),52.
44
Wilkinson(1974),24557.
45
Ibid.254n.104Kelly(1975),156.
46
Josephus,JW2.84127.
47
Zahn(1900),1.49.
48
Zahn(1890),2.10012.SimilarlyKelly(1975),1459.
49
OnJerome'svarieduseoffabula,seeAdinolfi(1969),1578.

 Page39

JeromeimpliesthatPaul'sparentswereforcedtomovetoTarsusbytheRomans.ThelattertookcontrolofPalestinein63BC,andsubsequentlytherewereanumber
ofoccasions(61,55,52,4BC,AD6)whenJewsfromvariouspartsofthecountrywereenslavedandshippedabroad.50Terribleasthiswas,therewereadvantages,
asPhilorecords,ThelargedistrictofRomebeyondtheTiberwasownedandinhabitedbyJews.ThemajorityofthemwereRomanfreedmen,whohadbeen
broughttoRomeasprisonersofwarandweremanumittedbytheirowners(Leg.adGaium,155).ThatPaul'sfatherwasequallyfortunateisthesimplest
explanationoftheApostle'sinheritedRomancitizenship.

RomanCitizenship

Luke'sassertionthatPaulwasaRomancitizencannotbeascribedtohispropagandizingintentionbecausehefounditinoneofhissources,namely,theTravel
Document.51Moreover,Paul'svoyagetoRome,whichispresentedasaprivilegeofhiscitizenship(Acts25:111226:3228:19),52cannotbeascribedtoLucan
inventionbecauseitisnotexploited.NothinghappensinRome.TheonesermonpreachedthereisverymediocrebycomparisonwithothersinActs,andproduces
onlyahighlyambiguousresult(Acts28:245).Ontheotherhand,however,nothinginthePaulinelettersconfirmstheApostle'scitizenship.Attimestheyhaveeven
beenconsideredtocontainadecisiverefutation.53

Paulnotesthatthreetimeshewasbeatenwithrods(2Cor.11:25).Thispunishmentisdistinguishedfromthe39lashesinflictedonhimbyJews(2Cor.11:24),and
isinfactaspecificallyRomanpunishmentwhoseinflictiononRomancitizenswasforbidden.54Attimes,however,thislawwasmorehonouredinthebreachthaninthe
observance,andtherearewelldocumentedinstancesinwhichindividualswhosecitizenshipisbeyondquestionwerebeatenandevenexecutedbyRoman
authorities.55TherealityofthesituationiswellformulatedbyJ.C.Lentz,ARomancitizenintheprovinceswasaprivilegedperson.Hiscitizenshipcould,attimes,
savehimfromnonRomanpro
50
Josephus,JW1.1578,177,1802.68Adinolfi(1969),1612.
51
BoismardandLamouille(1990),2.219.
52
Garnsey(1966),16789Tajra(1989),1447.
53
TherearerecentdiscussionsoftheissuebyW.Stegemann(1987),20029,andLdemann(1987),24950.BothconcludeinfavourofPaul'sRomancitizenship,asdoLgasse(1991),
259Hengel(1991),6andTajra(1989),819.
54
AlsoliableunderthelexJuliaonvispublicaisanyonewho,whileholdingimperiumoroffice,putstodeathorflogsaRomancitizencontrarytohisrightofappeal,orordersany
oftheabovementionedthingstobedone,orputs(ayoke)onhisnecksothathemaybetortured(Digest48.6.7).Fordetailssee,Schrer(197387),3.1345.
55
Thecommonlycitedexceptionsare:Josephus,JW2.308Plutarch,Caesar29.2Cicero,AgainstVerres2.5.139,14951,170DioCassius,History60.24.4.SeeSherwinWhite
(1963),736.

 Page40

vincialjustice.Yetonlythosecitizenswhoalsopossessedwealthandprestigeaswellasthecitizenshipwereinthepositiontoprocureanycertainlegaladvantages.56

WhatPaulsaysabouthissocialstatusisalsoconsideredanobjection.Onthebasisofcertainstatistics,whichdonotderivefromTarsus,itwouldappearthatRoman
citizensintheeastbelongedtotheprovincialaristocracy.57Paul,however,presentshimselfasanitinerantmanuallabourer.58Thepostulatedincompatibilityisseverely
diminished,ifnoteliminated,bothbyPaul'seducationalattainments,whichsuggestabackgroundinfinitelysuperiortothatoftheaverageartisan,59andbyhisrather
upperclassviewofmanuallabourasslavish(1Cor.9:19)anddemeaning(2Cor.11:7).60Thisattitudemakesitprobablethatitwastheimperativeofhis
missionarystrategywhichledPaultomasteratrade.61

Paul'sfailuretomentionhiscitizenshipisalsoconstruedasanobjection.Inthisformtheargumentfromsilencehasnovalue.NotonlywastherenoreasonwhyPaul
shouldmentionhisstatusinletterstocommunitieswhomhewantedtoconvincethatourcitizenshipisinheaven(Phil.3:20),buttoclaimcitizenshipriskedincurring
thechallengetoprovehisright.Documentationhadtobeproduced,andthiswouldnothavebeeneasyforsomeonefarfromhishomebaseandcontinuouslyonthe
move.Thesmallwoodendiptychcontainingthecertificatewastooprecioustocarryaround,andifitwerecontestedbythemagistratetheoriginalwitnesseswho
signedhadtobeproduced.62

TospeculatehowandwhenthefamilyofPaulacquiredthecitizenshipisafruitlesstask,thoughlackofevidencehasnotdeterredtheingenious.Thisobservationby
SherwinWhiteremainsastrueaswhenhewroteitthirtyyearsago,63butsomethinghastobesaidinordertocounteramoresubtleobjectiontoPaul'sRoman
citizenship.Itisseldomexplicitlyarticulated,butislatentinthelengthofdiscussionsregardingthemeansofacquiringRomancitizenshipandtheliberalitywithwhichit
wasaccorded.Theimpressionisoftengivenofacomplexitysogreatthatnorealclarityispossible.InfactinthefirstcenturyBCwhen,accordingtoLuke(Acts22:
278),Paul'sfatherormoreremoteancestorwouldhaveacquiredcitizenshipthematterwasnotverycomplicated.64
56
(1993),127.
57
W.Stegemann(1987),2256.
58
1Thess.2:92Thess.3:791Cor.4:12.
59
SeeCh.2,RhetoricalTraining.
60
TheargumentsofHock(1978)areinnowayaffectedbythestrainedobjectionsofW.Stegemann(1987),227,orLgasse(1991),41.CompareCicero,DeOfficiis,1501,citedinCh.4,
LearningaTrade.
61
SeeCh.4,LearningaTrade.
62
SherwinWhite(1963),1489.SeeinparticularSchulz(19423)andGardiner(1986).
63
(1963),151
64
SherwinWhite(1972).

 Page41
65
Thecompetitionforsupportduringthecivilwarsafter49BCledtoliberaloffersofindividualenfranchisementintheEast. Thepredominanceoftheorientalelement
inTarsus,ofwhichtheJewswouldhavebeenapart,hasbeennotedabove,andthusitisfarfromimpossiblethatsomeleadingmembersoftheJewishcommunity
wereseducedtoAntony'ssidebythegiftofRomancitizenship.66Thesimplestpossibility,asalreadynoted,isthatPaul'sfatherhadbeenaslavewhowassetfreeby
aRomancitizenofTarsus,andwhotherebyacquiredadegreeofRomancitizenshipwhichimprovedwitheachsucceedinggeneration.67

Finally,ithasbeenthoughtthattheobligationsofcitizenshipmightconflictwiththedemandsoftheJewishfaithofPaul'sparents.Thereasonforthinkingthemtobe
strictlyreligiousisLuke'sassertionthatPaulwasasonofPharisees(Acts23:6).Weshallseethatthisismostimprobable.68Moreover,theRomantribeinwhich
thenewcitizenwasenrolledhadamerelylegalexistenceitsmembersnevermetandnoliturgieswereeverperformed.69Finally,inRomanlaw,codifiedinthisrespect
byJuliusCaesar,Jewswereexemptfromanyobligationswhichconflictedwiththedemandsoftheirfaith,70whichinevitablygaverisetoaccusationsofhavingtheir
cakeandeatingit.71

Tosumup.SincethereisnoevidenceofLukancreativityandnoobjectionbasedontheepistles,Paul'sRomancitizenshipshouldbeadmitted,particularlysincethe
historyofhisparentsconstitutesaplausiblehistoricalcontextforitsconferral.72

ARomanName.

AsaRomancitizenPaulhadatripartRomanname,73madeupofpraenomen(=thegivenname),thenomen(=thegens,denotingtheultimatefounderoftheRoman
family),andthecognomen(=thefamilyname),e.g.MarcusTulliusCicero.Whenaslaveorforeignerwasgrantedcitizenship,thepracticewasthatheretainedhis
ownnameasthecognomen,andtookashisownthepraenomenandnomenoftheRomanwhoobtainedthecitizenshipforhim.ThusCicero's
65
SherwinWhite(1973),309.
66
Ibid.310.AparallelisfurnishedbythecaseofAntipater,whotookJuliusCaesar'ssideandwasrewardedbycitizenship(Josephus,JW1.1934AJ14.137).
67
SeethesectionCitizenshipbyManumissioninSherwinWhite(1963),151(1973),32236Duff(1928),1235DionysiusofHalicarnassus,AntiquitatesRomanae4.22.44.23.7.
68
SeeCh.3,WhereCouldPhariseesbeFound?.
69
Ramsay(1904),20.
70
SeeSchrer(197387),3.120Saulnier(1981).
71
Josephus,AJ12.12616.2760.
72
ThequestionofPaul'scitizenshipofTarsus(Acts21:39)isamuchmorecomplexmatter,whichfortunatelydoesnotconcernusherebecause,inoppositiontohisRoman
citizenship,itplayednoroleinhissubsequentcareer.Seemostrecently,Lentz(1993),2843.
73
ThebasicstudyremainsthatofHarrer(1940).

 Page42

freedman,Tiro,becameMarcusTulliusTiro,andDemetriusMegas,aGreekofSicily,becameP.CorneliusMegasbecauseP.CorneliusDolabellahadbeenhis
sponsor.74

PaulosistheGreekformoftheLatinPaul(l)us,whichisattestedforthetimeofPaulbothasapraenomen,e.g.PaullusFabiusMaximusandPaullusAemilius
Lepidus,75andasacognomen,e.g.L.SergiusPaullus(Acts13:8).Theformerisasrareasthelatteriscommon,andintheRomanworldthecognomenwasthe
namemostfrequentlyusedbecauseitwasthemostspecific.76TheforceofsuchobservationsistosuggestthatPaul(l)uswasPaul'scognomen.Itisimpossible,
however,thatsuchatypicallyRomanname,bornebythegreatsenatorialfamiliesoftheAemilii,theVettenii,andtheSergii,shouldbethecognomenofaJew,whose
familyhadacquiredcitizenshiponlyagenerationearlier.

SherwinWhitesuggestsawayoutofthisdilemma:ThemostlikelyexplanationofthecognomenPaulusisthatitwaschosenasthemostsimilarLatinnametothe
HebraicnameofSaul.77ThishypothesisobviouslydependsonthereadingSaulos,whichappearsinthereceivedtextofActs(7:588:1,39:1)withtheexception
ofthevocativecasewheretheformisconsistentlySaoul(Acts9:4,1722:7,1326:14).Thislatterform,however,isusedexclusivelyinallreferencesinP45,and
thescribe'sawarenessthathewasusinganindeclinablenonGreeknameisformallyindicatedbyanapostropheafterthelastletter.78TheSemiticname,however,
cannotbeassumedtobetheoriginalform,becauseSa(o)ulosappearsfrequentlyasapropernameinJosephus,despitetheconnotationofeffeminacyattachedtothe
adjectivesaulos.79Itisnotsurprising,therefore,thatSilasshouldappear,perhapsthroughAramaic,asaGreekformofSaul.

ThenameSaul,however,isknowntousonlythroughLuke,whosecredibilityunfortunatelycannotbetakenforgranted,becausehisusagesmacksofartificiality.In
Acts13:9wefindtheformulaSaulwhoisalsoknownasPaul,whichisthetransitionfromtheexclusiveuseofSaulpreviouslyandtheexclusiveuseofPaul
subsequently.ThesymbolismisevidentaSemiticnamewhilePaulworkedamongJewsandaGentilenamewhenheworkedamongGentiles.HadLukeknownthe
namePaulandneededtocreateaSemiticcorrespondent,Saulwouldbearatherobviouschoice(Acts13:21).
74
Harrer(1940),20.
75
Ibid.29.
76
PontiusPilatus(Acts4:271Tim.6:13),forexample,issimplyPilatusin51otherNewTestamentpassages.
77
(1963),153.
78
Harrer(1940),24.
79
AccordingtoChantraine,ils'appliqueenprincipladmarche,ditdeladmarchedefemmes,notammentdebacchantes,decourtisanesvolontiersprisenmauvaise
part(1968),990.Leary(1992),whodrawsattentiontoPaul'sawarenessofpunningnames(Phil.4:3Philem.11),evokesthisdimensionbytranslatingsaulosasslutarsed.

 Page43
80
Attractiveasisthishypothesis,itisnotlikelythatLukeinventedthenameofSaul.Notonlyisitfoundinoneofhissources, butitismostprobablethataDiaspora
bornHebrewofHebrewsshouldhaveaSemiticnameitwouldhavebeentheobviouswayofaffirminglinguisticidentity.GaelicspeakersinIrelandan
endangeredspeciesinvariablygivetheirchildrendistinctivelyIrishnames.Paul'sparents,ofcourse,hadawidechoice,butSaulwasthenameofthebestknown
memberofthetribeofBenjamin.

ThusthereisalottobesaidforSherwinWhite'shypothesiswhich,however,needstoberefinedalittle.HedoesnotmakeitclearthatSaulmayhavebeenthename
ofPaul'sfatherorgrandfather,orevokethepossibilitythatPauluswasnotatruecognomen,butratherasignumorsupernomen,whichmayhavebeeninthefamily
priortotheApostle'sbirth,andwasusedregularlyintheirrelationswithGentiles.Thesignumbeganasaninformalnameusedamongfamilyandfriends,butbecame
somuchpartoftheperson'sidentitythatitappearedfrequentlyinpublicinscriptionswhereitisintroducedbyhokaiinGreekorquietinLatin.81

AbeautifulillustrationoftheprecedingdiscussionisfurnishedbyanundatedinscriptiononatombstonefoundinNaples,towhichC.J.Hemerhasdrawnattention,82
Tothespiritsofthedead.LuciusAntoniusLeo,alsocalledNeon,sonofZoilus,bynationaCilician,asoldierofthepraetorianfleetatMisenum,fromthecenturythetrireme
Aesclepius,lived27years,served9years.GaiusJuliusPaulushisheirundertookthework(ofhisburial).83

LikePaul,LeowasbothfromCiliciaandhadanalternativename,whosesimilarityofsoundrecallsthatbetweenPaulandSaul.Werehisheirakinsman,hewould
alsobeaCilicianwithanamewhichmighthavebeenPaul'sown,sincethegrantsofcitizenshipinTarsuswerebyPompey,Caesar,andAntony.Consequently,the
probablepraenominaandnominaofthosefreedatthatperiodwereGnaeusPompeiusorGaiusJuliusorMarcusAntonius.84Lesttheimportanceofthisinscription
beexaggerated,HemeriscarefultopointoutthatnotallwhoboastedthethreenameswerenecessarilyRomancitizens.Leopresumablyacquiredhismerelyasa
matterofnavaladministrationsincesailorsdidnotgetcitizenshiponenrolment.85
80
BoismardandLamouille(1990),2.66.
81
Harrer(1940),21,andseeanexamplebelow.
82
(1985),17983.
83
CIL10.3377.
84
Ramsay(1907),198.
85
Inaletterdatedatthebeginningofthe2ndcent.ADApion,anavalrecruit,announcestohisfamilythat,onarrivalatMisenum,hewasgiventheservicenameofAntonius
Maximus.InasubsequentletterheusesthatnamealoneseeWhite(1986),160.

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ADescriptionofPaul

AugustinebelievedthatPaul,theleastofalltheapostles(1Cor.15:9)chosehisnamebecausetheLatinadjectivepaullusmeanssmall,little.Thisviewhas
nothingtorecommendit,exceptasanopportunityforrhetoricalpiety.Aswehaveseenabove,Paul(l)ushadbeenwellknownasapropernameforcenturies.The
phenomenonofpropernameswhicharealsoadjectivesisfoundinmanylanguages,e.g.Small,Petit,andKlein.

Itisfarfromimprobable,however,thattheetymologyofPaul'snameinfluencedthefamousdescriptioninthelatesecondcenturyADActsofPaul.
HesawPaulcoming,amansmallofstature,withabaldheadandcrookedlegs,inagoodstateofbody,witheyebrowsmeetingandanosesomewhathooked,fulloffriendliness
fornowheappearedlikeaman,andnowhehadthefaceofanangel.(3.1)86

Thefactthatthisdescriptiondoesnotconformtoourcanonsofbeautyhasledmanyscholarstoacceptitstruth.87ItwasfirstquestionedbyR.M.Grant,whoargued
thattheintentionwastopresentPaulasageneral.88Despiteitsexaggeration,thisstudyhadthevalueofdrawingattentiontotheidealizationinherentinthedescription.
Inaworldwherequicknessofresponseinpublicdebatedemandedtheabilitytosumupthepersonalityofanopponentquickly,therewerethosewhotaughttheir
clientshowtodeducecharactertraitsfromphysicalfeatures.Manualsofphysiognomycirculated.89ThestylemaybeillustratedbyPliny'scitationfromPaul's
contemporaryPompeiusTrogus,
Whentheforeheadislargeitindicatesthatthemindbeneathitissluggishpeoplewithasmallforeheadhaveanimblemind,thosewitharoundforeheadanirasciblemind.
Whenpeople'seyebrowsarelevelthissignifiesthattheyaregentle,whentheyarecurvedatthesideofthenose,thattheyarestern,whenbentdownatthetemples,thattheyare
mockers,whenentirelydrooping,thattheyaremalevolentandspiteful.Ifpeople'seyesarenarrowonbothsides,thisshowsthemtobemaliciousincharactereyesthathave
fleshycornersonthesideofthenostrilsshowamarkofmaliciousnesswhenthewhitepartoftheeyesisextensiveitconveysanindicationofimpudenceeyesthathaveahabit
ofrepeatedlyclosingindicateunreliability.Largeearsareasignoftalkativenessandsilliness.(NH11.2756trans.Rackham)

86
HenneckeandSchneemelcher(1965),2.354.
87
Bruce(1977),468,approvinglyquotesRamsay'sverdict,thisplainandunflatteringaccountoftheApostle'spersonalappearanceseemstoembodyaveryearlytradition.
Preuschen(1901),1913,suggestedthatthetraitsweredesignedtoidentifyPaulasAntichrist.
88
(1982),14.
89
SeeinparticularthestudiesofEvans(1935)and(1941).

 Page45

ApplyingsuchcriteriatothedescriptionofPaul,MalherbeshowedthatMeetingeyebrowswereregardedasasignofbeauty,andapersonwithahookednosewas
thoughtlikelytoberoyalormagnanimous.Tallnesswaspreferrednevertheless,sincemenofnormallysmallheighthadasmallerareathroughwhichthebloodflowed,
theywerethoughttobequick.90Bowedlegsshowedamantobefirmlyplanted,i.e.highlyrealistic.Baldnessisgivennoprominenceinthemanualsofphysignomy,
butforPlinyitwasadistinctivelyhumantraitnoanimalwentbald(NH11.131).ThestrongprobabilityofidealizationintheActsofPaul'sportraitoftheApostle
makesitshistoricalvaluedoubtful.

Paul'sRelatives

AccordingtoLuke,PaulhadamarriedsisterwhosesonalertedtheRomanauthoritiesinJerusalemtoaplottoassassinatehisuncle(Acts23:16).Thehistoricityof
thisinformationisdifficulttojudge.ItisunlikelythatPaulwasanonlychild,andthepermanentortemporarypresenceofamarriedsisterinJerusalemcouldbe
explainedinanumberofplausibleways,e.g.commerceorpilgrimage.Itiscurious,however,thatagrownupnephew91withRomancitizenshipshouldappearatjust
themomentwhenitwasnecessarytohaveimmediateaccessto,andforcefulinfluenceon,theseniorRomanofficerinJerusalem.Truth,ofcourse,isoftenstranger
thanfiction,buttheveryneatnessofthestory,andthefacilitywithwhichafictionalnephewcanbedisposedof,leavelingeringdoubts.92

InRomans16:13Paulsays,GreetRufus,chosenintheLord,andhismotherandmine.AccordingtoBaslez,thereferenceistoPaul'snaturalmother,whoafter
beingwidowedenteredasecondmarriagewhichproducedRufus,whowasnowresponsibleforher.93Attractiveasthisimaginativeportraitmaybe,itisunlikelytobe
correct.Motheriswellattestedinthemetaphoricalsenseasappliedtothosewhosecomportmentcommandsrespect.94IfPaulhadhisrealmotherinmindone
wouldexpecthimtomentionherattheheadofthelist,andnottoslipherincasuallyhalfwaythrough,asamereadjuncttoherson.Moreover,asignificantnumberof
commentatorsontheepistletotheRomansidentifythisRufusasthesonofSimonofCyrene(Mark15:21).95Theconsensusamongcommentatorsisperfectly
broughtoutbytheNRSVparaphrase,greethismotheramothertomealso.Shewasawoman
90
(1986),173.
91
Heisdescribedasneaniasandneaniskos(Acts23:1718),bothofwhichimplythathewasover20seeBAGD534b.
92
SimilarlyHaenchen(1971),649.
93
(1991),345.
94
IntheNewTestamentseeMark3:334Matt.12:4950John19:27.Forotherreferences,seeLSJ1130aBAGD520a.
95
e.g.Lightfoot,SandayandHeadlam,Lagrange,Cranfield,Dunn,butnotKsemann.

 Page46
96
who,likePhoebe(Rom.16:2),hadbefriendedPaulwhereandwhenremainamystery.

EvenlesslikelyistheinterpretationwhichBaslezgivestosyngensinRomans16:7,11,and20.Sheunderstandsitasmeaningrelativeinthestrictsenseofblood
relationship,andonthisbasiscreatesanelaborateportraitofanextendedfamilydisplayingvariousdegreesofassimilation(thedifferentnames),butnonethelessco
operatinginthetextilebusiness.97Thereisnodenyingthatsyngenscanhavethissense,98butthemeaningintendedbyPaulisunambiguouslyindicatedbyhisfirstuse
inRomans9:3,IcouldwishthatImyselfwereaccursedandcutofffromChristforthesakeofmybrethren,mykinsmenaccordingtotheflesh.TheyareIsraelites.
IfPaulcanusesuchintimatelanguageoffellowJewswithwhomhehasnobloodrelationship,thentheweakerunqualifiedrelativecannotbeinterpretedinthestrict
sense.

Education

WhileitisanaccurateinterpretationofActs22:3,wehaveseenthatvanUnnik'sviewthatPaulreceivedallhiseducationinJerusalemfailstomeettheobjectionthat
itwasinLuke'sinteresttoattachPaulascloselyaspossibletothecitywhichLukesawastheculminationofJesusministryandthestartingpointofallmissions.99
ThereissomejustificationforLuke'ssleightofhand,becausePauldidreceivepartofhiseducationinJerusalem.Wherehereceivedtherestisimportantonlyfroma
biographicalpointofview,becausevanUnnik'ssharpdistinctionbetweenaJewisheducationinJerusalemandapaganeducationinTarsusisuntenable.Jerusalem
hadbeenheavilyHellenizedforseveralcenturies,andeducationalfacilitiessimilartothoseinTarsuswerealsoavailableinJerusalem.100Knowyourenemyandfight
himwithhisownweaponshadbecomeafundamentalprincipleofJewishapologetic.

IntheabsenceofanyevidenceregardingPaul'syouth,wemustpresumethenormal,namely,thatPaulwasalreadygrownwhenhelefthishomeinTarsus.He
venturedoutintotheworld,asyoungmenhaveeverdone,onlywhenhehadfinishedhisbasiceducation.Strabo,aswehaveseen,offersexpresswitnessforthis
customatTarsus.101
96
WereRom.16alettertoEphesus,assomehaveclaimed(seebelow,Ch.13),theanswerswouldbeeasy.ButtheSecondGospelappearstohavebeenwritteninRome(most
recentlyHengel(1985b),2830),andinthisperspectiveMark15:21iscorrectlyinterpretedasimplyingthatRufuswasamemberoftheRomancommunity.
97
(1991),306.
98
e.g.Luke1:36,58,612:4414:1221:16John18:26Acts7:3,1410:24.
99
Seeabove,p.33n.5.
100
SeeinparticularHengel(1974),1.6583,and(1989).
101
Seeabove,p.35.

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Paulhimselftellsusnothingabouthisyouth.WeareforcedtomakedeductionsbasedontheexistingeducationalsystemsinTarsusandthetracesofPaul's
backgroundwhichcanbediscernedintheletters.102

EarlyFormation

TherewerecertainlypaganandJewishelementaryschools,whichchildrenenteredattheageof6.Bothschoolstrainedtheirpupilsinthebasicskillsofreading,
writing,andarithmetic,whileatthesametimeinculcatingknowledgeofandrespectfortheinstitutionsofstateandreligion.103Asmembersofareligiousminority,
however,Jewishchildrencarriedagreaterburdenthantheirpagancontemporariestheyhadtoliveintwoworlds.

Ontheonehand,theyhadtolearntheobservanceswhichwerethebasisoftheiridentity,andwhichtheywereboundtoobeyfromtheageof13,104

Allmenareeagertopreservetheirowncustomsandlaws,andtheJewishnationaboveallothersforlookingupontheirsasoraclesdirectlygiventothembyGodhimself,and
havingbeeninstructedinthisdoctrinefromtheirearliestinfancytheybearintheirsoulstheimagesofthecommandments.(Philo,LegatioadGaium210trans.Yonge)

Thatwehavetodowithaneducationalprincipleismadeclear,despitethehyperbole,byJosephus'useofalmostidenticallanguage,
Shouldanyoneofournationbequestionedaboutthelaws,hewouldrepeatthemallmorereadilythanhisownname.Theresult,then,ofourthoroughgroundinginthelawsfrom
thefirstdawnofintelligenceisthatwehavethem,asitwere,engravedonoursouls.(AgainstApion2.178trans.WhistonandMargoliouth)105

ItisinthiscontextthatPaulwouldhavecometoknowtheSeptuagint,theBibleofGreekspeakingJews.Atthebeginningitwasmerelyatextbook,fromwhicha
littleboylearnedtoreadandhadtomemorizeparts(2Tim.3:15),butitbecameaperennialsourceofinsightwhicheverinformedhisteaching106hisletterscontain
almost90explicitcitations.GivenhisstressonbeingaHebrewofHebrews(Phil.3:5),PaulmustalsohavelearntHebrewand/orAramaic.Knowledgeofthe
formerwasrareintheDiaspora,107butcommitment,andtheavailabilityofpersonalcopiesoftheScriptures(1Macc.1:567),meanthatit
102
Itshouldbeunnecessarytopointoutthattheschematicandgenericcharacterofwhatfollowsprecludesitfrombeingadescriptionofaconcretesituation.
103
SeeaboveallMarrou(1948),20022.
104
m.Aboth5.21(citedabove,p.4)m.Nid.5.66.11cf.m.Yoma8.4.
105
Cf.alsoAgainstApion,1.602.204AJ2.211.
106
Michel(1929)Ellis(1981)Koch(1986)Hays(1989).
107
Schrer(197387),3.1423.

 Page48
108
cannotbeexcludedapriori.AramaicwascurrentamongtheSemiticpopulationofSyriaandtheeasternpartofAsiaMinor. Whetheritwaslearntathomeorat
schoolremainsanopenquestion.

Ontheotherhand,JewishstudentsinTarsushadtolearnhowtofunctionintheHellenisticworldtowhichtheybelonged.TheGreektheylearntathomehadtobe
refinedintotheabilitytoreadandwrite.Theirbasiccurriculumwouldhavebeenthatofpaganchildrentheirage.TheselatterwouldcertainlynothaveusedtheLXX
asareader,butJewishchildreninadditionreadEuripidesorHomer.109IfHomerwasreadinfirstcenturyPharisaiccirclesinPalestine,110therecanbelittledoubtthat
itwasonthecurriculumofaDiasporaschoolfrequentedbythesonofaRomancitizen.TherePaullearnttotracelettersandeventuallytowrite.Theretoohelearntto
countandpresumablymasteredtheintricatehandsignswhichenabledhiscontemporariestoexpresseverynumberfromonetoamillion.111

Secondarystudiesbeganassoonasthestudentcouldreadandwriteeasily,normallyabouttheageof11.112ThefocusofHellenisticeducationwasnotthe
developmentofacriticalspirit,butthetransmissionofawholecultureintheworksofsuchwritersasHomer,Euripides,Menander,andDemosthenes.Whileone
mightpresumethatJewishstudentsintheDiasporamightoffersomeresistancetothetotalacceptanceoftheideasofthetextbooksstudiedbytheirpagan
contemporaries,thesystemwassowidespreadandthemethodofinstructionsoconsistentthatitmusthaveinfluencedevenJewishteachers.113

Inaschoolthathadmorethanonemanuscriptofaclassicalauthor,thefirststepinvolvedsomerudimentarytextualcriticismifthereweredifferences.Nextcamethe
readingofthetext,amuchmoredifficultoperationthanweimagine.Itdemandedcarefulpreparationbecausewordswerenotseparatedfromoneanotherandthere
wasnopunctuation.114Suchmeticulousanalysiscreatedasolidbasisfortheinterpretationofthetext,whichwasexpectedtocontributetothemoraldevelopmentof
thestudents.Asthepupilsknowledgeincreasedtheypractisedliterarycomposition.Thoughthetypesofcompositionwere
108
Fitzmyer(1990),82.12.
109
Marrou(1948),214.
110
TheSadduceessay,Wecryoutagainstyou,OPharisees,foryousaythattheHolyScripturesrenderthehandsuncleanbutthatthebooksofHomerdonotrenderthehands
unclean(m.Yad.4.6)onwhichseeHengel(1974),1.75,whoplausiblysuggeststhatbooksofHomerwasastereotypeddesignationofGreekliteratureingeneral,muchasBiro,
Hoover,andXeroxhavebecomegenericdescriptiveinthetwentiethcentury.
111
Marrou(1948),219.
112
Ibid.22342.
113
TheargumentfromsilencePaulrevealsnoknowledgeofclassicalGreekproseorpoetrydevelopedbyHengel(1991),23,carriesnoweight.Paulformallystatesthathechose
nottodisplayhiserudition(1Cor.2:24).
114
ThisexplainsthedevelopmentoftheliturgicalofficeofReader.Whilemostcouldpicktheirwaythroughatext,itneededexperienceandwellpractisedskilltoreadwellinpublic,
particularlyatshortnotice.

 Page49

varied,eachwasexpectedtoreflectthefourbasicqualitiesofbrevity,clarity,probability,andgrammaticalcorrectness,atthesametimeasitintegratedagent,action,
time,place,mode,andcause.115

RhetoricalTraining

InfirstcenturyPalestineaJewishboyfinishedhisobligatorystudiesattheageof12or13,whenhetechnicallybecamearesponsibleperson.116TheGreeksecondary
schoolnormallywentayearortwolonger.Thenbegantheequivalentoftoday'sundergraduateuniversitycourse.WhatPhilostratustellsusofApolloniusistypical,
Whenhereachedhisfourteenthyear,hisfatherbroughthimtoTarsus,toEuthydemustheteacherfromPhoenicia(LifeofApollonius1.7).Lesstypicalwasthe
refusalofApolloniustostayforlong.ThevalueofhiscriticismoftheinstructionatTarsushasalreadybeendiscussed,117butthenotethathisfrivolousfellowstudents
satlikesomanywaterfowlalongthebankoftheriverconfirmsStrabo'sobservationthatatTarsustheCydnusflowspastthegymnasiumoftheyoung
men(Geography14.5.11).

Jewishattitudestowardsthegymnasiumandtheeducationitoffereddifferedaccordingtotheselfconfidenceofindividualsandcommunities.118PhiloofAlexandria,a
contemporaryofPaul,hadnodoubtaboutitsbenefits,andtookitforgrantedthatJewswhowereofacertainsocialclasswouldbeeducatedthere:
Forwhocanbemorecompletelythebenefactorsoftheirchildrenthanparents,whohavenotonlycausedthemtoexist,buthaveafterwardsthoughtthemworthyoffood,and
afterthatagainofeducationbothinbodyandsoul,andhaveenabledthemnotonlytolive,butalsotolivewell,trainingtheirbodybygymnasticandathleticrulessoastobring
itintoavigorousandhealthystate,andgivingitaneasywayofstandingandmovingnotwithouteleganceandbecominggrace,andeducatingthesoulbyletters,andnumbers,
andgeometry,andmusicandeverykindofphilosophy.

(Spec.Leg.2.22930trans.Yonge)119

Intheorythegymnasiumcateredforthewholeperson,butinpracticeonlythebodywaswelltrainedtheeducationalprogrammewaswidebutsuperficial.120Tarsus,
however,hadallkindsofschoolsofrhetoric,accordingtoStrabo,whoalsonotedtheconsequence,namelythefacilityprevalentamongtheTarsianswherebyhe
couldinstantlyspeakoffhandandunceasinglyonanygivensubject(Geography14.5.1314).

FromthisperspectiveTarsusistheperfectillustrationofMarrou'sthesis,Forthegreatmajorityofstudentshigherstudiesmeantattendingthelectures
115
Marrou(1948),240.
116
Safrai(1976),953.
117
Seep.34above.
118
Goldstein(1981),6487.
119
Formoredetail,seeMendelson(1982).
120
Marrou(1948),261.

 Page50
121
ofanorator,andlearningwithhimtheartofeloquence. Oratoricalskillswerethekeytoadvancementinanessentiallyverbalculture.Theacquisitionofsuchskills
fellintothreeparts.122Thebasewasthetheoryofdiscourse,whichincludedletterwriting.123Techniques,rules,formulae,etc.werediscussedadinfinitum.As
divisionsandsubdivisionsmultiplied,thecomplexityofthetheorymadeitmoreandmoreirrelevant.Thesecondstagewasalittlemorepracticalinsofarasit
involvedthestudyofthespeechesofthegreatmastersofrhetoric.Whattechniqueswereused,howdidtheyproducetheireffects,couldtheyhavebeenbettered?
Thefinalstagewasthewritingofpracticespeeches,forthemostpartdevotedtotopicsmorefantasticthanuseful.

WasPaulformedinsuchtechniques?Hissocialpositionarguesintheaffirmative,buthehimselfappearstodenyit.Hewasnotsent,heclaims,topreachthegospel
witheloquentwordsofwisdom(1Cor.1:17).Heassertsmyspeechandmyproclamationwerenotinpersuasivewordsofwisdom(1Cor.2:4),andconcedes
thatIamunskilledinspeaking(2Cor.11:6).ThetruthofsuchselfassessmentappearstobeconfirmedbytheCorinthianswhosaid,hisspeechisbeneath
contempt(2Cor.10:10).

NeitherPaul'sprotestations,however,northecriticismoftheCorinthiansshouldbetakenatfacevalue.124Thelatteradmittedthathisletterswerebareitaikai
ischyrai(2Cor.10:10).Whiletheseadjectivescouldberenderednegativelyasoppressiveandsevere,theconsensusofscholarsandtranslationsisthatthey
shouldbetranslatedpositively,e.g.weightyandstrong(RSV),impressiveandmoving.125Inotherwords,hisvigorousstylewasreinforcedbythecareful
presentationexpectedofawelltrainedwriter.G.A.Kennedy'sassertionthatPaulwasthoroughlyathomeintheGreekidiomofhistimeandintheconventionsof
theGreekepistles126isborneoutbytheevidenceofrhetoricalarrangement,notonlyintheorganizationofwholeletters,butalsointhepartsof1Corinthianswhenhe
isdealingwithdifferentsubjects.127Manifestlyhewassowelltrainedthathisskillwasnolongerconsciousbutinstinctive.

Paul'sdisclaimerin2Corinthians11:6isarhetoricalconvention.128NotehisassertionthatthewayhepreachedwasamatterofchoiceIdecided(1Cor.
121
Marrou(1948),269.
122
Ibid.27282.SeealsoKennedy(1963)and(1972).
123
FormoredetailseeStowers(1986),325.
124
Baslez(1991),47,andHengel(1991),3,havebeenledastray.
125
Phillips(1955),104.
126
Hesuggests(1984),10,however,thatPaulcouldhavelearntfromoneofthemanyhandbooksofrhetoricincommoncirculation,andaddsthatitwouldhavebeendifficultto
escapeanawarenessofrhetoricaspracticedintheculturearoundthem,fortherhetoricaltheoryoftheschoolsfounditsimmediateapplicationinalmosteveryformoforalandwritten
communication.OnehasonlytoreadsomeofthepapyruslettersfromEgypttoseethatthiswasnotinfactthecase.
127
Fordetailsandbibliography,seemy(1995),ch.2.
128
Betz(1972),4769.

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2:2)andthereasonisclearlystated,thatyourfaithmightnotrestinthewisdomofmenbutinthepowerofGod(1Cor.2:5).Choicenecessarilyimpliesthereality
ofthealternative.Paulknewthathecouldhavedoneotherwisehecouldhaveusedthepersuasivetechniquesofrhetorictoproclaimthegospel.129Hisconscious
control,however,collapsedintheheatofanger,andintheFool'sSpeech(2Cor.11:1to12:13)deeplyengrainedqualitiesbecomeevident.130C.Forbes,aftera
detailedanalysis,rightlyconcludes,WhatwehaveseenofPaul'srhetoricsuggestsamasteryandanassuranceunlikelytohavebeengainedwithoutlongpractice,and
possiblylongstudyaswell.131ItwasinthecontextoftheschoolofrhetoricthatPaulwasexposedtothevariousstrandsofGreekphilosophy,whichformedpartof
theintellectualequipmentofeveryeducatedperson.ThepresenceofStoicteachersinTarsusisnotedbyStrabo.132

InordertobalancethisstressonPaul'sHellenisticeducation,itisimportanttorememberthatthroughoutthiswholeformativeperiodofhislife(age1520)hewould
alsohavefrequentedthesynagogueofTarsus.TherehewasexposedtothetraditionofHellenizedJudaism,whosetoweringfigurewashiscontemporaryPhiloof
Alexandria.133HowdeeplythistraditionimpregnatedhisthoughtisclearfromtheextensiveparallelsinhisletterstothewritingsoftheJewishphilosopher,despitetheir
verydifferentpersonalitiesandconcerns.134
129
Marshall(1987),390,astutelyobservesthatthemannerandlanguageofPaul'srefusalindicatesthathewasmorethanfamiliarwiththerhetoricaltraditionshewasrejecting.It
isfeasibletosuggestthathemayhavebeentrainedinrhetoricbuthaddeliberatelysetitaside(cf.p.400).
130
SeeCh.12,SpeakingasaFool.CicerooncesaidofPlato,Itwaswhenmakingfunoforatorsthathehimselfseemedtobetheconsummateorator(Deoratore1.11.47).
131
(1986),23.SeealsoBetz(1992),187.Thenegativepositiontakenbyolderauthors(e.g.Knox(1950),756)isduetoinadequateanalysis.
132
Geography14.5.14seePolenz(1946)Betz(1972).
133
Foragoodcondensedintroduction,seeSchrer(197387),3.80989.
134
Chadwick(1965).

 Page52

3
APhariseeinJerusalem
WeknowthatitwasthecustomofyoungmenofTarsustoleaveinordertocompletetheireducationabroad,1butwhyshouldPaulhavethoughtiteithernecessary
orappropriatetodoso?Onecanonlyspeculate,butitseemsprobablethatanumberoffactorswereoperative.Formanythestudyofrhetoricquicklypalled.
Rhetoricalexerciseswereincrediblyartificialandrulesmultipliedassubdivisionsincreased.2Onlythosefiercelyambitiousforaplaceinpubliclifehadanyincentiveto
persevere.AsaJew,however,Paul'schancesofadvancementwerelimited.ThealternativewastoplungehimselfintothestudyofhisownJewishtradition,but
where?Tarsushadalreadygivenhimwhatitcould.BabyloniaorAlexandriamayhaveflittedacrosshismind,butneithercouldcompetewithJerusalem,withwhichall
DiasporaJewswerefamiliarthroughthesynagoguereadings,andtowardswhichtheirmindsweredirectedbypreceptandtheirheartswarmedbypilgrimage
accounts.3ItiseasytoenvisageanenthusiasticyoungmanwithaGreekeducationfromaRomanizedfamilydesiringtodiscoverforhimselfthecradleofhisreligion.

Sincethestudyofrhetoricdidnotnormallylastbeyondfouryears,theabovelineofargumentwouldsuggestthatPaulleftforJerusalemabouttheageof20,4i.e.
aroundAD15.5SincehisconversionistobedatedinAD33,6thismeansthathelivedinJerusalemforoverfifteenyearsbeforebecomingaChristian.Inanyperson's
lifetheyearsbetween20and35areacrucialperiodwhenrealityputsitsgriponambition,andwhenthespeculationsanddreamsofyouthsolidifyandsettleintothe
matureperspectiveofadulthood.

AStudentinJerusalem?

Paul,asweshallsee,recognizedtheimportanceofthisperiodofhislife,buthedoesnottelluswhereitwaslived.ForthatinformationweareindebtedtoLuke
1
Strabo,Geography14.5.13trans.Jones.
2
Marrou(1948),27881.
3
Forthedetails,seeSafrai(1974)Jeremias(1969),5884.
4
RabbiEliezerbenHyrcanuswas21whenhewenttostudyinJerusalem(AbothofRabbiNathanVersionA,6VersionB,1213).
5
Forthecalculationofthisdate,seeabove,p.4.
6
Seeabovep.7.

 Page53

whoreferstopreChristianactivityofPaulinJerusalem(Acts8:1,39:12)andmakeshimconfessthathewasbroughtupinthiscityatthefeetofGamaliel(Acts
22:3cf.26:4).Luke'sconcerntobindPaulascloselyaspossibletoJerusalemhasalreadybeenmentioned,andhereitforcesustoaskwhetherheisinventinga
backgroundfortheApostleormerelyemphasizingafact.

PaulOpposedtoLuke?

WehavealreadynotedJohnKnox'smethodologicalprinciplethatincasesofconflictprioritymustbegiventothelettersagainsttheActsoftheApostles.7Thus,
becauseDamascusistheearliestpointinPaul'scareermentionedbytheletters,KnoxinsinuatesthatPaul,perhapsforbusinessreasons,moveddirectlyfromTarsus
toDamascus.8TomaintainthispositionhehastodemolishLuke'sthesisthatPaulhadpreviouslybeenastudentinJerusalem.Hisweaponsarethreepointsinthe
letters.9

First,Knoxpointsout,eventhoughPaulhadtodefendtheauthenticityandorthodoxyofhisJudaismonmorethanoneoccasion,heneverclaimsGamalielashis
teacher.Thereasonforthissilence,ofcourse,isPaul'sawarenessthatthewelltaughtmaybetraitorsandsinners.Themostimpeccablepedigree,academicor
otherwise,doesnotprotectagainstbasebehaviour.TheonlyconvincingproofofPaul'sJewishnesswastheoneheprovided,namely,thezealwithwhichheobserved
thecommandments,astorighteousnessundertheLawblameless(Phil.3:6cf.Gal.1:14).

Thesecondargumentisnomoreconvincing.HadPaullivedinJerusalem,Knoxclaims,hewouldhavespokenofreturningthereinGalatians1:18,ashedoesinthe
caseofDamascusinthepreviousverse.Theanswertothisissimple.EventhoughLukemakesJerusalemPaul'shome,heonlyoncespeaksofhimreturningthere10
(Acts22:17)normallyheemploysgoingup,11whichispreciselythephraseologyPaulhimselfusesinbothGalatians1:18and2:1.Inbothcaseswehavetodo
withstereotypicallanguageconsecratedbyJewishusage,12whichtellsusmoreaboutPaul'sformationthanhisdomicile.Moreover,oncePaulhadbecomeconvinced
ofhisvocationasapostletotheGentiles,asojourninanyJewishcitycouldonlybeavisit.
7
Seep.viabove.
8
(1950),76.SimilarlySaldarini(1988),292.Thatman[Paul]willsetoutfromthelandofCiliciatoDamascusinSyriatotearasunderthechurchwhichyoumustcreate(Epistula
Apostolorum,33).
9
(1950),346.
10
Acts22:17cf.13:13,wheretheconnotationisturningback(15:378).ElsewhereLukeusesreturnofajourneytoJerusalemonlywhenthestartingpointishigherthantheHoly
City,e.g.MountofOlives(1:12)Samaria(8:25)Gazaroad(8:28).
11
Acts18:2221:12,1524:11.
12
TothereferencesinBAGDs.v.anabain,oneshouldaddPss.12034,theSongsofAscents.

 Page54
13
ForhisthirdargumentKnoxinvokesGalatians1:22,IremainedpersonallyunknowntothechurchesofChristinJudaea todemonstratethatPaul'spersecuting
activitydidnottakeplaceinJudaea.14Rom.15:31precludesananswerbasedonadistinctionbetweenJudaeaandJerusalem,asifPaulhadoperatedonlyinthe
HolyCity,andnotinthecountryside.ThetrueresponseemergesfromPaul'sinsistencethatonhisfirstvisittoJerusalemafterhisconversionhemetonlyCephasand
James.Ifhesawnoneoftheotherapostles(Gal.1:19),itishighlyunlikelythathemadetheacquaintanceofanyothermembersofthechurch.Galatians1:22
impliesnothingmoreitmerelyservesastheintroductiontowhatthechurchesofJudaeaheardabouttheirconvertedpersecutor.15ObviouslyPaulhadnotimeforthe
dramaticgestureofapublicapology.Healwayshaddifficultyinadmittingamistake(e.g.2Cor.11:711),anditisverymuchinkeepingwithhischaracterthathe
shouldbetotallyfocusedonthefuture,themissioninSyriaandCilicia(Gal.1:21).

ThusKnox'sattempttofindelementsintheletterswhichcontradictLukecannotbeconsideredsuccessful.ThenextstepistoquestionwhetherKnoxiscorrectin
assertingthatasfarasthelettersareconcernedPaul'scareerbeginsinDamascus.IntheprocessweshallalsolookfordatawhichmightconfirmActs,atypeof
controlwhichKnoxdidnotemploy.

APharisee.

PaulassertsthatpriortohisconversionhehadbeenwithrespecttotheLawaPharisee(Phil.3:5).Inotherwords,hisobediencetotheLawwasthatwhich
characterizedthePharisees.Whowerethey?Whereweretheybased?

Inordertoanswerthisquestionwecandrawononlytwosources,Josephus,thefirstcenturyJewishhistorianwhoclaimsthathehimselfwasaPharisee(Life12),
andthefirstcenturytraditionsincorporatedintolaterrabbiniccompilations.TheformershowsthePhariseesfromwithoutandthelatterfromwithin.Toextract
historicallyvalidinformationfromeitherisacomplexanddifficulttask.16

JosephusmentionsthePhariseesinthreeworks,TheJewishWar(publishedAD7579),TheAntiquitiesoftheJews(publishedAD9394),andtheLife
(publishedc.AD95).Notonlyaretheseaccountsdifficulttoreconcilewithoneanother,butsomedetailsareimplausible,andthemostextensivetreatmentishighly
tendentious.Fromacarefulanalysis,however,thePhariseesemergeasapoliticalinterestgroupdeeplyembroiledintheconflictsoftheHasmonean
13
Forthetranslation,seeBetz(1979),80Longenecker(1990),41.
14
SimilarlyBultmann(1964),132Bornkamm(1971),15Becker(1989),18.
15
SeeinparticularHultgren(1976),1057.Hengel(1991),767,andDunn(1993),81,suggestthatPaul'spersecutingactivityhadbeendirectedagainsttheHellenists(Acts6:1),who
subsequentlyleftthecity(Acts11:19),andthathewasunknowntotheHebrews.
16
AnexcellentbriefandreliableintroductionisbyMichelandLeMoyne(1965).

 Page55
17
period,andwhoseinvolvementinpubliclifecontinuedintothefirstcenturyADbuttoamarkedlylesserdegree.

Fromthemassofrabbinictraditions,J.NeusnerconfesseshimselfunabletoextractverymuchregardingthehistoryofthePhariseespriortothedestructionofthe
templeinAD70.Theywereprimarilyasocietyfortablefellowship,thehighpointoftheirlifeasagroup.18Thisisadeductionfromthefactthatapproximately
67%ofalllegalpericopaedealwithdietarylaws:ritualpurityformealsandagriculturalrulesgoverningthefitnessoffoodforPharisaicconsumption.Observanceof
Sabbathsandfestivalsisadistantthird.19OnlyafterthefallofJerusalemwerethePhariseesforcedtodealwithamuchwiderrangeofproblems.Neusnerwouldsee
theirrelativewithdrawalfromthepoliticalarenaasduetotheinfluenceofacontemporaryofHerodtheGreat(3734BC),namely,HilleltheElder,whosedominant
roleinthereformedpartyistherebyexplained.20Itwouldbehighlyunusual,however,foragroupwhichbelievedinthedivinelysanctionedimportanceoftheirwayof
lifenottowishtotransformthesocietyofwhichtheywereapart.21Thetacticalabandonmentofanyaspirationstoimpositionoftheirviewviapoliticalcontrolis
unlikelytohaveaffectedtheirlongtermstrategy.

AperfectillustrationoftheirrevisedapproachisthecareerofGamalielI(ortheElder).HewasthesuccessorofHillel(m.Aboth1.18)theclaimoflatertextsthat
hewasalsohissonorgrandsonisrightlyviewedwithscepticism.22Hisdatescannotbeestablishedwithanycertitude,buthisyearsofactivityarethoughttobe
roughlyAD2050,23ormorenarrowly,butstillapproximately,AD3040.24Apartfromthefactthathehadasonandadaughterweknownothingabouthim
personally.UnlikethecaseofHillel,thereisnotendencytoelaboratedataaboutGamalielI.Inconsequence,Neusnerisinclinedtoattachahighdegreeofauthenticity
tothelegaldecisionsattributedtohim.NeusnermoreoverpointsoutthattheyfocusonissuesotherthanthosecentraltoPharisaicconcerns.25Aspecificlocationisa
characteristicofGamalielImaterials,26andveryoftenthisistheTemple.27Theimagethatcomesacrossisofateacherwhoplayedanactiveroleinthedeliberations
oftheadministrationoftheTemple,28whichispreciselytheportraitpaintedbyLuke,aPhariseeinthecouncil
17
Neusner(1972).ThegeneralthrustofthisseminalstudyremainsvalidseeGoodblatt(1989).
18
(1971),3.318.
19
Ibid.p.3.304.CriticismoftherelevanceofsuchstatisticsismetbyDunn(1992),25760.
20
Neusner(1971),3.305.
21
SorightlySaldarini(1988),2847.
22
Neusner(1971),1.2943.306.
23
Fitzmyer(1990),18.
24
Jeremias(1961),55.
25
(1971),1.3756.
26
Ibid.1.344.
27
Thelistisgiveninibid.1.373.
28
Ibid.3.314.

 Page56
29
namedGamaliel,ateacheroftheLaw,heldinhonourbyallthepeople(Acts5:34). AccordingtotheMishnah,WhenRabbanGamalieltheElderdied,theglory
oftheTorahceased,andpurityandabstinencedied(m.Sotah9.15).Neusnerdoubtsthatthiswasactuallysaidofhiminhislifetime,30butthemerefactof
Gamaliel'sappearanceinanearlythirdcenturyADlistofrabbinicgreatsunderlineshowhighhisreputationmusthavebeen.

ThedetailsofGamaliel'steachingarenotrelevanthere,apartfromhisanswertothequestion:HowmanyTorahsweregiventoIsrael?RabbanGamalielsaid,Two,
oneinwritingandoneorally.31NotonlywasthewrittenLawbindingonthePhariseesbutalsoitstraditionalunderstandingandexpansion.Thisistheonepointon
whichtherabbinictraditionsandJosephusagree.32Thelattersays,ThePhariseeshaveimposedonthepeoplemanylawsfromthetraditionofthefathersnotwritten
intheLawofMoses.33

Itisatthispointthatwefindconfirmation(allthemorevaluablebecauseitisindirect)ofPaul'sassertionthathewasaPharisee.Beingextremelyzealousforthe
traditionsofmyfathers(Gal.1:14)ispreciselythesortoflanguageaPhariseewoulduse.

WhereCouldPhariseesBefound?

WherewouldithavebeenpossibleforPaultocomeintocontactwithPharisees?HadweonlyJosephusandtheFourthGospeltheanswerwouldbesimple,because
bothlocatethePhariseesexclusivelyinJerusalem.AccordingtoSaldarini,however,Markseesthem[thePharisees]asactiveonlyinGalilee,34andheacceptsthis
portraitashistoricalbecauseitisveryunlikelythattheearlyfollowersofJesuswouldhaveplacedPhariseesinGalileeiftheirpresencetherewouldbemanifestly
contrarytothefirstcenturysituation.35Thecogencyofthisargumentdependsonthesolidityofthefactualbase.Regrettablyitisnonexistent.Withtheexceptionof
Mark12:13(cf.11:15)and10:2,notasingleMarkanstoryinwhichthePhariseesfigurecontainsanyelementwhichwouldpermitustoidentifythelocation.36The
readerofthegospelisgiventheimpressionofalocationinGalileebyjuxtapositioninsomebutnotallcasestheGalileanlocationof2:16dependson2:13thatof3:
6on3:7thatof7:1on6:53andthatof8:11on8:13,whichisaredactionalintroductiontothefollow
29
Jeremias(1971),1.347,376.
30
Ibid.1.35152.
31
SifrDeut.351,quotedbyNeusner(1971),1.343.ForsimilaranswersbyHillelandShammai,seeibid.1.322,329.
32
Ibid.3.304.SeeUrbach(1979),ch.12(TheWrittenLawandtheOralLaw).
33
AJ13.297.Theypridedthemselvesontheexactinterpretationofthelawofthefathers(AJ17.41).ThePhariseesandalltheJewsdonoteatwithoutwashingtheirhands
observingthetraditionoftheelders(Mark7:3Matt.15:2).
34
(1988),147.
35
Ibid.291.
36
Mark2:16,18,243:67:1,3,58:1110:212:13.

 Page57

ingstory.Theevangelist'smodeofcomposition,whichassociatedstoriesongroundsotherthantheirlocale,didnotintendtranspositionfromtheoriginalcontext(inall
probabilityJerusalem),anditismostunlikelythattheaudienceofthegospelwouldhaveunderstooditinthisway.ForDiasporareadersitwouldhavebeenirrelevant,
andknowledgeablePalestinianswouldhavesubconsciouslymadethenecessarycorrections.IntheirparallelstotheinstancesdiscussedneitherMatthewnorLukecan
beconsideredtohavehadaccesstoindependenthistoricalinformation.InadditionbothexhibitatendencytomultiplyreferencestoPhariseesasstereotypical
opponentsofJesus.37

Luke13:31isanexceptiontothisrule,becausethePhariseesgiveJesusafriendlywarning,SomePhariseescameandsaidtohim,Getawayfromherebecause
Herodwantstokillyou.ThereferencetoGalileeisunambiguousandintegraltothestorybecauseonlyinhisownterritorydidHerodAntipashavethepoweroflife
anddeath.Thissinglewitness,however,doesnotdemonstrateapermanentPharisaicpresenceinGalilee.38Onthecontrary,thePhariseesknowledgeoftheking's
intentionwouldrathersuggestthattheywereonamissiontothecourtfromJerusalem.39

ArabbinictexthasalsobeeninterpretedasimplyingthepresenceofPhariseesinGalileeandelsewhere,whichisimportantbecauseofLuke'sassertionthatPaul's
parentswerePharisees(Acts23:6):
ThestoryistoldconcerningRabbanGamalieland[the]Elders,whoweresittingonstepsontheTempleMountain,andYohanan,thatscribe,wasbeforethem.Hesaidtohim,
Write:

Toourbrethren,menofUpperGalileeandmenofLowerGalilee.Mayyourpeaceincrease.Weinformyouthatthetimeoftheburninghascome,tobringoutthetithesfromthe
vatsofolives.

Andtoourbrethren,menoftheUpperSouthandmenoftheLowerSouth.Mayyourpeaceincrease.Weinformyouthatthetimeofburninghascome,toremovethetithesfrom
thesheavesofwheat.

Andtoourbrothers,menoftheExileofBabyloniaandmenoftheExileofMedeaandthemenoftheExileofGreeceandtherestofalltheExilesofIsrael.Mayyourpeace
increase.Weinformyouthatthepigeonsaretender,andthelambsareyoung,andthetimeofspringhasnotcome,anditisgoodinmyviewandintheviewofmycolleagues,
andwehaveaddedtothisyearthirtydays.40

ThetextsoftheselettersalsoappearintheJerusalemTalmud(MaaserSheni5.4andSanh.1.2)andintheBabylonianTalmud(Sanh.11b).41Withone
37
Bultmann(1963),524.
38
AgainstFreyne(1980),322.
39
SimilarlySaldarini(1988),296,butinthecontextofafartooimaginativereconstructionofPharisaicactivityinGalilee.
40
Tos.Sanh.2.6,citedfromNeusner(1971),1.3567.Accordingtothecalendaritwasnotspring,butaccordingtonatureitwas,sothecalendarhadtobecorrectedbythe
intercalationofamonth.
41
TranslationsandsynopsisinNeusner(1971),1.360,361,368,3723.

 Page58

exceptiontheitalicizedphrasefoundinbothversionsintheJerusalemTalmudislackingintheBabylonianTalmudthedifferencesareminor.Neusneracceptsthe
authenticityoftheselettersbecausetheyareevidentlythosereferredtointhephraseourfathersusedtowritetoyourfathers,whichconcludestheletterofSimeon
benGamaliel(d.70)andYohananbenZakkai(d.c.80)toUpperandLowerGalileeandUpperandLowerSouth.42Neusnerfindsitplausiblethatbrethreninthe
firsttwolettersshouldmeanPharisees,butrejectsthesamemeaningfortheterminthethirdletter,becausethereisnoconfirmatoryevidenceofPhariseesintheareas
mentioned,andthePhariseeshadnoauthoritytoregulatethecalendar.43

EvenwithGalileeandtheSouth,however,thereareproblems.UpperGalileeandLowerSoutharepreciselythesortofnonurbanizedareaswhichPharisees
avoided.Moreover,Phariseeswerebydefinitionscrupulousabouttithing,sowhyshouldtheyhavetobereminded?Finally,brethrenwhenusedintheSimeonand
YohananlettercanonlymeanJewsingeneral,becausetheyhadnotpaidtheirtithesaspromptlyasPhariseeswould.44Hence,itisbesttothinkoftheabovelettersas
havingbeenwrittenatthebehestoftheTempleauthorities,becauseThePhariseesstressontithingandpriestlypietyforthelaitycouldhavebeenattractivetothe
JerusalemauthoritieswhodesiredtocollecttithesfromallJewsinPalestineandwhocouldhavemetresistancefromJewsinGalilee,outsidetheirpoliticalcontrol.45
InthisperspectivethethreeletterswouldhavebeenaddressedtoallJews.Onlythisinterpretationbringsoutthehomogeneityofthethirdletterwiththeothertwo.

IndividualPhariseesmayhavegonetoGalileesporadicallytocheckcropswhichtheyintendedtobuy,butthereisnoevidenceofanythingremotelyresemblinga
PharisaicmovementinGalilee.46ThismakesitevenlesslikelythattherewaspermanentandsignificantPharisaicpresenceintheDiaspora.47Theirambitiontolivethe
LawasperfectlyaspossiblewouldhavebeenfrustratedbyaGentileenvironment.Neusner'sscepticismhasalreadybeennoted,andSaldarini'sargumentthatPaul's
identificationofhimselftothePhilippiansasaPhariseeimpliesthatthesemusthavebeenfamiliarwithPhariseesfrompersonalcontactcarriesnoconviction.48Thus
thereisnoreliableevidenceforPhariseespermanentlybasedoutsideJerusalem.49Luke'sclaimthatPaulwasasonofPharisees(Acts23:6)mustbedismissedasa
rhetoricalflourishwithouthistoricalvalue.50
42
TextinNeusner(1971),1.378.
43
Ibid.1.3578.
44
Freyne(1980),282.
45
Saldarini(1988),296.
46
Freyne(1980),319.Saldarini(1988),292,speaksofaminorpresence,whichisstillalittletoostrong.
47
PaceBecker(1989),43.
48
(1988),292.
49
SorightlyHengel(1991),2931,buthethengoesontoacceptActs23:6atfacevalue(p.122n.173)!
50
Lentz(1993),525.

 Page59

IfPauljoinedaPharisaicgroup,andthereisnoreasontodoubthisword(Phil.3:5),itmusthavebeenapersonaldecisionmadeafterhisarrivalinJerusalem.
Furthermore,ifPaularrivedinJerusalemaroundAD15,51hissojourninthecitywouldhavecoincidedwiththatofGamalielI,anditisextremelyimprobablethatPaul
oranyotherPhariseewouldhaveescapedhisinfluence.SuchconfirmationdoesnotnecessarilyimplythatprecisehistoricalinformationstandsbehindActs22:3.It
couldbebasedonaseriesofdeductionsparalleltomine.Theythereforereinforceoneanotherasindependentestimatesofhistoricalprobability.

PharisaicStudies

InrabbinictraditiondevotiontostudyappearsasoneofthefundamentalcharacteristicsofaPharisee.ThemildHillelisreportedassaying,hewhodoesnotlearn
[theLaw]isworthyofdeath,whereasthestrictShammaimerelycounselled,makeyour[studyofthe]Lawafixedhabit,andGamalielIprofferedthepractical
advice,provideyourselfwithateacherandremoveyourselffromdoubt(m.Aboth1.1316).Theauthenticityofsuchstatements,ofcourse,cannotbetakenfor
grantedtheyfittoowellwiththeattitudeofrabbiniccirclesafterthedestructionoftheTemple.Thisdoesnotmean,however,thattheidealtheyembodyshouldbe
dismissedasanachronisticintermsofthefirstcentury.WhathasbeensaidaboveconcerningJewisheducation,inparticularthecitationsfromPhiloandJosephus,52
highlightsthecontinuityintothefirstcenturyofavenerabletraditionofexhortationtostudy.53Moreover,ifthePhariseespridedthemselvesonmeticulousobservance,
detailedknowledgeofthecommandmentsasarticulatedinboththewrittenandoralTorahwasobviouslyindispensable.54EventhoughHillelmaynothavesaidan
ignorantmancannotbesaintly(m.Aboth2:6),thesentimentreflectedPharisaicvaluesatalltimes.

Understandably,therefore,thePhariseesgatheredingroups.55Forthoseconcernedwiththeritualpurityoffood,itsimplifiedlifewhenthoseoflike
51
Seep.52above.
52
p.47.
53
Althoughperhapsalittleextreme,Essenelegislation(datingfromthe1stcent.BC)isagoodillustration,Intheplacewherethetenare,lettherenotlackamanwhostudiestheLaw
nightandday,continually,concerningthedutiesofeachtowardstheother.AndlettheManywatchincommonforathirdofallthenightsoftheyear,toreadtheBookandstudythe
Law,andblessincommon(1QS6.68).Foranexcellentsummaryofthewholetradition,seeViviano(1978),11157.
54
TheMishnahwithwryhumourunderlinestheproblem,TherulesabouttheSabbath,FestalofferingsandSacrilegeareasmountainshangingbyahair,for[theteachingof]
Scripture[thereon]isscantyandtherulesmany(m.Hagigah,1.8).
55
Defectsintheanalysisofaseriesoftextsshouldnotimpedecommonsenseassumptions,paceSaldarini(1988),21620.Suchgatherings,ofcourse,donotimplycompletecommon
lifeinanythingresemblingthemonasticsense.

 Page60

mindatetogethereachwastrustedtorespectthestandardsoftheother.Theconsensusofinterpretationregardingwhatisdemanded,whichthisimplied,necessitated
commonstudyanddiscussion.Thehothouseatmospherecharacteristicofsuchlitegroupswasintensifiedbythepresenceofyoungmen.Thedangersmusthave
beenasobvioustofirstcenturyteachersastheyaretoday.ItisnotatallsurprisingthatHillel(orsomeoneequallyexperiencedandperceptive)shouldhavewarned,
[1]Donotseparatefromthecommunity.[2]Donottrustyourselfuntilthedayofyourdeath.[3]Donotjudgeyourfellowuntilyoustandinhisplace.[4]Donotsayofathing
whichcannotbeunderstoodthatitwillbeunderstoodintheend.[5]Anddonotsay,WhenIhaveleisureIwillstudy!Perhapsyouwillneverhaveleisure.(m.Aboth2.5trans.
Danbyadapted)56

Atoneendofthescalearethosewhopermitthemselvestobecarriedalongbythegroup,whofeelsurethatasolutiontothornyproblemswillbefoundby
someoneelse(4)becausetheylackadeeppersonalinterestinstudy(5).Attheotherendarethosesointenselycommittedthattheybecomearrogantinjudgement
(2)andcontemptuousofthoseslowerorlessinsightful(3).Theseruntheriskofdevelopingasuperioritycomplexexpressedinleavingthecommunityinsearchof
greaterperfection(1).ThefeverishenvironmentisperfectlyevokedbyasayingattributedtoSimeonthesonofGamaliel,

AllmydaysIhavegrownupamongtheSagesandIhavefoundnaughtbetterforapersonthansilenceandnottheexpounding[oftheLaw]isthechiefthingbutthedoing[of
it]andhethatmultiplieswordsoccasionssin.

(m.Aboth1:17trans.Danby)

Viviano'scommentaryisperfectlyapposite,Itbreathesacertainwearinesswiththeinterminableandexcessivewranglingwiththeoverproductionofsecondary
refinements,whichcharacterizedonesideoftheSages'learnedactivity.57

ItisonlyagainstthisbackgroundthatPaul'sdescriptionofhisyouthbecomesintelligible,IwasadvancinginJudaismbeyondmanyJewsofmyownage,soextremely
zealouswasIforthetraditionofmyfathers(Gal.1:14).ThePharisaicringofthetraditionofmyfathershasalreadybeennoted.58ThecomparisoniswithPaul's
contemporariesgenerallyanddoesnotdefinehispositionwithrespecttootherPharisees.Thecombativetoneandcompetitivespiritareequallycharacteristicoflite
groups.Paulwasproudtobelongtosuchaminority.
56
SeethecommentaryinViviano(1978),369.Iamresponsibleforthenumbersinthetext.
57
(1978),29.
58
Seeabove,p.56.

 Page61

Hisstressoncontemporariesissuggestiveheusesthetermonlyhere.Heclaimsnotanabsolutebutarelativevictory.Thesimplestexplanationofsuchdiffidenceis
thathewasawareofhavingstartedlate.AsanewcomerfromtheDiasporahehadalottomakeup.WhatPaulretainedfromthisperiodisdifficulttodetermine.Not
onlydiditblendwithhisgeneralizedJewishnessPalestinianandHellenisticJudaismhadagreatdealincommonbutitwassubsequentlyabsorbedintoaradically
differentpatternofreligionwhenhebecameaChristian.59NonethelesscertaindetailsinthelettersreflectthetraininghereceivedatthefeetofGamaliel.60Thisisnot
reallysurprisingbecausehisinvolvementmusthavebeensosinglemindedthathebecameoblivioustoeverythingextraneous.

Itisfromthisperspectivethatwemustdealwithanobjection.WerePaulinJerusalemfromAD15to33,hewouldhavebeeninthecitywhenJesuscameon
pilgrimage,andwhenhewascrucifiedthereinAD30.61Undersuchcircumstances,wearetold,hecouldnotavoidencounteringJesusand/orhavingfirsthand
knowledgeofthecrucifixion.Thefactthatheneverevenhintsatanypersonalconnection,62wearetold,proveseitherthathewasneverinJerusalembeforehis
conversionorarrivedthereafterAD30.

TheweaknessofthisobjectionisthatitpresumestoknowwhatPaulshouldorshouldnothavewritten.InadditionitoverestimatestheimportanceofJesusduringhis
lifetime.ThegospelsgivetheimpressionthathecommandedwidespreadsupportatleastinGalilee(e.g.John6:1415),butthisiscontradictedAntipas'shiftfrom
suspiciondeepenoughtoplotassassination(Luke13:31)tototallackofinterest(Luke23:812).Hewaslessparanoidthanhisfather,HerodtheGreat,buthe
wouldneverhavereleasedJesusunlesshewasconvincedthatthelatterwasabsolutelyharmless.ThefactthatAntipashadJohntheBaptistimprisonedandexecuted
underlinesthedifferencebetweenthetwo.63IfJesus'impactinGalileewassominimal,itmusthavebeenevenlessamongthegeneralpopulationinJerusalem.His
executionwaslikelytohavebeencarriedoutwithoutfanfarebytheauthoritiesamidsttheindifferenceofacitypreoccupiedwithpreparationsforPassover.Evenifit
weretheeventofthespringofAD30,whichIverymuchdoubt,thereisnoguaranteethatitwouldhaveimpingedontheattentionofaPaulpassionatelycommitted
tothestudyoftheLaw.Despitetheubiquityofradio,television,andgossip,HassidicstudentsinJerusalemtodaymanagetomaintaintheirprincipleofavoiding
59
SocorrectlyE.P.Sanders(1977),542.
60
ThefundamentalstudyremainsthatofDavies(1962)seealsoBonsirven(1939)andDaube(1956).
61
TheobjectionishalfheartedlyformulatedbyFitzmyer(1990),18,andavoidedbyBaslez(1991),756,whoassumesthatPaularrivedinJerusalemonlyafterthedeathofJesus.
62
2Cor.5:16mustbetranslatedweknewChristinafleshlywayandcannotberenderedweknewChristintheflesh.SeeinparticularFraser(1970).
63
Mark6:1729Josephus,AJ18.11619.

 Page62

knowledgeofseculareventsitisreportedthattheywerecompletelyunawareofAnwarSadat'speacevisittoIsrael,whichbroughtthewholeofJerusalemintothe
streets.

AMarriedMan

WhenPaulwrote1Corinthianshewassingle.Hisformulation,however,drawsattentiontoalatentambiguity,TotheunmarriedandwidowedIsaythatitisgoodfor
themremainasIam(1Cor.7:8cf.9:5).Washeawidowerorhadheneverbeenmarried?Oldercommentatorsassumedthelatteroption,64whilemodern
scholarstendtowardstheformer,65ormerelynotetheproblemwithoutcommittingthemselves.66Thesituationmoreoverhasbeenunnecessarilycomplicatedby
misuseofdataandtheintroductionofextraneousproblemssuchasrabbinicordination.67

ThatPaulhadnevermarriedcannotbeexcludedapriori.Jewsplacedahighvalueonmarriage(Gen.1:2838:810Deut.25:510),68andtextsspecifythe
marriagableageforamantobebetween18and20.69Thus,itisnaturaltoconcludethatmostJewishmenmarriedyoung.Therewere,however,exceptionsinboth
factanddate.70Somemarriedmuchlater,andsomenotatall.

TheprophetJeremiahrefusedtomarryasasymbolicgesture(Jer.16:1).Accordingtoarabbinictradition,SimeonbenAzzai(c.AD110)justifiedhiscelibatelife
stylebythewords,MysoulisinlovewiththeTorah.Theworldcanbecarriedonbyothers.71Josephusmarriedattheageof30,andthenonlyatthebehestof
Vespasian.72ThiswouldhavebeentenyearstooyoungtomeettheidealofPhilowhowrote,The40thyearistherighttimeforthemarriageof
64
e.g.RobertsonandPlummer(1914),138Allo(1956a),162.
65
e.g.Fee(1987),288n.7Lgasse(1991),45.
66
e.g.Fitzmyer(1990),19.
67
e.g.thecontroversybetweenJ.Jeremias(19261929)andFascher(1929).
68
Fortheunderstandingofthesetextsasimplyingabindingprecept,seeBillerbeck(19228),2.3723.Josephus(JW18.21),Philo(Apol.14),andPliny(NH2.276)arenotcorrectin
imputingcelibacytotheEssenes.AccordingtoH.Stegemann(1994),26774,allEssenesmarriedveryyoungwomen,whowereexpectedtogivebirthtoachildeveryyear.Mostof
thesewomendidnotlivebeyondtheirearlytwenties.ThevastmajorityoftheEssenes,therefore,weresinglemenwhobyrulehadmarriedlaterthanotherJews,andwhoaswidowers
couldnotremarry.Theunusualproportionofsinglemengavetheimpressionthattheyhadchosencelibacyasamatterofprinciple,whereasinfacttheyobeyedarigorous
interpretationofGen.1:28.
69
Seethetextscitedabove.Ch.1,TheJewishTradition.
70
Thornton(1972).
71
b.Yebam.63b.Thehistoricityoftheepisodeisirrelevant.TheimportantpointisthatcommitmenttostudywasrecognizedasexceptionallyexemptingfromobediencetoGen1:28.
AccordingtoPhilostratus,ApolloniusofTyanarenouncedmarriage(Life1.13).
72
ThemarriageisdatedtotheearlysummerofAD67(Life414),andhewasborninthewinterofAD3738(Life5AJ20.267).Hesubsequentlymarriedtwice(Life415,427).

 Page63
73 74
thewiseman. AccordingtotheTestamentoftheXIIPatriarchs,Levimarriedat28andIssacharat30or35.

AtthetimeofhisconversioninAD33Paulwouldhavebeenabout40,certainlyinhislatethirties.Whileitispossiblethathehadeitherpostponedmarriageor
renounceditcompletely,thiscannotbeassumedtobethenaturalmeaningof1Corinthians7:8.Suchdecisionsweremadeonlybyatinyminority,whocertainlywere
consideredabnormalbytheircontemporaries.Onlythosebolsteredbyahighdegreeofpersonalsecurityrootedinpastachievement,andthesympathetic
understandingoffriends(e.g.SimeonbenAzzai),couldtaketheriskoffloutingpublicopinionsoradically.AsayoungimmigrantfromtheDiaspora,Paulmetnoneof
theseconditions.ThecomplacentlycompetitivetoneofGalatians1:14,onthecontrary,betraysthestrangerwhohassuccessfullyintegratedintoJewishJerusalem
throughperfectconformitytothenorm.Itismuchmoreprobable,therefore,thatPaulcheerfullybowedtotheexpectationthatyoungmenshouldmarryintheirearly
twenties.

ThisisperhapsthebestpointatwhichtodrawattentiontoabizarretraditionconcerningPaulfoundintheJudaeoChristianAscensionofJames,

PaulwasamanofTarsusandindeedaGreek,thesonofaGreekmotherandaGreekfather.HavinggoneuptoJerusalemandhavingremainedtherealongtime,hedesiredto
marryadaughterofthe(high?)priestandonthataccountsubmittedhimselfasaproselyteforcircumcision.Whenneverthelesshedidnotobtainthegirl,hebecamefuriousand
begantowriteagainstcircumcision,thesabbathandtheLaw.75

WindischbelievesthatthisstoryhasahistoricalkernelinsofarasitprovidesaplausiblemotiveforPaul'scelibacy.76InfactitsmanifestantiPaulinebiasrobsitofall
historicalvalue.77Paulismadeagentile,whoconvertstoJudaismfortheworstofallreasons,namely,sex,andwhenfrustratedbecomesviolentlyantiSemitic.The
crudityoftheattackisofapiecewiththeaccumulationofimprobabilities.Noexplanationisofferedastowhysuchapersonshouldhavetakenupresidencein
Jerusalem,orhowhemighthavebecomeacquaintedwiththehighpriest'sdaughter.Inconsequence,sincewellknownfactsaboutPaularedeliberatelyfalsified,there
isnoreasontosupposethattheauthorhadanyindependentknowledgeofPaul'smaritalstatus.Onthecontrary,thetenoroftherestoftheaccountwouldsuggest
thathiscelibacywasalsofabricatedasacriticism.
73
Quaest.inGenesin4.154.
74
T.Levi11.112.5T.Iss.3.5.
75
PreservedonlyinEpiphanius,Panarion30.16.9cf.30.25modifiedtranslationfromHenneckeandSchneemelcher(1965),2.71.
76
(1934),133.
77
SorightlyLdemann(1989),180n.43.

 Page64

Itismostprobable,therefore,thatPaulhadawife.Issheevermentioned?AccordingtoEusebius,ClementofAlexandriaclaimedthatsheisalludedtoinPhilippians
4:3,
PeterandPhiliphadfamilies,andPhilipgavehisdaughtersinmarriage,whilePaulhimselfdoesnothesitateinoneofhisepistlestoaddresshisyokefellow,whomhedidnottake
roundwithhimforfearofhinderinghisministry.78

Thislongdominantinterpretationhasnowrightlyfallenoutoffavour,forasimplegrammaticalreason.Paulwrotegnsie,themasculineformoftheadjectivemeaning
true,genuine.Hadheawomaninmindhewouldhavewrittengnsia.79Itisaquestion,therefore,ofamannamedSyzygus,andtheplayonhisnameiswellbrought
outbytheparaphrase,Iaskyou,Syzygus,reallytobeapartnerandhelpthem(NJB).

WhathappenedtoPaul'swife?Itispossiblethathedivorcedher,andthereaftermaintainedasinglelifestyle.Itseemsmorelikely,however,thatwhathappenedwas
muchmoretraumatic.Thiswouldnotonlyjustifyhissilence,butwouldgoaconsiderablewaytowardsexplaininghispersecutionofthechurch.Most,ifnotall,
biographiesofPaultakethislatteractivityforgranted.Weareinvitedtoassumethat,ifPhariseesweresoopposedtoJesusduringhisministry,thenitwouldbe
naturalforthemtopersecuteChristians.ThisgospelportraitofthePhariseesisnowrecognizedasbeingwithouthistoricalfoundationfortheevangeliststhename
Phariseehadbecomeacodewordforanirreconcilableopponent.Whenwelookatothersourcesaverydifferentpictureemerges,onewhichonlyservestomake
moreurgentthequestionofwhyPaulpersecutedChristians.

AlltheconflictsrecordedinpreAD70Pharisaicmaterialareinternal.80Thereisnohintofanyagressiondirectedagainstthosewhodisagreedwiththem.Thehostility
documentedbytheNewTestamentalwayscomesfromtheSadducees.WhentheseconspiredtoexecuteJames,theleaderofthechurchinJerusalem,andothers,81it
wasthePhariseesthemostfairmindedandstrictinobservanceoftheLawwhoprotested.82WhydidPaul,whohadmadesuchstrenuouseffortstoconform
(Gal.1:14),suddenlybreakawayfromthepatternoftoleranceestablishedbythePharisaicmovement?

Awellknownpsychologicalmechanismswitchesangerfromunacceptabletoacceptablechannelsofexpression.AsaPharisee,PaulbelievedGodhadahandinall
thathappenedinhistory.83Jerusalemissitedinanearthquakezone,anditcannothavebeenimmunetothedomestictragediesoffireandbuilding
78
HistoryoftheChurch3.30.1,quotingStromata3.6.52trans.Williamson.
79
Lightfoot(1908),159.
80
Neusner(1971),3.304.
81
Josephus,AJ20:201.
82
Hengel(1985a),734.
83
Josephus,AJ18.13JW2.163.

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84
collapse,whichweresofrequentatRome. HadPaul'swifeandchildrendiedinsuchanaccident,orinaplagueepidemic,onepartofhistheologywouldleadhim
logicallytoascribeblametoGod,butthiswasforbiddenbyanotherpartofhisreligiousperspective,whichprescribedcompletesubmissiontoGod'swill.Ifhispain
andangercouldnotbedirectedagainstGod,ithadtofindanothertarget.Anoutletforhispentupdesireforvengancehadtoberationalized.

Christianscouldbeseenasadanger,notonlytothereforminghopesofthePharisees,buttothefabricoftheJewishpeople,whosenationalisticaspirationswere
inevitablygoingtobringitintoconflictwithRome,whichneededabsolutecontrolofitseasternfrontier.UnitywasimperativeiftheJewsweretosurvivesucha
conflict.FromthisperspectiveChristianswerebothareligiousandasocialthreattheirexistencefloutedGod'swill.Iamnotsayingthatonlyabereavedhusband
couldhavethoughtinthisway.Undoubtedlymanyperceivedthedanger,perhapsevensomeofthePharisees.Alloftheselatterwouldhavesubscribedtothe
theologicalreasonswhicharesometimessuggestedasPaul'smotive,85buttheydidnotreactashedid.Someextraneoushistoricalfactormustbeinvokedtoexplain
Paul'suniqueness.86Redirectedangerisbutapossibleanswer,whoseplausibilitynonethelessisenhancedbyitsabilitytoexplainPaul'ssilenceregardinghiswife.

PersecutoroftheChurch

LukeisprolificwithdetailindescribingPaul'spersecutionofthechurch.Heisfirstnoticedasayouth(Acts7:58)lookingonwithsatisfactionatthegrislyexecutionof
Stephen(Acts8:1cf.22:20).Hisnextappearanceisasthearchpersecutor,burstingintoChristianhousesandthrowingtheiroccupantsintoprison(Acts8:3).His
authorityisconfirmedwhen,athisrequest,thehighpriestissueslettersenablinghimtobringprisonersfromDamascus(Acts9:12cf.22:45).Thenatureofthis
authoritybecomesapparentonlywhenPaulismadetosay,Inotonlyshutupmanyofthesaintsinprison,byauthorityfromthechiefpriests,butwhentheywereput
todeathIcastmyvoteagainstthem(Acts26:10).SinceonlytheSanhedrinwascompetentincapitalcases,87and
84
Juvenal,Satires3.190203Carcopino(1981),435.ItwouldbenaivetoimaginethattheonlydisasterstooccurinJerusalemwerethoselistedbyJeremias(1969),1404.
85
e.g.Hengel(1991),6971.
86
AccordingtoTaylor(forthcoming),whenPaularrivedinJerusalemhebecameareligiousnationalist,i.e.aZealot,whosetheologicalopinionswereidenticalwiththoseofthe
Pharisees(Josephus,AJ18.23),andsopersecutedChristiansasapacifistthreattothenationalstruggle.Theweaknessofthisattractivehypothesisisthatitmayexaggeratethe
importanceofzealotinGal.1:14andzealinPhil.3:6.
87
Thehistoricalfactsaredisputed,seeSchrer(197387),2.2212thereisnodoubtaboutLuke'sintention.

 Page66

sinceonlyfullmemberscouldvote,PaulisundoubtedlyherepresentedasamemberoftheSanhedrin.

Thehistoricityofthispictureiscompromisedbyanumberoffactors.Thetransitionfrom7:58to8:3isneverexplaineditsabruptnesshintsatartificiality.88Paul's
authoritytomakearrestsinDamascusisvariouslydescribedasderivedfromthehighpriestalone(Acts9:2)orinconjunctionwiththecouncil(Acts22:5),andfrom
thechiefpriests(Acts9:1426:12).Thedifferencesaredisturbing,butpaleintoinsignificancebesidethefactthatneitherthehighpriestnortheSanhedrinhadjudicial
authorityoutsidetheeleventoparchiesofJudaeaproper.89Theirmoralauthoritymightbepersuasive,buttheycouldnotempowerPaultomakearrests,particularlyon
theterritoryofaRomanprovince.Recognitionofthestrengthofthispositionisapparentinthedesperatelengthstowhichconservativescholarshavetogotodefend
Luke'sveracity.I.H.Marshall,forexample,acceptsHanson'sviewthatPaul'sauthorizationwastokidnapChristiansifhecouldgetawaywithit!90

AsregardsPaul'smembershipoftheSanhedrininthefirstcenturyPhariseeswerecertainlymembers,91andbyAD25orthereaboutsPaulwouldhavereachedthe
ageatwhichaJewishmalewaspermittedtofunctionasajudge.92Thusitiswithintheboundsofpossibilitythathewasamember.Butsomanyotherpointsinthe
Lukanpresentationofthepersecutionhavebeenseentobeimprobable,ifnotimpossible,thatitisdifficulttoacceptLuke'sunsupportedstatementonthispointat
facevalue.Thesilenceofthelettersisalsosignificant.HadPaulinfactbeenamemberoftheSanhedrin,thecompetitivespiritmanifestedinGalatians1:14makesit
certainthathewouldhavementioneditthereitwouldalsohavebeenaneffectivecomponentintheargumentofPhilippians3:5and2Corinthians11:22.

OnceitisnoticedthatthestrongeststatementsconcerningPaul'spreChristianactivityalwaysoccurasintroductionstonarrativesofhisconversion,itbecomes
obviousthatitwasinLuke'sartisticinteresttoexaggeratecertainnegativetraitsofPaulthepersecutorinordertosetingreaterreliefthemiracleofhisconversionand
thesuccessofhisapostolate.Itenhancedthedramaticimpactofhisbooktohavetheperfectpersecutortransformedintotheidealapostle.

TheonlyelementofLuke'spresentationwhichisconfirmedbyPaulhimself
88
Haenchen(1971),294,298.
89
Ibid.3201Schrer(197387),2.218.RecognitionofthisfactmightexplainwhyHengel(1991),85,gratuitouslyspeculatesthatitwasfromcertainsynagoguesinJerusalemthatPaul
acceptedamissiontoDamascus.
90
(1980),168.Bruce(1977),72,relieson1Macc.15:21,which,however,doesnotempowerthehighpriesttoseekJewishwrongdoersabroad,butinvitestherulerofEgypttosend
suchpersonstothehighpriest.
91
Schrer(197387),2.210.
92
Seethetextscitedabove,Ch.1,TheJewishTradition.

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isthefactofpersecutionthegeneralpictureisverydifferent.ThebrevityofAstozealapersecutorofthechurch(Phil.3:6)andIpersecutedthechurchofGod(1
Cor.15:9)isamplifiedslightlyinGalatians,YouhaveheardofmyformerlifeinJudaismhowintensely(kath'hyperboln)Iwaspersecutingthechurchandtryingto
destroyit(1:13cf.1:23).

TheinfluenceoftheActsoftheApostlesisevidentinthetranslationofkathhyperbolnbyviolently(RSV,NRSV),orsavagely(NEB)andsomewhatless
obviouslyinanalternativerenderingIwenttoextremes(NAB).Allsuchrenderingssuggestphysicalattacksculminatingininjuryifnotdeath.Paul'suseoftheadverb
elsewhere,93however,andthecontexthere,combinetoindicatethatitarticulatesthequalityoftheApostle'scommitment,notthemeansheemployed.Hewas
completelydedicatedto,andtotallyinvolvedin,whatwasforhimanhabitualactivity.94Itwasnotaoneoffevent,anditwasnotwithoutsuccess.Theadditionofto
devastate,destroy,annihilatetotopersecuteinGalatians1:13,23removestheremotepossibilitythatthelatterconnotedmerelyanattempt.Pauldidrealdamage
overaperiodoftimeimpossibletoestimate.

EventhoughbythetimeofPaulthemeaningofhodiknhadprogressedfromthegenerichuntertothespecificprosecutor,95neithercontextsupportstheclaim
ofActsthatPaulwasactinginofficialjuridicalcapacity.ImplicitlyinGalatians,butexplicitlyinPhilippians,Paul'smentionofpersecutionistodemonstratehow
seriouslyhetookhisJewishness.AdutywouldnothavehadtheevidentialvaluewhichPaulmanifestlyascribestothisactivity.Thusitwassomethingundertakenon
hisowninitiative.Weshouldthinkintermsofanofficiouslittlezealotratherthanofacalm,objectiveprosecutor.

ItiswithinthisframeworkthatwehavetotrytoworkoutwhatPaulmeantbypersecution.Hultgrenastutelyperceivedthatthebestcluewouldbeprovidedby
Paul'suseoftopersecuteandpersecutorelsewhere.96Thenounandverbareusedofthepersecutionofbelievers(Rom.12:14Gal.4:296:12)andofPaul
himself(1Cor.4:122Cor.4:912:10Gal.5:11).Nodetailsaregivenintheformer,butinhisowncase,ifweexceptthewrestlingmetaphorof2Corinthians4:
810whosedetailscannotbepressed,97Paulmentionsbeingreviled,slandered,andinsultedinadditiontounspecifiedhardshipsandcalamities.Theselattercanbe
illustratedfrom2Corinthians11:25b27.Wecannot,however,extrapolatefromthispassagethatPaulwasabletoorderChristianstobescourged(2Cor.11:24),
becausesuchpunishmentcouldbe
93
Rom.7:131Cor.12:312Cor.1:84:17
94
BothverbsinGal.1:13areintheimperfect,asiseportheiinGal.1:23.Theaoristin1Cor.15:9merelylooksatthespanoftimefromadifferentperspective.
95
E.Burton(1921),45.
96
(1976),1089.
97
DespitetheobjectionofPfitzner(1976),76,thisremainstheonlyunifiedhypothesiscapableofexplainingtheseriesofpairsitwasfirstproposedbySpicq(1937).

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98 99
administeredonlybyqualifiedauthorities, andnotbyprivateindividualssuchasPaulwas.

Privateindividuals,however,coulddenounceindividualstotheauthorities,anditisentirelypossiblethatPaulemployedthistactic.Intellectualzealotsareoften
tattletales.EventhoughLukealonementionsthem(Acts6:924:12),thereisnodoubtthattherewereanumberofdifferentsynagoguesinJerusalem,whereJews
mettostudytheLaw,astherewereinanycitywithasizeableJewishpopulation,e.g.AlexandriaandRome.100JosephushighlightstheimportanceofJewishlegislation
thateveryweekthepeopleshouldsetasidetheirotheroccupationsandgathertogethertolistentotheLawandlearnitaccurately,101andPhiloconfirmsthatEven
nowthispracticeisretained,andtheJewseveryseventhdayoccupythemselveswiththephilosophyoftheirfathers.102

Inthissituation,whereonecouldchallengeandbechallenged,astheGospelsreportconcerningJesus,103itiseasytovisualizePaulpoppinguptodenounceabrasively
thosewhosedivisiveness,inhisview,threatenedthesurvivaloftheJewishpeople.Socialcustomswhichdeviatedfromthenorm(e.g.Acts2:46)wouldinitiallyhave
drawnattentiontothefactthatChristiansweredifferent,butPaulcouldlaterchallengeonthebasisofspecificinformation.Thesimplesttechniquetoflushout
ChristianswouldhavebeenthatmentionedbyLuke,hetriedtomakethemblaspheme(Acts26:11),e.g.bydemandingassenttoformulationswhichimplieddenial
ofJesus,suchasanoaththattheMessiahhadnotyetcome.104AsimilarelementaryploywasusedbyPlinytheYoungerinAsiaMinoratthebeginningofthesecond
centurytoferretoutChristians(Letters10.96).WhatactionthesynagogueauthoritiesmighthavebeeninducedtotakeifaChristianrefusedsuchanoathisamatter
forspeculation.Itwaswithintheirpowertoexcommunicate,105andtheycouldcertainlyensurethatthelifeofthepersonsoaccusedwouldbelessthanpleasant.Ona
lessofficiallevel,Paulcouldhavemadeindividualslivesamiserybyfrequentchallenges,harrassment,andthreats.106
98
Deut.25:13thedetailedspecificationsofhowthesentenceistobecarriedoutaregiveninm.Makkot3.1014.AccordingtoJosephus,thelashwastobewieldedbythe
publicexecutioner(AJ4.238).
99
ThisfactorisignoredbyHengel(1991),712,whomistakenlyinsistsontheliteralsenseoftodestroyinordertoforcePaulintolinewithLuke.SimilarlyDunn(1993),58.
100
Philo,LegationtoGaius132and156.101AgainstApion2.175
102
Vita.Mosis2.216cf.Acts15:21.
103
Mark1:2183:16Luke13:1017.
104
IthasbeensuggestedthatPaulinvitedbelieverstorepeattheformulaCursedbeJesus(1Cor.12:3).Whilenotimpossible,thishypothesisisimprobableseemy(1990),2434.
105
AllthefirstcenturyevidenceisfromtheNewTestament(Luke6:22John9:2212:4216:2)seethediscussioninSchrer(197387),2.4313.
106
AmuchmoreelaboratescenarioisdevelopedbyHengel(1991),85,whowithoutadequateevidenceclaimsthatPaultooktheinitiativeandbroughtaboutapogromwithinthe
limitedsphereoftheHellenisticsynagoguesofJerusalem.

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OncePaul'spersecutionofthechurchisseeninthislight,i.e.asanimmaturereligiousbigotworkingouthispersonalproblems,hisjourneytoDamascusbecomes
highlyproblematical.Aslongastherearevictimscloseathandthissortofpersondoesnotgofarafield.Thatit(unwittingly)accountsforthispointisperhapsthemost
thatcanbesaidinfavourofthehypothesisthattheDamascustowhichPaulwentwasnotthegreatcityontheOrontes,butaplacewithinaday'swalkofJerusalem.

OneofthetextsfoundatQumraniscalledtheDamascusDocument(abbreviatedasCD)becauseitmentionsthelandofDamascusasaplaceofexilewherethe
Essenesmadeanewcovenant.107ThemajorityofcommentatorstakethisDamascusasasymbolicnameforQumran.108Inconsequence,somescholarsclaimthat
PaulmerelywenttoQumran,therebyrehabilitatingLuke'sassertionthathewasoperatingundertheaegisofauthoritiesinJerusalemwhosewritcertainlyraninallof
Judaea.109

Thisfacilesolutioncannotstandforthreereasons.First,DamascusinCDisnotasymbolforQumran,butforBabylon.110Secondly,thedescriptionsofPaul's
undignifiedescapefromDamascusimplyacitysurroundedbyahighwallpiercedbyanumberofgates(2Cor.11:33Acts9:245).Fromtheexcavationsitis
certainthatnothingofthesorteverexistedatQumran.Thirdly,PaulhadtofleeDamascusbecauseaNabataeangovernorsoughthim(2Cor.11:32).Atthistimethe
NabataeanshadnoauthorityovertheJerichoareainwhichQumranislocateditwasunderRomancontrol.

RecognitionofthisimpassemakesKnox'shypothesislessarbitrarythanitfirstsounds.Paul,hemaintains,didnotgotoDamascus:helivedthere.TheSyriancity,not
Jerusalem,wasthesceneofhispersecutionofthechurch.Wehavealreadyseen,however,thattheargumentsheinvokestosupportthishypothesisdonotstandup
undercloseexamination.111ThenaturalimplicationsofPaul'sownwitnessconfirmthelocationspecifiedbyLuke.

UnlesswearepreparedtoadmitthatwedonotknowwhyPaulwenttoDamascus,wehavetopostulateaprivatejourneywithanunknownobjective.ThusBaslez,
forexample,proposesthatPaulwentthereasatouristwhenenroutetoavacationwithhisparentsinTarsus.112Thetroublewithsuchspeculationisthatthe
temptationtogofurtherisalmostirresistible.Thefactthattheicebecomesprogressivelythinnerisignored.Baslezprovidestheperfectillustrationofsuchdanger.She
suggeststhatwhentheSanhedrinbecameawareofPaul'splanstheyentrustedhimwithletterstosynagoguesintheareasthrough
107
CD6.5,198.2119.3420.12.
108
e.g.Jaubert(1958)Cross(1961),83deVaux(1973),11314
109
Sabugal(1976),221Eisenman(1983),6870Lapide(1993),10426.
110
Thepointisarguedinmy(1974a),221,andmyconclusionhasbeenacceptedbyP.R.Davies(1983),122.
111
Seeabove,Ch.3PaulOpposedtoLuke?.
112
(1991),68.

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whichheplannedtopass,warningthemofthedangerofconvertstoChristianity.Paul'sknowledgeofthecontentsfurnishedhimwithalltheauthorizationherequired
topersecuteChristianrefugeesfromJerusalem.113Thescenarioisnotinitselfimpossible,butitismanifestlyinspired,notbyanyinternallogic,butbyadesiretocreate
ahistoricalnucleusforLuke'saccount.ItispreferabletoconfessthatwedonotknowwhyPaulwenttoDamascus.
113
Ibid.70.SimilarlybutwithlessconvictionLegasse(1991),58.

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4
ConversionandItsConsequences
BycontrastwithLuke'sthreecircumstantialaccountsofPaul'sconversion,1theApostlehimselfisdismayinglydiscreet.Thereareonlyglancingallusionstothemost
shatteringexperienceofhislife.2Theearliestappearin1Corinthians.Thefirstisanindignantrhetoricalquestion,HaveInotseenJesusourLord?(1Cor.9:1),
whereasthesecondpresentsPaulasawitnessoftheresurrection,Lastofall,astooneuntimelyborn,heappearedtome(1Cor.15:8).Galatiansusesadifferent
languageinspeakingoftheeventasarevelationofJesusChrist(Gal.1:12)andGodwaspleasedtorevealhisSontome(Gal.1:16).Theconnotationof
communicatedknowledgeisreinforcedbythefactthat,strictlyspeaking,whatisrevealedinv.12isthegoodnewswhereasthepurposeoftherevelationinv.16is
topreachgoodnews.InPaul'scaseconversionandcalltoministryareinseparable.

Thisminimallistofallusions,onwhichallagree,isgreatlyexpandedbysomeauthors.SeyoonKim,forexample,approvinglyreportsthatvariousscholarshavefound
formalreferencestotheApostle'sconversion(inRom.10:241Cor.9:16172Cor.3:164:65:16Phil.3:412Eph.3:113Col.1:239intheopening
versesofRom.,12Cor.,Gal.,Eph.,andCol.andinallinstancesoftheformulathegracegiventomeRom.12:315:151Cor.1:43:10Gal.2:9Eph.3:2,
7Col.1:25).3Someofthesearemanifestlyirrelevantthevalueofotherswillbetestedinthecontextsinwhichtheyaredeemedtocontribute.

Thisisverylittle.TheeffecthasbeenthatelementsfromActsareeitherconsciouslyinvokedtorecreatePaul'sconversion,orunconsciouslypermittedtoinfluence
ourunderstandingofthisepisode.InanattempttoavoidthisdangerherenoattemptwillbemadetoaccountforthematerialprovidedbyLuke.
1
Acts9:11922:41626:918.Fromavastliterature,seeStanley(1953),31538Hedrick(1981),41532.Themostdetailedtraditionhistoryofthethreeaccountsisthatgivenby
BoismardandLamouille(1990),2.120ff.,182ff.,341ff.,372ff.InarguingthatLukeknewGal.1:1325(p.185),theyreinforcethepositionofC.Masson(1962),1616.
2
SincePaulinhisownminddidnotceasetobeaJew,andsinceatthispointJudaeoChristianitywasapartywithinJudaism,somescholarshavepedanticallydeniedthatPaulwas
converted,e.g.Stendahl(1977),723Betz(1979),64Georgi(1991),19.Onthecontrary,giventheradicalshiftinhisperceptionofGodandofthedivineplanofsalvationimplicitin
hisacceptanceofJesusastheMessiahandthedramaticchangeinhislifestylewhichensued,thetermisperfectlyjustifiedseeSegal(1990).
3
(1984),331.

 Page72

Conversion

Thetwoallusionsin1CorinthiansbetraythatPaulsawhisconversioninaveryspecificcontext.1Corinthians9:2hasverycloseparallelsinMaryMagdalene's
experience,ShesawJesus(John20:14),andannouncedtothedisciples,IhaveseentheLord(John20:18).Theyinturnproclaimed,Wehaveseenthe
Lord(John20:25).Theuseoftheverbtoseeinimmediatelypostpaschalcontextsiswellattested.4ThehintthatPaulunderstoodhisconversionasapostpaschal
apparitionisconfirmedby1Corinthians15:8inwhichhelistshimselfasthelastofthoseprivilegedtohaveseentheRisenLord.

RecognitionAppearances

Thepostpaschalapparitionstoriesexhibitanextraordinaryvariety.Itisimperative,therefore,toreducethemtosomesortoforder.Variousclassificationshavebeen
proposed,butthemosthelpfulisthatofM.Albertz,whodistinguishesbetweenprivateandapostolicChristophanies.5Theterminologyisunfortunatebecauseit
suggeststhatthebasisisthetypeoftherecipient.Infact,Albertzconcernistoseparateappearanceswhichcontainacommissionfromthosewhichdonot.Hence,it
isperhapspreferabletospeakofrecognitionappearances(Matt.28:910Luke24:1342John20:1116,249)andmissionappearances(Matt.28:1620
John20:1923).Theformer,inwhichdisciplesrecognizethattheJesuswhodiedisnowalive,areatleastlogicallypriortothelatter,asPaul'sconversionwastohis
missionarycall.

Recognitionappearancesvarysignificantlyindetailbutallthestoriesreflectthesamebasicpattern.Thismaybeartificialtotheextentthatitisschematic,butits
spreadandconsistencyindicatethatitcertainlyreflectstheconversionexperienceofmanyintheearlychurch.Thepatternconsistsoffourelementsinthefollowing
order:

(1)ThedisciplesacknowledgethatthedeathofJesusistheend.

Maryweepsatthetomb(John20:11).Cleopasconfessesdeepdisappointment(Luke24:21).Discipleshideinfear(John20:19).Thomasmocks(John20:25).

(2)Jesusintervenes.

HecallsMary(John20:16).HejoinsCleopas(Luke24:15).Heappearsinthemidstofthedisciples(John20:19).Jesuscame(John20:26).

(3)Jesusoffersasignofhisidentity.

Heshowshishandsandside(John20:20).Heshowshishandsandfeet(Luke

4
Matt.28:10,17Luke24:37,39John20:20,27,29Acts1:9.
5
(1922),25969.

 Page73

24:40).Hebreaksbread(Luke24:30).Heoffershishandsandside(John20:27).

(4)Jesusisrecognized.

Theyworshippedhim(Matt.28:9).MarysaysRabboni(John20:16).Theireyeswereopenedandtheyrecognizedhim(Luke24:31).TheysawtheLordJohn20:20).MyLord
andmyGod!(John20:28).

ThesenarrativesflatlycontradictthecommonassumptionthatthedisciplesweresoenthusiasticallyconvincedofJesus'continuinglifethattheyinventedthe
resurrectiontoconfesstheirbelief.Onthecontrary,thedeathofJesusdashedalltheirhopes.Theyhadnothingtolookforwardtotheyexpectednothing.Ittookan
initiativeofJesustoliftthemoutoftheirpessimisticlethargy.Asignofidentitywasrequiredbythedifferencebetweentheearthlyandresurrectionbody(cf.1Cor.15:
513John20:19).Yetitwasnotaproof,becauseacknowledgementoftherisenJesusastheonewhodiedwasnotunanimous(Luke24:41Matt.28:17).

Thisgridprovidestheframeworkinwhich,accordingtoPaul,hisconversionshouldbeanalysed.

APharisee'sKnowledgeofJesus

Beforewedoso,however,itisimportanttotrytodeterminewhatPaulknewaboutJesusofNazareth,theonewhomhewasabouttoencounter.Inevitablythis
controlledandchannelledhisperception.Thathedidknowsomethingiscertain,forhelaterconfessed,wehaveknownChristinafleshlyway(2Cor.5:16).6At
onetime,manifestlypriortohisconversion,hethoughtaboutJesusinawayofwhichhewaslaterashamed.

Whatsort'ofknowledgeofJesusmightafirstcenturyJewhavehad,andparticularlyaPharisee?Therearetwoapproachestoananswer,whatwasactuallysaidand
whatmightbededuced.

Josephus,thefirstcenturyPalestinebasedJewishhistorianwhoclaimedtobeaPharisee,mentionsJesustwice.7Theauthenticityofonereferenceisacceptedbyall,
whereasthegenuinenessoftheotherisbitterlydisputed.Theformerreads,

ThisyoungerAnanustookthehighpriesthood.Hewasaboldmaninhistemper,andveryinsolenthewasalsoofthesectoftheSadducees,whoareveryrigidinjudging
offendersabovealltherestoftheJews,aswehavealreadyobserved.When,therefore,Ananuswasofthisdisposition,hethoughthehad

6
BothPaulineusageandthecontextindicatethatkatasarkamustbeunderstoodasanadverb.Wereitanadjectiveitwouldhaveoccupiedadifferentplaceinthesentence(cf.
Rom.4:19:31Cor.1:2610:18).
7
Recentdiscussions,withfullbibliographies,whichargueinfavourofthepositionadoptedhereareSchrer(197387),1.42841,andMeier(1990).

 Page74

nowaproperopportunitytoexcercisehisauthority.Festuswasnowdead,andAlbinuswasbutupontheroadsoheassembledthesandhedrinofjudges,andbroughtbefore
themthebrotherofJesus,whowascalledChrist,whosenamewasJames,andsomeothers.Andwhenhehadformedanaccusationagainstthemasbreakersofthelaw,he
deliveredthemtobestoned.

(AJ20.199200trans.WhistonandMargoliouth)

ThehighpriestfilledthepowervacuumbetweentwoRomanprocuratorsbyassertinghisauthorityinaparticularlybrutalway.Josephusinterestintheepisodewas
thatitledtothedepositionofAnanus(AJ20.203).Jameswasimportantmerelyastheonlyidentifiedvictim.ThenameJameshowever,wassocommonthat
JosephuswasforcedtospecifyhimbyreferencetohisbetterknownbrotherJesus,whosenamewasalsosowidespreadthatittoodemandedaqualifier.Josephus
choiceofChrist,ratherthanofNazarethindicatesthatstatementsaboutJesus'roleasMessiahenjoyedsufficientlywidecirculationtobeunderstandableeven
amongthosewhorejectedit.

ThesecondreferenceinJosephusisknownastheTestimoniumFlavianum,andopinionsofitsauthenticityrangefromcompleteacceptancetoflatrejection.
Opposedtosuchextremesisanintermediateposition,whichIamconvincediscorrectitmaintainsthataChristianeditoraddedto(andperhapsdeletedfrom)anote
onJesuscomposedbyJosephus.
Now,therewasaboutthistimeJesus,awiseman,ifitbelawfultocallhimaman,forhewasadoerofwonderfulworks,ateacherofsuchmenasreceivethetruthwithpleasure.
HedrewovertohimbothmanyoftheJewsandmanyoftheGentiles.HewastheChrist.AndwhenPilate,atthesuggestionoftheprincipalmenamongus,hadcondemnedhimto
thecross,thosethatlovehimatfirstdidnotforsakehimforheappearedtothemaliveagainatthethirdday,asthedivineprophetshadforetoldtheseandtenthousandother
wonderfulthingsconcerninghim.AndthetribeofChristianssonamedfromhimarenotextinctatthisday.(AJ18.634trans.WhistonandMargoliouth)

TheitalicizedportionsrepresenttheChristianadditionstoJosephustext,andtheargumentsareobviousfromtheircontent.Withoutthemwehaveablandreport
writteninlanguagewhichmaybedeliberatelyambiguous.Evenwheninterpretedinthemostpositiveway,theChristologyissolowthatitcertainlycannotbe
attributedtoafollowerofJesusofthepatristicormedievalperiod.

Themeaningoftheattributewisemanisfurnishedbytwophrasesexpressingwhathedidinwordanddeed.Hisworksarequalifiedasparadoxathebasic
meaningofthisadjectiveiscontrarytoexpectationwhenceincredible,whichJosephusmayhaveintendedpositively(exceptional)8ornegatively(unbelievable).
AslightcluetohisintentionemergesinwhathesaysofJesus'teaching.
8
ThisappearstobetheforceoftheadjectiveinAJ9.18212.63.

 Page75

Insteadofsummarizingitscontenthemerelynotesthecharacteroftheaudience.

Therearetwopossibleversions.Accordingtothereceivedtext(quotedabove)Jesus'hearerswereseekersaftertruth.Thiscouldbetocondemnwithfaintpraise,
becauseJosephusoffersnoguaranteethattheywerenotmisled.Butthereissomethingthatdoesnotringquitetruehere.JosephusgoesontosaythatJesuswona
considerablenumberofadherents.Ifallwereseekersaftertruth,thiscouldleavetheimpressionthatwhatJesuspreachedwasinfactthetruth.Isthislikelytostem
fromJosephus?ItharmonizesbetterwiththeconcernsoftheChristianinterpolator.What,then,mightJosephushavewritten?

Aplausiblesuggestioninvolvesthechangeofonlyoneletter,andoffersamorefittingcontextforhdon,whichnormallyconnotesphysicalpleasureratherthan
intellectualgratification.Thecorrectedtextreadsdidaskalosanthrpntnhdontaath(inplaceoftalth)dexomennateacherofthosewithanappetite
fornovelties.9Thisrenderinghasacertainintrinsicprobability.EveninawriterassloppyasJosephus,onewouldexpectatleastahintofwhysomeleadingJews
delatedJesustoPontiusPilate.

JesusmeritedaplaceinthehistoryofJosephusmerelybecause,againstallexpectations,heacquiredafollowingwhichsurvivedhim.WhentheassertionthatHewon
overmanyJewsandGentilesiscomparedwiththeGospels,itismanifestthatJosephusisreadingbackintothelifetimeofJesuswhatwastrueonlymuchlaterinthe
firstcentury.JesusinfactconvertedfewJewsandfewerGentiles.OnlyinthepostpaschalperioddidtheygrowintoatribeofChristians.Thisnameshouldbe
translatedMessianistsinordertobringoutitsresonanceforanyonewithaJewishupbringing.Josephus,itwillberecalled,wasawarethatJesus'followersthoughtof
himastheMessiah(AJ20.200).

Equally,itwastheexistenceofChristians(thoughtheywerenotyetknownassuchActs11:26)whichdirectedPaul'sattentiontoJesus.Itisinconceivablethathe
shouldhavepersecutedChristianswithoutlearningsomethingaboutthefounderofthemovement.PaulthePhariseecertainlywasinapositiontodiscoverasmuchas
Josephusdid.ThuswecansafelyassumethatPaulknew(1)thatJesushadbeenateachertowhomwonderswereascribed(2)thathehadbeencrucifiedunder
PontiusPilateastheresultofJewishchargesand(3)thathisfollowersthoughtofhimastheMessiah.Itisunlikely,however,thathewouldhavebeencontentwith
suchbarebones.Pharisaicinterestswouldhavedrivenhimtofleshthemout.

GiventheirconcerntotransformtheJewishpeoplethroughmoreexactinstructioninthewrittenandoralLaw,thePhariseeswouldhavebeenextremelysensitiveto
thefactthatJesushaddiscipleswhomhetaught(John7:
9
Orthosewhoaccepttheabnormalwithdelight.Thisemendationhasnotextualsupport,butthenneitherdoesanyMSoftheAntiquitieslacktheChristianinterpolations.

 Page76

15).Anysuccessbyotherteachersthreatenedtheirhopedformonopoly.ThenaturalresponsewouldhavebeentochallengewhatJesuswassaying,particularlyin
areaswheretheysensedvulnerability.

ThetouchstoneofJewishobservancehasalwaysbeenthesabbath,andtherecanbelittledoubtthatthecomplexityofPharisaiclegislationwhichculminatedinthe39
typesofworkforbiddenonthesabbathhadalreadybeguninthetimeofJesus(m.Sab.7.2).ThusitisnotsurprisingthattheGospelsrecordanumberof
controversiesinwhichPhariseeschallengeJesusonwhatispermissibleonthesabbath(Mk2:2383:16Luke6:61114:16John9:140).Thebasisoftheir
objectiontohishealingswasthatillnesseswhichhetreatedwerenotlifethreateningtheycouldhavebeendeferredforaday.Jesus,onthecontrary,sawhiscuresas
amatteroflifeanddeath.ByhisactionandresponsepreciselyonGod'sday,thesabbath,hewascriticizingcurrentJewishhalakhainordertoemphasizethatGod's
loveexpressedinhealingpowerwasavailableateachandeverymoment,andnotmerelywhenpermittedbytheLaw.Whyshouldasickpersonhavetowaitfor
reliefwhenitwasavailablenow?Jesus'attitudewaslessarepudiationofthesabbaththananaffirmationoftheimminenceofthekingdomofGod.10

PresumablythePharisaicversionoftheresultsofsuchencountersdifferedfromthatofJesus'followers.Hisattitudeofunperturbedauthority,however,wouldhave
hintedatanattitudetowardstheLawembodyingapersonalclaimsoextravagantastomakeevencloserattentiontohisteachingimperative.

Throughinfiltrationor,lessdramatically,throughquestioningofverboselyenthusiasticsupporters,PhariseescouldeasilyhavecometolearnthatJesus'sabbathactions
wereconfirmedandreinforcedbyhisrelativizationoftheLaw.EventhesimplestofhisfollowersmusthaverealizedtheimplicationsofassertionssuchasItwassaid
tothoseofold[intheLaw]butIsaytoyou(Matt.5:21,27,33,38,43),11particularlywhenaccompaniedbyaclaimthatJesuswasthetouchstoneof
salvation(Matt.10:3233).12JesusthoughtofhimselfastheMessiahempoweredtoarticulateGod'swilltheLawwasnolongerthesoleorfinalauthority.

Finally,therewasoneaspectofthegossipaboutJesuswhichwouldhavebeenofparticularinteresttoPharisees.InoppositiontotheSadduceeswhodeniedany
afterlife,13thePhariseesbelievedinresurrectionofthebody.14
10
B.Schaller,JesusandtheSabbathalecturedeliveredatthecoleBibliqueon20December1991.
11
SeeinparticularKsemann(1964),378.Hisacceptanceofonlythreeantitheses(Matt.5:21,27,33)asauthenticrestsontheargumentsofBultmann(1963),1346,whichhavebeen
refutedbyJeremias(1971),2513.
12
TheauthenticityofthissayingisconfirmedbyitsdilutioninLuke12:89bytheintroductionoftwointermediaries(theSonofManandangels).Thecriterionofdissimilaritycould
hardlybemoreperfectlyverifiedagainstPerrin(1976),18591.
13
Acts23:8Josephus,JW2.165.
14
Acts23:68Josephus,JW2.1633.374seeCavallin(1974),17192.

 Page77

FundamentaltothepreachingofthefirstChristianswastheassertionthatGodhadraisedJesusfromthedeaditappearsintheearliestformulationofthefaithofthe
church(1Cor.15:35).TheresurrectionwasthegreatsignwhichvalidatedthemissionofJesusandguaranteedhisteaching.NoChristiancouldavoidspeakingofit
and,onceheard,itwouldrankleinthememoryofaPharisee.

WhiletheremaybesomehesitancyindeterminingwhatPaulknewofJesuswhilestillaPharisee,therecanbenodoubtastowhathethoughtofChristianclaims.To
hiswayofthinkingitwasridiculoustomaintainthatGodhadintervenedtoraisefromthedeadafalseteacherwhoseblasphemousclaimtobetheMessiahwenthand
inhandwithdeliberatesubversionoftheauthorityoftheLaw.ItnowbecomesclearerwhyPaultriedtoturnChristiansfromtheirbeliefs.Theyhadbeendisastrously
misled.

RecognizingtheRisenLord.

Giventhisattitude,itiscertainthatPaulwasinnowaydisposedtoexpectanythingtohappenenroutetoDamascus.Hisreactionparalleledtheinitialresponseof
Jesus'followersforwhomhiscrucifixionwastheendofhope.Jesus,Paulwasconvinced,haddiedafittingdeath,andallthatremainedwasthereturnofhis
supporterstothefoldofauthenticJudaism.

PaulexplicitlyreportsthatJesustooktheinitiativeintheencountertherehadbeennopreparationonhispart.Themostimportantpassageisinhisadditiontothe
earliestcreed,15whichneedstobelookedatclosely.Theambiguityofeschatondepantnhspereitektrmatiphthkamoi(1Cor.15:8)isbroughtoutby
thevarietyoftranslations,e.g.Lastofall,astooneuntimelyborn,heappearedalsotome(NRSV)Lastofallhewasseenbyme,asonebornoutofthenormal
course(NAB).Thereisasignificantdifferencebetweenheappearedtoandhewasseenby.Thelattertakesphthaspassivevoice,whereastheformertreatsit
asmiddlevoice,heshowedhimself(cf.John21:1).

Whichiscorrect?TheactivemeaningisdemandedbyActs26:16,andstronglyrecommendedbyLXXusage,e.g.phthkyriostAbram(Gen12:7=Acts7:2),
whichmustbetranslatedheshowedhimselftoAbrambecauseitrenderswayyera'Yahweh'elAbram,wheretheparticleofmotionordirection'elunambiguously
indicatestheactiveagent.Philo'scommentisveryapposite,

God,byreasonofhisloveforhumanity,didnotrejectthesoulwhichcametohim,butwentforwardtomeetit,andshowedtoithisownnatureasfarasitwaspossiblethathe
waslookingatitcouldseeit.ForwhichreasonitissaidnotthatthewisemansawGodbutthatGodappearedtothewiseman.(DeAbrahamo7980trans.Yonge).16

15
Seemy(1981b),5829.
16
SeePelletier(1970).

 Page78

InthecaseofPaultheactivemeaningismadecertainbyotherreferencesinwhichthestressontheinitiativeofGod/Christisunequivocal.Hewaspleasedto
revealhissontome(Gal.1:16).IwaslaidholdofbyChristJesus(Phil.3:12).TheweightofthesetextsisnotcounteredbytheexceptionalDidInotseethe
Lord?(1Cor.9:1),whichsimplyreflectsthenaturalshifttowardsthegraphicwhichisalsofoundinthegospels,whereinasecondaryphaseofthetraditionJesusis
seenbythosewhomhemetorstoodamongorjourneyedwith.17

Themostdifficultelementoftherecognitionappearancegridtoaccountforisthesignofidentitybecause,inoppositiontoJesus'disciples,PaulhadnotmetJesus
duringhisearthlyministry.Bydefinition,therefore,PaulcouldnothaverecognizedJesusonthesamebasisasthosewhohadcomewithhimfromGalileetoJerusalem.
Wecanbesure,however,thatPaulhadamentalimageofJesus.Manycreateaportraitintheirmindsofauthorswhosebookstheyhappentobereading.Ifsimple
interestcanproducesuchimages,thentheintenseangerwhichPauldirectedagainsttheonewhohadledJewsastraywascapableofthesameeffect.18Thestress
underwhichPaulwasoperatingwouldhaveinterferedwithhisrationalityandwouldhaveheightenedhissusceptibilitytoanyoneoranythingassociatedwiththefocus
ofhisemotion.19WhatactuallyhappenedmustremainamysteryunlesswearepreparedtoinvokethevividdetailsofLuke'saccounts,ineachofwhich,incidentally,
Jesushastoidentifyhimself(Acts9:522:826:15).Inanyevent,therealityandthementalimagefusedandPaul'sworldwasturnedupsidedown.

PaulnowknewwiththeinescapableconvictionofdirectexperiencethattheJesuswhohadbeencrucifiedunderPontiusPilatewasalive.20Theresurrectionwhichhe
hadcontemptuouslydismissedwasafact,asundeniableashisownreality.HeknewthatJesusnowexistedonanotherplane.Thisrecognitionisallthatwasnecessary
tohisconversion,becauseitcompletelytransformedhisvaluesystem.

IfoneoftheresonancesthatthenameofJesussetupinhisPharisaicmindwastrue(i.e.resurrection),thentheothersautomaticallyhadtobeviewedinacompletely
differentperspective.Nolongerweretheytheblasphemouspretensionsofamadmanandhisdupes,bututtertruth.
17
Activeuseoftheverbtosee:Matt.28:10,17Luke24:37,39John20:14,18,20,25,27,29Acts1:9.Physicalencounters:Matt.28:9Luke24:15,36John20:19,26Acts1:
3.
18
Knox(1950),126,whoisoneofthefewtoraisetheidentificationquestion,answersitthus,ChristhadbeguntomakehimselfknowntoPaulperhapsagainstthelatter'swillas
theSpiritofthepersecutedkoinoniabeforehemadehimselfknowninthevisualexperienceinwhichPaul'sconversionculminated.
19
ThispointisdevelopedbyGager(1981),699700.
20
Kim(1984),7,108,2237,deducesfrom2Cor.4:6(whichinfactisneitherexplicitlynorexclusivelyconcernedwithPaul'sconversion)thattherisenChristappearedindivineglory,
i.e.hesawhimexaltedbyGodandenthronedathisrighthandasthephysicalembodimentofdivinity.SeetheunderstatedcritiquebyDunn(1987),25662.

 Page79

Jesus,therefore,mustbepreciselywhatheimplicitly,andhisdisciplesexplicitly,claimedhewas,namely,theMessiah.EquallytheattitudeofJesustowardstheLaw
mustbecorrecttheLawwasnotthedefinitiveexpressionofGod'swill.WhattheLawlaiddownastheprerequisitesofsalvationhadnofurthervalidity.Asgrace
hadbeenmadeavailabletoPaul,despitehiseffortstothwartthedivineplanofsalvationasrevealedinJesus,soitcouldbemadeaccessibletothosewhomtheLaw
hadexcluded.

OnlywhenitisconcededthatPaul'sconversionconsistedessentiallyintherevaluationofideaswhichhealreadypossesseddoesitbecomepossibletounderstand
howhecanwrite,ForIwouldhaveyouknow,brethren,thatthegospelpreachedbymeisnotaccordingtoman,forIdidnotreceiveitfrommannorwasItaughtit
but[itcame]througharevelationofJesusChrist(Gal.1:1112cf.1:1).Sandnesistypicalofmanycommentatorsintakingthisstatementatfacevaluehe
concludes,Hisgospelwasnotdependentoninformationgivenhimbyothers.HehasreceiveditdirectfromJesusinarevelation.21Inrealitythetextembodiesa
slightdeviationfromtheabsolutetruthwhichisexcusedbythepolemiccontext.NooneconvincedofthetruthofJesushadtaughtPaulaboutChristorChristianity.
HehadneverstudiedtheminthewaythathehadappliedhimselftounderstandingtheLaw.

Nonetheless,as2Corinthians5:16shows,hehadassembledinformationabouttheJesusmovement.Hispoint,therefore,canonlybethatasgospelsuchconcepts
werenotashehadacquiredthem.HehadnotheardofJesusofNazarethasLordandMessiah.HehadnotbeentaughtthattheLawwasmerelyasourcefrom
whichonecouldchoosetodrawornot.

HisencounterwithChristrevealedthetruthofwhathehadoncetakenasfalsehoodbyforcinganewassessmentofwhatbecametheChristologicalandsoteriological
polesofhisgospel.22ChristwasthenewAdam,theembodimentofauthentichumanity.TheLawwasnolongeranobstacletothesalvationofGentilestheycouldbe
savedwithoutbecomingJews.

ApostletotheGentiles

AccordingtoPaul,hisconversionwasfortheGentiles,Butwhenhewhohadsetmeapartfrommymother'swomb,andhadcalledmethroughhisgrace,was
pleasedtorevealhissontome,inorderthatImightpreachhimamongthenations(Gal.1:1516).23Theopeningwordsareimmediatelyevocativeoftwo
21
(1991),53.
22
AgainstBetz(1979),64,whomaintainsthataverbalrevelationisimplied.AccordingtothePseudoClementineHomilies,Butifyou[Simon,asurrogateforPaul]werevisitedby
him[Christ]forthespaceofanhourandwereinstructedbyhimandtherebyhavebecomeanapostle(17.19.4).ThepointistocontrastthebrevityofPaul'sexperiencewiththeyear
longinstructiongivenbytheRisenLordtohisauthenticdisciplesseeLdemann(1989),187.
23
Inadditiontothecommentaries,seeDenis(1957).

 Page80

celebratedOldTestamentvocations,theIsaianServantofYahwehandtheprophetJeremiah.TheversioncitedisthatoftheLXXwhichPaulknew,andthe
underlinedwordsarethoseheusedinnarratinghisownvocation.Frommymother'swombhecalledmyname.HesaidtomeIwillgiveyouasalighttothe
nations(Isa.49:1,6).BeforeIformedyouinthewomb,Iknewyou,andbeforeyoucameforthfrom[your]motherIhallowedyou.Iappointedyouaprophet
for[the]nations(Jer.1:5).

Therepetitionofthethreekeytermscannotbecoincidental.Asinthecaseofhistwogreatpredecessors,Paulsawhisconversionastheworkingoutofaplan
devisedmuchearlierbyGod.ThegoalofthatplanwastheextensionofGod'sgracetotheGentiles.Thushewascalledpreciselyinordertobringthegoodnewsto
thosewhodidnotbelongtotheJewishpeople.BothGalatians1:1112and1:1516unambiguouslyindicatethatPaul'smissiontotheGentileswasnotalate
development,noramereextensionofapresumedoutreachofHellenistsinJerusalem.Itshouldbeunnecessarytostressthisobviouspoint,butithasinfactbeen
challenged.

J.P.BercovitzhasarguedthatwhenPaulemployskaleinabsolutelyitalwaysmeansanefficaciouscalltofaith.Inconsequence,hemaintains,theaoristparticiple
kalesasinGalatians1:15shouldbeunderstoodasaparentheticalclausereferringtoPaul'sconversiontoChristianity,whichispriortotheapostoliccommissioning
mentionedinthemainclause.24WereBercovitzconcernedtohighlightamerelogicalpriority,onemightagree,buthestressesatemporalgapbetweenconversionand
commission.Paul,heinsists,wasalreadyabelieverwhenJesusappearedtohim.Thiswouldimply,however,thattheApostlehadbeeninstructedinChristianity,
whichispreciselywhatheformallydeniesinGalatians1:1112.25Moreover,Pauluseskaleinwithexplicitreferencetohiscommission.Moresignificantthan1
Corinthians1:1isRomans1:1,wherehecombinesthetwoverbsofGalatians1:15,PaulaslaveofChristJesus,calledtobeanapostle,setapartforthegospelof
God.

F.WatsoncontendsthatPaulinitiallybelongedtoaJudaeoChristiangroupwhichheperceivedasareformmovementwithinJudaism.Hismissionwastomake
mediocreJewsbetter.Thatambitionmetwithnoresponse.Itwasthen,Watsonmaintains,thatPaul,whocouldnotlivewithfailure,decidedtoturntotheGentiles.In
ordertomakethegospelmoreattractivetothemherepudiatedportionsoftheLaw,andtherebytransformedChristianityintoasectbitterlyopposedtothe
synagogue.26

NotonlydoesthishypothesislackanytextualfoundationbutitisflatlycontradictedbyPaulhimselfwhotellsusthathisfirstactafterhisconversionwastogoaway
intoArabia(Gal.1:17).
24
(1985),2837.
25
SorightlyKnox(1987).
26
(1986),2838.

 Page81

Arabia

WherewasArabia?Strabogivesthegeographers'answer,ArabiaFelixisboundedbythewholeextentoftheArabianGulf[=RedSea]andthePersianGulf.27The
extentofthishugelandmassunderlinestheneedforamoretightlyfocusedquestion.WhatwouldthetermArabiahavesuggestedtoaJewwholivedinfirstcentury
Judaea?

LocationandMission

Josephusprovidesaveryclearanswer.ArabiacouldbeseentotheeastfromthetowerPsephinusinJerusalem.28Thus,itlayonthedesertsideofthethree
easternmostcitiesoftheDecapolis,Damascus,Raphana,andPhiladelphia.29Morespecifically,itwascontiguoustoHerodianterritoryrunningalongthesouthern
borderoftheRomanprovinceofSyria,30andsouthandeastofthegreatfortressMachaerus.31PetrawastheroyalseatofArabia.32WhencethenameArabia
Petrea,33orArabiabelongingtoPetra.34Thismountainencircledcity,however,wasthecapitalandchiefcityoftheNabataeans.35WhenceanothernameArabia
oftheNabataeans.36

Paul,therefore,wentintoNabataeanterritory,37whichatthatperiodrangedfromtheHaurandownthroughMoabandEdomandexpandedonbothsidesoftheGulf
ofAqaba.38Whatwashispurpose?Somehavethoughtthathesoughtaquietplaceforreflectionandstudy.39TheLawhadceasedtobethecentripetalforcewhich
heldthedifferentfacetsofhislifetogether.ThatpowerwasnowexercisedbytheRisenLordand,itissuggested,heneededtimeandtranquilityinordertoassimilate
achangeofsuchmagnitude.

Plausibleasthissuggestionis,itdoesnotadequatelyaccountforwhathappenedsubsequently.Paulmusthavebeendoingsomethingtodrawattentiontohimselfand
arousetheireoftheNabataeansbecausehehadtoreturntoDamascus,andeventhreeyearslatertheNabataeanauthoritiesstill
27
Geography2.5.32.
28
JW5.15960.
29
Pliny,NH5.16.74.Cf.Strabo,Geography16.2.20.
30
AJ16.347.
31
JW7.172.
32
JW1.125cf.1.159,2674.454.
33
AJ18:109.
34
DioCassius,History68.14.5.
35
Strabo,Geography16.4.21.
36
Ibid.17.1.21.SimilarlyPlutarch,Anthony36.2.
37
2Cor.11:323,inadditiontothetextsofPlinyandStrabocitedinn.29,excludesthehypothesisofBietenhard(1977),255,thatPaulpreachedintheDecapolis,possiblyatPella.
38
ThemostdetailedancienttreatmentofthelifestyleoftheNabataeansisthatofStrabo,Geography16.4.26.TheclassicstudyremainsthatofStarcky(1966).Supplementary
informationontheperiod30BCAD70isprovidedbyNegev(1977).SeealsoGraf(1992).
39
MostrecentlyBaslez(1991),101Longenecker(1990),34N.Taylor(1993),73,butwithoutsuggesting,asLightfoot(1910),8790,didonthebasisofGal.4:25,thatArabiawasSinai
(Gal.4:25).

 Page82
40
wantedtoarresthim(Gal.1:172Cor.11:323).TheonlyexplanationisthatPaulwastryingtomakeconverts. Thisfirstactsubsequenttohisconversionconfirms
hisunderstandingofhisconversionasacommissiontopreachthegospelamongpagans.41

NabataeansandJews

InordertounderstandtheviolenceoftheNabataeanreaction,thesalientpointsoftheirstormyrelationswiththeJewsmustberecalled.Thingsstartedwell,when
AntipaterofIdumeasealedanalliancebetweenHyrcanus11andAretasIIIbymarryingKypros,whocamefromaneminentNabataeanfamilyandlaterbecamethe
motherofHerodtheGreat.42Againsthiswill,in3231BC,thelatterwasforcedintoawarwiththeNabataeans,whichhewonaftersufferingheavylosses.43Heagain
defeatedthemc.9BC.44Itisnotatallsurprising,therefore,thattheNabataeansenthusiasticallyprovidedauxiliariestoaidP.QuinctiliusVarus,thegovernorofSyria,
inhisbrutalsuppressionoftherevoltwhichfollowedthedeathofHerodaround4BC.45

InordertocalmthetensionsbetweenthetwopeoplesHerodAntipasmarriedthedaughterofAretasIV,46possiblyatthesuggestionoftheemperor,Augustus,if
Suetonius'reportofhispolicyiscorrect(Augustus48).Intime,however,AntipastiredofheranddivorcedherinordertomarryHerodias,thewifeofhishalf
brotherPhilip.47ThismarriageisprobablytobedatedinAD23.48ItscriticismbyJohntheBaptistisreportedbothbytheGospelsandJosephus.49Theirdivergent
emphases(moralfortheformerpoliticalforthelatter)areinfactcomplementary,andadequatelyexplainJohn'sarrestandimprisonmentinMachaerus,probably
aroundAD28.50HerodAntipashadmovedtherefromGalileeinordertobepreparedforanattackbyAretasinrevengefortheinsulttohisdaughter.Thelatterin
factmadeadisputedareaonhisnorthernborderapretextforwar.51Inthebattle,whichprobablyshouldbedatedC.AD29,52thetroopsofAntipaswererouted.
Whereupon,accordingto
40
SorecentlyBruce(1977),812Betz(1979),74Lgasse(1991),72.
41
OnlybyanextremelytendentioustreatmentofaseriesoftextscanN.Taylor(1993),923,concludethatPaul'smissionaryconsciousnessbeganonlywhenhewasmandatedby
Antioch(Acts13:13).
42
JW1.181.
43
JW1.36485.
44
AJ16:2825.
45
JW2.68.
46
AJ18.109.
47
AJ18:110.
48
Saulnier(1984),36571.
49
Mark6:1718andpar.Josephus,AJ18.118.
50
AJ18.119.AlthoughpresentedasthedateofthebeginningofJohntheBaptist'sministry,the15thyearofthereignofTiberiusCaesar(Luke3:1)ismorelikelytobethedateof
hisarrest.
51
ThetextofAJ18.113isdefectiveandGabalisisthemostprobablerestorationseeHoehner(1972),2545Schrer(197387),1.350.Itisnotimpossiblethattheconflictinspired
Jesus'parableoftwokingsgoingouttowar(Luke14:312).WeretheallusioncertainitwoulddatethebattlebeforeAD30,theyearinwhichJesusdied.
52
Saulnier(1984),375.

 Page83
53
Josephus,heindignantlycomplainedtoRome. Thehistoricityofthiscomplaintcannotbeguaranteed,butawarcouldnotbekeptsecretandthenewswould
certainlycometotheearsoftheemperor.

TheSituationWhenPaulArrived

AretasIVhadeveryreasontofeelanxious,becausehehadbothindirectknowledge,anddirectexperience,oftheangerofaRomanemperor,whenpeacewas
disturbedontheeasternfrontieroftheempire.Thefollowingaretheessentialsofarathercomplicatedstorywhichtookplacesomefortyyearsearlier.54

WiththeauthorizationofC.SentiusSaturninus,thegovernorofSyria,HerodtheGreatwentintoArabiatoarrestcriminalsfromhisterritoryinTrachonitis.Askirmish
ensuedwhentheNabataeansintervenedtoprotectthem,andsomesoldiersonbothsidesdied.Syllaeus,whorepresentedtheNabataeansinRome,presentedthe
affairtoAugustusasanunwarrantedbreachofthepeace.Theemperor'sextremedispleasureexplainswhyHerodhadbeencarefultosecurepriorRomanapproval
forhismilitaryaction.Itdidhimnogood,however,andhelosttheimperialfavourcompletely.AsAugustusputitinaseverereprimand,Herodhadbeenrelegated
fromthestatusofafriendtothatofasubject.TheemperorrefusedafirstembassyfromJudaea,andonlyreluctantlyheardasecondembassyledbyNicolausof
Damascus,whowiththesupportofambassadorsfromAretasIV,provedSyllaeus'versionoftheepisodetobefalse.Herodwasrestoredtofavour,butAretasfound
himselfinserioustrouble,becauseonthedeathofObodashehadassumedthethroneofArabiawithoutthepermissionofRome.Augustushadplannedtoentrust
ArabiatoHerod,anditwasonlythelatter'srefusalthatenabledAretastosucceedafterbeingreprovedforhisrashness.

Aretas,therefore,knewfrompersonalexperiencethatRomehadlittlepatiencewithwarlikeactionsbetweentheclientkingswhoguardedtheeasternfrontierofthe
empire.ItwouldbemostsurprisingifhehadnotfearedsomereactiononthepartofTiberius,ashehadoncedreadedtheresponseofAugustus.Theretirementof
TiberiustoCapriinAD26hasbeeninterpretedasalossofinterestintheaffairsofstate.Whiletheremaybesometruthinthisasregardsinternalaffairs,itisnotso
asregardstheprovinces.55Philo'sjudgementthatinhistwentythreeyearsofruleTiberiusdidnotletthesmallestsparkofwarsmoulderinGreeceortheworld
outsideGreece,56whilenotcompletelyaccurate,57isborneout(forthepartoftheworldwithwhichweareconcerned)byhisvigourousandeffectiveresponsesin
matterslarge,e.g.theParthian
53
AJ18.115.
54
AJ16.271355.
55
SeeCharlesworth(1950).
56
Leg.141.
57
TherewereuprisingsinAfrica(AD17),inThrace(AD19,21,25),andinGaul(AD21).SeeScullard(1982),27880.

 Page84
58 59
occupationofArmeniainAD34, andsmall,e.g.whenPilatetoannoytheJewsplacedshieldswiththeemperor'snameinHerod'spalaceinJerusalem. His
vigilanceregardingthesecurityoftheeasternfrontierisperfectlyillustratedbythewayherespondedtothedeathofHerodPhilipinAD33/34.Heimmediately
attachedtheterritorytotheprovinceofSyria,whileleavingtherevenuestoaccumulateforasuccessor.60Despitehisageandweariness,Tiberiuswasperfectly
capableofreactingquicklyanddecisively.InthecaseofAretasitonlyneededanordertothegovernorofSyria,whohadfourlegionsathisdisposition.61

AsAretaswaitedtenselyforsomethingtohappen,hisattitudetowardsJewswascertainlyanythingbutbenign.They(inthepersonoftheirking)wereresponsiblefor
thedesperateanxietywhichweigheduponhim.ARomanreprisalwouldbebutthelatestintheseriesofdisasterswhichtheyhadbroughtuponhispeople.His
subjectspresumablysharedhisapprehensionandhisanger,bothofwhichintensifiedastheyearspassed.BythetimePaularrivedC.AD33thetensionwouldhave
beenbuildingforsomethreeyears.ItwascertainlynotapropitiousmomentforaJewtobeginpreachingwhattoanoutsiderwasbutanewvarietyofJudaism.To
thoseNabataeanswhoweretheobjectsofhisministryitcouldonlyappearasanattempttoinfiltrate,divide,andweakenthem.Whattheysawasaninvitationto
betrayalwouldhavepromptedanimmediateandviolentreaction.Paul,however,escaped.Otherwisetherewouldhavebeennopointindrawingtheauthoritiesinto
theaffairandpaintinghiminsuchcoloursthathewasrememberedasdangerousthreeyearslater(cf.2Cor.11:323).

Iftheaboveassessmentofthesituationiscorrect,itisunlikelythatPaulpenetratedverydeeplyintoArabia.HemaynotevenhavereachedBosratherewerethree
Nabataeantownsfurthernorth,Phillopolis,Kanatha,andSuweida.62IfAretascontemplatedarmedresistancetoRome,hewouldcertainlyhavehadtroopsinthat
area,andPaulwouldhavebeenafigureofsuspiciononceheopenedhismouth.ThismakesitimprobablethatPaulstayedlong.63Hissilenceastotheduration
suggeststhatitwasveryshort,sincehelistshistwoweeksinJerusalemandhisthreeyearsinDamascus(Gal.1:18).
58
Josephus,AJ18.96105DioCassius,History58.26.1459.27.24Tacitus,Annals6.317.
59
Philo,Leg.299308Josephus,JW2.16974.
60
AJ18.108.
61
WhopreciselywasinchargeinSyriaatthisstageisproblematicseeSchrer(197387),1.2602,362.ItisimprobablethatL.Vitellius,whobecamegovernorofSyriainAD35,was
everorderedbyTiberiustoattackAretasasJosephusreports(AJ18.115,1206).ThelattergivesacompletelydifferentexplanationforthepresenceofVitelliusinJerusaleminAJ18.
905.SeeSaulnier(1984),3734.
62
SeethemapinNegev(1977),550.
63
AgainstMeeks(1983),10,whobelievesthatPaulpreachedforthreeyearsinsuchcitiesasPetra,Gerasa,Philadelphia,andBosra.

 Page85

TheimprudentgestureisimportantonlyinsofarasitindicatesthatfromthebeginninghewasconvincedthathismissionwastoGentiles.

Damascus

PaulgivesusnoinformationonhowhepassedthenextthreeyearsinDamascus(Gal.1:18).AccordingtoLuke,Paul'sministrytherewasdevotedtotheconversion
ofJews(Acts9:20).NotonlyisthispartofthebuilduptoLuke'sexplanationofwhyPaulhadtoleavethecity(Acts9:23),whichiscontradictedbytheApostle(2
Cor.11:323),butitisincompatiblewithPaul'sconvictionthathismissionwastotheGentiles.

LearningaTrade

Beforetouchingonthisissue,amorefundamentalquestionneedstoberaised:howdidPaulsupporthimself?Forsomereasonthisquestionisneverasked.Perhapsit
istakenforgrantedthathewasindependentlywealthy,eventhoughsubsequentlyhehadtoworkforaliving,orthatthechurchtheregrantedhimfreeroomandboard
forlife,eventhoughhehadnoclaimuponit,havingcontributednothingtoitsfoundation.Moreover,nochurchcouldassumethefinancialburdenofguaranteeing
subsistencetoconverts.Notonlywasittheroadtofinancialdifficulties,64butitwasmostunwisetogivetheappearanceofbuyingconverts.Itseemsprobable,
therefore,thatPaulsupportedhimself.Thekeyquestionsthenbecome:whatskilldidhehave,andwheredidheacquireit?

Paulhimselftellsusonlythatheworkedwithhishands(1Thess.2:92Thess.3:791Cor.4:12).Hisattitudetowardssuchlabourisallthemoresignificantinthat
itemergesonlyindirectly.Helistsitamongtheunfairhardshipsofhislife(1Cor.4:122Cor.6:511:23,27)andqualifiesitasslavish(1Cor.9:19)and
demeaning(2Cor.11:7).Noonebredtoacraftwouldspeakofitinthisway.65Paul'sstanceisthatofthosewhoseinheritedstatuspreservedthemfromphysical
work.

ThisconclusionconflictswiththewidespreadviewthatPaulowedhistradetohisJewishbackground.TextssuchasHewhodoesnotteachhissonacraftteaches
himbrigandage(b.Kidd.33a)areadducedasstatementsofprincipledesignedtoexplainthefactthatrabbiswereselfsupporting.Thispractice,
64
WhenthemoneyofwealthymembersofthechurchofJerusalem(Acts2:454:345:11)ranout,helpfromabroadbecamenecessary(Gal.2:10).
65
TheargumentsofHock(1978)areinnowayaffectedbythestrainedobjectionsofStegemann(1987),227,orLgasse(1991),41.

 Page86
66
however,isneitherasclearnoraswellattestedasisoftenthought. BenSirabeginshisdevelopedcontrastbetweenthetradesmanandthescholar(38:24to39:11)
withthewordsThewisdomofthescribedependsontheopportunityofleisureonlytheonewhohaslittlebusinesscanbecomewise,andgoesontoexcludefrom
accesstowisdomeveryartisanandmastercraftsmanwholaboursbynightaswellasbyday(38:27cf.2Cor.6:511:27).Anyoccupationwasadistraction
fromthestudyoftheLaw.AlltheevidenceofrabbispractisingtradesdatesfromthepostAD70periodwhenconditionsinJerusalemhadchangedradicallyforthe
worst.Thentherabbishadtoworkinordertosurvive,andnecessitywastransformedintoavirtue,AllstudyoftheLawwithout[worldly]labourcomestonaughtat
thelastandbringssininitstrain(m.Aboth2.2)PresumablyitwasatthisstagethattradeswereattributedtoHillelandShammai.67

ThusthereisnoevidencetosuggestthatwhenPaulwasaPharisaicstudentintheHolyCityhewasunderanypressurefromhismasterstolearnatrade.Moreover,
therewasneitherneednorincentive.Hisintensecommitmenttohisstudies(Gal.1:14)precludedthedistractionofotherinterests,andevenifhereceivednothing
fromhisfamily(whichappearsunlikely)hewouldnothavestarved,becausethereweremanywhosoughtmeritbyalmsgiving.68

OnhisconversiontoChristianity,however,PaulwouldnolongerbeanacceptablerecipientofinstitutionalizedJewishcharity,andhemayhavelostcontactwithhis
family.When,speakingofhisfamilybackground,hesays,WhatevergainIhad,IcountedaslossforthesakeofChrist(Phil.3:8).Itisnaturaltounderstandthathe
hadbeendisinherited.Inanycase,itwasduringhisstayinDamascus,andperhapsbecauseofhistravelsinArabia,thatPaulismostlikelytohavebecomeconscious
oftheneedtobeselfsufficient.HismissiondemandedamobilitywhichwouldenablehimtoreachouttothewholeGentileworld.Onlyfinancialindependencecould
givehimsuchfreedom,anditwasimpossiblewithoutamarketableskill.69AccordingtoLuke,hedecidedtobecomeatentmaker(Acts18:3).70

Althoughthelettersfurnishnodirectconfirmation,thestatementhasaverydefiniteintrinsicplausibility.Whencontemplatingwhichtradetochoose,Paulmusthave
establishedanumberofcriteriaforhimself.TheskilltoacquirehadtobeindemandthroughouttheRomanempire,inthecitiesaswellasontheroadithadtobring
himintocontactwithalllevelsofthepopulationitstools
66
SorightlyHock(1978),557.ThespeculativecharacteroftheconsiderationsadvancedbyHengel(1991),1516,dramaticallyunderlinesthelackofhardevidencetosupportthe
viewthatpreAD70rabbishadtrades.
67
ThetextsareassembledbyBillerbeck(19228),2.7456.
68
SeeTheSubsidizedSectionsofthePopulationinJeremias(1969),11119.
69
Theotheroptionsweretoacquireapatronortobegashetravelled.Theformerwouldhaveimpairedhismobility,andthelatterwouldhavecompromisedhiscredibility.
70
Seefurtherbelow,Ch.11,WorkingwithPriscaandAquila.

 Page87

hadtobeeasilyportableandithadtobequietandsedentarysothathecouldpreachandworkatthesametime.Whenjudgedfromthestandpointoftwentieth
centurylife,tentmakingwouldappeartofailonallcounts.Whatneed,forexample,hadurbandwellersoftents?

InfirstcenturyRomeanumberofinscriptionsattesttheexistenceofanorganizationknownasTheTentmakersAssociation.71PlinytheElderdescribeswhatwork
theydidinawaywhichanswerstheabovequestion.

Linenclothswereusedinthetheatresasawnings,aplanfirstinventedbyQuintusCatuluswhendedicatingtheCapitol.72Nextevenwhentherewasnodisplayofgames
Marcellus,thesonofAugustus'ssisterOctavia,duringhisperiodofofficeasaedileintheeleventhconsulshipofhisuncle,fromthefirstofAugustonwardsafixedawningsof
sailclothovertheforum,sothatthoseengagedinlawsuitsmightresortthereunderhealthierconditions.WhatachangethiswasfromthesternmannersofCatotheexcensor,
whohadexpressedtheviewthattheforumoughttobepavedwithsharppointedstones.73Recentlyawningsactuallyofskyblueandspangledwithstarshavebeenstretched
withropesevenintheemperorNero'samphitheatres.Redawningsareusedintheinnercourtsofhousesandkeepthesunoffthemossgrowingthere.74(NH19:234trans.
Rackham)

Tentmakers,therefore,couldexpectbothpublicandprivatecommissionsinfurnishingprotectionfromtheglaringsummersun,whichwasmuchmoreintenseinthe
MiddleEastthaninItaly.ItshouldalsobekeptinmindthatlinenwasoneoftheprimeproductsofTarsus.75

Awnings,however,werenotthetentmaker'sonlyproduct.OncertainoccasionstheinnsofRomewerenotcapableofhandlingallthosewhoflockedtothecity.
Thusin45BCwhenJuliusCaesarcelebratedthedefeatofallhisenemiesbymagnificentdisplaysofallsorts,Suchathrongflockedtoalltheseshowsfromevery
quarterthatmanystrangershadtolodgeintentspitchedinthestreetsoralongtheroads(Suetonius,Caesar39.4trans.Rolfe).

Whethersuchtentswerealsooflinenisanopenquestion.Certainlyadistinctionmustbemadebetweenthelightlinenofsummerbeachpavilionsdesignedtoprovide
shadewithoutimpedingthebreeze,76andthemuchstouterlinenusedassailcloth,77andforhuckstersbooths.78Thedifferenceinweight
71
CIL6.5183b,9053,9053a.
72
ThetechniqueisillustratedinMacaulay(1974),1045.
73
Todiscourageloiterers.
74
Themossgrewinarectangularbasininthemiddleofthecourtyardwhichcollectedrainwater.Thecoveringpreventedevaporationintheheatofsummer.
75
AguildoflinenworkersismentionedbyDioChrysostom,Discourses34.21and23.
76
Cicero,AgainstVerres2.5.30and80.
77
AccordingtoPliny,CleopatrahadapurplelinensailwhenshecamewithMarkAntonytoActium,andwiththesamesailshefled(NH19.22)afterthevictoryofOctavian.
78
Inwintertime,whenthearcadesarecrammedwithcanvasmarketstallsJuvenal,Satires6.1534).ThereferenceistothefeastoftheSaturnaliacelebrated1719December.

 Page88

andflexibilitybetweensuchcanvasandleatherisnegligible,andthewaterproofingofthelatterissuperior.Itisdoubtful,therefore,thatleathertentswereused
exclusivelybythemilitary.79

Sinceitwastoatentmaker'seconomicadvantagetobeabletoworkallyearandinallclimates,itmustbeassumedthatPaulwasequallyathomeinsewingtogether
stripsofleatherordifferentweightsofcanvas.Thereislittledifferenceintechniqueinjoiningtwothicknessesofleatherorheavycanvas.Ittakesanawltomakethe
holeinarolledovercanvasseamasitdoesinleather,andinbothcasesthecurvedneedlemustbeslippedthroughbeforetheholecloses.

WiththissilentskillPaulneededonlyamoonshapedknife,anawl,needles,andwaxedthread,andcouldbesureoffindingjobsoneveryroadhetravelledandon
everyseahesailed.Hecouldreinforceasailandremakethetentsthatpassengersandcrewusedforshelterondeckandforaccommodationonshoreatnight.80He
couldrepairthecanvasroofofawagonortheharnessofthedraughtanimals.Hecouldputastitchortwoinanyofthemultifariousarticlesofleatherusedby
travellers,sandals,gaiters,belts,cloaks,andgourds.

Everytownofanysizehaditsfestivalforwhichboothsandtentswerenecessary.81Ifatravellertimedhisvisitright,thelocalworkshopswouldbegladofaskilled
hand.AtCorinth,forexample,PaulfoundworkwithPriscaandAquila(Acts18:3),82whocateredtotheperennialneedforawnings,butwhoalsoprofitedfromthe
factthatthebiennialIsthmianGamesmeantcontinuousbusinessintherepairandcreationoftents.83TherewasnotownatIsthmia,andthetentssetuparoundthe
sanctuaryofPoseidoncateredforvastnumbersofvisitorsfromfarandnear,aswellasforthehuckstersofCorinthwhowentouttofleecethem.84

ThusintermsofhismissionarystrategyPaulchosewisely.Heacquiredaskillwhoseproductsmanyneeded.Itenabledhimtotravelwidely,althoughitwouldnever
makehimrich,eventhoughheworkednightandday(1Thess.2:92Thess.3:9).85Itenabledhimtosurvive,butonlybarely,becauseheneverstayedinoneplace
longenoughtobuildupastableclientele.Ashisministryateintohistime,subsidiesbecamenecessary(Phil.4:15162Cor.11:9).Butthatdaywasstillalongway
inthefuture.

ThedisadvantageofPaul'schoicewasthatitstigmatizedhimasbelongingtoagroup,whichwasdespisedbyasocialclassfromwhichhehadtorecruitassistants.In
aletterdesignedtocontributetotheeducationofhissonMarcus,thenastudentinAthens,CicerospeaksfortheworldinwhichPaullived:
79
PaceLampe(1987),25661.Hock(1980),201isalsotoocategoricalinclaimingthatalltentsweremadeofleather,andthatPaulinconsequencewouldbebetterdescribedasa
leatherworker.
80
Casson(1979),154.
81
Ibid.91.
82
SeeCh.11,WorkingwithPriscaandAquila.
83
Seemy(1992e),1417.
84
Foradescriptionofthecrowds,seeDioChrysostom,Discourses8.9.
85
Onthepovertyoftheartisan,seeHock(1980),345.

 Page89

Inregardtotradesandothermeansoflivelihood,whichonesaretobeconsideredbecomingtoagentlemanandwhichonesarevulgar,wehavebeentaught,ingeneral,as
follows:First,thosemeansoflivelihoodarerejectedasundesirablewhichincurpeople'sillwill,asthoseoftaxgatherersandusurers.Unbecomingtoagentleman,too,andvulgar
arethemeansoflivelihoodofallhiredworkmenwhomwepayformeremanuallabour,notforartisticskillforintheircasetheverywagestheyreceiveisapledgeoftheir
slavery.Vulgarwemustconsiderthosealsowhobuyfromwholesalemerchantstoretailimmediatelyfortheywouldgetnoprofitswithoutagreatdealofdownrightlyingand
verilythereisnoactionthatismeanerthanmisrepresentation.Andallartisansareengagedinvulgartradesfornoworkshopcanhaveanythingliberalaboutit.Least
respectableofallarethosetradeswhichcatertosensualpleasures:Fishmongers,butchers,cooks,andpoulterersandfishermen,asTerencesays.Addtothese,ifyouplease,
theperfumers,dancers,andthewholevaudevillecrowd.Buttheprofessionsinwhicheitherahigherdegreeofintelligenceisrequiredorfromwhichnosmallbenefittosocietyis
derivedmedicineandarchitecture,forexample,andteachingtheseareproperforthosetowhosesocialpositiontheyareappropriate.

(DeOfficiis1501trans.Milleradaptedemphasisadded)

Thelitefoundvariousreasonstojustifytheirprejudice.Thebentoverpositioninwhichcraftspeopleworkedindicatedservility.Manuallabourcoarsenednotonly
thebodybutthespirit.Dirtunderthenailsstainedthesoul.Lackoftimeexcludedtheacquisitionofvirtueorlearning.Povertyengenderedvenality.86

Naturallythosewhobelongedtotheworkingclassdidnotthinkofthemselvesinthisway.Toworkforrewardwasasintegraltotheirselfunderstandingastheir
parentage.Theirprideintheircraft,howeverlowly,isunderlinedbythefactthattheyoftenhaditinscribedontheirtombstones.87Asoneofthem,Paulhadeasy
accesstothevastmajorityofhisfellowcitizens,butineachcityhealsoneededoneortwofromamongthelite,ifonlytoprovideaspacelargeenoughforthe
believerstomeet.ThathesucceedinginimpressingsuchpeopleandatCorinthhisfirstconvertscertainlybelongedtothelite88saysmuchaboutthequalityof
Paul'spersonality.

MinistrytoGentiles

EvenifJosephusexaggeratesthenumberofJewsslainattheoutbreakoftheFirstRevoltinAD66,89therecanbelittledoubtthatDamascushadasizeable
86
MacMullen(1976),11418Hock(1980),357.
87
MacMullen(1976),120.Onretirement,scribesdedicatedtheirequipmenttoHermes(GreekAnthology6.63and65).
88
SeeCh.11,TheFirstConverts.
89
Thehesitationisduetothefactthatonecannotharmonizethetwofiguresheoffersindifferentpartsofthesamework,10,000(JW2.561)and18,000(JW7.368).

 Page90
90
Jewishpopulation.Nonethelessitsethoswasessentiallypagan. AsafoundingmemberoftheDecapolis,itwasanindependentGreekcitywhoseculturewas
stronglyHellenizeditscoinsexclusivelyrepresentGreekdeities.Itoweditsprominenceandwealth91toitspositionatoneofthegreatcrossroadsoftheancient
world.ThetraderoutesfromAnatoliaandMesopotamiajoinedtherebeforesplittingagaintogodowntheplateauintoArabiaorouttothecoastandsouthtoEgypt.
IfinthesecondcenturyBCitsmerchantswentasfarasDelos,wecanbesurethatthoseofothernationalitieshadabaseinDamascus.Inotherwords,Paulwould
havehadlittledifficultyinfulfillinghismissionaryvocationinDamascus.

Presumablyhepreachedduringhistradeapprenticeshipastheopportunityarose.Athreeyearstaywouldsuggestthathefoundplentyofworktodo,andhemust
havebeenextremelydisconcertedwhentheNabataeansassumedcontrolofthecityinthelatterpartofAD3792andmovedtoarresthim.Whytheybotheredremains
amystery.ThelapseoftimehadmadeitclearthattheRomanshadnointentionofbringingAretastobookforthewaragainstHerodAntipas.Thereisnomentionin
JosephusofanyNabataeanreprisalsagainsttheJewishcommunity.Moreimportantly,theemperorTiberiuswasdeadandhissuccessorGaiuswastheirfriend.Allthe
anxietieswhichhadledtheNabataeanstoseetheApostleasathreathaddissipated.PerhapsPaulexaggeratedthedanger!

Jerusalem.

InanycasePaulfledDamascus,nevertoreturn.ThejourneytoJerusalemwouldhavetakenaboutaweek.Thistimethereisnomysteryabouthispurposehecame
historsaiKphan(Gal.1:18).Twotranslationsarepossible:(a)tovisitCephas93togetacquaintedwithCephas94and(b)togetinformationfromCephas.95
ThemajorityoptfortheformerrenderingonthegroundsthatPaul'sdefenceinGalatiansdemandsthatheshowcompleteindependenceofJerusalem.Whilethiswas
certainlyPaul'sobjectiveintheletter,IsuspectthatPauldeliberatelychoseanambiguousterm,96becauseonecannotimagine
90
SeeSchrer(197387),2.367,12730.
91
Strabocallsitremarkable,noteworthy,andmentionsmerchantsfromArabiaFelix(Geography16.2.20).ItsbestknowncitizenatthisperiodwasNicolausofDamascus,friendof
HerodtheGreat,andJosephus'bestsourceseeWacholder(1962)andSchrer(197387),1.2832.
92
SeeCh.1,DateofDeparturefromDamascus.
93
Betz(1979),76.
94
Longenecker(1990),37.
95
Kilpatrick(1959),1449.
96
SorightlyDunn(1992),73,Paulwasevidentlyconcernedneithertoclaimtoomuchnortodenytoolittle.

 Page91
97
thatPaul'sconversationwithPeterfocusedexclusivelyontheweather, thehealthofthelatter'smotherinlaw,orhisnostalgiaforfishingontheSeaofGalilee!

KnowledgeoftheHistoricalJesus

IttakesneitherimaginationnorintelligencetorecognizehowPaulmusthavereactedinthepresenceofonewhohadlivedwithJesusfromthetimethatbothwere
disciplesofJohntheBaptist.ThecentralityofChristinPaul'sconversionexperienceandhistheology,andthenaturalcuriosityengenderedbythehintshepickedup
duringhisthreeyearsintheChristiancommunityatDamascus,makeitextremelyimprobablethathedidnotavailhimselftotheutmostofPeter'sknowledgeofthe
historicalJesus.AtthispointPeterhadbeenpreachingforsevenyears,andthroughrepetitionhisstorywouldinevitablyhaveacquiredthefixedformofagospel,with
abeginning,middle,andend.Havinglivedfortwoweekswiththeprimeeyewitnessoftheearthlyministry,PaulcertainlylearntmuchaboutthehistoricalJesus.98

Anumberoffeaturesinhisletterstendtoconfirmthisconclusion.ThehistoricalJesusisfundamentaltoPaul'stheology.ThedisciplewhowroteEphesianscaughtthe
Apostle'sapproachperfectlywhenhepresentsJesusasthetruthofChrist(Eph.4:21).99WhenhisconvertsattemptedtoseparatetheChristoffaithfromtheJesusof
history,PaulresistedbyinsistingthattheLordofGlorywasthecrucifiedJesus(1Cor.2:6),andbystressingthatChristhadbeenreceivedasJesustheLord(Col.
2:6).100TheimplicationthatPaulpreachedthehistoricalJesusisformallyconfirmedbyhiscondemnationofanyonewhopreachesaJesusotherthantheonewe
preached(2Cor.11:4).101

TherearetworeferencestosayingsofJesusinFirstCorinthians,theprohibitionofdivorce(7:1011)andthedirectiveconcerningthelivelihoodofpastors(9:14).It
isemphasizedbysomethatthesearenotdirectquotationsbutratherallusionsorreminiscences.ThisisdoneinordertobringthemintolinewiththerestofPaul's
correspondence,wherethesituationhasbeenratherpreciselydescribedbyF.Neirynck,Possibleallusionstogospelsayingscanbenotedonthebasisofsimilarityof
formandcontextbutadirectuseofagospelsayingintheforminwhichithasbeenpreservedinthesynopticgospelsishardlypossible.102Thenegativethrustofsuch
ajudgementshouldnotbeexaggerated.
97
AccordingtoLdemann(1984),70,W.D.DaviesoncepickeduponastatementbyC.H.Doddandremarkedhumorously,CertainlyPaulandPeterdidnotspendtheirtime
talkingabouttheweather.
98
SimilarlyDunn(1985),1389.
99
SeedelaPotterie(1963).
100
Abbott(1897),244Lightfoot(1904),174.
101
Seemy(1990).
102
(1986),320.

 Page92

FormallyattributeddirectquotationsweretheexceptionratherthantheruleintheageandworldinwhichPaullived.Useacknowledgedvalueoneborrowedonly
fromtherich.Oneshouldexpect,therefore,thatifPaulknewtheteachingofJesusitwouldhaveinformedtheApostle'sthoughttothepointwhereanydistinctionof
sourceandpersonalelaborationwouldbe,notonlyimpossible,butmeaningless.

Recentstudies,moreover,suggestthatPaulknewnotjustthedominicalsayingbutthecontextinwhichitappearsinthesynoptictradition.103Oneexamplemust
suffice.ThethemeofthesupportofpastorsappearsinLuke10andithasbeenshownthatthischapterislinkedto1Corinthians9byawholeseriesofsharedterms:
anapostlewhois(tosowand)toreaphastherighttoarewardforhispreachingthegoodnewsbecauseaworkmanhasarighttoeatandtodrink.
Thecontactsaretoonumeroustomakecoincidenceacredibleexplanation,particularlysincethesametypeofcontactsaretobefoundinotherblocksofmaterial.104
TheinfluenceofthehistoricalJesusonthePaulineparenetictraditionhasalsobeendemonstratedinRomans.TheechoesoftheJesustraditionarenotallofthesame
strength,buttogethertheybuildintoanimpressivecaseforsayingthatPaulmusthaveknownasubstantialamountoftheJesustraditionwhichwaslatercommittedto
thepresentGospelformbytheEvangelists.105

Ithasalsobeenpointedoutthat,althoughPharisaismwasessentiallyanurbanmovementandPaulacityman,theApostleusesanunusuallyhighproportionof
metaphorswhichreflectaruralenvironmentandanagrarianculture.106H.RiesenfeldhaspersuasivelyarguedthattheseshowthatPaulwasfamiliarwiththelanguage
ofJesus'parables,becausethecontactsaretoospecifictobeexplainedbycommondependenceontheOldTestament.107

YetwhenwecometotabulatethereferencestothehistoricalJesusinthePaulinelettersallwelearnisthathewasaJew(Rom.9:45)ofthelineofDavid(Rom.1:
3),whohadamother(Gal.4:4),whowasbetrayed(1Cor.11:23)andcrucified(1Cor.2:2andpassim),asaresultofwhichhediedandwasburied(1Cor.15:
34).

ThemeagrenessofthisresultandtheobscurityoftheallusionshaveledmanytodenythatPaulhadanydetailedknowledgeofthegospeltradition.Theyarguethat
hadPaulknownanymoreaboutthehistoricalJesus,hewouldhaveusedit.Thisargumentfromsilenceonlylooksstrong.Itismeaninglesswithouttheunprovableand
unwarrantedassumptionthatPaulwouldhavereactedinthesamewayaswewould,ifwehadaccesstofirsthandinformation
103
Dungan(1971).
104
Fjrstedt(1974).SeealsoAllison(1982).
105
Dunn(1989),205.
106
Rom.1:136:217:4511:172415:281Cor.3:699(passim)15:36442Cor.9:610Gal.5:226:79Phil.1:224:17.
107
(1960),4759.

 Page93

aboutthehistoricalJesus.Therealquestionis,whydidnotPauldisplayalltheknowledgehehad?Thesearchforananswerleadstoimportantinsightsintohis
Christology.108

AMissionaryAgreement

WehaveseenthatPaul'sconversionexperience,inadditiontoanewvisionofJesusofNazareth,alsoembodiedtheconvictionthathenceforthhislifewastobe
dedicatedtopreachingthegospeltotheGentiles.OnewouldexpectthisissuetohavesurfacedalsoinhisdiscussionswithPeter.ThepresentthrustofGalatiansisno
objection,becauseitisevidentthatPaulonlysubsequentlytransformedhisoriginaldefactoindependenceofJerusalemintoamatterofprinciple.

ConfirmationofthisobviousassumptionhasbeensoughtbyG.Ldemannwhoarguesthatthephrase,justasPeterhadbeenentrustedwiththegospeltothe
circumcised,forhewhoworkedthroughPeterforthemissiontothecircumcisedworkedthroughmealsofortheGentiles(Gal.2:7b8),referstoanagreement
madebetweenPeterandPaulontheoccasionofthelatter'sfirstvisittoJerusalem(Gal.1:18).109

Theseverseshavealwaysbeenaproblemtocommentatorsbecausetheystandintensionwiththeircontext.Verses7b8usePeter,whereasinthecontextheis
calledCephas(v.9,11,14cf.1:18).Inverses7b8PeteristhesoleauthorityfiguretonegotiatewithPaul,whoisalone,butinverse9thelatterisaccompanied
byBarnabas,andCephasisbutnumbertwoinatriumvirateledbyJames.Exegetesawareofthesetensions,whohavealsoobservedthatknowingthegracegiven
me(v.9a)isarepriseofseeingthatIhavebeenentrustedwith(v.7a),postulatethatPaulisherequotingpartoftheminutesoftheJerusalemConference.110
LdemannwitheminentcommonsensepointsoutthatsuchanofficialreportwouldnotusethefirstpersonsingularandwouldcertainlymentionPeterbeforePaul.111
EquallyuntenableisthesolutionproposedbyG.Klein,namely,thatverse7reflectsthesituationinJerusalematthetimeoftheConference,whileverse9wasadded
atthetimeofthecompositionofGalatiansinordertotakeintoaccountthechangeinleadershipintheJerusalemchurchwhichhadtakenplaceintheinterval.112How
wouldPaulhaveknownofthechange?And,ifhedid,whywouldhehavebotheredtonoteit,particularlyinasituationwherehewasdesperatelytryingtoprovehis
independenceofJerusalem?
108
Seemy(1982b),3357.
109
(1984),6471.SimilarlyA.Schmidt(1992),14952.
110
e.g.Cullmann(1953),20Dinkler(1953),1823.
111
(1984),68.
112
(1960),2867.

 Page94

Thehypothesisthatverses7b8refer,nottotheConferencewhoseconclusionisdescribedinverse9,buttoadifferentmeeting,istheonlyexplanationthatdoesfull
justicetotheevidence.113Whendidthismeetingtakeplace?ItcannothavetakenplaceaftertheConference.Thatwouldhavebeenpointless,sincePeterhadbeena
partytothedecisionoftheConference.Moreover,acomparisonofGalatians1:1819withGalatians2:9showsthatJameshadsupersededPeterwithinthe
JerusalemchurchashiftintheauthoritystructurewhichisconfirmedbyGalatians2:12andActssothataftertheConferencePeterwasnotinapositiontoact
alone.HencethemeetingwithPeterinverse7bmusthavetakenplacebeforetheConference.

Inthisspanoftime,however,wehaveatmostthreepossibilities.Galatians2:2mayevoketwomeetings,114butbothcanbeexcludedimmediately,becauseineach
casePaulwasconfrontedbyagroup,notasingleindividualasinverse7b.115ThusweareforcedtolocateitduringPaul'sfirstvisittoJerusalem.Thereisnoother
knownpossibilitywithintheframeworkoftheletters.116

WhydidPaultransposeanagreementmadeduringhisfirstvisittoJerusalem(Gal.2:78)intoanaccountofhissecondvisit(Gal.2:110)?Hegainedanumberof
significantadvantages.117First,byseparatingthefactofthefirstmeeting(Gal.1:18)fromitscontent(Gal.2:78)heavoidedgivingtheimpressionthatthemissionary
workdonesubsequenttohisconversionwascarriedoutundertheaegisofaJerusalemcommission,andhewasabletofixinthemindofhisreadersthevalueofthat
firstmeetingasapurelyexploratoryencountertheambiguityofthehistorehasalreadybeennoted.Secondly,byjuxtaposingthecontentsofthetwomeetingshe
managedtoinsinuatethattheequalitythatemergedfromtheConference(Gal.2:6,9)wasalsotrueofthefirstmeeting,wherePaulcertainlylackedtheauthorityin
thechurchwhichPeterenjoyed.118

PracticewasthebasisofPaul'sagreementwithPeteratthisinitialmeetingintheautumnofAD37.PeterhadinfactbeenpreachingtoJews,justasPaulhadbeen
preachingtoGentilesinArabiaandDamascus.Whatsuccesstheyhad,theyattributedtoGodnotetheformulationofGalatians2:8,becausehewhowasatwork
inPeterfortheapostolatetothecircumcisedalsoworkedinme
113
ComparethevacillationofBetz(1979),978Longenecker(1990),556.
114
Betz(1979),86Longenecker(1990),48.
115
AgainstLgasse(1991),79n.14.
116
AccordingtothepresenttextofActs,PaulmadesixvisitstoJerusalem(9:26811:293012:2515:12,1118:2221:1,517).ThefirstandthelastcanbeequatedwithGal.1:18
andRom.15:25,respectively.SourcecriticismsuggeststhattheotherfourarealltobeequatedwithGal.2:1seeBenoit(1959)Ldemann(1984),14957.
117
Quintiliandeniesthatthestatementoffacts(narratio)shouldalwaysdepicttherealorderofeventsthedecisionshouldbebasedonwhatismostadvantageousforthe
defendantinthecircumstancesandnatureofthecase(InstitutioOratoria,4.2.834).
118
ThedifferencebetweenthetwoisinfactunderlinedbytheattributionofapostleshiptoPeterbutnottoPaul(Gal.2:8).

 Page95

fortheGentiles.Theinitialbecausejustifiesthedivinepassiveoftheprecedingverse,Iwasentrustedwiththegospel,andexplainswhyPaulsaysthathis
responsibilitywasvisible,theysaw(Gal.2:7).Eachministrywasauthenticatedinthesameway,namely,bytheeffectivenessofgrace,thepowerofGodmade
visible.Onlylaterdidsuchsimplicityyieldtothecomplicationsofinstitutionalization.

TheMissingYears

AGapintheRecord

FromJerusalemPaulwenttotheregionsofSyriaandCilicia(Gal.1:21).OnecandeducethathevisitedAntiochontheOrontes,thecapitaloftheRomanprovince
ofSyria,andhishometownofTarsusinCilicia.Fromthispointthereisaneightyeargapintherecord,i.e.untilearlyinAD46whenthelettersagainfurnishuswith
informationaboutPaul'scareer.119

InActsthisgapistosomeextentfilledbyamissionofPaulandBarnabasinCyprusandsouthernAsiaMinor(Acts1314).Whilesomescholarsdismissthismission
asafictionalcreationofLuke,themajoritytendtowardstheviewthathissourcecontainedatleastalistoftheplacesvisitedbyPaulandBarnabas.120Thebasisfor
thisopinionistheallusiontowhatbefellmeatAntioch,atIconium,andatLystrain2Timothy3:11,whichatbestisconfirmationbyPaulhimself121ofamissionin
southernAsiaMinor(Acts13:1414:1,8),oratworstaPaulinetraditioncompletelyindependentofActs.122

ThelettersunambiguouslyconfirmthatatonetimePaulworkedwithBarnabas.TheyappeartogetherattheJerusalemConference(Gal.2:1)asrepresentativesofthe
missiontotheGentiles(Gal.2:9).ThefactthatPaulsinglesoutBarnabasin1Corinthians9:6(IsitonlyBarnabasandIwhohavenorighttorefrainfromworking
foraliving?),eventhoughhedidnotaccompanyPaultoCorinth(2Cor.1:19Acts15:3641),underlinesthepositionofBarnabasasaseniorwellknown
missionarywhosestatuswasinsomewaycomparabletothatofotherapostles,thebrothersoftheLordandCephas(1Cor.9:5).Thenatureoftheallusionsuggests
thatPaulknewBarnabas'attitudetowardsfinancialsupportbecausetheyhadactedinthesamewayinthesamecircumstances.

Paul'streatmentoftheincidentatAntioch(Gal.2:1121)suggeststhatbothheandBarnabasweremembersofthatcommunity.123Theyaresimply
119
SeeCh.1,PriortoAD57.
120
SeeHaenchen(1971),4389.
121
Seethediscussionoftheauthenticityof2Tim.inCh.14.
122
SeeLdemann(1984),180n.2.
123
Gal.2:1121isdealtwithmorefullyinCh.6,TheIncidentatAntioch.

 Page96

there,whereasthecomingofPeterandthearrivaloftheemissariesofJamesareexplicitlymentioned(Gal.2:1112).Thereisalsoaslighthintinthelettersthat
Paul'searlymissionaryjourneyswereundertakenasanemissaryofAntioch,asLukesuggests(cf.Acts13:13).Ithasalreadybeenpointedoutthatthelackofany
selfjustificationin12ThessaloniansdatesthemtoaperiodwhenPaulenjoyedthesecurityofamissionarymandate,whichcanonlybethatofAntioch.

TheinitiativedisplayedinhisabortiveexpeditionintoArabia(Gal.1:17)makesitimpossibletoassumethatPauldidnotobeytheimperativeofhiscommissioning
conversioninSyria,Cilicia,andelsewhere.Hislettersshowthatheconsideredhimselfsolelyresponsibleforthecommunitieshefoundedduringthegreatjourney
whichbeganatthelatestinAD46.ThenecessaryimplicationofthisbanalityisthatPauldidnotfeelthesamesortofresponsibilityforotherconvertsmadepreviously
towhomhedidnotwrite.Whynot?Theobviousansweristhathewassurethatsomeoneelsehadtheresponsibilityandwasfaithfullyexercisingit.Thismeansthat
duringtheyearsAD3746theApostle'spositionresembledthatofTimothywhenhewasPaul'sassistant.Who,then,wasincharge?Onthebasisofthelettersthe
onlynamewhichcanbesuggestedisthatofBarnabas.

Theseepistolarycluesofsomewhatunequalvaluecanbecombinedtocreatethefollowingpictureofsome,ifnotall,ofPaul'scareerintheyearsAD3746.He
joinedthecommunityatAntioch,whencehewassentasassistanttoBarnabastoevangelizethesouthernpartofAsiaMinor,notablythecitiesofAntiochinPisidia,
IconiumandLystra.124ThemissionwouldhavebeencompletelyinaccordwithhisownunderstandingofhisresponsibilitytotheGentiles.UnlessBarnabasestablished
arhythmnotablyslowerthanthatofPaulwhenhebecameindependent,thismissionwouldhaveoccupiedatmosttwoyears.Itisnotimpossible,however,thatthe
missionfieldmayhavebeenmoreextensivethanLukesuggests.Butwherepreciselytherestofthetimewasspentweshallneverknow.

DangersontheRoad

Oftwothings,however,wecanbecertain.Paulwasnotidleandhekeptmoving.SomeideaofthedistanceshecoveredhasbeengiveninChapter1,butofhis
experiencesontheroadPaulgivesbutaverysummaryaccount,DuringmyfrequentjourneysIhavebeenexposedtodangersfromrivers,dangersfrombrigands,
dangersfrommyownpeople,dangersfromGentiles,dangersinthetownandinthecountry,dangersatsea,dangersatthehandsoffalsebrothers(2Corinthians11:
26).125Theconditionsoftravelintheworldofhisdayare
124
ThusthereisadefinitehistoricalbasistoLuke'saccountinActs1314.
125
TranslationfromMartin(1986),378.

 Page97
126
welldocumented, andpermitustoamplifyhishints.Thepointisnotmerelyofhistoricalinterest.Theintegrationofhisexperienceintoaworldviewhadasignificant
impactonhistheology.

Thesurprisingfeatureof2Cor.11:26istheemphasis,notondifficulty,butondanger.Theelementofrisk,notstruggle,isevidentlyuppermostinhismind.There
wouldhavebeenlittleperilfromriversonthegreatRomanarterialroadsfurnishedwithbridges.127Secondaryroadswereanothermatter.Intheeasttheywerebuilt
forthelongdryseason,whenstreambedshadlittleornowater.Inthespringtherunoffofthewinterrainsturnedcrossingsintodangerousfordswhoseviolencecan
stillbeexperiencedonthebanksoftheDeadSeaandintheAravavalley.

Suchdanger,howeverreal,wassporadic.Robberswereamuchmoreconsistentthreat.Cassonreflectsarathercommonbutmistakenviewinwriting,thethrough
routeswerepolicedwellenoughforhim[anytraveller]toridethemwithrelativelylittlefearofbandits.Whereverhewent,hewasundertheprotectiveumbrellaofa
wellorganized,efficientlegalsystem.128InItaly,onthecontrary,asaconsequenceoftheanarchyofthecivilwars,brigandagewasendemic,andtravellersfacedthe
additionalriskofbeingshanghaiedasslavesbyownersoflandborderingtheroads.Augustusreactedbystationingtroopsontheroads,129andbydelegatingTiberius
toinspecttheslaveprisonstoensurethatnofreemenwerebeingheld.130Whenthelatterbecameemperorhehadtoconcentrategarrisonsevenclosertogetherin
ordertomaketheroadssafe.131Yetattheendofthefirstcentury,PlinytheYoungercouldwriteofthedisappearancewithouttraceofaRomanknightandofa
centurionandtheirpartiesonmainroadsinUmbriaasifitwereanotunheardofoccurrence.132

Ifsuchwasthecaseatthecentreoftheempire,onecaninferwithahighdegreeofprobabilitythatconditionsweremuchworseindistantprovinces.133Thelegions
stationedinSyria,Asia,andMacedoniadidnotdoubleaspoliceforcesinanythinglikethemodernsense.Detachmentsmightbesenttodealwithaparticularly
troublesomerobberband,andeventhennotasamatterofpolicy,butinresponsetopressurefromaninfluentialperson.134Insenatorial
126
ThebasicstudyremainsCasson(1974).Itshouldbesupplemented,however,byMillar(1981),towhichIamheavilyindebted.SeealsoAndrandBaslez(1993).Graphic
illustrationofhowlittlethingshavechangedintwothousandyearsisprovidedbyLithgow(1974).Muchofthesome36,000miles(57,600km.)whichtheunprivilegedLithgow
(15821654)coveredaloneandonfootwasinPaulineterritory,andhisexperiencereflectsthelotofthosewhotravelledwithouttheprotectionofrankand/orwealth.
127
Chevallier(1972),10315.
128
(1974),122.
129
Suetonius,Augustus32.1.
130
Suetonius,Tiberius8.
131
Ibid.37.1.
132
Letters,6.25
133
ForforacatalogueofhorrorsinMysia,seeS.Mitchell(1993),1.166.
134
Apuleius,Metamorphoses7:7.

 Page98
135
provincestheproconsulnormallyhadathisdispositionsomeauxiliaryunits, whichaccompaniedhimashetravelledthroughouthisterritory.Inprincipleaproconsul
wasexpectedtoholdcourtinvariouscitieswithinhischargeduringhisyearofoffice,butthesizeofprovincesandthelengthofproceedingsensuredthatevenan
energeticandcompetentadministrator(ararespecies)couldinterveneonlysporadicallyandinthemoreimportantcentres,where,wecansafelyassume,accesswas
monopolizedbyprominentfigures.136Thepoorhadnorecourse,137andthevastmajorityofsmalltownsandvillagesneversawaRomanofficial.Apuleiuscatchesthe
realityofthesituationinthewarningafriendgivesLuciusinHypata(modernIpati)inThessaly,

Don'tstaytoolongattheparty.Comebackassoonasyoucan,forintheearlyhoursHypataisterrorizedbyagangofyoungthugswhothinkitamusingtomurderwhoever
happenstobepassingby,andtoleavethestreetsstrewnwithcorpses.Theyaremembersofthefirstfamiliesintown,andtheRomanbarracksaresofaraway,sonothingcanbe
donetoendthenuisance.

(Metamorphoses2.18trans.Gravesadapted)

Securityinthecountrysidewasmuchworse.Povertyforcedmanyintobrigandage.138Anyrobberanywherecouldbesurethatalltravellershadmoneyonthemthey
hadtopaytheirwayandnocreditcardsorchequebookswereavailable.139Thoseobligedtotravelalonedidsowithfearandtrembling,certainlyinlonelywooded
stretchesoftheroad,140whereinGreecewildanimalswereasmuchadangerasbandits.Apuleiusmentionsbears(Metamorphoses4.137.24),wildboar(8.4),
butreserveshisgoriestlanguageforwolves,
Theauthoritiesrequestedusnottocontinueourjourneythatnightoreventhefollowingmorning,becausethedistrictwasoverrunbypacksofenormouswolves,grownsobold
thattheyeventurnedhighwaymenandpulleddowntravellersontheroadsorstormedfarmbuildings,showingaslittlerespectforthearmedoccupantsasfortheirdefenceless
flocks.Wewerewarnedthattheroadwewishedtotakewasstrewnwithhalfeatencorpsesandcleanpickedskeletonsandthatweoughttoproceedwithallpossiblecaution,
travellingonlyinbroaddaylightthehigherthesunthemilderthewolvesandinacompactbody,notstragglingalonganyhow.(Metamorphoses8.15trans.Graves)

Travellersvoyagedingroupswheneverpossibleand,giventhedoubledanger,itseemsreasonabletoassumethatmanywerearmed,atleastwithstaves.141
135
Ritterling(1927).
136
Burton(1975).
137
ThisiswittilybroughtoutbytheassLucius,whocanonlypronouncetheOoftheintroductiontohisappealOCaesar(Apuleius,Metamorphoses3.29).
138
Ibid.4.23.Onbrigandageingeneral,seeMacMullen(1966),25568.
139
Horace,Epistles1.17.523.
140
Apuleius,Metamorphoses1.7.
141
Ibid.8.16.

 Page99

Thismeantthattheycouldbeseenasathreatbyanyvillagetheyapproached.Theconsequenceswerepredictable.

Whenwereachedasmallvillage,theinhabitantsverynaturallymistookusforabrigadeofbandits.Theywereinsuchalarmthattheyunchainedapackoflargemastiffswhich
theykeptaswatchdogs,verysavagebeasts,worsethananywolforbear,andsetthematuswithshouts,halloosanddiscordantcries.(Metamorphoses8:17cf.9:36trans.
Graves)

Thevillagershadtorelyonthemselvesforprotection.Ifselfhelpwasnotsufficient,onlyneighbourscouldbereliedonforaid.142Slavescouldlootthehouseoftheir
deadowners,andescaperetributionbymovingtoanothertown.143Inevitablyallstrangerscameundersuspicion,whosedegreewastheinverseofthesizeofthe
place.144Thiswasnotxenophobiabutthefruitofhardexperience.

Amoment'sabsencefromacottagecarriedtheriskofpilferage,andthosewhotriedtodefendtheirpoorpossessionsendangeredtheirlives.145Thoughprotectedby
walls,stoutgates,andnumerousslaves,whocouldbearmedinanemergency,largehouseswerenotimmune.Thievesusedallsortsoftrickstoinfiltratethepremises,
bothtospyoutwherevaluableswerestoredandtoopendoorsforaccomplices.146Thealternativewasasilentforcedentry.147Whentheythoughttheycouldget
awaywithit,brigandsinafrontalattacksimplybrokedownthemaingate,andheldofftheinhabitantswithswordswhilelootingthehouse.148

Innswereevenlesssecure.AcrosstheRomanprovinceofAsia,theywerespacedaday'sjourneyapart25Romanor22Englishmiles(35km.)withasmall
establishment(mutatio)wheredispatchriderscouldchangehorsesroughlyhalfwaybetweentwoinns.149Theroomsweregroupedaroundthreeorfoursidesofa
courtyardwithpublicroomsonthegroundfloorandsleepingaccommodationabove.150Thosewithmoneytospendcouldbuyprivacy,butthosewithslenderpurses
hadtosharearoomwithstrangershowmanydependedonthenumberofbedsthelandlordcouldcramin,oronhisorherattitudetoguestssleepingonthefloor.151
Unlesstheywantedtocarttheirbaggagewiththem,guestshadtoleaveitunguardedwhiletheyvisitedthebathsandarestaurant.152

Theeaseoftheftneedsnoemphasis.Romanlegislationmadeinnkeepersresponsiblefortheactsoftheiremployees,153butnotallguestswerehonest,
142
Ibid.4.3,10
143
Ibid.8.1523.
144
Ibid.7.23.
145
Ibid.4.12.
146
Ibid.4.1418cf.7:1.
147
Ibid.4.9
148
Ibid.3.28.
149
ItinerariumBurdigalense57181.
150
Casson(1974),2013.
151
ActsofJohn612inHenneckeandSchneemelcher(1965),2.2434.
152
Apuleius,Metamorphoses1.24.
153
Casson(1974),205.

 Page100

andinacrowdedroomatnightonehadonlytostretchoutahandtoappropriatesomethingfromanother'sbaggage.Ifaninnwasisolatedandthebanditsnumerous,
theydidnothesitatetoattackit.154

Eachtown,ofcourse,haditsmagistrateswhowereresponsibleforpublicorder,andwhocarriedouttheirdutythroughservantsofthecourt.155Onlythewealthy,
however,couldbeelectedtomunicipaloffices.Insmallertowns,therefore,officecirculatedamongthedominantfamilies,whoeffectivelyransuchtownsintheirown
interest,whichcouldofcoursebedirectedbypublicdemonstrations.AsF.Millarnotes,Thecitiesranthemselves.Orratherandthisisoneofthemostvivid
impressionsleftbythenovel[TheMetamorphosesofApuleius]theywererunbyanetworkoflocalaristocraticfamilies,whosedoings,publicandprivate,werethe
subjectofintenseobserverparticipationapprobation,curiosity,indignation,incipientviolenceonthepartofthelowerclassesofthetowns.156Thelatterappearas
victimsoftheviolenceoftherulinglite,whointhisrespecthadnointerestinrestrainingitsownmembers.Thewealthycouldrob,157ormurderwithimpunity.158If
theftfromtheirconstitutentsdemandedavictim,anyoutsiderwoulddo.159

ThisbriefandgeneralizeddescriptionisvalidforthatpartoftheGraecoRomanworldinwhichPaulwasactive,namely,theprovincesofSyria,Asia,Macedonia,and
Achaia.Ittakeslittleimaginationtovisualizethetensionsetupwithinhimbysuchanenvironment.HisconversionhadmadehimafollowerofJesuswhohadgivenhis
lifeforthesalvationofhumanity.ThattotallyotherdirectedmodeofexistencebecamePaul'sideal.Hisgoalwastomakeittransparentinandthroughhisown
comportment,alwayscarryinginthebodythedyingofJesussothatthelifeofJesusmaybemanifestedinourbodies(2Cor.4:10).160Yeteveryroadhetravelled
forcedhimtoworryabouthispersonalsafety.Everyinnhevisitedobligedhimtoconsiderothersaspotentialthieves,atleastinsofarashehadtotakemeasuresto
protecttheprecioustoolsonwhichhislivelihooddepended.Circumstancesconspiredtopushtheselftothecentreofhisconsciousness,whereashewantedtobe
totallyfocusedontheother.Hislifebecameaperpetualstruggleagainsttheinsidiousmiasmaofegocentricity.

ItisinthistensionthatwefindtherootsofPaul'sconceptofSin.Whenhesaysall,bothJewsandGreeks,areunder(thepowerof)Sin(Rom.3:9)heisobviously
speakingofsomethingotherthanpersonalsinfulacts,hencemyuseofthecapitalletterintranslatinghamartia.Thisinferenceisconfirmedbya
154
Apuleius,Metamorphoses7.7.
155
Apuleiusmentionsacaptainofthenightwatch(Metamorphoses3.3).
156
(1981),69.
157
Apuleius,Metamorphoses9.35.
158
Ibid.2.18.
159
Ibid.3.287.112.
160
Forfurtherdetails,seemy(1990).

 Page101
161
seriesofothertextsinwhichSinispersonified. ManifestlySininthesetextsisasymboloramythexpressiveofaworldinwhichindividualswereforcedtobeother
thantheydesiredtobetheauthenticselfwasalienated(Rom.7:20).Fromhisownexperienceasatravellingmissionary,Paullearnedthatpeoplewerenotselfish
becausetheychosetobe.Theywereforcedtobeegocentricinordertosurvive.Theirpatternofbehaviourwasdictatedbyirresistiblesocietalpressures.Theywere
controlledbyaforcegreaterthananyindividual,namelythevaluesystemwhichhaddevelopedwithintheirsociety.ThepowerofsystembecamecleartoPaulinthe
difficultyheexperiencedinbeingtruetohimselfasthemodelofJesusChrist(1Cor.11:1).Hencehisanguishedcry,Whoisnotweak,andIamnotweak?Whois
madetofall,andIdonotburnwithanger?(2Cor.11:29).
161
SeeCh.13,Sin,Law,andDeath.

 Page102

5
LearningwiththeThessalonians
InourdiscussionofthechronologyofPaul'slife,hisinitialministryinMacedoniawasdatedbetweenSeptember48andApril50,thetwoyearsbeingequallydivided
betweenPhilippiandThessalonica.1ThereIemphasizedthatoneyearineachplacewastheabsoluteminimumitisentirelypossiblethatPaulstayedlonger.Thetwo
MacedonianchurcheswereperhapsthecommunitiesthatgavePaulthegreatesthappiness.Thedivisionswhichmarredotherfoundationswerevirtuallynonexistent.
Moreimportantly,thequalityoftheircommunallifemadethemstandoutasbeaconsoflifeandhope(1Thess.1:68Phil.2:1416).Theywereapostolicin
preciselythewayhewished,andgeneroustoafault(2Cor.8:14).Iftheyhadassimilatedhisteachingsowell,hemusthavespentaconsiderabletimeamongthem.

ThisfactisthedecisiverefutationofLuke,forwhomPaulspentonlythreeweeksinThessalonica(Acts17:2)beforebeinghoundedoutbyJewishagitators(Acts17:
510).Inadditiontotheconsiderationsjustmentioned,suchashortvisitisexplicitlycontradictedbythecharacterofhisinitialletter(1Thess.2:134:2).The
profoundaffectionandconfidencethereindisplayedarguesunambiguouslyforaprolongedacquaintance.2ThisisconfirmedbyPhilippians4:16inwhichPaulthanks
thePhilippiansforthefinancialaidtheysenthimmorethanonceafterhehadleftthemtoministerinThessalonica.3Hisgratitudeforsuchsubsidies,despitethefactthat
hehadfoundwork(1Thess.2:92Cor.3:8),indicatesanextendedandsuccessfulministry.Thehourshehadtodevotetonewconvertserodedhisincome,andto
liveheneededfinancialsupportfromelsewhere.

PhilippiandThessalonicawerelinkedbytheViaEgnatia,whichranfromtheAdriaticSeatotheBosphorus(seeFig.7).4LeavingPhilippiPaulfollowedittothewest,
asdidtheBordeauxPilgrimonhiswaybackfromtheHolyLandinAD333.ThelattergivesthedistancesinRomanmiles,asdoestheAntonini
1
SeeCh.1,PriortoAD51.
2
SorightlyKmmel(1975),216.
3
Morris(1956)hasargued,butunconvincingly,thatkaihapaxkaidisdoesnotimplymorethanonesubsidytoPaulinThessalonica.
4
Strabo,Geography7.7.4Oberhummer(1905)Radke(1973),1667O'Sullivan(1972).

 Page103
5
Itinerarium,butintheoppositedirection. Thefollowinglistsummarizestheirdata:

AntoniniItinerarium BordeauxPilgrim

Philippis civitasPhilippi

12

mutatioAdDuodecimum

30 7

mutatioDomeros

13

Amphipoli civitasAmphipholim

10

mutatioPennana

17 10

mutatioPeripidis

11

Apollonia mansioAppollonia

20 11

mutatioHeracleustibus

Mellissurgin 14

27 mutatioDuodea

13

Thessalonica civitasThessalonica

ManifestlythelistoftheBordeauxPilgrimisthemorecomplete,becauseittoldthedispatchriderswheretheycouldchangehorses(amutatio)andordinarytravellers
wheretheycouldfindlodgingforthenight(inacivitasoramansio).Hisdistancesarealsomorerealistic.6Normallyonewouldexpecttogetfromone
civitas/mansiotoanotherinoneday'smarch.Asageneralruleonlyonemutatiointervenes.Inthissectiontherearetwo,givingstagesof32,31,and38Roman
miles.Theseareunusuallylong,asarethreeothersgoingwestoutofThessalonica,andmaysuggestthattravellerswereexpectedtomakegoodtimeonthispartof
theroad.ThePhilippians,therefore,wereonlythreedays'goodwalkingawayfromPaulinThessalonica.Tostayintouchandandtorespondtohisneedswasnot
difficult.Aroundtripcouldbemadeinaweek.

WithPaul'sministryinThessalonicaIshalldealinamoment,becauseitisknownonlyasreflectedinletterswrittenlater.HerethequestionofwhyPaulleft
Thessalonicademandsattention.Lukeblamesitonthehostilityofthe
5
Kuntz(1929).
6
HegivesthedistancebetweenPhilippiandThessalonicaas101Romanmiles(against94forAnt.Itin.)onthemodernroaditis166km.(103miles).InoppositiontotheAnt.Itin.
whichgives17milesforonesectionand47foranother,theBordeauxPilgrimcorrectlyshowsthatAmphipolisandAppolloniabroketherouteintothreeroughlyequalparts.

 Page104

Jewishcommunitythere,butthiscannotbetakenatfacevalue.Itcouldbetrue,butLukeelsewhereinvokesitasanexplanationwhenitisdemonstrablyfalse,e.g.
PaulhimselftellsusthattheNabataeanscausedhishastydeparturefromDamascus(2Cor.11:323),butforLuketheJewswereresponsible(Acts9:235).7
Moreover,theonlyhostilitydocumentedbyPaulinThessalonicacamefromGentiles.Themajorityofthecommunitywasofpaganorigin(youturnedtoGodfrom
idols,1Thess.1:9),andthepersecutiontheysufferedoriginatedwithyourowncountrymen(1Thess.2:14).8Theimplicationof1Thess.3:13isthatthis
persecutionhadbegunbeforePaulleft,anditisthesimplestexplanationofhisdeparture.

Itisnotimpossible,assomehaveargued,thatwhenPaulmovedwestalongtheViaEgnatiafromPhilippitoThessalonicahisplanwastofollowthegreathighwayto
itsterminusontheAdriaticcoastwhereitwouldhavebeeneasytofindaboatforItalyandRome(Rom.15:23).9Hadhetofleebecauseoftroublewiththe
municipalauthoritiesinThessalonica,however,itwouldhavebeenmostimprudenttostayonthemainroad.Heneededtogettoanareawherethemunicipalwritdid
notrun,particularlyiftheauthoritieshadinvokedRomanassistance.

Strabo'sdescriptionofMacedoniainbook7ofhisGeographyispreservedonlyinfragments,inoneofthese(frag.10)theViaEgnatiaisidentifiedasthesouthern
borderoftheRomanprovince.Thisiscertainlywrong.Awholearrayofindicatorscombinetofixthatborderonaveragesome70km.southoftheViaEgnatia.10The
mostefficientescaperouteforPaulwouldhavebeenashiptobringhimsouthintoadifferentRomanprovince,Achaia.Thustheremaybeahistoricalreminiscencein
Luke'snotethatPaulheadedforthecoastafterfurthertroubleinBeroea(Acts17:14).11Bethatasitmay,PaulsafelymadeittoAthens(1Thess.3:1Acts17:15),
wherehewasabletotakebreathandtoreflectonthesituationofhisconvertsatThessalonica.

ContactswithThessalonica

TheNewTestamentcontainstwoletterstotheThessalonians.Somescholars,however,claimtheywereoriginallyonemissive,whereasothersdetectfour
7
SeethediscussioninCh.1,DateofDeparturefromDamascus.
8
Forreasonsbehindthepersecution,seep.118below.
9
Bruce(1982a),p.xxvi.
10
SeethediscussionandmapinPapazoglou(1979),3347Hammond(1974).
11
ItisnotdifficulttodevelopaspeculativejustificationfortheLucanitineraryafterThessalonica.PaulcouldhavesetoutontheViaEgnatia,butdecidedthatitwastoodangerous,
andafterPellatooktheroadsouthtoBeroea(modernVeroia),whencetherewasaroadwhichreachedthecoastatmodernKaterini.

 Page105
12
letters. Iamobliged,therefore,totrytojustifymyownviewofthelettersbecauseitunderpinsmyhistoricalreconstruction.

AcharacteristicfeatureofallPaulinelettersisthethanksgivingitimmediatelyfollowstheaddressandsubtlyandindirectlyintroducesthemainthemesoftheletter.131
ThessaloniansstandsoutamongthelettersofPaulinthatitcontainstwothanksgivings.14Evenaquickreadingrevealstheclosesimilaritiesbetween1:210and2:
1314.Schubertdisputesthefactthattherearetwothanksgivings,maintainingthatformallytheonethanksgivingof1Thessaloniansrunsfrom1:2to3:10,andinfact
constitutesthebodyoftheletter.15Notonlyishisargumentfromformconfusedandimplausible,butithasbeencontradictedonbothformal16andrhetorical
grounds.17Moreover,thevastmajorityofcommentators,whodividetheletteronthematicprinciples,limitthefirstthanksgivingto1:210.18Finally,if1:2to3:10
wasinfactintendedtobeanunusuallylongthanksgiving,onewouldexpectPaultoheapupdifferentreasonsforgratitude.Thisisnotthecase,whichdoublesthe
abnormalityofthereiteratedthanksgivingform.

Schmithalsalsodiscernedtwoconclusionsin1Thessalonians,namely3:11to4:2and5:238.19Infacttheformercontainsanumberofelementsnormallyfoundin
theconcludingportionofaPaulineletter.Thedesiretoseetherecipients(3:11)isfoundin1Cor.16:52Cor.13:10andPhilem.22.Theprayerin3:1213hasa
verycloseparallelin5:23.Thephrasefinallybelievers(4:1)isevocativeof2Cor.13:11Phil.4:92Thess.3:1cf.Gal6:17.

Suchdatapermitsonlyoneconclusion.Anoriginallyindependentletter,2:13to4:2withitsownthanksgivingandconclusion,hasbeeninsertedintoanotherletter
constitutedby1:1to2:12and4:3to5:28.Inotherwords,1Thessaloniansasitnowstandsisacompilationoftwoletters.Thisphenomenonisnotuniqueamong
thePaulineletters,itisalsotobeobservedinPhilippians(threeletters)and2Corinthians(twoletters).20Inevitablywhen
12
TheopinionsaresurveyedbyJewett(1986),1946.Malherbe(1990)findsnoevidencethatPaulsentalettertoThessalonicawithTimothy,butconsidersitprobablethatthe
latterbroughtonebacktoAthens.
13
TheclassicstudyremainsSchubert(1939).On1Thess.inparticularseeLambrecht(1990).
14
ThispointhasbeenarguedmosteffectivelybySchmithals(1964),298.Pearson(1971)hasattemptedtoprovethat1Thess.2:1316wasnotoriginallypartoftheletter.His
arguments,however,haveforceonlyforvv.1516,andtheyhavenotconvincedeverybodyseeW.D.Davies(1977),69Donfried(1984),24253Gillard(1989).
15
(1939),26.HeisfollowedbyJewett(1986),32,whoseonlyobjectiontoSchmithalsistheunmotivatedassertionthat1Thess.2:13isanintegralportionofthelengthybutformally
normalthanksgivingthatextendsfrom1Thess.1:2to3:13.
16
J.T.Sanders(1962),355.
17
Kennedy(1984),142Hughes(1990),109Wuellner(1990),1289
18
Jewett(1986),21618.
19
Criticsofthecompilationtheoryoftenforgetthiscrucialpoint.Theirexclusivefocusonthethanksgivingismisplaced,becausetwothanksgivingsalonedonotindicatetwoletters,
whichiswhySchmithals'sproposalfor2Thess.isunacceptableithasonlyoneconclusion.
20
Seebelow,pp.215and254.

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twolettersarecombinedoneorbotharetruncated,becausethebeginningand/orendingbecomesuperfluous,ifthefictionofasingleletteristobepreserved.Thusit
isnotsurprisingthat2:13to4:2lacksboththeaddressandtheelementswhichconstitutethenormalendingofaPaulineletter,namely,thepeacewish,thegreetings,
andthegracebenediction.21

Beforeappealingtothecontentsofthetwolettersforconfirmationofthisconclusion,apreliminaryquestionmustbedealtwith.Whywas2:13to4:2insertedinto
themiddleof1:1to2:12and4:3to5:28ratherthanbeingattachedtotheendoftheletter,as2Cor.1013wasappendedto2Cor.19?Thesimilaritybetween
2:1112and4:12guaranteedthat4:12wouldintegrateperfectlywiththelistofdirectives(4:312)whichoriginallyfollowed2:1112.Thematchwaseven
betterbetween2:12and2:13becausethecallofGodintheformeristakenupinthelatterbythewordofGodwhichyouheardfromus.Atbothends,
therefore,theharmonizationwastooneatnottobecapitalizedupon.Hence,theimpressionofasingleletter.

If1Thessaloniansisinfacttwoletters,whichcamefirst?Herethejudgementisnecessarilymuchmoresubjective,butIthinkthataseriouscasecanbemadeforthe
priorityof2:13to4:2,whichinconsequenceIcallLetterA.

LetterA

Thisletterispermeatedbyaprofoundsenseofrelief.Paulhadbeendeeplyworried(2:17)thatpersecution(2:14)wouldforcetheThessalonianstoabandon
Christianity(3:23,5,6,7).Hehadwantedtocometotheiraidpersonally,buthadbeenprevented(2:17).InsteadhesentTimothy(3:2),andthegoodnewsthe
latterbroughtofthesteadfastnessoftheThessalonians(3:6)wasthecauseofthejoyPaulnowexperienced(3:9),andtheoccasionofthisletter.

ThewholetoneofLetterAsuggeststhatitwasPaul'sfirstcommunicationwiththeThessalonianssincehisflight.Itoriginatedinhisneedandwasnotaresponseto
anycommunicationfromtheThessalonians.Thepersecution,whichhadbegunpriortoPaul'sdeparture,remainedhismajorpreoccupation.Hisuncertaintywith
regardtotheoutcomeisthesoleexplanationoftheemotionallychargedlanguageofvirtuallyeveryverse.LetterAispreciselythesortofletteronewouldhave
expectedPaultowriteinreactiontoTimothy'sgoodnews,whereas1Thessaloniansinitspresentformdefinitelyisnot.Somecommentatorsseeanallusionto
persecutionin1:6.Thisisnotatallcertain.22Ifitwere,however,itispsychologicallyimpossiblethatsuchadetachedreference
21
Gamble(1977),83.
22
Malherbe(1987),48,hasarguedcorrectlythatthedistressisrelatedexplicitly,nottopersecution,buttothereceptionofthegospel,andthusisintendedtoevokethenewconverts'
breakwiththeirpastanddear,familiarthings.

 Page107

topersecutionshouldbelongtothesameletterasthedesperateinvolvementimpliedbytheallusionsinLetterA.Paul,itshouldbeemphasized,dealtimmediatelywith
whatwasuppermostinhismind,e.g.thedefectionoftheGalatians(Gal.1:6)andthelackofunityamongtheCorinthians(1Cor.1:10).Thatheshouldhererestrain
hisemotionalresponsetothefidelityoftheThessaloniansfortwowholechapterswouldbetotallyoutofcharacter.Moreover,hisvisionofthemissorosythattheir
steadfastnessbecamesufficientevidenceoftheirmoralprobity.TheeuphoricoptimismofLetterA'sjustasyouaredoing(4:1)standsinvividcontrast,notonlyto
thetoneofLetterBbuttoitslistofethicaldirectivesin4:38,andespeciallytoitshintsthatallisnotwellinthecommunity(5:1314).Otherdifferenceswillcometo
theforewhenwediscussLetterBindetail.

WhattimeintervalshouldwepostulatebetweenPaul'sleavingThessalonicaandwritingLetterA?ThetimehespentworryingbeforesendingTimothyintodanger
cannotbecomputedwithanyprecision,butPaul'sardenttemperamentrepudiatedprocrastination,andIdoubtthatmorethantwoweeksshouldbeallowed.The
distancebetweenThessalonicaandAthensisroughly500km.(320miles).23ThisfiguremustbetripledinordertoincludePaul'sflightsouth,andTimothy'sroundtrip
toThessalonicaandback.Sixtydayswouldbenecessarytocover1,500km.(960miles)atanaverageof25km.(16miles)perday.Henceaminimumofsometen
weeksmusthaveelapsedbeforePaulgotTimothy'sgoodnews.Hisanxietycertainlyhadplentyoftimetointensify.

IntheintervalPaulpreachedatAthens.Hisministrywasnotasuccess.HissilenceregardinganyconvertsconfirmsthebasicthrustofLuke'saccountinActs17.Itis
notimpossiblethatPaul'sdistractedstatehispreoccupationwiththefateofTimothyandtheThessalonianscontributedtohisfailureatAthens.Hisanxietyinhibited
thewholeheartednessthateffectivepreachingdemands.

1Thessalonians3:1isusuallyunderstoodtoimplythatPaulhadalreadyleftAthenswhentheletterwaswritten,24butthisisinnowaydemandedbyeitherformulation
orcontext.TheinterpretationisinspiredbyaconsciousorunconsciousdesiretoharmonizeLetterAwithActs17:15and18:5.Commonsense,onthecontrary,
suggeststhatPaul'sprofoundanxietyobligedhimtoremainwhereTimothywouldbeabletofindhimwithoutanydifficulty.WereTimothy'sreturnrouteknown(he
couldhavecomebylandorsea),Paul'sreactionwouldhavebeentomovenorthtomeethimassoonaspossible,ashedidonanotheroccasion,whenhewasequally
anxiousfornewsbroughtfromCorinthbyTitus(2Cor.2:1213).ItisoutofthequestionthatPaulshouldhavedelayedhisreunionwithTimothy,bygoinginthe
oppositedirection,
23
Rossiter(1981),499.
24
e.g.Kmmel(1975),257Bruce(1982a),60.

 Page108
25
towardsCorinth,astrangecityinwhichTimothywouldhavehadenormousdifficultyinfindinghim.

TheMovetoCorinth.

ThereisnodoubtthatPauleventuallymovedfromAthenstoCorinth,butonlyafterhehadbeenjoinedbyTimothy.ThemoveisnotedbyLuke(Acts18:1),and
confirmedby2Corinthians1:19whichputsthethreecoauthorsofLetterB(Paul,Timothy,andSilvanus)inCorinthduringPaul'sfoundingvisitthere.Itisdifficultto
saywithcertitudewhyhemadethemove.Twolinkedreasons,however,canbesuggested.CorinthofferedadvantageswhichAthenslacked,andthesefacilitated
Paul'smissionaryplanning.

UptothispointPaulgivestheimpressionofmerelywanderingwest,withRomeperhapsasthevaguelongtermobjective.Oncehehadestablishedacommunityhe
feltfreetomoveon,leavingitsdevelopmenttotheguidanceoftheHolySpirit.ThesituationatThessalonica,however,forcedhimtorecognizetheneed(bothhisand
theirs)tostayincontactwithhisfoundations.Thusforthefirsttimehehadtothinkintermsofabase,which,attheminimum,hadtofulfiltwoconditionsitmustbe
relativelyeasytoestablishachurchthere,andcommunicationswiththesurroundingareamustbeexcellent.

InthemidfirstcenturytheseconditionsweremetmuchmoresatisfactorilyatCorinththanatAthens.Thelatterwasanoldsickcitywhosepastwasinfinitelymore
gloriousthanitspresent.26TheimplicationsofthedelicatelynuanceddescriptionofthecitybyStrabo27arespelledoutsuccinctlybyPausanias,Athenswasbadlyhurt
bythiswarwithRome,butfloweredagaininthereignofHadrian.28ThecontrastdrawnbyHoracebetweenthequietofAthensandthetumultofRomehighlightsits
lackofvitality.29Athenswasnolongereitherproductiveorcreative.Essentiallyamediocreuniversitytowndedicatedtotheconservationofitsintellectualheritage,it
viewednewideaswithreserve.Tradition,enshrinedinarigidhierarchy,wasitsonesafeguardagainstthethreatofnovelty.Asacentreoflearningithadbeen
surpassedevenbyTarsus.30Thepovertyofitseconomyisshownbythedearthofnewbuildings.

Corinth,onthecontrary,wasawideopenboomtown.SanFranciscointhedaysoftheCaliforniagoldrushisperhapsthemostilluminatingparallel.Thedecisionof
JuliusCaesarin44BCtoreestablishthecity,whichhisprecedessorshadsackedacenturyearlier,wasmotivatedbythelegendarycharacterofthe
25
SeethequotationfromTerence,Ch.14,RomeandSpain.
26
Geagan(1979),37889.
27
Geography9.1.1516.
28
DescriptionofGreece1.20.4.TheallusionistothewaragainstMithridatesin8886BC.
29
Epistles2.2.7786.
30
Strabo,Geography14.5.13,quotedinCh.2,TheCityofTarsus.

 Page109
31
cityaswealthy Thenewcolonyquicklyjustifiedhisexpectations,andwithintwogenerationsithadbecomethemostimportanttradingcentreintheeastern
Mediterranean.Allitswealthwasnewmoney.EventhosewhoinPaul'stimehadinheritedricheswerecloseenoughtotheiroriginstoknowwhereitcamefrom.In
oppositiontothecomplacencyofAthens,Corinthquestioned.Itwasstillacityoftheselfmade,andlivedforthefuture.Newideaswereguaranteedahearing,not
necessarilybecauseofintellectualcuriosity,butbecauseprofitcouldbefoundinthemostunexpectedplaces.

ThisatmospherewastoPaul'sadvantage.HemustalsohavebeenawarethattheestablishmentofachurchatCorinthwouldcarryweightelsewhereasanargument
forthevalueofChristianity.TheproverbNotforeveryoneisthevoyagetoCorinthwaswidelyknown.32Thebustlingemporiumwasnoplaceforthegullibleor
timidonlythetoughsurvived.Whatbetteradvertisementforthepowerofthegospelcouldtherebethantomakeconvertsofthepreoccupiedandsceptical
inhabitantsofsuchamaterialisticenvironment(cf.2Cor.3:2)?

Overandabovesuchadvantages,CorinthofferedPaulbothoutreachandsuperbcommunicationswithallpointsofthecompass.Itwasoneofthegreatcrossroadsof
theancientworldand,evenifwediscounttheflowerylanguage,thepraiselavishedonCorinthbyAeliusAristidescontainsagreatdealoftruth,[Corinth]receivesall
citiesandsendsthemoffagainandisacommonrefugeforall,likeakindofrouteorpassageforallhumanity,nomatterwhereonewouldtravel,anditisacommon
cityforallGreeks,indeed,asitwereakindofmetropolisandmotherinthisrespect(Orations46.24).

Trafficin,out,andthroughthecitywasintense.ItstoodonthelandbridgelinkingGreecetothePeloponnese.BoatsshuttledbetweenAsiaandEurope.Paulhadthe
possibilityofinfluencingpeoplefromagreatvarietyofdifferentareas,andconvertscouldcarrythegospelbacktotheirownpeople.Travellersgoinginalldirections
offeredsomesecurityforPaul'smessengers.

PaultellsusnothingabouthisfoundingvisittoCorinth,withtheexceptionofthefactthathewasaccompaniedbySilvanusandTimothy(2Cor.1:19cf.Acts18:5).
AllthatcanbededucedfromhislettersregardinghisrelationswiththechurchtherebelongstoalaterperiodandwillbedealtwithinthecontextoftheCorinthian
correspondence,whichisalsotheappropriateplacetodealwiththeinformationprovidedbyLukeinActs18:122.Itmustsufficeheretonotethathelodgedwith
PriscaandAquila,fromwhosehomehewrotehisnextlettertotheThessalonians,namely,LetterB.
31
ThisistheadjectiveassociatedwithCorintheversinceHomerwrotethefamousCatalogueofShipsintheIliad2.570seeSalmon(1984).
32
Strabo,Geography8.6.20Horace,Epistles1.17.36AulusGellius,AtticNights1.8.34.

 Page110

LetterB

Thisletter(1:1to2:12and4:3to5:28)makesnoallusiontopersecution.AcalmdidactictonereplacestheeffervescentwarmthofLetterA.Complimentsare
doledoutcarefullyinsteadofbeingscatteredbroadside.Moreimportantly,Paul'sattentionisnolongerentirelyconcentratedontheThessalonians.Hisimageamong
membersofthecommunityhasbecomeamajorpreoccupation,ifwearetojudgebyitspositionintheletterimmediatelyafterthethanksgiving(2:112).Whenhis
focusagainshiftsbacktotheThessalonians,itistospelloutthedemandsofChristianliving(4:3125:1222),andtodealwithissuesconcerningtheDayofthe
Lord(4:13to5:11).

ParticularlynoteworthyinLetterBisthecompleteevaporationofPaul'sdesiretoseetheThessalonians.Thisiseasilyexplainedifhisaffectivityhasacquiredanew
object.EvidentlyhehasbecomeprogressivelymoreabsorbedinthenascentCorinthiancommunity.Herecognizeshiscontinuingresponsibilityforthechurchat
Thessalonica,butitisnolongerhisprimaryconcern.TheemotionaldistancebetweenLetterAandLetterBimpliesthatsomeconsiderabletimeseparatesthem.33

ThisinferenceisconfirmedbyindicationsinLetterBthattherehavebeencontactsbetweenthechurchesofThessalonicaandofCorinthindependentlyofPaul.The
existentialwitnessmentionedin1:78(youbecameanexampletoallthebelieversinMacedoniaandinAchaiayourfaithinGodhasgonefortheverywhere,so
thatweneednotsayanything)demandsdirectcontact.Thessalonianswhocamesouthcouldonlyspeakoftheexemplaryqualityoftheircommunitylife(cf.4:9)it
becamevisibleonlytoCorinthianbelieverswhowentnorth.34ItistheselatterwhoreportedtoPaulhowfavourablyhewasstillrememberedatThessalonica(1:9cf.
3:6).Presumablyitwastheywhoalsobroughttheinformationwithwhichhedealsinthebodyoftheletter.

2Thessalonians

Whereastheauthenticityof1Thessaloniansisacceptedwithoutquestion,thatof2Thessaloniansisstillamatterofdebate.Forasignificantnumberofscholarsitwas
written,notbyPaul,butbyoneofhisfollowerstowardstheendofthefirstcentury.35Theyinvokedifferencesofstyleandvocabulary,butinahighlyselectiveway
whichprejudgestheconclusion.Whenusedobjectively,
33
UnwittingconfirmationofthishypothesisisprovidedbyBest(1979),811.Alltheobservationsheusestodate1Thess.notlongafterPaul'sdeparturefromThessalonica
comefromLetterA,whereasthosewhichsuggestalongerintervalarefoundinLetterB.
34
Thefirstpersonplural(we)in1Thess.1.8includesTimothy,oneofthecoauthors,andtherebyexcludeshimasasourceofinformationonpostpersecutionconditionsin
Thessalonica.
35
Inthissense,seeinparticularTrilling(1972)Bailey(1978)Giblin(1990),29.

 Page111
36
however,suchevidenceprovesthat2ThessaloniansismoreathomeinthePaulinecorpusthan1Thessaloniansor1Corinthians. Thecoldimpersonaltoneof2
Thessaloniansisoftencontrastedwiththewarmthof1Thessalonians.Inreality,however,thereisamuchgreaterdifferenceintonebetweenLetterAandLetterB
(seeabove)thanthereisbetweenthelatterand2Thessalonians.

Eversincethesynopticpresentationof1and2ThessaloniansbyW.Wrede,37itisgenerallyagreedthatthestrongestargumentagainsttheauthenticityof2
Thessaloniansisitsidentityofstructureandoftenoflanguagewith1Thessalonians.Suchanextensiveoverlap,wearetold,isunlikelyinasingleauthor,butaforger
wouldtendtocopytheframeworkandvocabularyof1Thessaloniansinordertoenhancethecredibilityofadifferenteschatologicalvisionofwhich2Thessaloniansis
thevehicle.Thevalidityofthisconclusionandtheobservationsonwhichitisbasedhavenotgoneuncontested.

Theargumentfromthesequenceofmaterialisdrasticallyweakenedbyaglanceattheactualarrangementofthetwoletters,evenwhenLetterA,whichhasno
parallelin2Thessalonians,isremoved:

LetterB 2Thessalonians

1:1 Address 1:12

1:210 Thanksgiving 1:312

2:112 ApostolicDefence

4:312 EthicalExhortation

4:1318 ReunionwithBelovedDeparted

5:111 TimesandSeasons 2:112

EncouragementandPrayer 2:1317

MutualPrayer 3:15

5:1222 EthicalExhortation 3:615

5:238 Conclusion 3:1618

Ifweexcludetheaddress,thanksgiving,andconclusion,whicharethemoststereotypicalfeaturesofallPaulineletters,theargumentfromsequenceboilsdowntothe
factthatTimesandSeasonsisfollowedatsomepointbyEthicalExhortation.38

Theargumentsagainsttheauthenticityof2ThessaloniansaresoweakthatitispreferabletoacceptthetraditionalascriptionofthelettertoPaul.Inthiscase,themost
naturalexplanationofthesimilarityoforderisthatcircumstancesforcedhimtoreturntothesamesubjects,andweknowthatitwashiscustomtodealwithdoctrinal
pointsbeforeturningtoexhortation.Itshouldbeunnecessarytoemphasizethatintreatingidenticalissuesitisinevitablethatthesamelanguageshouldreappear.
36
Kenny(1986),98Neumann(1990),213.
37
(1903),327.
38
Best(1979),53,vigourouslycriticizesthesocalledidentityofstructure.

 Page112
39
AtthispointwemustconfrontthequestionoftheorderofLetterBand2Thessalonians.Ithasbeenarguedthat2Thessaloniansantedates1Thessalonians, but
onceagainthereasoningisanythingbutapodicticdubiousobservationsaregivenforcedinterpretations.402Thessalonians,ontheotherhand,containsoneobjective
argumentshowingthatitisposteriortoLetterB.In2Thessalonians2:15Paulwrites,Sothen,believers,standfirmandholdtothetraditionswhichyouweretaught
eitherbywordofmouthorbyletter.ThemeaningisunambiguousthepreachingofPaulhasbeensupplementedbyapreviousletter.41SinceLetterAcontains
nothingthatcanbedescribedastraditions,therecanbelittledoubtthattheallusionistoLetterB.Confirmationofthisconclusionisprovidedby2Thessalonians3:
17,I,Paul,writethisgreetingwithmyownhand.Thisisthemarkineveryletterofmine.TheimplicationisthattheThessalonianshadatleastoneotherletterfrom
Paul.EventhoughtheApostledoesnotidentifyhimselfin1Thessalonians5:27,thesuddenappearanceofthefirstpersonsingularsuggeststhehandwritingofthe
authorguaranteeingtheworkofhissecretary.42BydrawingattentiontothisfeatureofhislettersPaulgavetheThessaloniansthecriteriontodistinguishhisauthentic
lettersfromforgeries.

WhetherPaulconsciouslyenvisagedthepossibilityofforgeryisnotabsolutelycertain.Somehavededuceditfrom2Thessalonians2:2,43butBruce'sobservationon
thisversedeservestobequoted,
Theparticlehsdoesnotdefinitelydenythewriters'authorshipoftheepistleinquestion:themisunderstandingmayormaynothavearisenfromanepistle,andifithassoarisen,
theepistlemayormaynotbeauthentic.Ifthereferenceistoanauthenticepistle(andthegenuinenessof2Thessaloniansitselfbeaccepted),weshouldhavetothinkofa
misunderstandingof1Thessalonians.44

ThisinsighthasbeenexploitedmosteffectivelybyJewett.45Hediscernsaseriesoffivepassagesin1Thessalonians,whichheconsidersweresusceptibleof
misinterpretationbytheThessalonians.Threeofthem(1Thess.2:16,183:1113)appeartometoberatherimplausible,andmoreoverbelongtowhatIhave
calledLetterA.Hehasperceptivelyrecognized,however,thattwotextsfromLetterBeasilylendthemselvestomisunderstanding.

ThefirstisYouyourselvesknowthatthedayoftheLordcomesasathiefinthenight(1Thess.5:2).ManifestlyPaulintendedhiswordstobeunderstood
39
TheargumentwasgivenitsclassicalformbyManson(1952).
40
Kmmel(1975),2634Best(1979),425Jewett(1986),246.
41
TheimprobabilityoftheaoristedidachthtebeingmerelyepistolaryisnotedbyBruce(1982a),193.Best(1979),318,notesthat,weretheallusionto2Thess.,onewouldexpectthe
definitearticle,asin2Thess.3:14.
42
Richards(1991),179.
43
ReferencesinFrame(1912),247.
44
(1982a),164.
45
(1986),18690.

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inafuturesense,butthepresenttensecomescouldbereadbythoseinafeverofintenseeschatologicalexpectationasmeaningthatthedayoftheLordhadalready
arrivedbutsecretly.Thisinterpretationwouldbefacilitatedbyadiminutionorcessationofpersecutionwhich,inoppositiontoLetterA,isnotmentionedatallin
LetterB.ThosewhowantedtobelievecouldhaveseenamomentaryhaltinpersecutionasasignofChrist'sallpowerfulpresenceamongthem.Thislineof
reasoning,orsomethingverysimilar,isnecessarytoexplainwhytheThessaloniansbelievedthatthedayoftheLordhadcome(2Thess.2:2).

PaulalsolaidhimselfopentomisunderstandingbywritingGodhasnotdestinedustowrathbuttoobtainsalvationthroughourLordJesusChristwhodiedforusso
thatwhetherwewakeorsleepwemightlivewithhim(1Thess.5:910).ThemainclauseisGodhasdestinedusforsalvation.WhatGoddecides,however,will
necessarilytakeplace.TheThessalonianscouldlegitimatelyconclude,therefore,thattheirsalvationwasguaranteed.Thecorollarywasequallyobvious.Howthey
livedwasirrelevant,becausenothingthattheydidcouldmodifythedivinedecision.Theycouldevenfindexplicitjustificationforthisfurtherdeductioninthephrase
whetherwewakeorsleep.Paulintendedthistomeanwhetherwearealiveordead(cf.1Thess.4:1315).Butjustpreviouslyinthiscontexthehadusedthe
samewordsinadifferentsense,Letusnotsleepasothersdo,butletuskeepawakeandbesober(1Thess.5:6),whichencouragedtheinterpretationwhetherwe
arevigilantorcareless,namely,withrespecttomoralobservance.

ThosewhosewordshavebeenmisunderstoodwillhavelittledifficultyinidentifyingwiththemystifiedirritationwithwhichPaulwouldhavereactedtosuchreportsof
whathewassupposedtohavesaidinLetterB.Whatevertheexplanationhonestmisunderstanding,deliberatedistortion,forgeryitwasnotsomethingthathe
couldaffordtoletpass.Hehadtoreact,anddidsowithsomewhaticyclarityin2Thessalonians.AsJewetthasnoted,
Theadditionofnewmaterialin2Thessalonians,designedtoclarifythenatureoftheeschatologicalsignsthatmustprecedetheparousia,doesnotindicateachanged
eschatologicalperspectiveontheauthor'spartbutrathertheurgentneedtodemolishthebeliefthattheparousiacouldbepresentwhilethisevilageisstillsoclearlyin
evidence.46

ItwouldhavebeennaturalforwhoeverbroughtthenewsofthesituationatThessalonicatoPaul(2Thess.3:11)tostresstheincreasedpotentialfordisorderinthe
community.SuchunrulinesshadalreadyconcernedPaulinLetterB(1Thess.5:14)asecondandmorevigourousadmonition(2Thess.3:6,11)wouldhavebeen
entirelyappropriate.
46
(1986),1912.ThisfactorisnotadequatelydealtwithbyHolland(1990).

 Page114

Thisscenarioisadmittedlyspeculative,butithasthemeritofdealingadequatelywithalltherelevantaspectsofLetterBand2Thessalonians.Inweighingitsvalue,its
intrinsicplausibilitymustbecontrastedwiththeutterimprobabilityofthescenariossketchedtojustify2Thessaloniansasapseudepigraphicconstruction.47Itiseasyto
ascribemotivestoapostPaulineChristianauthor,butimpossibletoexplainhowandwhythenewlycreatedletterwasacceptedasPauline.

Wearenowinapositiontosumup.PaulwrotethreeletterstotheThessalonians.Thefirst,LetterA,waswrittenfromAthens,sometenweeksorsoafterPaulhad
fledfromThessalonica,hence,inthespringofAD50.LetterBwaswrittennext,butfromCorinth.Theintervalbetweenthesetwolettersisdifficulttocalculate,
becauseanunspecifiablelengthoftimehastobeallowedforCorinthianconvertstovisitThessalonicaandreturn.ThiscouldhavehappenedduringthesummerofAD
50.48HowandwhennewsofthemisinterpretationofLetterB,whichcreatedtheneedforathirdcommunication,2Thessalonians,reachedPaulisimpossibleto
determine,butnothingdemandsthatagreatintervalseparatedthem.2Thessalonians,therefore,couldhavebeenwritteninthelatesummerorearlyautumnofAD50
or,atthelatest,thefollowingspring.

ThessalonicaandItsChristians

ThessalonicaowesitsnametoThessalonike,ahalfsisterofAlexandertheGreat.49Herhusband,Cassander,foundedthecityin316BCbyamalgamatinganumberof
villagesonthebestnaturalharbourinnorthernGreeceattheheadoftheThermaicGulf.50Itisfrequentlymentionedinthewarwhichconcludedwiththeconquestof
MacedoniabyRomein167BCitsshipyardswereimportant.51WhenMacedoniawasmadeaRomanprovincein146BC,Thessalonicabecamethecapital.Its
economicprosperitywasgreatlyenhancedin130BCwhentheViaEgnatiawasconstructed,linkingittoNeapolisintheeastandtheAdriaticSeaonthewest(see
Fig.7).52StrabocalledThessalonica
47
ArepresentativeselectionhasbeenassembledbyJewett(1986),510.
48
TheargumentofDonfried(1990),8,infavourofdating1Thess.toAD43,involvesacceptanceofLdemann'shypothesisofavisitbyPaultoCorinthshortlyafterAD41,against
whichIhavearguedinmy(1982a),8691.
49
HistoricalsurveysaretobefoundinElliger(1978),78114Hendrix(1992b).
50
Strabo,Geography7,frags.21and24.
51
Livy,History44.10,12,32.
52
ThebestmapisthatinPapazoglou(1979),304.Ciceronoteshowbusytheroadwas(Att.3.14.2).

 Page115
53 54
themothercityofwhatisnowMacedoniabecauseithadthebiggestpopulation. Anativeson,Antipater,addresseditasthemotherofallMacedonia.

TheEthosoftheCity

ThessalonicawasnotpermittedtostandalooffromtheconfusionoftheRomancivilwars.Cicerospentsixmiserablemonthsinexilethere(MayNovember58BC)
butnoneoftheeighteenlettershewroteinthisperiodtellusanythingaboutthecity.Fromthespringof49BCtoAugust48itbecameasecondRome.

Fornotonlytheconsuls,beforetheyhadsetsail,butPompeyalso,undertheauthorityhehadasproconsul,hadorderedthemall[thesenators]toaccompanyhimto
Thessalonica,onthegroundthatthecapitalwasheldbyenemiesandtheythemselveswerethesenateandwouldmaintaintheformofgovernmentwherevertheyshouldbe.For
thisreasonmostofthesenatorsandtheknightsjoinedthem,someatonce,andotherslater,andlikewiseallthecitiesthatwerenotcoercedbyCaesar'sarmedforces.

(DioCassius,History41.18.45cf.41.43.14trans.Cary)

JuliusCaesarputpaidtosuchambitionsaseffectivelyashisownweredemolishedbyBrutusandCassius.TheselatterinturnfelltoOctavianandAntony.
ThessalonicasoadmiredAntonythatitsrulerscreatedanewerainhishonour.ThedegreeofembarassmentthiscausedafterhisdefeatbyOctavianatActiumin31
BCisevidentintheerasureofthedatesfrominscriptions.55Octavian,however,heldnogrudge,andthehonoursaccordedhimbythecitywerereciprocatedbyan
acknowledgementofThessalonica'sstatusasafreecity.56

Thevitalityofthepopulationeventuallywouldhaverepairedthedamageofthecivilwars,butAugustusspeededuptheprocessbyestablishingRomancoloniesat
Dyrrachium,Philippiandelsewhere.57ThisdevelopmentcouldonlyhavebenefitedThessalonica,givenitsportatNeapolisanditspositionontheViaEgnatia.Abrief
reportofTacitusthatinAD15sinceAchaiaandMacedoniaprotestedagainsttheheavytaxationitwasdecided[byTiberius]torelievethemoftheirproconsular
governmentforthetimebeingandtransferthemtotheemperor58issignificantontwocounts.Thefatpickingsexpectedbythegovernorsunderlinestheincreasing
prosperityoftheprovince,butthisisperhapsoflessimportancethantheinferencethatthefinancialelite,which
53
Geography7,frag.21.Livyalsocalleditextremelypopulous(History45.30).
54
GreekAnthology9.428.
55
Hendrix(1992b),524.
56
Pliny,NH4.36.
57
DioCassius,History51.4.6.
58
Tacitus,Annals,1.76.41:80.1.

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musthavebeenconcentratedinthecapital,Thessalonica,hadenoughcloutinRome,notmerelytohaveoneortworapaciousgovernorsdisciplined,buttohavethe
systemchanged.ThismeantintimateandcontinuouscontactwithRome,inadditiontoaccessatthehighestlevel.InAD44ClaudiusmadeMacedoniaindependent
onceagainbydetachingitfromMoesiaandrestoringittosenatorialcontrol.59

ThespecialrelationshipbetweenThessalonicaandRomeisgraphicallyillustratedbythecity'sacceptanceofthedivinityofJuliusCaesar,whichsubsequentlyfound
expressionintheestablishmentinThessalonicaofatempleofCaesardirectedbyapriestandagonotheteoftheemperorAugustus.60Romanbenefactorswerealready
beinghonouredbyapriesthoodearlyinthefirstcenturyBC.SometimelaterthegoddessRomawasassociatedwiththemthebenefactorswerethechannelsthrough
whichherbountyreachedthecity.61InscriptionsrevealaconsistenthierarchyofcultsthepriestofAugustus,thepriestofthegods(thetutelarydeitiesofthecity),
andthepriestofRoma.62ThepreeminenceofRomanorientedcultsisaclearindicationthatciviclifewasdominatedbythosewhomthenativeinhabitantsofthecity
consideredoutsiders.ThisisconfirmedbythefactthatofficialdecreesofthecityweresometimesenactedinconjunctionwiththeassociationofRomantraders.63

EventhoughRomansexercisedpoliticalandideologicalcontrol,theywereonlyonecomponentofthecity'slite.TherewasalsoamunicipalcultoftheEgyptiangods,
whosefunctionariescreatedadiningclubofsomesocialpretensionsunderthepatronageofAnubis.64Aninscriptionrecordsadivineimperativetopropagatethecult
ofthesegodsintheinteriorofthecountry.65IfThessalonicahadsuchcontactswithEgypt,onecanbesurethatitentertainedequallyintimaterelationswiththeother
tradingcitiesoftheeasternMediterranean,whosepantheonsarewellrepresented.66Profitwastheunifyingfactorinamerchantclasswhosemembershipwasdrawn
fromeverywherebutthecityinwhichtheymadetheirliving.Thelocalindigenouspopulationfounditselfblockedbyforeignersfromaccesstothedecisionmaking
process,andcutofffromthesourcesofrealwealth,inwhichtheyparticipatedassalariedemployeesorevenmoreremotelyasslaves.67
59
DioCassius,History40.24.1Suetonius,Claudius25.
60
Hendrix(1992b),524.
61
Donfried(1985),345.
62
Ibid.346Hendrix(1992b),525.
63
Papazoglou(1979),3567.
64
Edson(1948),1818.
65
Hendrix(1992b),525Meeks(1983),19.
66
Rigaux(1956),15,listsZeus,Neptune,PallasMinerva,Apollo,Diana,Venus,Mercury,Bacchus,Sun,Pan,Nemesis,Roma,Isis,Anubis,Victoria,Janus,Cabirus,Heracles,the
Dioscuri,Perseus,Nike,Dionysios,andSerapis.Donfried(1985),3378,addsAsclepios,Aphrodite,andDemeter.
67
Jewett(1986),1212.

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ConvertingtheProletariat

ThelettersindicatethattheThessalonianChristiansweredrawnfromthislattergroup.Theadmonitiontoworkwithyour[own]hands(1Thess.4:11)assumesthat
thecommunitywasrecruitedessentially,ifnotexclusively,fromtheworkingclass.68Thehintthatmanuallabourwasthenormaloccupationisconfirmedby2
Thessalonians3:12,wherethosewhohaveceasedtopracticetheirtradesareadvisedtoreturntoworkingandearningaliving.Thesameconclusionemergesfrom
anotherlineofargumentbasedonthepovertyoftheThessalonianchurch.TheextremepovertyofMacedonianbelievers(2Cor.8:2)explainswhy,despite
unusuallyintensivelabour(1Thess.2:92Thess.3:79),69PaulneededtobesubsidizedmorethanoncebythePhilippians(Phil.4:16).Inthelettersthereisnotthe
slightesttraceofthewealthypatronsthehouseholderJasonandcertainprominentwomenwhodominatethesceneinActs17:110.Ithasalsobeenpointedout
thattheinjunctionIfanyonedoesnotwanttowork,lethim/hernoteat(2Thess.3:10)ismostathomeinasituationwhereeveryoneinthecommunitywas
expectedtomakeacontributiontothecommonmeal.70Intheabsenceofanindividualcapableofhostingthecommunity(Rom.16:2,23),themembershadto
entertainthemselves.ThessalonianChristiansmetintenements,notinvillas.

Correspondingly,theworkshopwasthesceneofPaul'sministryinThessalonica.71Itisnotknownwhoemployedhim,72orwhethertheworkshopwaspartofhis
patron'sresidence,orhowbigtheestablishmentwas.Itisclear,however,thattheremusthavebeenaconsiderabledemandfortentsandotherleatherarticlesinacity
whichhadsomanytravellingmerchants.WeshouldenvisageasettingwhichprovidedPaulwithbothastablebaseandawebofreadymadecontactsfocusedonhis
patron,theclients,andhisfellowworkers.73Allthreegroupshadfamilyandfriends,andunlessthepatronwasaverywealthyperson,whichdoesnotseemprobable
forthistypeofbusiness,theremusthavebeencontinuousinterchangeonavarietyofdifferentlevels,allofwhichPaulcouldputtouse(workingweproclaimed,1
Thess.2:9).Suchaworkshopwouldbeinabusystreetormarket,anotherworldwhichmadedemandsuponPaul'senergies.

Theaverageartisanhadtoworktwelvehoursadaysevendaysaweekin
68
Rigaux(1956),521.
69
Hock(1980),31,pointsoutthattheformulationof1Thess.2:9meansthatPaulexceededthenormalworkingdaywhichwasfromsunrisetosunset.
70
Jewett(1993).
71
SorightlyHock(1980),ch.3.
72
InordertoreconcileLukeandPaulinevitablyithasbeensuggestedthatJasonprovidedPaulwithwork,asdidPriscaandAquilaatCorinth(Acts18:23).
73
Meeks(1983),2930Malherbe(1987),1718.

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74
ordertobarelymakeendsmeet. HowdidPaulmanagetomakeconvertsinthisbustlingpreoccupiedmilieu?Theonlyseriousattempttoanswertothisquestionis
Jewett'shypothesisthatPaul'spreachingofJesusfilledaspiritualvacuum.75EarlierscholarshadnotedtheimportanceofthemysterycultofCabirusatThessalonica,
itsdistinctivefeatures,anditsprogressivedevelopmentintoanofficialreligion,butJewettisthefirsttoexploittheconsequencesforthelabouringclassfromwhichthe
firstChristianswererecruited.

TheCabiruslegendtellsofayoungman,murderedbyhistwobrothers,whowasexpectedtoreturntoaidthepowerlessandthecityofThessalonica.76Hissymbol
wasthehammer,andhisblessingswereinvokedforthesuccessfulaccomplishmentofmanuallabour.HewasthegodtowhomtheGreekworkingclasslookedfor
security,freedom,andfulfillment.ForsomeunknownreasonintheAugustanageCabiruswastakenupbytherulingliteandincorporatedintotheofficialcult.This
lefttheartisansandworkersofThessalonicawithoutabenefactor.Theynaturallyassumedthathe,likeothergods,wasmoreresponsivetotheappealsandgiftsofthe
wealthy.Thesenseofalienationwasintensifiedbythefactthatthemembersoftherulinglitewereperceivedasoutsiders.Notonlydidtheydenytotheindigenous
populationthedemocraticequalitywhichGreeksfelttobetheirbirthright,buttheyhadmonopolizedthesourcesofprofit,andnowtheyhadtakenawaytheone
traditionaldivinefriendofthepoor.

Giventhesecircumstances,itiseasytoseehowattractivePaul'spreachingwouldbetothedispossesseditreproducedthebroadlinesofatheologywhichtheyhad
thoughtlost.77Heproclaimedamurderedyoungman,whohadinfactrisenfromthedead,andwho,inconsequence,hadthepowertoconferallbenefactionsinthe
present.Moreover,hewouldassumeallhisfollowersintoaverydifferentworld.

Itisnotdifficulttosurmise,asJewetthasemphasized,78thatthehintofanewgod,whowouldradicallytransformthesituationoftheunderprivileged,wouldhave
beenperceivedbythemunicipalauthoritiesassubversive.Werethemovementtotakerootandgrow,itwouldthreatenthefabricofsociety.Howeverridiculousthe
crucifiedJesusofNazarethmightappearasagodtosophisticatedRomansorGreeks,therulingclasswaspoliticallyastuteenoughtorecognizethedangerofan
uncontrollablegodoutsidethestructuresofcivicreligion.Hecouldserveasarallyingpointforaproletariatwhichbydefinitionwasunsatisfied.Hismessagecould
bethemagnifyingglasstogiveinflammatoryfocustofrustratedambitions.Underhisinspiration,stirringsofuneasecouldbecomerevolutionaryaction.
74
SeeinparticularHock(1980),35.
75
(1986),12732.
76
ThefundamentalstudyremainsthatofHemberg(1950).
77
Jewett(1986),131.
78
(1986),132.

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Paulwasusedtobeingmisunderstoodandtobeingabusedforit,andthiswasthetypeofpersecutionaboutwhichhewarnedhisconverts(1Thess.3:4).Hemust
havebeenasastoundedashisconvertswhentheauthoritiesmovedagainstthemforverydifferentreasons.Heknewhismessagetobenothreattothesecurityofthe
city.Hisconverts,ontheotherhand,hadassumedthatintheirnewstatetheywouldbeexemptfromtheviolencethatwasendemictotheirpreviousexistence.Their
reactiontopersecutionwasnotfearorcowardicebutmentalperturbation(1Thess.3:3).79Recognitionofthepotentiallydisastrousconsequencesofsuch
disorientation,namelydisappointmentsoprofoundastoleadtotheabandonmentofthefaith,explainswhyPaulwassoanxiousaboutthesteadfastnessofthe
Thessalonians.Iftheyfeltthattheyhadbeendeceived,allwaslost.

MaintenanceDiffersfromMission

WehaveseenabovetheexuberantreliefexpressedbyPaulinLetterAafterTimothyinformedhimthattheThessalonians,thoughbewildered,hadremainedfaithful.
WedonotknowwhetherTimothy'sreportwentbeyondthesingleissuewhichhadbeentheraisond'treofhismissiontoalertPaultootherfeaturesofchurchlifeat
Thessalonica.Ifitdid,thelatter'seuphoriaatthesurvivalofthecommunityeffectivelyblockedassimilationofotherdetailsoftheirlife.OnlyinLetterBdowefindout
whatwasreallygoingoninthecommunity,asJewetthassobrilliantlydemonstrated.WhatdoesthewayPaulhandledthesituationtellusabouthimatthisstageofhis
career?

RememberingHisOwnExperienceAsaNewConvert

A.J.MalherbehasveryastutelyusedtextsfromthephilosophicaltraditiontobringtolighttheemotionalstateofthemembersofthenascentchurchatThessalonica.80
Foundersofphilosophicalsectswereveryexplicitaboutwhattheirrecruitsweregoingthrough.Thecommitmenttoanewvisionoflifebroughtinitstrainsocial,as
wellasreligiousandintellectualdislocation,whichinturncreatedconfusion,bewilderment,dejection,andevendespairintheconverts.Thisdistresswasincreased
bythebreakwiththeancestralreligionandmores,withfamily,friends,andassociates,andbypubliccriticism.81Malherbealsodrawsattentiontotheconcernofa
secttodefineitsspecificidentityandtotheeffortsmadebythegrouptoassimilatenewmembers.Hisdetectionofsimilarfeaturesin1Thessaloniansleadshimtothe
conclusionthat
79
Chadwick(1950),1568,andallsubsequentcommentators.
80
(1987),3460.
81
(1986),45.

 Page120
82
Paulconsciouslyusedtheconventionsofhisdayinattemptingtoshapeacommunitywithitsownidentity,andhedidsowithconsiderableoriginality.

GiventhequalityofPaul'sseculareducation,itisnotatallimpossiblethatheshouldhavebeenacquaintedwiththephilosophicaltradition,butIfinditdifficultto
concedethathedeliberatelyadopteditstechniques.Evenifheknewofthem,hemusthaveconsideredtheminappropriate,becausethecommunityhedesiredto
createwasdifferentfromallothergroupingsinthatanindispensablefeaturewasmutuallove(1Thess.4:9).83IsitnotmuchmoreprobablethatPauldrewonhisown
experience?HeneedednoonetotellhimwhattheThessaloniansweregoingthrough.Hehadbeenconvertedtwice,thefirsttimetoPharisaism,andthesecondtime
toChristianity.

ThuswhenPaulspeaksoftheThessaloniansashavingreceivedthewordinmuchafflictionandjoyinspiredbytheHolySpirit(1Thess.1:6),wecatchaglimpseof
hisowninitialambivalenceontwooccasions.TheprofoundsatisfactionofdoingwhathebelievedtobeGod'swillwasmixedwithagnawingsenseofloss.Thepast
stillboundhimemotionally,whilethefuturehadnotyetestablisheditsclaim.Whatgothimthroughthisstressfulperiodwasthesupportofthecommunityhehad
joined,PharisaicinJerusalem,84andChristianinDamascus.ThisistheobvioussourceofthekinshiplanguagewhichMalherbehashighlightedasoneofthefeaturesof
1Thessalonians.85Asbothfather(2:11)andnurse(2:7),Paulrelatestohisconvertsaschildren,whosebondingisevokedbytheunusuallyfrequentuseof
brethren(eighteentimes).Hetriestocreateforthemthecalmrootedinasenseofsecurity,whichhehadhimselfexperienced.

RolemodelshadbeenanimportantfactorinpromotingPaul'sownstability.Theconvictionthatledhimtoanewlifehadnothingtodowithrationalevidence.Itwasa
leapoffaithrootedinanunknowableimpulse.Yethewouldnothavebeenhumanhadhenotfelttheneedforsomejustification.Thishefoundinthosewhoselives
exhibited,notonlythefruitsoftheefforthewasmaking(andperhapsconsideredinadequate),butthepatternofbehaviourappropriatetothenewmodeofexistence
hehadchosen.Itwasbecauseheknewtheimportanceofthesatisfactionofhisownneedtoseethegospelvindicatedbycomportment,inotherwordstoseegrace
atworkhereandnow,thatherecognizedhisresponsibilitytobeamodeltotheThessalonians(1Thess.1:62:92Thess.3:7,9).86
82
Ibid.109.
83
TheforceofthephraseyouaretaughtbyGodistounderlinethatmutualloveisoftheverynatureofthechurch.Malherbe(1986),104,suggeststhatPaulcoinedtheexpression
preciselytodistinguishChristiansfromEpicureans.
84
ProvidedthatthePhariseesobeyedtheinjunctionreportedbyPhilo(Virt.1024)thatconvertsshouldbelovedbythosewhohadbeenbornJews.
85
(1986),48.
86
ThepointismadewithadmirableclaritybySeneca,Ofcourse,however,thelivingvoiceand

(Footnotecontinuedonnextpage)

 Page121

MalherbeiscertainlycorrectthatthisisthefundamentalperspectiveinwhichPaul'spresentationofhisministryin1Thessalonians2:112mustberead,butheis
unrealisticindivorcingitentirelyfromthesituationatThessalonica.87ItwouldbetotallyoutofcharacterforPaultowastetimedepictinghimselftobelieversasthe
idealphilosopher(cf.1Cor.1:1920).Wereheconvincedthathisexamplewasbeingfollowed,whyshouldhejustifyindetailhisconductwhenamongthe
Thessalonians?

OnwhatgroundwasPaulattacked?Onecannotsimplyassumethateachstatementhemakesistherefutationofaspecificcharge.Thatwouldimplyacondemnation
oftheApostlesothoroughandradicalthatacompletelydifferentandmuchmorevigourousresponsealongthelinesof2Corinthians1013wouldbeexpected.A
narrowlyfocusedhypothesisisprovidedbyJewettwho,followingtheleadofLtgertandSchmithals,arguesthatPaulwasreactingtoanaccusationthathehadfailed
todisplaytheecstaticbehaviourwhichwouldmarkhimoutasatruespiritual.88Thisview,howeverhasnofoundationinthetext.89OthershavesuggestedthatPaul
wascriticizedforhavingdecampedwhenthepersecutionbegan,leavingtheThessalonianstofacethemusicalone.Againthisisunfounded.NotonlydoesPaulmake
noefforttojustifyhisdeparture,whichwouldbetheonlyadequateresponsetosuchanaccusation,butanysuchresentmentonthepartoftheThessaloniansis
excludedbothbyLetterA(1Thess.3:6)andbyLetterB(1Thess.1:9)whichnotetherespectinwhichPaulisheldatThessalonica.

ThetensionbetweenthesweepingdefenceandthepassionlesstonesuggeststhatPaulhadbecomeawarethathewastheobjectofcriticism,butknewnoneofthe
details.Onlythisexplainshisconcerntorefuteallpossibleaccusationswithoutgivingweighttoanyoneinparticular.Hisinsistenceinresponsetowhatmusthavebeen
ahintratherthanareportbetraysasensitivitytocriticism,whichisrathercuriousinamanof50whohasbeenanactivemissionaryforovertenyears.Thismayhave
beenapersonalitytrait,butitwasalsotheothersideofhisidentificationwithhismessage.Ifheexemplifiedthegospel(2Cor.4:1011),thenanyattackonhimwas
anaffronttothewordofGod,whichjustifiednecessitated?aresponse.

(Footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

theintimacyofacommonlifewillhelpyoumorethanthewrittenword.Youmustgotothesceneoftheaction,first,becausemenputmorefaithintheireyesthatintheirears,and
second,becausethewayislongifonefollowsprecepts,butshortandhelpful,ifonefollowspatterns(Epistulaemorales6.5trans.Gummere).
87
(1986),74.
88
(1986),102.
89
Fordetailedcriticism,seeBest(1979),1921.

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LearningOntheJob

ThemostprobablesourceofcriticismofPaulonthepartoftheThessaloniansisassociatedwithhisteachingontheeschaton.TheirreadingofLetterB(seeabove)is
incomprehensible,unlesstheywereconvincedthattheyhadbeentaughtarealizedeschatology.Apredispositiontomillenarianismisnotanadequateexplanationfor
theirsystematictranspositionofallPaul'sfuturestatementsintopresentones.Theywerehardheadedworkingpeoplewithlittletimeforidealism,andaverylimited
capacityforselfdeception.Nodoubttheyheardwhattheywantedtohear,butforthemtohavecontinuedlisteningtoPaul,theremusthavebeensomerelation
betweenhisteachingandtheirdesires.Fortheirtindertohavecaughtflame,hemusthaveproposedfire,notwater.Thereis,ofcourse,thepossibilitythatthey
misunderstoodtheApostle.Eveninthatcaseitismostprobable,asweshallseeinotherletters,thattheseedsofsuchmisunderstandingweresownbyPaulhimself.
Hetendedtoassumethathisaudiencewouldknowwhathemeant,nomatterwhatheactuallysaid,andhisimpetuoustemperamentoftenledhimtooverstatement
andtheuseofambiguouslanguage.

ThepossibilityofsuchmisinterpretationcanbeillustratedbythetraditionalfragmentwhichPaulcitesin1Thessalonians1:9b10,andwhichiscommonlyacceptedas
reflectingthebasictenorofhispreaching.Thecreediscomposedoftwostrophes,eachcontainingthreelines:
[We]turnedtoGodfromidols
toservethelivingandtrueGod
andtowaitforhisSonfromheaven
Whomheraisedfromthedead
Jesuswhodeliversus
fromthewrathtocome.90

Atfirstreadingthemeaningappearsunambiguous,butalittlereflectionrevealsthatasimpleshiftofemphasiscanchangetheinterpretationradically.Toputthestress
ontowaitforhisSonfromheavenyieldsafutureeschatology,buttohighlightJesuswhodeliversusleadstoarealizedeschatology.Onecouldevenargue,onthe
groundsthatthesecondstropheisdesignedtobringoutthemeaningofthefirst,thatthelatterinterpretationisthedominantone.Thewaitingmustbeover,because
Jesusishereandnowdeliveringusthecomingwrathhasbeensidetracked.ThusevenifPaulcontentedhimselfwithrecitingtraditionaldoctrineitismuchmore
probablethatheenthusiasticallyembroideredittheThessalonianscouldhaveheardhimproclaimingarealizedeschatology,intensifiedbyhisownfervour.
90
SeeinparticularBest(1979),8687Rigaux(1956),38897.OnthewiderissueofothertraditionalmaterialintheletterstoThessalonica,seeGundry(1987)Tuckett(1990).

 Page123
91
WhetherPaulwasinfactpreachingarealizedeschatology,asC.L.Mearnsmaintains, orwhetherhewasmerelythoughttobesodoing,developmentsat
Thessalonicaforcedhimtorecognizethedangersofsuchaworldviewwhenappliedliterallytodailylife.Thedeathofsomememberstowhomagloriousassumption
hadbeenpromisedcreatedintolerableproblemsforthoseleftbehind(1Thess.4:13)itwassomethingthatshouldnothavehappened.92Others,thereisnoindication
ofhowmany,exhibitedatypicalmillenariandisregardforthedemandsofnormalliving,perhapsindulgenceinsexualexcesses,certainlythecessationofproductive
labour(1Thess.4:112Thess.3:612).93

CharitydemandedthatPaulprovideananswerforthebereaved,andhisconcernforthewitnessvalueofthecommunity(1Thess.1:684:12)madeitimperative
forhimtoexcludepracticeswhichwouldbringthechurchatThessalonicaintodisrepute.Evenifhehadpreviouslyunderstoodthecreed(1Thess.1:9b10)as
implyingarealizedeschatology,theneedtomovethegazeoftheThessaloniansfromthepresenttothefutureforcedhimtorecognizethatthecreeddoesnot
necessarilyproclaimarealizedeschatology.ThefunctionofthesecondstrophecouldbemerelytoidentifytheSonwhoseadventisexpected.Heisnoneotherthan
theJesuswhoisnowatworkinthecommunitythroughhisSpirit(1Thess.1:564:85:19).Bethatasitmay,LetterBcontainsaseriesofallusionstoafuture
Parousia(1Thess.1:105:2,23),atwhich,Paulassureshisreaders,thebeloveddeadwillnotbeleftbehindabandonedbut,onceraisedfromthedead,willbe
assumedwiththeliving(1Thess.4:1318).

ItwasperhapsinevitablethattheshiftfromarealizedtoafuturisteschatologyshouldbeaccompaniedbytheconvictionthattheParousiawouldtakeplacewithinthe
lifespanofthepresentgeneration(1Thess.4:15,17).Thiscouldbereadastheimplicationofthecreed'schoiceoftowait.Thosewhosaidthiscreedwouldbe
alivewhenthewaitingended.Onthesubjectivelevel,thisbelieffacilitatedPaul'sinternalizationofthenew(orrefined)perspectiveimposedonhimbycircumstances.
AsfarastheThessalonianswereconcerned,hehopedthatitwouldminimalizethedisconcertingdislocationcausedbythesubstitutionofafuturistforarealized
eschatology.Paul,however,hadfailedtorecognizetheextenttowhichtheThessalonianshadbecomeimbuedwiththerealizedeschatology,whichtheybelievedtobe
hismessage.Theirreactionwastomovetheproximatefuture,onwhichtheApostlenowwantedtofixtheirgaze,backintothepresent(2Thess.2:2).Thusanother
letter2Thess.becamenecessary,inwhichPaulisforcedtospelloutthesignswhichwillprecedetheinbreakingoftheeschaton(2Thess.2:312).Contraryto
whathe
91
(1981),13757.
92
Plevnik(1984).
93
Jewett(1986),1726.

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94
saidin1Thessalonians5:23,theDayoftheLordwillnotcomesuddenlyorquietlyitwillbeprefacedbymajorsocialupheavals.

ExemplaryBehaviour.

ThedoubtastowhetherPaulactuallypreachedarealizedeschatologyatThessalonica,orwasmistakenlyassumedtohavedoneso,isnotresolvedbythefactthathe
instructedconvertsinethicalbehaviourduringhisinitialvisit(1Thess.1:11124:1,6,112Thess.3:10).Moralteachingwasnotanafterthoughtdictatedbythe
delayoftheParousia.Evenatthestagewhenhiseschatologicalexpectationwasmostintense,Paul'sperspectivewasradicallyapostolic.Nomatterhowlimitedthe
timeremaining,hismissionwastoconverttheGentileworld.FromhisJewishbackgroundhelearntthatthewordofGoddiffersfromallothersinthatitisintrinsically
effectiveitisladenwithapowerthattransformsproclamationintoperformance.95IfthegospelreallywasthewordofGod,thenitcouldnotbeineffective.This
insightwasreinforcedbyhisownexperience,whichtaughthimthattheoneessentialapologeticargumentwasthedemonstrationofthepoweroftheSpiritinthelives
oftheministersofthegospel.Theydidnotconvincebycarefullycraftedpersuasivearguments(1Cor.2:45),butbyrevealingtheeffectivenessintheirpersonalities
ofthewordtheyproclaimed(1Thess.1:5cf.1Cor.9:22Cor.3:2).

AnimportantfactorintheimitationwhichPaulexpectedofhisconverts(1Thess.1:6)wastobetheprolongationofhisapostolicmission.TheThessaloniansfulfilled
theirdutyasChristianstoextendtherangeofthegospel(1Thess.4:12)bybeinganexample(1Thess.1:7)theexistentialproclamationoftheirlivesmanifested
thepowerofthewordatworkwithinthem(1Thess.2:132Thess.1:4,11).

Whilesuchteachingisbeautifulandimpressive,itistoovaguetobepractical.Withoutsomespecificationitwouldbeignored.WhileatThessalonicaPaulhadto
indicateatleastthebroadlinesofthetypeofbehaviourheconsideredconducivetothediffusionofthegospel.InLetterAPaulpresumesthattheThessaloniansrecall
thesedirectives(1Thess.4:2).Heislesssanguineinhisnextletter,andthecloseparallelsbetween1Thessalonians1:1112and4:2stronglysuggestthat1
Thessalonians4:37exemplifiesthetypeoforalinstructionheconsideredappropriate.
94
Thus2Thess.2:5cannotmeanthatonhisinitialvisitPaulgavetheThessaloniansrepeatedapocalypticinstruction,asBest(1979),290,maintainssimilarlyRigaux(1956),662.
HadPaulinfactrigorouslyinculcatedanapocalyptictimetable,therealizedeschatologyoftheThessaloniansbecomesinexplicable.Mearns(1981),154,suggeststhatPaulhad
spokenofanAntiChrist,butnotinthecontextoftheParousiaMearns'identificationofaspecificreferencetoCaligula,however,ishighlyproblematic.
95
Foracollectionandanalysisofbiblicalandextrabiblicalreferencestothepowerofthedivineword,seemy(1964),14696.

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Thelimitsofthesectionareclearlydefinedbyaninclusion:thisisthewillofGodyoursanctification(4:3)isechoedbyGodhascalledusinsanctification(4:7).
BestandBrucereflecttheopinionofmostcommentatorsbyentitling1Thess.4:37(8)SexandOnSexualPurity,respectively.Neithertitle,however,accurately
reflectsPaul'sintentionwhichistodrawattentiontothedifferencebetweenthelifestyleofbelieversandthatofnonbelievers.Thecontrastismadeexplicitinthefirst
andlastverses.

Thelifestyleofbelieversisqualifiedassanctification(vv.3,7),whichinthefirstplacedoesnotdenotepersonalsanctitybutratherhavingbeensetapartbyGod,
andtherebydedicatedtoGod.Christiansaresaintsinvirtueofadivinecall(Rom.1:71Cor.1:2cf.2Cor.1:1Phil.1:1Col.1:20)thecompleteabsenceof
saintinGalatiansunderlinesthatinPaul'slexiconitisanythingbutabanalformula.

Thealternativetosanctificationisdescribedasporneia(v.3)andakatharsia(v.7).Thelattermeansuncleannessandistheantithesisofsanctificationusedin
theculticsensejustdefined.ThusforaJewitfunctionedasthedefinitionofapaganlifestyle.96Rigaux'sclaimthatinPaulitalwayshasasexualconnotation97is
excludedbothby1Thessalonians2:398andbythereferencetothechildrenofCorinthianparentsatCorinththeirunbaptizedstateshouldmakethemuncleanbutin
facttheyareholy(1Cor.7:14).99Akatharsia,ofcourse,canbeusedofsexualimmorality.Itisassociatedwithporneiaunchastityandaselgeialicentiousness
asworksofthefleshinGalatians5:19(cf.2Cor.12:21),andwithepithymiadesireinRomans1:24.Inbothofthesecontexts,however,Paulisdescribing
unredeemedhumanity,andinawaywhichmerelyreflectsthestandardJewishassociationofpagancultsandsexualdebauchery(Hos.6:10Jer.3:2,92Kgs.9:
22),whichismadeexplicitherebynotinthepassionofdesirelikethepaganswhoknownotGod(v.5).Itisinthissamecontextthatthecontrastofporneiawith
sanctificationisbestunderstooditsconnotationhereisnotspecificallysexual(i.e.fornication)butsymbolic,andinthissenseisbestrenderedby
immorality(RSV).

ThatPaulisnotthinkingintermsofparticularsexualproblemsatThessalonicaisconfirmedbytheadmonitionthateachofyoulearntoacquirehisownskeuos'(v.4).
Skeuosisliterallyavessel(2Cor.4:7),andthetwostandardinterpretationshereunderstanditasmeaningbody(NRSV)andwife(RSV).Thebasicargument
whichhaspromptedtheadoptionofwifeiswellstatedbyBest,Noonecanbesaidtogainhisbody.100This,however,isto
96
Theirworksareunclean,andalltheirwaysareapollutionandanabominationanduncleanness(Jubilees22.16).Cf.Isa.52:1Amos7:17Acts10:28.
97
(1956),513.
98
SorightlyBest(1979),934.
99
Fordetails,seemy(1977b).
100
Best(1979),161.

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forgetthat,forPaul,unbelieversarenottheirownmasterstheyaremanipulatedbysocialandeconomicforcestothepointwheretheyareunderthepowerof
Sin(Rom.3:9)orenslavedtoSin(Rom.6:17).101ThusliberationfromSinmeantthatonehadtolearnselfmasteryinamuchmoreprofoundandwidereaching
sensethanphysicalselfcontrol.102Thesexuallanguage(notinthepassionofdesire,v.5)inwhichtheantithesisisexpressedshouldnotbepermittedtoblurthereal
contrastbetweenthechosencommitmentofdedicationtoGodandtheservitudeoftheunbeliever,whoisthevictimofsociallyconditioneddesires,DonotletSin
reigninyourbodiestoobeyitsdesires(Rom.6:12).

Thementionofbrotherinverse6recallsthespecificidentityofthegrouptowhichthebelieversbelong.Theattitudethatoneshouldhaveisdescribednegativelyby
twoverbs(not)togobeyondand(not)totaketoomuch.Inessencethisisawarningagainstcovetousness,greed,whichcausedtheFall(Rom.7:7),andwhich
remainsthedominantcharacteristicoffallenhumanity(Num.11:341Cor.10:6).Formostcommentatorsthenatureoftheinjuryislimitedtosexualmatters(i.e.
adultery)byinthematter,becausethedemonstrativearticlemustrefertowhathasbeenmentionedpreviously.Aswehaveseen,however,thesexualdimensionof
theprecedingversesismerelyasymbolicrepresentationofthedisorderedanddisorderlylifestyleofpagannonbelievers.

Thefunctionof1Thessalonians4:8(whoeverdisregardsthis,disregardsnotmanbutGodwhogiveshisHolySpirittoyou)istounderlinethefundamental
importanceofthedistinctionbetweenthetwomodesofbeing.ThegiftoftheSpiritasthesourceofsanctificationistheeffectiveimplementationofthecallwhich
articulatesthewillofGod.Itenablesdiscernmentandempowersthechoiceofgood.Thedirectivesin1Thessalonians4:37aresogenericthattheysetadirection
withoutimposingspecificobligations.TheydonomorethanalerttheThessalonianstothefactthattheymustdiscoveralifestyleappropriatetotheirnewbeingin
Christ.Thefunctionofthedirectivesiseducative.Designedtoorientthosewhohavemovedfromanegocentricformofexistencetoanotherdirectedmodeofbeing,
theyarethecounselsofawisefathertohischildren(1Thess.2:1112).

TheassumptionunderlyingLetterA,namely,thattheThessalonianshadgraspedwhatPaulwantedtoconvey,couldnolongerbemaintainedwhenhewroteLetterB.
Hefoundhimselfforcedtooffermoreexplicitguidance.ThewayhehandledthisaspectofhisproblemswiththeThessaloniansrevealshimtobemuchmore
consistentandclearmindedinthedomainofChristianlivingthaninthatofeschatologicalspeculation.Thedirectiveshegivesareamixtureofadviceandprecepts.
Thelatter,however,areentirelygeneric(1Thess.5:
101
SeeCh.4,DangersontheRoad,andmy(1982b),89105.
102
AgainstBruce(1982a),83.

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13b22)theyconcernvaluesratherthanstructureswhereastheformerareverydetailed(1Thess.4:10b125:1213a).ThusinLetterBPauldoesnotimpose
orprohibitanyspecificact.Moresignificantlyhislistofcommandsembodiesthecrucialtesteverything(5:21a),whichthrowsbacktotheThessaloniansthe
responsibilityfortheirmoraldecisions.Inthelastanalysisitistheirjudgementthatcounts.TheimplicationthattheThessaloniansthemselvesareresponsibleforthe
runningoftheirowncommunityisalsosignificant.Pauldidnotconsiderithisroletotellthemwhattodo.

Thishighmindedapproachtomoralitycameunderseverepressure,whenitbecameclearthatcertainmembersofthecommunitycontinuedtoleaddisorderlylives.
AtaktosdisorderlyisfoundonceinLetterB(1Thess.5:14)itscognatesappearthreetimesin2Thessalonians(3:6,7,11).Correspondingly,thesingleinstance
ofparangellinLetterB(1Thess.4:11)jumpstofourin2Thessalonians(3:4,6,10,12).Themeaningofthisverbrangesfromtogiveadvice,tonotify,to
informatoneendofthescaletotoorder,tocommandattheotherend.103WhichdidPaulintend?

Despiteanumberofcommentators,tocommandisnotrequiredin2Thessalonians3:4and6toinstructisperfectlyadequate.104Paulisformallyindicatingtheline
ofactionhewantsthecommunitytoadopt,namelytoostracizetheunruly,therebymakingitquitecleartooutsidersthattrueChristiansdonotactinways
condemned.Suchrestraint,however,breaksdownattheveryendoftheletter.Thecorrelationoftheimperativalinfinitivedonotmixwithandifanyonedoesnot
obeyin2Thessalonians3:14unambiguouslyindicatesthatPaulexpectsthemtodopreciselywhathesays.Tomandateamoraldecisionconcerningtheeffective
exclusionofacommunitymemberisadefinitedeviationfromPaul'spracticeasrevealedinthetwopreviousletters.105Hisjustificationfortheexceptioncanonlyhave
beenthehopethatthepunishmentwilleffectthereformationoftheerringbrother(2Thess.3:15).AmorematureandsophisticatedPaulwillachievethesameresult
withoutcompromisinghisprinciplesin1Corinthians5:15,butbythenhewillhaveworkedoutmostifnotalloftheimplicationsoftheincidentatAntioch(Gal.2:
1114).106

ItishighlyindicativeofPaul'sunderstandingofthenatureofhisauthority,andofhowitshouldbeexercised,thathedoesnotinstallarepresentativeatThessalonicato
reportbacktohim,andtoensurethathiswishesarecarriedout.Thissignalshisrecognitionoftheautonomyofthelocalchurch.Itisresponsibleforitself.In
consequence,itmustevolveitsownleadership.The
103
Spicq(197882),2.6479.
104
Best(1979),333,againstRigaux(1956),703,andBruce(1982a),204.
105
Theimperativesconcerningworkin2Thess.3.1012areadministrativeratherthanmoral,buteventherenotehowPaulwatersdowntheforceofwecommandbytheadditionof
weexhort(v.12).
106
SeeCh.6,PastoralInstruction.

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mostthatPaulcandoistohintatwhatqualitiesheconsidersnecessaryinsuchleaders.TheThessaloniansshouldacknowledgethosewholabouramongyou,taking
theleadincaringforyouintheLordandadmonishingyou(1Thess.5:12).107Suchtotaldedicationtothegoodofotherscanonlybethefruitoflove.Hencetheonly
appropriateresponseislove(1Thess.5:13).TheleaderswhomPaulhopeswillemergearenotidentifiedbysocialpositionorspecialskills,andtherelationshipof
otherstothemisnotoneofobedienceordeference.InthiswecatchafurtherhintofPaul'sawarenessthattheChristianchurchisradicallydifferentinnaturefromany
seculargrouping.Hisperceptionofitstrueidentitywillgrow.Atthisstageinhiscareerallthatcomesacrossisthatitisacommunityoflovewhichradiateslove(1
Thess.3:124:910).

ThePauloftheFirstLetters

TheeschatologicalissueatThessalonicabroughttolighttraitsofPaul'scharacterwhichwillemergewithsomeconsistencyinothersituations.Hewasnotverygoodat
workingoutwhatwasgoingoninotherpeoplesminds.CertainlyheneverdevelopedmuchinsightintothementalityoftheThessalonians,eventhoughtheunusual
problemofcessationofworkhadalreadymanifesteditselfduringhisvisit(1Thess.4:112Thess.3:10).Presumablyhisdelightattheirresponsetohispreaching
forwhichhewouldcertainlyhavegiventhecredittodivinepowermadeitimpossibleforhimtograsphowexactlyhewascomingacross.Inevitablyhewas
mystifiedatthepracticaloutcomeofhiswords,anddeeplyhurtatcriticismofhischangeability,whenheattemptedtocorrectwhatheperceivedasegregious
misinterpretationsofhisteaching.HisfirstattempttorectifytherealizedeschatologyoftheThessalonianswasnotsuccessful.Thealternativefuturistversionwasnot
presentedwithsufficientvigourandclarity.

Thehesitancymaybeduetothebelatedrecognitionoftheextentofhisownresponsibility.Hefoundhimselfintheunhappypositionofattemptingtocontrovertwell
receivedideas,whichtheThessaloniansbelievedheacceptedwhenhelivedamongthem.Inordertoavoidtheimpressionthathewasmakingacompleteaboutface,
hemerelyinsinuatedthenewperspectivebyparentheticalallusionstotheParousia(1Thess.1:103:135:2,23),whileatthesametimegivingtheThessalonians
latitudetopersevereintheirerrorbyphrasessuchasButastothetimesandseasons,believers,youhavenoneedtohaveanythingwrittentoyou(1Thess.5:1).

Paul'snavetininterpersonalrelationsishighlightedbyhisshockatthe
107
Thetranslationofprostamenoibytakingtheleadincaringforattemptstobringtogetherthetwoattestedmeaningsonwhichopinionsaredivided,namely,topreside,
lead(RSV,NRSV,JB)andtoprotect,carefor(Best(1979),2245Bruce(1982a),11819).AsimilarrenderingisappropriateinRom.12:8,onwhichseeDunn(1988),731.

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failureoftheThessalonianstorespondtowhathesawashisgentlebutfirmandunambiguousinvitationinLetterB.Hehadlearntalesson,however,andhisvoicein
2Thessaloniansisclearerandmuchmoreforceful.Butinordertogetoutofacornerhehadtoadoptanapocalypticscenario(2Thess.2:112)asanadhominem
argument.Wedonotknowwithwhatdegreeofconvictionheacceptedthescenario,whosemeaningmayhavebeenjustasobscuretotheThessaloniansasitisto
contemporaryexegetes,108butheneveruseditagain.

Theassuranceofhismoralteaching,onthecontrary,isnoteworthyandbetraysaclearvisionofthenatureoftheChristiancommunity.Evidentlyhewasmuchmore
concernedwithwhatthecommunitydidthanwhatitthought,andhadworkedoutastrategyinadvance.FromthebeginningherealizedthatiftheThessalonianchurch
wastohavethesortofwitnessvaluethatwouldreinforceandprolonghismission,itsmemberswouldhavetoexhibitanattractive,freelychosenlifestyle.This
intuitiveinsightwouldsoonbestrengthenedbytheconvictionthattoimposebindingpreceptswouldbetorecreatetheMosaiclawforbelievers.Toacquirethat
conviction,however,hehadtolivethroughacrucialmeetinginJerusalem,andanagonizingconflictatAntioch.
108
AfternotingAugustine'sconfessionIadmitthatthemeaningofthis[2Thess2:112]completelyescapesme,Bruce(1982a),175,commentsthatguessesatitsmeaningare
allthattheexegetecanmanageeventoday.

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6
MeetingsandMeals:
JerusalemandAntioch
PaulhimselfdoesnottelluswhathappenedinThessalonicaafterthewritingof2Thessalonians.Itisdifficulttoimaginethatthislettersolvedallproblemsoftheself
absorbedThessalonians,butwenexthearofthemsomefouryearslaterwhenhelaysoutaplantopassthroughMacedoniaenroutefromEphesustoCorinthinthe
summerofAD54(1Cor.16:5).Alotwastohappenintheinterval.

Luke'sestimatethatPaul'sstayinCorinthlastedeighteenmonths(Acts18:11)enjoyssolidprobabilityitisthefigurethatonewouldhavetopostulatetoexplainthe
natureoftheApostle'srelationshiptotheCorinthians.FromCorinth,wearetold,hesailedforSyriaand,havinglandedatCaesarea,wentuptoJerusalem,1and
eventuallyreturnedtoAntioch(Acts18:1822).ThisseavoyageshouldbedatedtothelatesummerofAD51,becausemidsummerofthatyearistheonlydatefor
Paul'sencounterwithGallio(Acts18:12),2andLukegivestheimpressionthatthevoyagetookplacebeforethecloseofthesailingseasoninSeptember.

PaulhimselftellsusonlythatfourteenyearsafterhisfirstvisittotheHolyCityasaChristianhereturnedtoJerusalem(Gal.2:1).Butthisvisit,aswehaveseen,3must
alsobedatedtoAD51.Thesimplest,andinfacttheonlyadequatehypothesis,istorecognizethattheaccountsofPaulandLukearereferencestothesamevisitno
validobjectioncanberaisedagainstit.4Thelettersfurnishslightandindirectconfirmationinsofarastheyinviteustoassumethat,onhisreturnfromCorinth,Paul
droppedoffPriscaandAquilaatEphesus,preciselyasLukesays(Acts18:19,24,26).
1
Somehavedisputedthattogoup(Acts18:22)isintendedtoevokeJerusalem,buttheverbisentirelyinappropriatetodescribeavisitanywhereinthecityofCaesarea
situatedasitisontheflatplainaroundtheport.EquallytheuseoftogodownisappropriateonlyasanaccountofajourneyfromJerusalem.SorightlyHaenchen(1971),5478,
whononethelessthinksthatLukedrewafalseinferencefromanunplannedvisitofPaultoCaesareawhichwasoccasionedbythedestinationofthecargoshiporunfavourable
winds.
2
SeeCh.1,Paul'sEncounterwithGallio.
3
SeeCh.1,DateofDeparturefromDamascus.
4
PaceHaenchen(1971),544n.6.SeeLdemann(1984),14957.

 Page131

PriscaandAquilawerewithPaulinCorinth.Thewarmthoftheirgreetingtothechurchthere(1Cor.16:19)permitsofnootherexplanation.Subsequentlytheyare
livinginEphesus(1Cor.16:19),andarriveinRomepriortoPaul(Rom.16:34).Inotherwords,PriscaandAquilaappearinthesamecitiesasPaulandinthe
sameorder.If,asseemslikely,theirroleinRomewastoprepareforPaul'sarrival,isitnotlikelythatheplacedtheminEphesusforthesamereason?

TheJerusalemConference

FromAntiochtoJerusalem

DidPaulgodirectlytoJerusalemfromEphesus?Thetextwehavejustseen(Acts18:22)givesaclearaffirmativeanswer.ButthisiswhatonewouldexpectofLuke.
ByplacingthejourneyintoEurope(Acts1618)aftertheJerusalemConference(Acts15),LukeintendedtocooptPaul,thatis,todetachhimfromAntiochand
makehimanextensionofthemissionaryeffortofJerusalem.ThusitwasimperativethatPaulshouldreturntoJerusalemafterhavingestablishedChristianityinGreece.

ThejourneyintoEurope,however,antedatesPaul'ssecondvisittoJerusalem,5andinGalatianshemakesitperfectlyclearthatatnotimewasheeveranemissaryof
Jerusalem.Hedidgothereafterhisconversion,butsimplytomakeabriefvisittoCephas(Gal.1:18),andtheagreementtheymaderegardingtheirrespective
spheresofactivitydidnotinanywayimplythathewassubordinatetoPeter,atleastasfarasPaulwasconcerned(Gal.2:7b8).6Theimplicationofthedifference
betweentheaddressof1and2Thessalonians,andthoseofallsubsequentletters,wasalsonoted,namely,whenPaulwrotetotheThessalonianshismissionarywork
wasundertheaegisofthechurchofAntioch.7ThisrelationshipcontinueduntiltheincidentnarratedinGalatians2:1114.Onemustassume,therefore,thatPaulin
factreturnedfromGreecetoAntiochhishomebase.8TherewouldhavebeennoreasonforadetourtoJerusalem.

Thisinferenceissupported,andthepossibilityofanaccidentalvisitduetoaboatsailingtoAntiochbeingdrivenoffcourseexcluded,bythefactthatBarnabaswas
withPaulinJerusalem(Gal.2:1).HadheaccompaniedPaulonthelongjourneyacrossAsiaMinorintoGreece,Paul'sfailuretomentionhimin2Corinthians1:19
andin1and2Thessaloniansisinexplicable.Theonlyfeasibleinference,namelythathewasnotwithPaulatthefoundationofPhilippi,Thessalonica,andCorinth,is
confirmedbyLuke,accordingtowhom,
5
SeeCh.1,PriortoAD51.
6
SeeCh.4,AMissionaryAgreement.
7
SeeCh.4,AGapintheRecord.
8
SimilarlyHaenchen(1971),464.

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PaulandBarnabashadplannedajointmissionaryjourney,butquarrelledoverJohnMark,andthereafterwenttheirseparateways(Acts15:3641).Whateverthe
valueofhisexplanation,9theimportantthingisthatLukewasawarethatBarnabaswasnotPaul'scompaniononthesecondjourney.

Where,then,couldPaulhaveencounteredBarnabas?Thespeculativepossibilitiesarealmostlimitlesse.g.Paul'sshipfromEphesusputinatCyprus,thehomeland
ofBarnabas(Acts4:367)towhichhehadreturned(Acts15:39)butthemostplausibleplaceforthemeetingisAntioch,whichwasthehomebaseofboth
missionaries.FormallystatedbyLuke(Acts13:13),thisisimpliedbyGalatians2:1114whereasPeterandthepeopleofJamescometoAntioch,Pauland
Barnabasaresimplythere.

TheOccasionoftheConference

ItwillgraduallybecomeclearthatPaulandBarnabaswenttoJerusalemasdelegatesofthechurchofAntioch.Paul,however,insiststhathewentuptoJerusalemon
accountofarevelation(Gal.2:2).HisreasonforputtingthisinterpretationonhisvoyageistoheadofftheaccusationmadebyhisopponentsinGalatiathatbygoing
toJerusalem,heacknowledgedthesuperiorityoftheJerusalemapostles,andtherebyatleastimplicitlyputhimselfundertheirorders.10Theremusthavebeena
seriouspracticalreasonwhichforcedtwocommittedmissionariestodivertfromtheirrealtasktoparticipateinameetinginanareawhichwasnottheirconcern.

LdemannfindsthisreasoninthedisputebetweenPeterandPaulatAntiochinGalatians2:1114,whichhedatespriortotheconferenceinJerusalem.11Whilehe
correctlyarguesthatastrictchronologicalorderneednotbefollowedinthenarratio,12hishypothesisisexcludedbyonesimpleobservation.IfLdemannisright,at
theJerusalemConferencePaulandBarnabasshouldhavebeenopposedtooneanother,becausethelatterceasedtoeatwithGentileChristians(Gal.2:13),thereby
implyingthattheyshouldconformtoJewishlaw.Infact,however,attheconferencePaulandBarnabaswereonthesamesidebecausethepillarsgavetomeand
BarnabastherighthandoffellowshipthatweshouldgototheGentiles(Gal.2:9).Moreover,theissueatJerusalemconcernedthecircumcisionofGentileconverts,
nottheproblemofdietarylaws,whichsubsequentlybecametheissueatAntioch.13
9
SeeHaenchen(1971),4757.
10
SeeCh.8DiscreditingPaul.
11
(1984),75.HerightlydismissesthesuggestionofSuhl(1975),123n.102127note116,thatthereasonforthevisitwastohandoveracollection.Thiswouldimplytheidentification
ofGal.2:110withthefaminevisitofActs11:30,aviewespousedamongothersbyBauckham(1970).SuchharmonizationwithActsignoresthewayLukecombineshissourcessee
inparticularBenoit(1959).
12
Quintilian,InstitutioOratoria,4.2.834.
13
SorightlyE.Burton(1921),82.

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What,then,forcedPaultogotoJerusalem?HisownanswerishiddenintheconfusedlanguageofGalatians2:45.Certainfactsareclearbutnottheirprecise
relationships.HedescribesthosewhoinsistedonthecircumcisionofGentileconvertsinmostderogatorytermstheyarefalsebrethrenwhoweresecretlysmuggled
ininordertospy.Unfortunatelyhedoesnottelluswherethisinfiltrationtookplace.Suchlanguage,however,impliesthathisopponentsarealientothebodyinto
whichtheyhavecome.14Thusaterminusaquoandaterminusadquemhavetobedetermined.WithintheframeworkofaJerusalemAntiochaxistherearetwo
possibilities:eitherconservativesfromJerusaleminfiltratedAntiochorconservativesfromAntiochinfiltratedJerusalem.15GiventhatJerusalemwasmuchmore
conservativethanAntioch(cf.Gal.2:12),thelatterhypothesisismostunlikely.Hence,itisprobablethatPaulhadinmindprocircumcisionbelieversfromJerusalem,
whocreatedtroubleinacommunitytowhichtheydidnotbelong,namely,Antioch.16Itgoeswithoutsaying,ofcourse,that,oncethedebatehadbeentransferredto
Jerusalem,thesepeoplewouldalsomaketheircasethere.

ThusifonehadtoimagineascenariotoexplaintheconferenceatJerusalemonthebasisofthelettersalone,itwouldbedifficulttobetterLuke's,
ButsomemencamedownfromJudaeaandwereteachingthebrethren,UnlessyouarecircumcisedaccordingtothecustomofMoses,youcannotbesaved.AndwhenPauland
Barnabashadnosmalldissensionanddebatewiththem,PaulandBarnabasandsomeoftheotherswereappointedtogouptotheapostlesandeldersinJerusalemaboutthe
question.(Acts15:12)

ForLuke,therefore,PaulandBarnabaswenttoJerusalembecausetheywereselectedtogoasmembersofanofficialdelegation.Thisistheantithesisofwhatwefind
inGalatians,wherebyhissilence,hisstressonarevelationasthemotiveofhisvisit,andhisuseofthefirstpersonsingular,Pau!insinuateshisindependenceofthe
churchofAntioch.Inthisinstance,however,Luke'sversionispreferable.TheneedsofthelettertotheGalatiansforcedPaultodistancehimselffromAntiochasmuch
asfromJerusalem.AsweshallseewhendealingwithGalatians2:1114,theshiftinthepositionofAntiochwithrespecttoGentileconvertsbroughtitintolinewith
thepracticeofJerusalem.UndersuchcircumstancesforPaultoacknowledgehisdependenceonAntioch,whileatthesametimedisagreeingwithitspolicies,would
havebeentogivearmstohisopponentsinGalatia.TheagreementwithPetermadefourteen
14
Ibid.78.
15
Burton(1921),834,evokesafurtherpossibilitythattheopponentswereJews,whohadfeignedtobecomeChristiansinJerusalempreciselyinordertosubverttheJesusmovement.
ThishypothesisisexludedbyGal2:4b.TheywereantiPaul,notantiChristian.Thoughfalsetheywerenonethelessbrethren.
16
SorightlyBurton(1921),79Ldemann(1989),35Walker(1992),50310,againstBetz(1979),89,andLongenecker(1990),50.

 Page134
17
yearsearlier(Gal.2:7b8) couldnothavebeeninvokedbecauseitconcernedonlythefactofaGentilemission,andnottheconditionsunderwhichGentilescould
bereceivedintothechurch.18

PaulmanagestogivetheimpressionthattheappearanceofaggressivemissionariesoftheLawobservantJerusalemchurchinAntioch,andlaterinGalatia,
Macedonia,andCorinth,wasinspiredbyunworthymotives.Butheneverspecifieswhattheywere.Hemusthavehadasevereshockwhenhefoundhismissionary
practicecalledintoquestionwhenhereturnedtoAntioch.Manifestlyhesawonlythedangertohislifework.Undersuchconditionstolerantunderstandingofthe
concernsofthosewithadifferenttheologywasnotapsychologicaloption.Subconsciously,hisresistencemayalsohavehadrootsinanawarenessthatthosewho
differedfromhimdidsoongroundsthatweredifficulttodispute.

Atthisstageinthehistoryofthechurchitwastakenforgrantedbyall,includingPaul,thatsalvationwasrelatedtothechosenpeople,whoworshippedtheoneGod,
andtowhomhehadsenthisMessiah.ThesalvationquestionasfarasGentileswereconcernedwas:howcantheybeintegratedintoGod'smessianicpeople?19Paul's
adversariescouldpointtosituationsinwhichJesusnotonlyobeyedtheLaw(e.g.whenhewentonpilgrimagetoJerusalem)butproclaimeditseternalvalue(Matt.5:
1819)andrecommendedobediencetoit(Mark1:405).Notunnaturally,therefore,theytookitforgrantedthatconvertstoChristianityshouldacceptthesame
obligationsasconvertstoJudaism.ThispointofviewisdocumentedintheJewishChristianpseudepigraphTheEpistleofPetertoJames:
SomefromamongtheGentileshaverejectedmy[Peter's]lawfulpreachingandhavepreferredalawlessandabsurddoctrineofthemanwhoismyenemy[Paul].Andindeedsome
haveattempted,whileIamstillalive,todistortmywordsbyinterpretationsofmanysorts,asifItaughtthedissolutionofthelawand,althoughIwasofthisopinion,didnot
expressitopenly.ButthatmayGodforbid!FortodosuchathingmeanstoactcontrarytothelawofGodwhichwasmadeknownbyMosesandwasconfirmedbyourLordinits
everlastingcontinuance.Forhesaid,Theheavensandtheearthwillpassaway,butonejotoronetittleshallnotpassawayfromthelaw.(2.35)20

GiventheintenseeschatologicalexpectationofthebeginningsoftheJesusmovement,itismostunlikelythatanyoneamongthefirstgenerationofChristiansthought
thatJerusalemwouldeverloseitscentralityindeterminingtheorientationofChristianity.TheimminenceoftheParousia,itwasfelt,guaranteedthattheauthorityof
Jerusalemwouldnotbeoverwhelmed.Tradi
17
SeeCh.4,AMissionaryAgreement.
18
SorightlyLdemann(1989),434.
19
Stendahl(1963).
20
TranslationfromHenneckeandSchneemelcher(1965),2.112.

 Page135
21
tionallyamassiveinfluxofGentileswouldtakeplaceonlyintheeschaton. Inthepresenttheresimplywouldnotbeenoughtimeforgreatnumbersofpaganstobe
converted.

Thisprojection,basedonthepainfulslownessofthemissiontoJews,failedtotakeintoaccounttheappealthegospelwouldhaveforpagans.Thetremendous
successofthemissionaryeffortofthechurchatAntioch,whichdemandedonlyfaithinJesusChristforconversion,broughthometosomeLawobservantJewish
ChristiansinJerusalemthattheirvisionofthechurchasthefloweringofJudaismwasinseriousdanger.Ifthingswerepermittedtocontinueastheywere,theyforesaw
themselvesbecominganeversmallerminorityinaninstitutionwhoseonlytiestoJudaismwere(1)theracialidentityofitsfounderandofthefirstgenerationofhis
disciples,and(2)recognitionoftheOldTestamentastherecordofGod'spreparatoryworkfortheadventofJesusChrist.This,theydecided,mustnotbepermitted
tohappen.22

SuchLawobservantJewishChristianshadonlytwooptionsinordertofightback.Ontheonehand,theycouldcontestthevalidityofPaul'sapproach,whileonthe
othertheycouldattempttoconvertGentileswhowouldacceptcircumcision.Thealternativeswerenotmutuallyexclusive.Andatwoprongedattackdeveloped.The
first,aswehaveseenabove,isdocumentedbyGalatians2andActs15.Thesecond,asJ.L.Martynhaspointedout,23isattestedbytheClementineRecognitions:
ItwasnecessarythattheGentilesshouldbecalledintotheplaceofthose[Jews]whodidnotbelieve[inJesusastheMessiah],sothatthenumbermightbefilledupwhichhad
beenshown[byGod]toAbraham.ThusthepreachingoftheblessedKingdomofGodissentintoalltheworld.(1.42.1)

ThementionofAbrahamismanifestlyanallusiontothepromiseinyoushallallthetribesoftheearthbeblessed(LXXGen.12:3),whichisexplainedbyBenSira,
TheLordthereforepromisedhimonoathtoblessthenationsthroughhisdescendants(44:21cf.Jer.4:2).LawobservantJewishChristianswouldhavehadno
difficultyinconsideringthispromiseadequatelegitimizationforamissiontoGentiles.TheadventoftheMessiahinthepersonofJesusofNazarethsignalledthe
providentialmomentwhentheprivilegesofelectionandcovenantshouldbeextendedtopagans,butobviouslyonthesameconditionswhichgovernedtheirenjoyment
byJews,namely,observanceofthe
21
Isa.2:2449:656:6760:47Zech.2:118:203Tobit14:67.
22
Theimputationofselfishnessasamotiveforactionistheconsequenceofhistoricalscepticism,butthepossibilitycannotbeexcludedthatsomeLawobservantChristianswere
genuinelyworriedaboutthesalvationoftheGentilesiftheydidonlywhatPauladvisedtheymightnotreallybesaved.
23
(1985),31011.

 Page136
24 25
Law. ThustherebeganamovementamongJewishChristianstoinviteGentilestoaJewishlifestylerootedinbeliefinJesus.

TheMeetinginJerusalem

Whatmusthavebeenalong,complex,andstormymeetinginJerusalemiscompressedbyPaulintotwoverseswhichsuccinctlyarticulatetheproblemanditssolution.

Firsttheproblem:IlaidbeforethemthegospelwhichIpreachamongtheGentilesbutprivatelybeforethemenofeminencelestsomehowIshouldrunorhadrun
invain(Gal.2:2b).Thegospelisaverybroadconcept,buthereitcanonlymeanthatfaithinJesusChrististheoneindispensableconditionforsalvation
everythingelseissecondaryandfundamentallyirrelevant.This,asfarasPaulwasconcerned,wastheoneitemontheagenda.Paul,itmustbestressed,atthisstageis
notsayingthatobediencetotheLawiswrong,butonlythatitisunnecessary.

Itisimpossibletodecidewhethertherewereoneortwomeetings,i.e.withthechurchasawholeandsubsequentlywiththeleadershipgroupidentifiedasJames,
Cephas,andJohn(Gal.2:9),26oronlywiththelatter.27Inanycase,itwasthetroikawhomadethecriticaldecisioninthenameofthecommunitywhosepillarsthey
were.28

Theofficialtoneoftosubmitsomethingforconsiderationtosomebody(Gal.2:2)29isimplicitrecognitionoftheauthorityoftheJerusalemchurch,30whichPaul
attemptstoattenuatebycallingitsleadersmenofeminence,whichcouldbetakeninaderogatoryorironicsense.Paulwasawarethathecouldnotforce,butonly
await,adecision.Theextremelevelofhisanxietyisbetrayedbytheconfessionthat,ifthedecisionwentagainsthim,allthathehaddonesofarwouldbeinvain.The
languagemayreflectwhatPaul'sopponentswerecurrentlytellingtheGalatians,namely,withoutobediencetotheLawtheirconversionwasineffectiveintermsof
salvation.31Schlier,thus,optsforwhatatfirstsightseemstobethemostnaturalinterpretation,andtheonesup
24
Ontherelationofelectionandlawascovenantnomism,seeE.P.Sanders(1977),4223.
25
TheviewthatJewishChristianssimplyfollowedtheJewishpracticeofaggressiveproselytizationiswithoutfoundation,becausetherewasnosystematicJewishoutreachto
pagansseemy(1992a).
26
SoBetz(1979),86.
27
SoLongenecker(1990),48.
28
ThemetaphoricalsenseofpillariswellattestedinbothGreekandJewishsources(Longenecker(1990),57).Aus(1979a)hasdrawnattentiontoaparticularlyrelevantparallel,
namely,theidentificationofAbraham,Isaac,andJacobasthethreepillarssupportingIsraelandtheworld.
29
Betz(1979),86n.268.
30
NotealsotheimplicitrecognitioninGal.1:16thattheapostlesinJerusalemweretheappropriatepeopletojudgehisrevelation.
31
Betz(1979),88.

 Page137

portedbyTertullianandJerome, i.e.thatPaulhaddoubtsaboutthevalidityofhisgospelwhichcouldbeassuagedonlybyconfirmationbythemotherchurch.33
32

Others,however,haveseenthatthisinterpretationisexcludedbyGalatians1:1112,wherePaulformallyarticulatesthecertitudeheexperiencedintherevelationof
hisencounterwithChrist.Heneedednoconfirmationfromanyexternalauthorityhewasutterlyconvincedthathewasright.Thetroikacouldneverpersuadehimthat
hewaswrong,buttheycoulddestroywhathehadachieved,andtheycouldsystematicallyopposeanyfutureministry.34Envoyscouldbesenttothecommunitieshe
hadfoundedtoinformthemthatPaulwasanisolated,unrepresentativemaverick,sinceallauthenticfollowersofJesusobservedtheLaw.Thethreatwasveryreal.
Paulhadfewillusionsabouthisconverts'loyaltytohistheologicalprinciples.Manymisunderstoodhisteaching,andthosewhodidunderstandcouldeasilybe
persuadedthattheywereinerror.Heknewthedifficultiesoflivinginfreedom,andhehadexperiencedthespuriousbutseductivesecuritythatrulesandregulations
offered.35

Thesolution:ButnotevenTitus,whowaswithmeandwasaGreek,wascompelledtobecircumcized(Gal.2:3).PauldramatizestheresponseofJerusalemby
personalizingit.Titusfoundhimselfthetestcasewhichdecidedaquestionofprinciple.ThefactthatTituswasnotrequiredtoundergotheoperationmadeitclearthat
circumcisionwasnotnecessaryforsalvation.36

Somehavedetectedacertainambiguity:wasTitusnotcompelledornotcircumcized?Theformerinterpretationcouldimplythathehadfreelyacceptedcircumcision
oncetheprinciplehadbeenestablished.ItarosebecausesomewitnessestoGalatians2:5lackthenegativeparticleoudeandsohavePaulsayingtothem[those
demandingthatTitusbecircumcized]weyieldedforamoment.Inotherwords,havingwonhispointthatcircumcisionwasnotnecessary,Paulmadeagraceful
concessiontohisopponentsbypermittingthecircumcisionofTitus.Andtherebyshowedhisconsistency,becauseaccordingtoActs16:3hehadTimothy
circumcized.37Lagrange,however,hasshownthatit
32
CitedinLagrange(1925),26.
33
(1962),669.
34
Lagrange(1925),27.OthersstressaconcernfortheunityofthechurchandtheconsistencyofitsmissionwhichisunlikelytohavebeenamajorpreoccupationofPaulatthis
stagesorightlyBetz(1979),86.
35
IndealingwiththeThessaloniancorrespondencewenotedPaul'sunwillingnesstoimposeprecepts.WhetheratthetimeoftheJerusalemmeetinghealreadyidentifiedtheLawwith
enslavement(Gal.2:4)isopentodoubt.ItismorelikelytohavebeentheconsequenceofhispostConferenceexperienceatAntioch,onwhichseethesectionPastoralInstruction
below.
36
NothingisknownaboutTitus'antecedentsorhowandwherehemetPaulseeBarrett(1969)Gillman(1992).SubsequentlyhebecameoneofPaul'sassistantsandwaschosento
bringtheSevereLetter(2Cor.2:4)toCorinthpreciselybecause,inthefaceofJudaizingopposition,hecouldreportauthoritativelyonwhathappenedattheJerusalemConference
seemy(1991b),42.
37
TheviewofBetz(1979),89,thatTimothywasJewishbecausehismotherwasJewishisnotsupportedbyany1stcent.evidenceseeCohen(1986).

 Page138
38
waspreciselythedesiretoharmonizeActsandGalatiansthatledtotheomissionofthenegativeparticle. PaulinfactmadenoconcessionwithrespecttoTitus,
becausenonehadbeendemandedofhimthemenofeminenceaddednothingtome(Gal.2:6).Theyimposednoconditionsonhisministry.Hecouldcontinueas
hehadbegun.

WhyDidJamesAgreewithPaulOnCircumcision?

WehaveseenthereasonswhycertainLawobservantJewishChristianswantedtoimposecircumcisiononPaul'sconverts.Whydidothersobjecttothisproposal?In
otherwords,howdidPaulpersuadeJames,Cephas,andJohn?Thepossibilitythattheywerepredisposedinhisfavourwouldseemtobeexcludedbythesubsequent
activityofJamesinAntioch,whereheisstronglyinfavourofthemaintenanceofJewishpractices.Theargumentsusedbythosewhoinsistedonthecircumcisionofall
convertsmusthaveappealedtoJames,andwehaveseenthattheirforceisconsiderable.Circumcisionwasthetraditionalsignofbelongingtothecovenantpeople
whichwasstillseenbyallChristiansasthedivinechannelofsalvation.

ItisunreasonabletoassumethatthetroikaacceptedPaul'spositionagainsttheoppositionoftheentireJerusalemchurchwhosepillarstheywere.ThefactthatPaul
singlesoutfalsebrethrenforprovokingthecrisisinsinuatesthatothersintheJerusalemchurchfavouredhisliberalview.Hence,Jamescouldbeassuredofbacking
fromcertainmembersofbyfarthebiggestblockintheJerusalemchurch,JewishChristians.This,however,simplypushesthequestionbackastageitdoesnot
answerit.HowandwhyhadthesecometotheconvictionthatGentilesshouldnotbecircumcised?

ItisnotsufficienttoappealtoadivisionwithinJudaismonwhetherproselytesshouldbecircumcised.39Notonlyisitunreasonabletoassumethatasimilardivision
shouldautomaticallyfollowwithintheChristianchurch,butthereisnorealevidencethattherewasasignficantbodyofopinionwithinJudaismopposedto
circumcision.Noonehadanydoubtastothemandatorycharacterofcircumcision,40eveniftherewerethosewhoattemptedtohideit,41orwhospiritualizeditfor
converts.42Moreover,whenconversionwithoutcir
38
(1925),2831.SeeMetzger(1971)5912Barrett(1985),112.
39
AsdoesBetz(1979),89.SeealsoMcEleney(1973).
40
Gen.17:10141Macc.2:46Jub.15.2534Philo,Migr.Abr.8992Josephus,AJ13.2578,318Nolland(1981)Collins(1985).
41
1Macc.1:15Josephus,AJ12.241Jub.15.3341Cor.4:18Martial,Epigrams7.35,82Hall(1988).
42
Philo,Quaest.Exod.2.2Som.2.25Spec.Leg.1.305SibyllineOracles4.16370Arrianus,Diss.2.9.20.

 Page139
43
cumcisionwascontested,circumcisionwasimposed. AsfarasJewishChristianswereconcerned,circumcisionwasthetraditionalsignofbelongingtothecovenant
people,whichwasseenasthedivinechannelofsalvation.

NorisitsufficienttoclaimthatJamesandtheothersstartedfromthepremissthatthelawwasgivensolelytoIsrael,andthuswereledtotheconclusionthatitcould
notbeappliedtoGentileconverts.44Notonlydoesthisfailtorespecttheintrinsiclink,admittedbyallintheearlychurch,betweensalvationthroughfaithinJesusand
belongingtothemessianicpeople,butitmakesthepositionofPaul'sopponentsinexplicable.

IfthereligioussituationofJudaismthrowsnolightontheissue,perhapsitspoliticalsituationmightbemoreilluminating.IntheRomanempiretheJewshadcertain
rightswhichwereclearlyandpreciselydefinedinlaw.45Suchprivileges,however,wereenjoyedatthegoodpleasureoftheemperor,andneverstoodinthewayof
imperialactionagainstJews.ThusinAD19TiberiusexpelledtheJewsfromRome.46WhentheNabataeansattackedandroutedthetroopsofHerodAntipas,
probablyinAD29,Romeexactednovengeance.47ThesituationdeterioratedseriouslywhenGaius(Caligula)cametopowerinAD37.Hisweaknesspermitteda
violentoutburstofantiSemitisminAlexandriainthemiddleofAD38.48Synagogueswereburntordesecrated,andthemobpersuadedA.AvilliusFlaccus,the
prefectofEgypt,todowngradethestatusofJewsinAlexandriatothatofalienswithoutrightofdomicile.ManyJewsweremassacred,andthosewhosurvivedwere
forcedintoanovercrowdedghetto.ViolenceceasedwiththearrestofFlaccusandthearrivalofanewprefect,C.VitrasiusPollio,inOctober,buttraditionalJewish
rightswerenotimmediatelyrestored.

JewsinPalestinecanhardlyhavebeenunawareofwhatwashappeningtotheircoreligionistsinEgypt,andfearedforthemselves.Theyhadgoodreason.Inthe
springofAD40,inreprisalforJewishdestructionofanaltaroftheimperialcultsetupinJamnia,theemperorGaiusorderedthelegateofSyria,PubliusPetronius
(AD3941),totransformtheTempleinJerusalemintoanimperialshrinebyerectingagiantstatueoftheemperorasJupiterintheHolyofHolies.Hewasauthorized
tousetwoofhisfourlegionstoenforcethedecision.49PetroniusmanagedtodelayimplementationofhisordersuntilAgrippaIinlatesummerpersuadedGaiusto
changehismind.FortheJewsofPalestineit
43
Josephus,AJ20.3848.
44
SoHaenchen(1971),468.
45
Saulnier(1981).
46
Josephus,AJ18.6584Tacitus,Annals2.85.5Suetonius,Tiberius36.1DioCassius,History57.18.5.ThesetextsarediscussedindetailbySmallwood(1981),20210.
47
Josephus,AJ18.10915seeSaulnier(1984),36571.
48
ThedetaileddocumentationfurnishedbyPhiloinLegatioadGaiumandInFlaccumisdiscussedbySmallwood(1981),23542.
49
Philo'sreportLegatioadGaium188,198348ispreferabletothedifferentversionsofJosephus,AJ18.261309JW2.1847,192203.SeeSmallwood(1981),17480.

 Page140

musthavebeenanervewrackingsixmonthsastheypreparedtosacrificethemselvesratherthansubmit.TheycouldneverbefullyateasewhileGaiuslived.Infacthe
wasplanningtogobackonhiswordwhenhewasassassinatedon24January41.

OnhisaccessionClaudius(AD4154)movedquicklytoundothedamagecausedbythemadnessofGaius.50Theemperormadeitveryclear,however,thathe
consideredtheJewsadisruptivefermentthroughouttheempire,andthattheirenjoymentoftheirprivilegeswasconditionalongoodbehaviour.51Thus,thoughtheright
ofreligiousassemblywasguaranteed,whenadisturbancebrokeoutinaRomansynagogueinAD41Claudiusclosedthesynagogueandexpelledtheagitatorsfrom
thecity.52TheJewswereservedunambiguousnoticethattheywereonprobation.

ThenextRomanmovecameinresponsetotheappearanceofafalseMessiah.53InthespringofAD45theprocuratorofJudaea,CuspiusFadus(AD44?46)
orderedthatthevestmentsoftheHighPriest(withoutwhichhecouldnotfunction),whichhadbeenreleasedtotheJewsbyVitelliusinAD36,54shouldberestoredto
RomancustodyandhousedintheAntoniafortress.55TheJewspersuadedClaudiustorescindtheorder,butonceagaintheyweremadetofeelfortunate.Whatever
theirrights,thedecisioncouldveryeasilyhavegoneagainstthem.Theirawarenessofthefragilityoftheirpositionwasintensifiedbytwoepisodeswhichtookplace
whenVentidiusCumanus(AD4852)wasprocuratorofJudaea.56Bothinvolvedsenselessdeliberateprovocationbyindividualsoldiers.Thefirstwaspermittedto
escapeunscathed,eventhoughagreatmanyJewsdied.Thesecondwasexecuted,butascrolloftheLawhadbeenrippedapartandburnt.

TheinevitableconsequenceofsuchrepeatedincidentsmanyothersmaynothavebeenrecordedwasaprofoundsenseofinsecurityamongJews.IftheRomans
couldnotbetrusted,thentherewasnothingforitbutforJewstotakemattersintotheirownhands.Thisispreciselywhathappenedononeofthepilgrimagefeastsin
AD51.57WhenCumanusdidnotarresttheSamaritanswhohadslaughteredGalileansenroutetoJerusalem,theirfriendsandotherJewstooktheirownvengeance
ontheSamaritans.58Thingshadreachedsuchapass
50
Onthecomplexissueofwhatconstitutesreliabledatainthismatter,seeinparticularSchwartz(1990),90106.
51
TheLettertoAlexandriaisconvenientlyavailableasn.48inBarrett(1987),4750.ItisdiscussedbySmallwood(1981),24550,3601.
52
Suetonius,Claudius25DioCassius,History60.6.6Orosius,History7.6.1516.Seethediscussionabove,Ch.1,TheEdictofClaudius.
53
Smallwood(1981),25960.
54
Josephus,AJ18.90cf.15.405.
55
Ibid.20.614
56
Ibid.20.10517JW2.22331.
57
Smallwood(1981),265n.29.
58
Josephus,AJ20.11824.

 Page141

thatanyperceptiveobservercouldhavepredictedgrowingtensionbetweentheJewsandRomewithaneverincreasingpotentialforviolence.Clearlyitwas
imperativeforJewstostandtogether.Onlyiftheyweretotallyunitedcouldtheysurvive.Anydiminutionofcommitmentcouldbefatal.

ThedilemmainwhichthisplacedpoliticallyconsciousJewishChristiansisobvious.TheywerefirstandforemostJews.Allthatseparatedthemfromtheirbrethrenwas
theiracceptanceofJesusofNazarethastheMessiah.Evenwithoutpressurefromtheircoreligionists,theirowninstinctswouldhavetoldthemthatthebeginningof
the5oswasatimetoaffirm,nottodilute,Jewishidentity.WhichendwouldthecircumcisionofGentileconvertsachieve?Manifestlythelatter.TocircumcizeGentile
convertswastoacceptthempubliclyasJews,eventhoughtheyhadnoattachmenttoJudaismtheywerefollowersofChristnotofMoses.WhatloyaltytotheJewish
peoplecouldbeexpectedofsuchindividualswhenhostilepressuresbegantotaketheirtoll?InacrisiscouldanynationalisticJewreallytrustthem?Wouldsuch
nominalJewsbepreparedtosacrificetheirlivesfortheTempleandtheLaw?59

QuestionssuchasthesemusthaveoccurredtothemorefarsightedmembersoftheJerusalemchurch.Whatseemedtoberightinthepresentcouldbeseentobea
dangerousthreatinthenottoodistantfuture.James,Isuggest,wasoneofthese.AstheleaderoftheJerusalemchurchhewasswayed,notbytheologicalreasons,
butbypracticalconsiderations.ThosewhodemandedthecircumcisionofGentileconvertsmightbecorrectintheory,butitwasnotthemomenttoinsistonprinciple.
Whateverhispersonalinclinations,historicalcircumstancesconspiredtomakeJameswanttofindjustificationfornotcircumcisingGentilebelievers.Thisneedmade
himreceptivetoPaul'spersonalityandarguments.Nomorethanhehadfourteenyearsearlier(Gal.1:19),couldhedoubtthesinceritywithwhichPaulexplainedthe
implicationsofhisconversion.NorcouldhedenythegracemanifestedinthenumberofGentileswhoacceptedthePaulinegospel(Gal.2:9a).Similarsuccess,
presumably,wasduplicatedbyBarnabaselsewhere.SuchevidenceofthepresenceoftheHolySpiritmanifestedthedivinewillthatGentilesshouldbeadmittedtothe
churchasGentiles.60

Ifthislineofargumentiscorrect,itshouldhaveasacorollaryaconcernonthepartofJamestostrengthentheidentityofChristianswhowereofJewishoriginby
insistingonmoreexactingobservanceofJewishpractices.Asweshallsee,thisispreciselywhathappenedatAntioch(Gal.2:1114).
59
ThesequestionshighlighttheimplausibilityofthehypothesisofJewett(1970),205,thatJewishChristiandesiretocircumciseGentileconvertswasmotivatedbythedesireto
avoidreprisalsfromZealots,whoinsistedoncompleteseparationfromnonJews.ThezenophobicZealotswouldhavebeenthelasttobebluffedbysuchatransparenttactic.
60
ThisisalsotheargumentusedbyLukeinActs15:8,12.

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TheAgreement

PaulexpressestheagreementreachedinJerusalemthus:JamesandCephasandJohn,whowerereputedtobepillars,gavetomeandBarnabastherighthandof
fellowship,thatweshouldgototheGentilesandtheytothecircumcision(Gal.2:9).TheinclusionofBarnabasunderlines,notonlythatPaulwasbutoneofanumber
ofmissionariestotheGentiles,butalsothattheexceptionfromcircumcisionaccordedhisconvertswasvalidforallothers.

ThefrustrationandangerwhichPaulexperiencedwhenLawobservantJewishChristiansappearedinhiscommunitiesinGalatiaandCorinthsuggeststhatthetermsof
theagreementmightnotbeasunambiguousasonewouldwish.Thepossibilitythatbothsidescouldhavereaditindifferentwaysisconfirmedbythevarietyof
interpretationscurrentamongscholars.

E.Burtonarguesforageographicalmeaning,
Theuseofeistaethnratherthantoisethnesin,therefore,favourstheconclusionthatthedivision,thoughonabasisofpreponderantnationality,wasneverthelessterritorial
ratherthanracial.Thisconclusionis,moreover,confirmedbythefactthattwiceinthisepistle(1:162:2)PaulhasspokenunambiguouslyoftheGentilesasthoseamong(en)
whomhepreachedthegospel,andthathehasnowhereinthisepistleorelsewhereusedtheprepositioneisaftereuangelizomaiorkrysstoexpressthethoughttopreachto.
Thewholeevidence,therefore,clearlyindicatesthemeaningoftheagreementwasthatPaulandBarnabasweretopreachthegospelinGentilelands,theotherapostlesin
Jewishlands.61

Abstractingfromthespuriousclarityofthephilologicalargument,onehasonlytoasktheprecisemeaningofJewishlandstoseetheweaknessofthisposition.In
Judaeaalone,possiblyinGalileeandPerea,wasthereapreponderanceofJews.Yetalltogethertheynumberedlessthanamillion,62whereasestimatesoftheJewish
populationoftheRomanempirerangefromfourtoeightmillion.63ItishighlyunlikelythatJamesandtheothersintendedtocedeallthesepotentialconvertstoPaul.64

Thosewhoappreciatetheforceofthisobjectiongototheotherextremeandunderstandtheagreementinexclusivelyethnicterms.PaulandBarnabascouldapproach
GentilesanywherebutnotJews,whereasmissionariesfromJerusalemcouldpreachtoJewsanywherebutnottoGentiles.65Thisinter
61
(1921),98.SimilarlyLagrange(1925),38Holmberg(1978),30.
62
Hamel(1990),13740Broshi(1979).
63
Tcherikover(1959),5045n.86.AsurveyoftheJewishDiasporaisprovidedbyPhilo,LegatioadGaium,2812.
64
SorightlyHaenchen(1971),467.
65
SoBetz(1979),100Ldemann(1984),72(1989),37.

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pretationgivesrisetotwoseriousproblems.ThecogencyoftheargumentsjustifyingaJudaizingapproachtoGentileshasbeenemphasizedabove.Itisdifficultto
thinkthatPaul'sopponentswouldabandonsuchawellfoundedposition.Moreover,iftheywerepreparedtogivewayonPaul'sgospel,theyhadarighttoexpect
thatbothheandthepillarswouldaccepttheirversionoftheGentilemission.Itisnotasifitwouldbecomeasquabbleoverasmallnumberofpossibleconverts.The
worldwasvastandthenumberofGentilesuncountable.Secondly,theethnicunderstandingoftheagreementwoulddenyPaulaccesstoDiasporasynagogues,and
thereisnohintthathefeltsorestricted.Onthecontrary,manyargumentsinhislettersareunintelligiblewithoutareasonableknowledgeoftheJewishScriptures,
whichimpliesthattherewereatleastsomeJews,andcertainlyGodfearersinhiscommunities.Thereisalsoanothersidetothisobjection.Isitreasonabletothink
thatJudaizerswouldhavefeltthemselvesboundtoignoreGodfearers,whohadshownthemselvessosympathetictoJudaismthattheyparticipatedinitsprayers
andstudy,justbecausetheywereGentiles?66

ThefactthatneitherthegeographicalnortheethnicinterpretationoftheJerusalemagreementcanexplainwhatactuallyhappenedinthemissionaryexpansionofthe
earlychurchforcesustolookattheagreementfromanotherperspective.TheissueatthemeetingwasnotthelegitimacyofamissiontoGentiles,buttheconditions
underwhichGentilescouldbeacceptedasmembersofthechurch.JerusalemacceptedthatPaulneedrequirenothingmoreofthemthanfaithinJesusChrist.What
theagreementmeantasfarasPaulandBarnabaswereconcernedwasthattheyneednotcircumcisetheirconverts.Onewouldassume,inthelightofthepointsmade
above,thatothermissionarieswerefreetocircumcisetheirrecruits.Theagreement,inotherwords,concernedneitherterritorynorrace,butmissionarypractice.67

ThusPaulandBarnabaswerefreetoacceptconvertsfrombothJudaismandpaganism,asweretheiropponents.Bothpartiestotheagreement,therefore,recognized
andacceptedmixedcommunities.WhethertheimplicationswereascleartoPaulandBarnabasastheyweretotheirrivalsremainstobeseen.TheJudaizerscould
lookforwardtochurchesthatweremixedonlyintheory,sinceGentileconvertswhoacceptedcircumcisionwouldnaturallyalsoacceptotherJewishobservances.For
allpracticalpurposestheywereJewishcommunities(cf.Acts2:427).SincePaulandBarnabashadresistedattemptstoforceGentilestolivelikeJews,itmustbe
assumedthattheyrecognizedthattheyhadnomandatetoforceJewishconvertstolivelikeGentiles.AllthattheydemandedofeachconvertwasbeliefinChrist.
Jewishconverts,therefore,wereatlibertytocontinuetoobeytheLawand,iftheywished,tocircumcisetheir
66
TheAphrodesiasinscriptionliststwoGodfearersasmembersofaJewishdecanyofthestudentsofthelaw,alsoknownasthosewhoferventlypraiseGodseemy(1992c),
421.
67
SorightlyHaenchen(1971),467.

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children.Suchcommunitiesweretrulymixedandinherentlyunstable,becausetheircomponentsfolloweddifferentrules.Oftenwhatwasimportanttoonepartofthe
communitywasirrelevanttotheother.Iftheyblendedtothepointofcreatingagenuineunity,itcanonlyhavebeenbecauseofconsciousconcessionsbybothsides.68
Sucharrangementswereapermanentsourceoftensionbecausetheywerecontinuallyrenegotiable,asthecaseofthechurchofAntiochillustrates.

TheCollection.

PaulconcludeshisaccountofthemeetinginJerusalemwiththewords,alltheyaskedwasthatweshouldrememberthepoor,whichverythingIwaseagerto
do(Gal.2:10).AnumberofcommentatorscapitalizeThePoor,andunderstandrememberinthesenseofanacknowledgementofpersonalmerits.Thus,weare
told,theagreementstipulatedthattheGentileJesusbelieversweretogiverecognitiontotheexemplaryperformanceonthepartoftheirfellowbelieversin
Jerusalem.69ItisperhapsnotimpossiblethatthiswaswhatthePillarsoftheJerusalemchurchhadinmindwhentheyinvitedPaultoacceptthecondition,butitis
mostimprobablethatitwasPaul'sinterpretation.70

WiththeexceptionoftheChristologicalstatementin2Corinthians8:9,Paulalwaysusespoor(2Cor.6:10Gal.4:9)andpoverty(2Cor.8:3)intheirnatural
materialsense.ThesocioeconomicmeaningisconfirmedbyhisreferencetothepooramongthesaintsinJerusalem(Rom.15:26),whereitismostimprobablethat
thegenitiveisanythingbutpartitive.71Thenaturalreadingisthatsomebelieverswereinneed.Howmanycannotbedetermined,buttheformulationdoesnotexclude
ahighproportionofthecommunity.

Thosewhoespouseamorespiritualinterpretationdoinfactrecognizeaneconomicdimension,buttheyformulatetheprobleminsuchawayastomakeneedaby
productofunrealisticdetachment.72ThisistowilfullyignorewhatJ.JeremiashasestablishedregardingsocialconditionsinJerusaleminthefirstcentury:

JerusaleminthetimeofJesuswasalreadyacentreformendicancyitwasencouragedbecausealmsgivingwasregardedasparticularlymeritorious

68
RecognitionofthisnecessitysubsequentlyinspiredthepromulgationofthesocalledApostolicDecree(Acts15:239)seeHaenchen(1971),46872.
69
Soe.g.Georgi(1992),38.ForHolmberg(1978),556,therequestwasanexerciseofpowerandauthoritydesignedtodemonstratetheinferiorityofGentileChristians.Thecollection,
however,wouldhaveproducedtheoppositeeffect,becauseitwouldhavemadeJerusalemtheclientandtheGentilesthepatronsseeCh.12FinancialAssistance.
70
SorightlyLdemann(1984),79.
71
TheviewthatthegenitiveisepexegeticalthepoorwhoarethesaintsinJerusalemisrightlyrejectedbyDunn(1988),875.
72
Georgi(1992),35.

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whendoneintheHolyCity.JerusalemhadalreadyinJesustimebecomeacityofidlers,andtheconsiderableproletariatlivingonthereligiousimportanceofthecitywasoneof
itsmostoutstandingpeculiarities.73

ThatanumberofChristiansbelongedtothisclassisshownbythenoteinActstotheeffectthatwealthymembersofthecommunitysoldlandandhousesinorderto
subsidizeneedymembersofthecommunity(Acts2:454:345).Unlessrichnewmemberswereregularlyrecruited,thissystemcouldhaveonlyoneresultthe
communitywouldrunoutofmoney.SinceChristianswerepersecutedbyatleastsomeJews(Gal.1:223),thepossibilityofaidfromtraditionalJewishsources
steadilydiminished.ThatleftonlytheburgeoningGentilechurch,whosemembers,thoughnotrich,werealmostcertainlybetteroffthanthemajorityoftheJerusalem
community.

TheshiftfromthepluraltothesingularinGalatians2:10isnotwithoutsignificance.74Thebasicagreementwasbetweenchurches.Jerusalemhadmadeafundamental
concessiontoAntiochandintendedtoprofitfromit.AsamereagentofAntioch,Paulhadnopersonalresponsibilityforthecollectionoffunds,andoncehehad
brokenwithAntioch(Gal.2:1114),hewasinnowayofficiallyinvolved.Hisconscience,however,thoughtotherwise.PaulhadlivedinJerusalemlongenoughtobe
fullyawareofthesocialconditionsofthecity.ComingfromawellestablishedDiasporacommunity,hemayevenhavewished,whilestillaPharisee,thatJewsabroad
woulddomorefortheircoreligionistsinJerusalem.NowthathehadtheopportunitytoinviteothersindebtedtohimtoalleviatesomeofthemiseryofpoorChristians
intheHolyCitydidhehaveanychoice?Commonsenseandthesubsequentwitnessof2Corinthians8combinetoexcludethepossibilitythatPaulmighthaveused
hisdifferenceswiththeauthoritiesinJerusalemasanexcusetoavoidasimpleimperativeofcharity.75Theopportunitytopourburningcoalsontheheadofhisenemies
(Rom.12:20)mighthavebeenanaddedattraction!

OncethebusinessoftheAntiochdelegationhadbeencompletedinJerusalem,therewasnoneedforPaultohangaroundthere.Fortifiedbytheaffirmationhehad
received,hewouldhavebeeneagertostrikeoutintonewmissionfields.Alreadyautumn,itwastoolateintheyearforboatstobestillatsea.Inanycasesailingto
Europewasalwaysanextremelyslowandlaboriousbusiness.Theprevailingwindwasfromthewest,andboatsoftheperiodwerenotriggedtosailintothewind
efficiently.Theyhadtoanchorwhenthewindwascontrary,andthenscrambletotakeadvantageofanyfavourablebreeze.Thedecisiontogonorthoverlandwasthe
obviousone,evenifPaulwerenot
73
(1969),116,118.
74
SeeWedderburn(1988),3741.
75
TherefusalofN.Taylor(1992),1989,totakeGal.2:10seriouslypalesintoinsignificancebesidehisassertionthatPaulundertookthecollectioninordertowinforhischurchesthe
samestatusthatAntiochenjoyed.

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obligatedtoreturntoAntiochwithBarnabastoreporttheoutcomeoftheconferenceinJerusalem.ByNovemberthefirstsnowshadalreadyfallenontheAnatolian
plateau,andpassagebeyondtheCilicianGates,ifnotimpossible,washighlydangerous.Hence,wemustassumethatPaulandBarnabasspentthewinterofAD51
52inAntioch.

AntiochandItsJews

AtthetimewithwhichweareconcernedAntiochontheOrontessocalledtodistinguishitfromthefifteenothercitiesendowedwiththesamenamebyasingle
founder,SeleucusINicator(311281BC)wasthethirdlargestcityintheRomanempire,surpassedonlybyRomeandAlexandria.76Theprimepositionatthe
intersectionofnorthsouthandeastwesttraderoutes,whichCorinthenjoyedasabirthright,wascreatedforAntioch.Thenorthsouthroutealreadyexisted,butthe
buildingofaharbour,SeleuciaPieria,20miles(32km.)tothewestatthemouthoftheOrontesriver,encouragedexploitationoftherivervalleyasatraderoute
throughthemountainstotheFertileCrescent.

TheoriginalpopulationwasartificiallyassembledfromMacedonians,Athenians,andJews,plussomenativeSyrianswhowereverymuchsecondclasscitizens.77
UndertheSeleucidsthegridplanoriginalcitygrewbytheprogressiveandsystematicadditionofthreefurtherareas.Themostconservativeestimateputsthe
populationofAntiochinthefirstcenturyADat100,000.78Whenthelegionstrampedintotheeastin64BC,PompeymadeAntiochthecapitalofthenewRoman
provinceofSyria.Emperorsandkingsviedforthehonourofaugmentingitssplendourandbeauty.HerodtheGreat,forexample,gaveitthemostmajesticcardo
maximusintheknownworldbypavingthe9.5metre(31feet)widestreetwithmarble,andbuilding9.8metre(32feet)widecoveredsidewalksalongbothsidesof
itsentire3.2km.(2miles)length.79

ByHerod'stimetheJewishcommunitywaswellestablished.AccordingtoJosephus,theJewsinSyriawereparticularlynumerousandwereconcentratedinAntioch
(JW7.435).ThevalidityofhisclaimthatJewsassuchwerefullcitizensofAntiochissuspectbecauseofthelackofanyindependentconfirmation.80Somemaywell
haveacquiredcitizenship,butasagrouptheJewswouldhavebeenresidentaliensorganizedasaseparatepoliteumawithinthebodypolitic.81Thisgavetheman
officialpositioninthecity,butwithouthavinga
76
Forthehistoricalbackground,seeFestugire(1959)Downey(1961)Liebschutz(1972)Lassus(1977)MeeksandWilken(1978).AgoodmapistobefoundinFinley(1977),
222.
77
Josephus,AJ12.119.
78
Norris(1992),1.265.
79
Josephus,AJ16.148JW1.425.
80
SeeSchrer(197387),3.1267.
81
Kraeling(1932),1389Smallwood(1981),35960.

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82
voiceinitsaffairs.Nonethelesstheyweremastersoftheirownaffairswithclearlydefinedrights,whichatAntiochweredisplayedpubliclyonbronzetablets.

TheFoundationoftheChurch

PaultellsusnothingabouttheevangelizationofAntioch.Luke'sratherdetailedaccount(Acts11:1926)isacomplexmixoftraditionandredaction.83Hissource
attributesthefoundationofthechurchtocertainpeoplefromCyprusandCyrenewho,havingcometoAntioch,spoketotheGreeks(Acts11:20).84Lukehimself
createdActs11:19,butJ.TaylorconvincinglyarguesthathedrewonanilldefinedtraditionofamissionfromJerusalemtoJewsinAntioch.85Howthesetwo
missionswererelatedtooneanotherremainsobscure,butamixedchurchcertainlyexistedtherebytheendofthe30s.86ItwasinthiscommunitythatPauland
Barnabasministeredforatleastayear.AccordingtothecontinuationofLuke'ssource,BarnabasarrivedinAntiochfromJerusalem,andsubsequentlyrecruitedSaul
fromTarsus(cf.Gal.1:21).87

TheimplicationofLuke'ssourcethattheevangelizationofAntiochwasanunimpededsuccessisaccentuatedbyhisredactionaladditions.Onlyonebriefnotehintsat
savagecurrentsroilingbeneaththeplacidsurfaceofthenarrative.HetellsusthatinAntiochthediscipleswereforthefirsttimecalledChristians(Acts11:26).J.
TaylorhasdrawnattentiontothefactthatinnonChristianfirstcenturysourcesthenamesChristandChristiansareinvariablyassociatedwithpublicdisordersand
crimes,88andlinkedthisfacttothreereportsofeventsinAntiochallofwhicharedatedtothesameyear,namely,AD394089ThefirstisthenotebytheByzantine
chroniclerJohnMalalasthatmanyJewswerekilledinapogrom,whoseimprobablecauseissaidtohavebeenadisputebetweentwocircusfactions.90Thesecondis
thesynthesisofaseriesofhintsinJosephusthattheaffairofGaiusstatue91provokedapogromsimilartothatwhichoccurredatthesametimeinAlexandriaunder
Flaccus.92
82
Josephus,JW7.110.
83
Fordetails,seeBoismardandLamouille(1990),3.1658.
84
ThesourceisreconstructedbyBoismardandLamouille,(1990),2.66.
85
(1994b),65.
86
Ibid.70.
87
BoismardandLamouille(l990),2.66.
88
[Claudius]expelledfromRometheJewswhowereconstantlycausingdisturbanceattheinstigationofChrestus(Suetonius,Claudius25.4cf.Nero16)Neropunishedthe
culprits,whom,hatedfortheirshamefulacts,thepopulacecalledChrestians.Theauthorofthisname,Christus,hadbeenputtodeathbytheprocuratorPontiusPilateduringthe
reignofTiberius(Tacitus,Annals15.44.2).
89
(l994a),7594.
90
PG97.3735.
91
Seeabove,pp.13940.
92
Kraeling(1932),1489Smallwood(1981),3601.

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93
ThethirdisthenoticeintheChronicleofEusebiusthatthefounder(s)ofthechurchinAntiochleftthecityforRome.

ThenaturalimpressionthatthefoureventsaresomehowrelatedisgivenexpressionbyTaylorinasimplebuteminentlyplausiblehypothesis:thedisciplesofJesus
werefirstcalledChristiansatAntiochinconnexionwithadisturbanceamongtheJewishpopulationofthecityinthethirdyearofGaius(AD3940),andthatthis
disturbancehadtodowiththepreachingoftheGospelandthebeginningofthechurchatAntioch.94Tobemorespecificistobemorespeculative,butthechainof
eventshasacertaininevitability.TheChristianmissionariespreachedJesusastheMessiah,whichcouldbeunderstoodinpoliticaltermsasacalltoliberation.Inthe
extremelytenseatmospherecreatedbytheannouncementofGaiusproposeddesecrationofthetemple,Jewishextremistsseizedthisasapretexttowhipup
oppositiontoRome.IntheprocesstheyalienatedtheAntiocheneswhoroseagainstthemandkilledmany.WhenPetroniussucceededinstoppingtheviolence,he
lookedfortheinstigators.Realizingthattheywerelikelytobeblamed,thefoundersofthechurchdeparted,leavingbehindconvertswhofoundthemselveslandedwith
anamewhichidentifiedthemastroublemakerscapableofsedition.

IfthisestimateofthesituationinAntiochinthespringofAD40iscorrect,itprovidesaverysimpleexplanationofwhytheJerusalemchurchsentBarnabasto
Antioch.InviewoftheintensecommunicationbetweenJerusalemandAntiochengenderedbytheaffairofthestatueofGaius,thereisnothingimplausibleinnewsof
thefracasforwhichChristianswereblamedreachingJerusalemveryquickly.Thefateoftheyoungcommunity,whichhadlostitsleadership,naturallywouldbea
matterofgreatconcerntobelieversinJerusalem.ThefraternalresponsewouldbetofillthatgapbysendinganexperiencedJewishChristianfromtheDiaspora(Acts
4:36).BarnabasdidnotgotoAntiochtoinspectorcorrect,buttostabilizeademoralizedcommunity.Hisname,itwillberecalled,meanssonof
encouragement(Acts4:36)thisqualitymightexplainwhyhewasselectedforthemission,orthenamecouldbeduetowhatheachievedatAntioch.Inthisscenario
BarrnabasrecruitmentofSaulwasamostastutetacticalmove.Forapersecutedcommunity,thesymbolicvalueofaconvertedpersecutorofthechurchcouldnot
beoveremphasized.ThepresenceofSaulamongthedistressedbelieversofAntiochverifiedthepowerofgracepromisedinthegospel.Godwasallpowerful.There
washopeforthefuture.
93
Schoene(1875),150,1523.SeethediscussioninTaylor(1994a),89n.42.
94
Ibid.91.

 Page149

TheProblemsofaMixedCommunity

Thereisnodoubtthat,onceitovercameitsinitialdifficulties,thechurchatAntiochflourished.ThemissionaryoutreachattestedbyActsrevealsalevelofenergetic
commitmenttotheGoodNewsthatbetraysaconfidentandvitalcommunity.GiventhemixtureofJewsandGentiles(Gal.2:1213),thiswasnomeanachievement,
anditisnecessarytoassessthefactorswhichcontributedtoit.

UnliketheJewswhosesynagogueswerelegallyrecognizedpublicmeetingplaces,thefirstChristianshadtomakedowiththehospitalityofferedbythemoreaffluent
membersofthecommunity.Thereisnoevidencethatanyofthesebelongedtothepatricianclasswhichownedvastmansions.95Inconsequence,spacebecamea
problemasthesizeofthechurchincreased.ThenumberofChristiansinAntiochcannotbedetermined,butattheveryleastitcannotbelessthantheminimumof50
postulatedforCorinth.96Itwouldhavebeendifficulttofitalltheseintothepublicspaceoftheaveragehouseofamoderatelywealthyperson.Presumablythisiswhy
Paulspeakssorarelyofameetingofthewholechurch(Rom.16:231Cor.14:23).Ifbelieversmetonlyasasinglegrouptheadjectivewholeisunnecessary.Its
usenecessarilyimpliestheexistenceofsubgroups,thechurchinthehomeofX(Rom.16:51Cor.16:19Col.4:15Philem.2).97Hence,wemustassume,that
atAntiochforpurelypracticalreasonstheChristiancommunitywasmadeupofanumberofhousechurches.

Suchanarrangementhadtheadvantageofofferingconvertsachoice.Whileintheorytheywerejoiningasinglecommunity,inpracticetheyhadtooptforone
particularhousechurchamonganumber.Manyandhighlydiversefactorsnodoubtinfluencedselection,butitwouldbeunrealistictoassumethatindividualhouse
churcheshadbothJewishandGentilemembers.ThetrendmusthavebeentowardsthecreationofGentileandJewishhousechurches,whichweregroupedtogether
undertheumbrellaofoneekklsia.Unlesstheumbrellawastobeacompletefiction,however,therehadtobestrongandregularlinksbetweenthedifferenthouse
churches.

Themostimportantofsuchlinkswastablefellowship.IntheancientNearEastaformalmealwastheprimesocialevent.Tosharefoodwastoinitiateorreinforcea
socialbondingwhichimpliedpermanentcommitmentanddeepethicalobligation.98Intheeyesoftheircontemporariestherewouldhavebeen
95
AccordingtoMeeks(1983),73,TheextremetopandbottomoftheGrecoRomansocialscalearemissingfromthepicture.Itishardlysurprisingthatwemeetnolanded
aristocrats,nosenators,equites,nor(unlessErastusmightqualify)decurions.
96
Seemy(1992e),1646.
97
Banks(1980),38.
98
SeeSmith(1992),6.3024.

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nogenuinecommunityamongChristiansunless,inadditiontotheritualoftheEucharist,theygatheredaroundacommontable.

NowherewasthesignificanceofthemealmoreaccentuatedthaninJudaism.Aswehaveseenabove,67percentofPharisaiclegislationwhichcanbedatedwith
someplausibilitytothepreAD70periodisconcernedwithdietarylaws,229specificrulingsoutof341.99NotallJewswouldhavebeenasscrupulousasthe
Pharisees.Itisequallycertain,however,thatthevastmajoritywouldhaveobservedthefundamentaldistinctionbetweencleananduncleanfood,andwouldhave
insistedontheformerbeingentirelydrainedofblood(cf.Acts10:14).Itwasamatterofprincipleforwhichtheirancestorshaddied(1Macc.1:623),anditwas
oneofthemostobviousidentitymarkersoftheJewishreligion.Separateyourselvesfromthenations,andeatnotwiththem(Jub.22.16).Whatthismeantin
practiceforrelationsbetweenJewsandGentilesiswellspeltoutbyE.P.Sanders,AlltheJewishevidencethusfarconsideredpresentsthelegalsituationperfectly
clearly:TherewasnobarriertosocialintercoursewithGentiles,aslongasonedidnoteattheirmeatordrinktheirwine.100

HowthendidtheJewishandGentilehousechurchesofAntiochmaintainanysemblanceofunity?Dunnrightlydismissesthetwoextremepossibilities,namely,thatthe
JewscreatednodifficultiesforGentilesbyignoringtheirownlaws,orthattheGentilescreatednoproblemsforJewsbyadoptingaPharisaiclevelofdietary
observance.101InthislattercasePetercouldnothavebeensaidtohavelivedlikeaGentile(Gal.2:14)simplybecauseheatewithbelieversofpaganorigin.The
mostprobablescenarioliessomewhereinthemiddle.

WhenGentilebelieversdinedwithJewstheyacceptedthefoodofferedthem,eventhoughkoshermeatmightnothavebeentotheirtaste.102WhenJewsdinedina
Gentilehouse,theytrustedtheirfellowbelieverstoofferthemJewishfoodanddrink.FromaJewishperspectivesuchtrustwasasignificantconcession.Mostifnotall
themeatavailableoutsideJerusalemwouldhavebeenpartofapagansacrifice,andthecommonassumptionwasthatGentileswouldpolluteJewishfoodanddrinkif
theygottheslightestchance(m.AbodahZarah5.5).HenceJewsregularlybroughttheirownfoodwhendiningwithGentiles.103

TheplausibilityofthiscompromiseisenhancedbythenumberofGodfearersatAntioch(JW2.4637.45).If,asseemsprobable,themajorityofGentileconvertsto
ChristianityatAntiochweredrawnfromsuchpeople,whoseattractiontoJudaismfoundexpressionintheadoptionofJewish
99
SeeCh.3,APharisee.
100
(1990),178.
101
(l983),31.
102
ThekingofEgyptsaidtotheJewishtranslatorsoftheBible,Everythingshallbepreparedinkeepingwithyourusages,andformealsoalongwithyou(LetterofAristeas181).
103
WhengoingouttoHolofenes,Judithgavehermaidaskinofwineandaflaskofoil,andfilledabagwithroastedgrain,driedfigcakes,andfinebreadthenshewrappedupallher
dishesandgavethemtohertocarry(Judith10:5cf.12:2).

 Page151
104
practices, itwouldhavebeenveryeasyforthemtomaketherelativelyminorconcessionwhichmadetablefellowshipwiththeirJewishfellowbelieverspossible.In
practicealltheyneededtodowastobuyataJewishshopwhentheyhadJewishguestsandtoaccepttheaddedexpense.Notonlywouldtitheshavehadtohave
beenpaidon[suchproduce]toconformwiththeLaw,butitisanuniversaleconomicrealitythatanyproducerequiredtomeetspecificationsoverandabovewhatis
normativeinthemarketwillaccordinglybemoreexpensive.105

OutsideInterference

ThisdelicatebalancewasdisturbedbyadelegationfromJerusalemcertainpeoplefromJamescame(Gal.2:12).PriortotheirarrivalPeterhadhadnodifficulty
eatingregularlyinGentilehousechurches.106Hecontinuedforawhile,buthegraduallydrewbackandendedupbystoppingcompletely,107andtherestofthe
JewishbelieversjoinedhiminplayingthehypocritesothatevenBarnabaswasledastraybytheirhypocrisy(Gal.2:13trans.Longenecker).Abarrierrose
betweentheJewishandGentilehousechurches.

WhathadthepeoplesentbyJamesinsistedontoprecipitatethiscrisis?Noprohibitionofmutualhospitalitywasnecessary.Alltheyhadtodowastoassertthat
JewishbelieversshouldnolongerassumethatGentileChristianswouldofferthemJewishfood.Suchblanketandunwarrantedcriticismoftheirstandardsofhonour
anddecencymusthaveprovedextremelyoffensivetoGentilechurchmembers.Thosewhowerepreparedtoaccepttheslur,andwhobelievedthatcommunionwith
JewswasessentialtopreservetheidealofunitywouldhavehadtohandovercontroloftheirkitchenstoJews.108

One'sjudgementastowhethereventhiswouldhavesatisfiedJamesdependsonwhyheintervenedatAntioch.Thenationalisticreasonswhichledhimtorefusethe
circumcisionofGentilesalsoobligedhimtoinsistontheobservanceofdietarylawsforJewishconverts.109InbothcasesitwasaquestionofconservingJewish
identity,inonebyrefusingdilution,andintheotherbypositivereinforcement.InsuchcircumstancesnomatterwhatconcessionsGentileconvertsmightbeprepared
tomake,otherswouldbedemanded.Separationwastherealobjective,andJudaizationonlythemeans.
104
Esther8:17LXXJosephus,JW2.454showthatthisisthesenseofioudaizeinseeDunn(1983),26.
105
N.Taylor(1993),126.
106
E.Burton(1921),104,insiststhattheuseoftheimperfecttenseimpliesthathedidthis,notonasingleoccasion,butrepeatedlyorhabitually.
107
Ibid.107.
108
SorightlyDunn(1983),31.MuchlessprobableisthehypothesisofE.P.Sanders(1990),186,thatJameswasconcernedexclusivelywiththedamagetoPeter'sreputationthat
wouldresultfromfrequentassociationwithGentiles.
109
Dunn(1983),32.

 Page152

Whateverhispersonalfeelings,suchconsistencywouldhavebeenimposedonJamesbythoseinJerusalem,whohadhadtoaccepthispositiononcircumcision.Peter
foundhimselfonthehornsofadilemma.HisactionshaddeclaredthetablefellowshipofthechurchatAntiochunobjectionable,buthehadsidedwithJamesatthe
meetinginJerusalem,andhewasresponsibleforthemissiontoJews(GaL2:8).Hewasnowinasituationwherehecouldnothaveitbothways.Hehadtomakea
publicdecision,andheoptedforhisJewishroots.ForPaulhismotivecouldonlybeunworthy,andhepostulatesfear(Gal.2:12).110Itisentirelypossible,however,
thatPeterreadthesituationclearly,andingreatagonyofminddecidedforthosewhoneededhimmost.ThestrengthoftheGentilechurchwasapparentatAntioch,
andithaddynamicleadersinPaulandBarnabas.TheJewishchurchwasstruggling,andwouldbeshatteredbythedefectionofoneofitsmostreveredfigures.

Peter'sdecisionreinforcedtheauthorityoftheJerusalemdelegation,andnaturallytheJewishChristiansfollowedhislead.WhatissurprisingisthatBarnabasalsodid
so.ThispainedPaulgrievously.ThepathosofevenBarnabas'(Gal.2:13)revealsthedepthofhisdisappointment.Theyhadsoldieredtogetherinthemissionfield(1
Cor.9:6),andindefenceofthefreedomoftheGentilesatJerusalem(GaL2:110).WhydidBarnabasnowdenyeverythingthathehadstoodfor?Theverbto
carryoffwithbearstheconnotationofirrationalityandsuggeststhatBarnabaswasswayedbyemotion.111ThenationalisticappealofJamestouchedhisJewishheart
andblindedhimtotheconsequencesforthechurchatAntioch.

ForPaulthisdevelopmentwasmanifestlyunchristian.James,onthecontrary,didnotseeitasatallincongruous.Infacthemusthavebeensurprisedandoffendedby
Paul'sreaction.ItisatragicparadoxthatJames'sinheritedconvictionthatseparationwastheonlywaytopreserveJewishidentitywasreinforcedbythevery
argumentonwhichPaulhadinsistedsopassionatelyduringthecircumcisiondebate,namely,thatbeliefinJesusastheMessiahwastheoneessentialconditionfor
membershipinthechurch.JamescouldhardlybeblamedfordrawingtheconclusionthatsocialcontactsbetweenJewishandGentileconvertswereirrelevant.

TheLawaRivaltoChrist

ForPaultheshockofbeinghoistwithhisownpetardprovedtobetheprovidentialincentivetorethinkhisvisionofamixedJewishandChristianlocal
110
Certainexegetestakehimseriouslyanddebatewhetheritwasfearofthepoliticalconsequenceoflosinghispositionofpower(soBetz(1979),109)orfearoftheconsequences
fortheJerusalemchurchifhe,oneofitspillars,wereknowntofraternizewithGentiles(soLongenecker(1990),75).
111
Betz(1979),110Longenecker(1990),76.

 Page153

churchinatleasttworespects.First,whathehadalwaysactedoninpractice(cf.1Thes.4:9),henowwasforcedtoarticulateasaprinciple.FaithinJesuswas
basic,butitalonedidnotmakeapersonaChristian.Abelieverhadtolivethetruthinlove(WithoutloveIamnothing1Cor.13:2),andabelievingcommunityhad
toputonlovewhichisthebondofperfection(Col.3:14).Second,whereaspreviouslyPaulhadbeencontenttopermitJewishmembersofthechurchtocontinue
toobservetheLaw,henowrecognizedthatiftheLawwasgiventhetiniesttoeholdinalocalchurchitwouldultimatelytakeover,asithadinfactdoneatAntioch.If
Pauldidnotimmediatelybecomeantinomian,hewaswellonthewaytoperceivingthefundamentalincompatibilityoftheLawandChrist.

ThevividurgencyofhiscriticismofPeterinGalatians2:1421stronglysuggeststhatPaulisrelivingthecrucialargument.Whathewrites,therefore,isprobablyan
adequatereflectionofthethrustofwhatheactuallysaid.112Thoughhislogicisnotours,thecentralthrustofhisargumentisunambiguous.

TheactionofthedelegationfromJerusalemsaidineffectthat,thoughGentilebelieverswereinChrist,theynonethelessremainedsinners,becausetobeaGentile
andtobeasinnerwereoneandthesamething(Gal.2:15b).PaulunderstoodthemtoassertthatthedeathofChristwasmeaningless(Gal.2:21b).Notonlydidit
changenothingforthebetter,infactitmadethesituationworse.IfJewishbelieversarealsoinChrist,Paulprolongsthelogic,theyareinanintimateunionwith
Gentiles,andsotheytoomustbesinners.HenceChristisnothingbutanagentofsin(Gal.2:17).

ToanybelieverinChristthetwoconclusionsareabsurd.Inconsequence,thepremissesfromwhichtheyflowmustbefalse.NeitherJewishnorGentilebelieversare
sinners.Whatistrueforone,however,istruefortheother.IfGentilesarejustified,Paulasserts,itcannotbeinvirtueofworksoftheLaw,becausetheyneither
knownorexecuteitsdemands.ItmustbesolelyinvirtueoftheirfaithinJesusChristthattheyaresaved(Gal2:16).IffaithaloneisadequateforGentiles,thenitis
alsosufficientforJews(Gal.2:21).

WerePaul,oranyotherJewishbeliever,toaccordtheLawtheabsoluteauthorityitenjoyedwhenhewasaPharisee,hewouldineffectbedenyingChrist,thetrue
sourceofauthenticlife(Gal.2:20).ItisnolongertheLawwhichspeaksforGod,butChristalone.HenceforthobedienceisdefinedbyreferencetoChrist(Gal6:2).
Paradoxically,therefore,toobeytheLawistomakeoneselfatransgressor(Gal.2:18).

WhereashehadonceseentheLawsimplyasanotherfactorinthehumansituation,AntiochtaughtPaulthatitwasadangerousrivaltoChrist.Hesawforthefirsttime
that,iftheLawwasgivenafootholdinanycommunity,it
112
ItgoeswithoutsayingthatPaulhastheGalatiansinviewinthissection,andisnotinterestedinahistoricizingreconstructionofhisactualwordsatAntioch.

 Page154
113
wouldassumeadominantrole. Onceoneimperativewasobeyed,theincreasinginsistenceofotherdemandswoulddeflectattentionawayfromChristItwasonlyin
hislettertotheRomans,writtensomefiveyearslater,thatPaulspelledoutindetailhiscriticismsoftheLaw.Butonecanseeinhiscomportment,114andinthe
pastoralinstructionshegavehiscommunitiesintheintervalthathebecameconvinced,notmerelythatnothingintheLawwasbindingonbelievers,115butthatlawas
suchisnolongervalidfortheChristian.116

PastoralInstruction

WhendealingwiththeethicaldirectiveswhichPaulgavetheThessalonians,attentionwasdrawntohisrecognitionthatthewitnessvalueofbelieversdependsonfreely
chosenbehaviour.117Heinstinctivelyrefrainedfromimposingorprohibitinganyparticularact.Onlywhenhefelthehadnootherchoicedidheissueacommand
orderingthecommunitynottoassociatewiththeundisciplined(2Thess.3:14).Nodoubtheregrettedthenecessity,buthecouldstilljustifythepreceptintermsofhis
concerntoensurethepositiveimpactofthechurchonitsenvironment(1Thess.4:12).

AftertheincidentatAntioch,thiswasnolongerpossible.CouldPaulhaveintendedhispreceptstohaveacoerciveforcewhichhedeniedtothecommandmentsof
GodintheLaw?Couldhehaveinsistedonbeingobeyed,whilearguingthattosubmittotheLawwastobecomeatransgressor(Gal.2:18)?InthisspherePaul
provedtobetotallyconsistent,bothasregardshisownpractice,whichhadexemplarvalueforhisconverts(Gal.4:121Cor.11:1),andinwhathesaidtohis
churches.

PaultwicequotescommandsofJesus.118Thefirstistheprohibitionofdivorcein1Cor.7:10,whichPaulacceptedinaparticularcase(1Cor.7:11),notbecausehe
feltboundbyit,butbecausehedisagreedwiththereasonsforthedivorce.119Inanotherinstance,however,hefoundthereasonscompellingandpermittedadivorce
(1Cor.7:15),120therebyrevealingthat,despitethe
113
Barrett(1994),82(see94,104),isoneofthefewtohaveseenthatitisverydifficult(perhapsnotintheendimpossible)tohavealawwithoutlegalism.
114
1Cor.9:1923formallyarticulatesPaul'ssenseoffreedom.ThecommentofFee(1987),427,isverymuchtothepoint,whenhewasamongJewshewaskosherwhenhewas
amongGentileshewasnonkosherpreciselybecause,aswithcircumcision,neithermatteredtoGod(cf.7:198:8).Butsuchconducttendstomatteragreatdealtothereligious
oneithersidesothatinconsistencyinsuchmattersranksamongthegreatestofevils.
115
AsWesterholm(1988),2059,hasreaffirmed.
116
Knox(1962),99.
117
SeeCh.5,ExemplaryBehaviour.
118
Dungan(1971).
119
Seemy(1981a),9016,
120
EverythingnecessaryforacorrectinterpretationofthisverseiscontainedintheJewishlegislationondivorce,TheessentialformulainthebillofdivorceisLo,thouartfreeto
marryany

(Footnotecontinuedonnextpage)

 Page155

imperativalform,herefusedtogivetheprohibitionofJesustheforceofaconstrainingpreceptHisattitudetowardsthesecondcommandisevenclearer.Theformin
whichhequotesitIcommandthosewhoproclaimthegospeltolivefromthegospel(1Cor.9:14)makesitanobligationfortheministertoreceive,notforthe
communitytogive.121YetPaulimmediatelygoesontoinsistthathehasnotobeyedandwillnotobeyhewillcontinuetoearnhisownliving(1Cor.9:1518).The
citationofthetwodominicalcommandsunderlinestheirvalue,andtherespectinwhichtheyshouldbeheld,butPaul'spracticeindicatesthathedidnotseethemas
imposinganobligation.

Sincehabitsofspeecharenotautomaticallyalteredbyideologicalconversion,itwasperhapsinevitablethatPaulshouldoccasionallycommandthatsomethingbe
done.Insomecaseshecatcheshimselfandintroducesacorrection,butinothershedoesnot.Inthishecannotbeaccusedofinconsistency.Adistinctioncanbe
drawnbetweenthetwosetsofsituations.Hespeaksintheimperativemoodregardingconjugalrelations(1Cor.7:5),andgenerosityingivingtothepoorof
Jerusalem(2Cor.8:7),butinbothinstancesheimmediatelyadds,Isaythisnotasacommand(1Cor.7:62Cor.8:8).122Theissuesonwhichhedoesnot
correcthimselfconcernchangeofsocialstatussubsequenttoconversion(1Cor.7:17),issuesraisedbytheCorinthians(1Cor.11:34),andthemechanicsofthe
transmissionofthecollectiontoJerusalem(1Cor.16:1).Paul,inotherwords,iscarefultoavoidimposingstrictlymoraljudgements,buthasnohesitationinmaking
administrativedecisions.Thelatterconcernpurelypracticalmatters,whereastheformerinvolveinterpersonalrelationswhichareoftheessenceofChristianlife.On
basicmoralissues,Paulwillonlyofferadvice,Isaythisforyouradvantage,nottolayanyrestraintuponyou(1Cor.7:35).

TheassumptionsbehindthisattitudeshouldbeclearfromwhathasalreadybeensaidabouttheLaw,butPaulnonethelessmakesthemexplicitintwopassages.He
refusestoobligeanyonetocontributetothecollectionforJerusalembecauseEachonemustgiveashehasdecidedinhisheart,notreluctantlyorundercompulsion,
forGodlovesacheerfulgiver(2Cor.9:7).Thefreedomofthedecisionisstressedbothpossitivelyandnegatively.Itmustcomefromtheheart,whichinbiblical
termsisthecoreofthepersonality.The

(Footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
man.R.Judahsays:Letthisbefrommethywritofdivorceandletterofdismissalanddeedofliberationthatthoumayestmarrywhatsoevermanthouwilt.Theessential,
formulainawritofemanciptionis,Lothouartafreedwomanlo,thoubelongesttothyself(m.Git.9.3trans.Danby).Theunderstandingofawritofdivorceasadeedof
emancipationjustifiesthejuxtapositionofthetwocases(wifeandbondwoman)andexplainswhyPaulherewroteisnotenslavedratherthanisnotbound(cf.1Cor.7:27,39).
Nomentionismadeofremarriagebecausethatrightistheveryessenceofadivorce,paceFee(1987),303.
121
SorightlyKlauck(1984),66,againstRobertsonandPlummer(1914),187Barrett(1968),208.
122
Seeesp.Fee(1987),283.

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choicemustwellupfromwithin.Itcannotbeforcedinanyway.Whatoneiscompelledtogivewillalwaysbegivenwithregret,andcannotbepleasingtoGod(Prov.
22:8).

ThesecondpassageisevenmoreexplicitPaulwritestoPhilemon,EventhoughIhavefullauthorityinChristtoorderyoutodowhatisfitting,yetforlove'ssakeI
ratherbeseechyou(vv.89a).PaulknewthathehadthepersonalauthoritytocommandPhilemontodotherightthingconcerningOnesimus,hisrunawayslave,
namely,toreceivehimbackwithoutanypunishment.InasubtlecaptatiobenevolentiaePaulexpectsPhilemontorecognizethatonlyloveisalwaysfittingfor
Christians.Buttherewasalsoanotherreason,Ipreferredtodonothingwithoutyourconsentinorderthatyourgoodactmightnotstemfromcompulsionbutfrom
yourownfreewill(v.14).Theoppositionbetweencompulsionandfreewillisabsolutethesameactcannotbebothvoluntaryandforced.Tobeboundbya
preceptistobeincapableofactingfreely.Theconstraintofacommandmakesafreechoiceimpossible.IfPhilemonistoloveOnesimus,thedecisionmustbeentirely
his.

OnlywhenthepatternofsuchPaulinepassagesisperceiveddoesitbecomeclearjusthowradicalPaul'santinomianstancewas.123Hewouldnotgiveobedienceto
anylaw,andhewouldnotexactsubmissionfromhisconverts.Hewouldindicatewhatheexpectedofthem.Hewouldattempttopersuadethemtomodifytheir
behaviour.Hewouldproposehisownexample(e.g.1Cor.8:13).Itwouldhavebeenmucheasierforhimtohaveforciblyimposedthecomportmenthedesired.But
hisexperienceatAntiochhadtaughthimthattooperatethroughbindingpreceptswouldnecessarilybringhimandhisconvertsbackintotheorbitoftheLaw.

HenceforthforPaultherewasonlythelawofChrist(Gal.6:2bcf.1Cor.9:21).Thecomplexdebateaboutthemeaningofthisphraseisfuelled,notbyitsintrinsic
difficulty,butbyanobstinatedesireonthepartofcertaineminentexegetestofindinPaulthebasisofabindingcodeofChristianconduct.124Thevanityofthisquest
shouldbeclearfromwhathasbeensaidabove.Thevanity,inconsequence,isappositive(BDF167),andtheunderlyingideaisclearlyarticulatedbyPhilo,The
livesofthosewhohaveearnestlyfollowedvirtuemaybecalledunwrittenlaws(DeVirt.194cf.VitaMoysis1.162trans.Yonge).NomosChristoushouldbe
translatedasthelawwhichisChrist.TheJewishLawnolongerenshrinesthewillofGodforhumanity(Rom.2:18).NowGod'swillisembodiedinthe
comportmentofChrist,whobothexemplifiesthedemandmadeon,andmodelstheresponseof,humanity.Astheimmediatecon
123
Thisconclusioncouldbeconfirmedbyananalysisofmanyotherpassages,asFurnish(1968),187,hasrecognized,Thissurveyofpassagesshows,surprisingly,thatthe
apostlenowherespeaksdirectlyaboutobediencetothelaworitscommandments,ortoGod'swill.Seealsomy(1974b),99144.
124
E.Burton(1921),32930Dodd(1953),96110Davies(1962),73Longenecker(1990),2756).SeeFurnish(1968),5198.

 Page157
125
textindicatesBearoneanother'sburdens(Gal.6:2a)loveisthesolebindingimperativeofthenewlaw.ItwasthesalientfeatureofChrist'shumanity, andis
thecontentoftheonetruepreceptwhichremains(Gal.5:14Rom.13:8101Cor.7:19),becauseitisoftheveryessenceofChristianlife(1Thess.4:91Cor.
13:2).
125
Seemy(1982b),458.

 Page158

7
TheYearsinEphesus
PauldoesnotinformuswhoprevailedinhisdisputewithPeteratAntioch.Hissilence,however,tellsitsownstory.Hadhewon,hecouldhardlyhavefailedto
mentionitinGalatians.1TohavebeenabletoassertthatPeterhadeventuallysidedwithhimratherthanwithJamesonJewishpracticeswouldhavebeenanimportant
argumentagainsttheJudaizingtendencyofthechurchesofGalatia.

ThefactthatBarnabashadalignedhimselfwiththedelegationfromJerusalemleftPaulcompletelyisolated.HenolongerfeltathomeinAntioch.Thenewpatternof
itscommunitylifereflectedanunderstandingofthegospelwithwhichhecouldnotidentify.Itsfaithwasnolongerhisbecause,ashesawit,Christhadbeenmoved
fromhispositionofabsolutecentrality.Moreover,AntiochhadineffectbecomeaJewishchurch.ItnowmirroredtheradicalseparationbetweenGentileandJewish
churches,whichwastheambitionofthenationalisticJewishChristians,butwhichwasanathematoPaul.HewantedfreedomfortheGentilechurch,butnotatthe
expenseofitshistoricalrootsinJudaism.HealsofearedfortheJewishchurch.HisexperienceasaPhariseeenabledhimtoforeseewhatlegalismwoulddotoa
religiouscommunity.

SincethechurchatAntiochnolongerembodiedthepowerofgrace,hecouldnotinconsciencecontinuetobeitsrepresentativeinthemissionfieldstothewest(Acts
13:13).WemustassumethatthistroubledPaulonthehumanlevel,butitdidnotparalysehim.Fromthebeginninghehadunderstoodhisconversiontobeacallto
preachamongtheGentiles.Evenifhewasnolongertheemissaryofachurch,thedivinecommission,whichhadinspiredhisabortivemissionamongtheNabataeans,
wouldvalidatehissubsequentcareer.Hewasanapostle,notfrommenorthroughaman,butthroughJesusChristandGodtheFather(Gal.1:1).

SometimeinthespringofAD52,therefore,whenthegorgethroughtheTaurusmountainsknownastheCilicianGateswaspassable,andmostofthesnowhad
meltedontheplateau,PaulleftAntioch.Hewasnevertoreturn.
1
Sothemajorityofcommentators.

 Page159

TwoJourneysthroughAsiaMinortotheWest

PaulhadcrossedAsiaMinoratleastoncebefore,onthejourneythatbroughthimtothecoastoftheAegeanSea,whichhecrossedtolandatNeapolistheportof
Philippi(Acts16:11).WhendealingwiththatjourneyearlierinChapter1,myconcernwaswiththetimeitwouldhavetakenhim.2Sincethedistanceswere
substantiallythesame,itwasnotnecessarytochooseamongtherouteshemighthavefollowed.Onlyatthisstagedoesthepreciseroutebecomeimportantbecauseit
determinestheidentityoftheconvertswhomostdisappointedhim,thechurchesofGalatia(seeFig.1).

GalatiaandtheGalatians.

WherewasGalatia?Paultellsusonlythattherewassuchaplace(Gal.1:21Cor.16:1),thattheinhabitantsnotsurprisinglywerecalledGalatians(Gal.3:1),and
thathisfirstvisittherewastheresultofanaccident(Gal.4:13).

WeknowthatAugustuscreatedaRomanprovinceofGalatia.DioCassiusnotesinhisreportfortheyear25BC,OnthedeathofAmyntashe[Augustus]didnot
entrusthiskingdomtohissonsbutmadeitpartofthesubjectterritory.ThusGalatiatogetherwithLycaoniaobtainedaRomangovernor,andtheportionsof
PamphyliaformerlyassignedtoAmyntaswererestoredtotheirowndistrict.3AmyntaswasthelastinaseriesofCelticrulersstretchingbacktothethirdcenturyBC
whentribesfromthePyreneespushedtheirwayintoAnatolia.4TheRomanprovince,however,wasgreaterthanthetribalterritories.Itssouthernborderenglobed
Pisidia,Isauria,Lycaonia,andpartofPamphylia.5Ineffect,theprovincewasastripaveragingsome200km.widerunningalmostthefullwayacrossthecentreof
AsiaMinorfromnortheasttosouthwest.ThismeansthatfourtownsevangelizedbyPaulandBarnabasonwhatLukepresentsasthefirstmissionaryjourney,
namely,AntiochinPisidia,Iconium,LystraandDerbe(Acts13:13to14:28)belongedtotheprovinceofGalatia.2Timothy3:11confirmsthatPauldidinfact
ministerinthesetowns.

OpinionisdividedastowhetherbyGalatiansPaulintendedconvertsfromthesetowns(theSouthGalatia,orprovince,hypothesis)orfromthetribalareas(the
NorthGalatia,orterritorial,hypothesis).Atonestageitwasthought
2
SeeCh.1,DatingtheStagesoftheJourney.
3
History53.26.3trans.Cary.WhatissaidofPamphyliaisonlypartiallytrueseeSherk(1980),959n.17.
4
Strabo,Geography4.1.13.
5
GalatiaalsotouchesonCabaliainPamphyliaandtheMilyaeaboutBarisalsoontheCyllanicumandthedistrictofOroandainPisidia,andObizenewhichispartofLycaonia(Pliny,
NH5.42.147).SeeSherk(1980),959andthemapfacingp.960S.Mitchell(1993),mapfacing40.

 Page160

Fig.1
AsiaMinorattheTimeofPaul
(Source:TbingerAtlasdesVorderenOrients,BV7(1983))

 Page161
6
thatPaulcouldnothavebeensocrudeastousetheessentiallyethnicnamesofGalatiaandGalatiansofthosewhowerenotCelts. RespectablecitizensofPisidiaand
Lycaonia,itwasimplied,wouldnotappreciatebeingidentifiedaswildbarbarians!Morerecentstudies,however,haveremovedthisapparentlyplausibleargument
fromcontention.Thereareevensomehints,contrarytoviewsoftenrepeated,thatthetermGalatianwasacorrectandhonourabletitleespeciallyacceptabletothe
moreHellenizedorRomanizedpeopleintheprovince.7Asfaraslinguisticusageisconcerned,therefore,Paul'slettertotheGalatianscouldhavebeenwrittentoa
groupofcommunitiesanywhereintheRomanprovince.

ThispointisdevelopedveryadroitlybyBurton,ifthechurchesaddressed[inGal.]werethoseofDerbe,Lystra,IconiumandAntioch,whichhe[Paul]foundedon
hisfirstmissionaryjourney,hecouldnotaddresstheirmembersbyanysingletermexceptGalatians.8WeareinvitedtoadmirehowcleverlyPaulglossesoverthe
differencesbetweenthesechurchesbyfindingacommondenominatorintheirbelongingtothesameRomanprovince.ButisitreallylikelythatPaulwouldhave
writtenasinglelettertosomanyandsodiversechurches?Theimprobabilityisaccentuatedbytheirdispersion.Derbeis286km.(172miles)fromAntiochinPisidia.9
InMacedonia,eventhoughThessalonicaandPhilippiareonlyhalfthatdistanceapart(166km.,100miles),andeventhoughthesametypeofJudaizationwasathreat
(Phil.3:2),Pauldealswitheachchurchindividually.

Moreover,accordingtoGalatians4:13,Paul'sfirstvisittotheGalatianswasnotplanned.Itwastheresultofanaccidenthefellsickandtheynursedhimbackto
health.ThisfacthasnotescapedthepartisansoftheNorthGalatiahypothesis.ButtheydevelopitintoanargumentonlybycontrastingPaul'saccountofhiscondition
withLuke'spresentationofmissionariessodynamicthattheyaretakenforgods(Acts14:12).WhileitiseasytoimaginereasonswhyLukewouldhavepassedover
anillnessindiscreetsilence,itismuchmoredifficulttoexplainwhyPaulhimselfwouldomitsuchatrialinhislistofthedifficultiesheexperiencedinSouthGalatia(2
Tim.3:11).Thewayinwhichhespeaksoftheproblemsoccasionedbyanintenselyactiveministrythereexcludesaperiodofillnesssoseriousthathewasagrave
burdentotheGalatians(Gal.4:14).

IftheGalatianstowhomPaulwritesareunlikelytobethebelieversinthesouthernpartoftheRomanprovince,wheredidtheylive?Lukeprovidesapossibleanswer.
WithregardtoPaul'sjourneytoEphesus,hetellsusthathewentthroughtheregionofGalatiaandPhrygiastrengtheningallthedisciples
6
e.g.Lightfoot(1910),1920Kmmel(1975),298Haenchen(1971),483n.2.
7
Hemer(1989),3045.
8
E.Burton(1921),p.xxix.
9
Jewett(1979),59.

 Page162
10
(Acts18:23). TheimpressiongivenisthatheretracedtherouteheandTimothy(atleast)hadtakenpreviouslyfromLystra,theywentthroughtheregionofPhrygia
andGalatiahavingbeenforbiddenbytheHolySpirittospeakthewordinAsia(Acts16:6).TheinversionofthewordsPhrygiaandGalatiaandthefactthatboth
canbeusedasadjectivesstronglysuggeststhatLukehasinmindterritorywhichwasbothPhrygian(bylanguageandculture)andGalatian(byRomanadministrative
fiat).11

ThedescriptionappliesperfectlytotheterritoryinwhichAntiochinPisidiaandIconiumwerelocated,butitisunlikelythatthisiswhatLukehadinmind.Paulmust
havereachedAntiochinPisidia,thelastmajortowninGalatia,whenherealizedthathewasnotgoingtobeabletocrossoverintoAsia.Thealternativehechosewas
togothroughPhrygioGalatianterritory,namely,theborderareabetweenAsiaandGalatianorthofAntiochinPisidia,whichwouldbringthemtoapointeastof
MysiaandsouthofBithynia(Acts16:7).12

Whatisknownoftheroutes,however,indicatesthatitwouldbemorenaturaltotravelonthePhrygiansideoftheborder.13OnlysoutheastofPessinus(modern
Balahisar)wouldithavebeeneasytomakeadiversiontotheeast,whichwouldhavebroughthimwithinGalatiantribalterritory.ButwhywouldPaulmakeaturn
diametricallyopposedtohisplannedjourneytothewest?Itisimpossibletofindmotivationforachangeofplan.SomethingmusthavehappenedtoforcePaulto
abandontemporarilyhisprojecttoworkhiswayaroundAsia.Theillnesshementions(Gal.4:13)issuchanexplanation,buttospeculateonwhatitwasandhowit
changedhisplansisfruitless.HenceitseemsmostprobablethattheGalatianstowhomPaulwrotewereinhabitantsofthenortheasterncornerofGalatia,thealmost
squareterritoryborderedonthreesidesbytheimmensebendoftheriverSangarios(modernSakarya).

FromGalatiatoTroas

WehaveseenthattheletterssuggestthatafterGalatiaPaulevangelizedMacedonia.14TheApostlegivesnohintoftheroutehetook.Luke,however,tellsusthat
passingthroughMysiatheycamedowntoTroas(Acts16:8).15EventhoughMysiawaspartofAsia,itsrelationtotheprovinceparalleledthat
10
WithregardtothereliabilityofLuke'saccount,Taylor(1994b),239,manifestsextremescepticism.Itisclearfromtheletters,however,thatPaulmadetwoeastwestjourneys
throughAsiaMinor,andinformedspeculationcandeterminewithsomeprobabilitytheroutehefollowed.
11
SeeIbid.236.
12
SorightlyHaenchen(1971),484n.3S.Mitchell(1992),8702,here871.
13
In189BCGnaeusManliusmarchedfromDyniaeinPhrygia(some20mileswestofAntiochinPisidia)toAbassion(modernJsgadren)whichwasatthefrontierofthe
Tolostobogii,themostwesternofthethreeGalatiantribes(Livy,HistoryofRome,38.15).
14
Seeabove,Ch.1,GalatiaandaJourneyintoEurope.
15
ThistranslationoftheJBandNAB(againsttheNRSV)isjustifiedbyHaenchen(1971),484n.4JB.

 Page163
16
ofJudaeatotheprovinceofSyriaitwastreatedasaseparatedistrictandruledbyaprocurator. ThusPaulandhiscompanion(s)couldgothroughMysiawithout
encounteringanyofficialobstacles,ifitweresuchwhichpreventedthemfromenteringAsia.Theroutetheytookcanonlybeamatterofspeculation,evenifonewere
surethattheywereheadingforTroas.17FromLukeweknowonlythatthisiswheretheyendedup.TherewerethreepossiblewesternroutesfromGalatia.

AnorthernroutefromCotiaeumfollowedthevalleyoftheRhyndacostoreachtheSeaofMarmoraeastofCyzicuswhencetherewasaroadtothewestlinkingthe
littleharboursalongtheHellespont.18IfPaul'sintentionwastocrossovertoMacedonia,hisreasonforbypassingtheseportscanonlyhavebeenlackofshipping
and/orcontrarywinds.TheleastprobableisapostulatedcentralroutealsostartinginCotiaeumandrunningalmostduewestthroughwhatlaterbecameHadriania,
Hadrianutherae,andScepsiswhenceitfollowedthevalleyoftheScamandertoIlliumandthecoastroad.19Theterrainisverydifficultandtheeasternpartwas
notoriousforitsbrigands.20Thebestrouteapparentlywasthesouthernone.FromCotiaeumitransouthwesttoAezaniandthenacrosstotheheadwatersofthe
Macestus,whichthetravellerfollowedtoHadrianutherae,whencetherewasagoodroadtotheportcityofAdramyttium.21BothitandAssos(Acts20:13)would
havebeenconvenientonlyforaseavoyagesouthalongthecoastofAsia.AnyonewishingtosailnorthorwestwouldhavemadeforTroas.

SomeyearslaterwhenPaulwasconcernedaboutnewsfromCorinthwhichheexpectedtocomethroughMacedonia,hewenttoTroaswhenthemessengerwas
delayed,hecrossedfromthere(2Cor.2:1213).EvidentlybothPaulandLukeknewthatTroaswasthenormaldeparturepointforEurope,andtheportofentry
intoAsiaforthosesailingfromNeapolistheeasternterminaloftheViaEgnatia,whichcrossednorthernGreece.TheabsenceofanyletterstochurchesinMysia
suggests,eitherthatPaulmadenoattempttoevangelizethatarea,orthathefaileddisastrously.OnlyhislackofsuccessatAthensconfersanyplausibilityonthelatter
hypothesis.Thatfailure,however,wascompletelyatypical,andwasduetoacombinationofcircumstances,thearroganceoftheAthenianclosedmindandPaul's
anxietyconcerningtheThessalonians.22Weshouldassume,therefore,thatPaulmarchedthroughMysiawithoutstoppingtopreach.Ifthisiscorrect,itnecessarily
impliesthatwhenheleftGalatiahehaddecidedtogotoTroaspreciselyinordertotakeshipforEurope.23
16
Carroll(1992),941.
17
Seebelow,p.300.
18
SoRamsay(1897),197.
19
SoMunroandAnthony(1897),2568.
20
Strabo,Geography12.8.8Lucian,Alexander2.
21
SoBroughton(1937),137.
22
SeeCh.5,TheMovetoCorinth
23
AsBowers(1979)hasarguedonratherinadequategrounds.

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MaintenanceNotMission

Ifatfirstsightshockingandinexplicable,onreflectionPaul'sdecisiontoleaveAsiaMinorrevealsadeliberatemissionarystrategyandprovidesconfirmationofthe
accuracyofthebasicthrustofLuke'snarrative(Acts16:612).ThecommunitiesatAntiochinPisidia,Iconium,LystraandDerbewerewellestablished.Paulhad
highhopesforhisnewfoundationsaroundPessinus.Thefaith,inhisestimation,waswellplantedinGalatia,thecentralprovinceofAsia,whenceitcouldradiateoutin
alldirections.Andhewasconvinceditwould.Imbuedashewaswithhisownprofoundsenseofmission,hecouldnotbuttakeitforgrantedthathisconvertswould
beaggressivelyapostolic.Thebestcourseforhim,therefore,wastomovewestbeyondthefurthestmissionaryreachoftheGalatianchurches.

Paul'sstrategyinGreece,itwillberecalled,wasessentiallythesame.There,however,insteadofcapturingthemiddle,heestablishedbasesattheextremities,in
Macedonia(ThessalonicaandPhilippi)andinthePeleponnese(Corinth).Eventhoughhewalkedthelengthofthecountryseveraltimes,hemadenoattemptto
evangelizeThessaly.Inhisview,centralGreecewasthemissionaryresponsibilityofthechurcheswhichbracketeditonthenorthandsouth.Atalaterstage,whenhe
haddoneallhecouldforCorinth,PaulplannedtoleapfrogoverRometopreachinSpain(Rom.15:24),thewesternedgeoftheknownworld.

Theoptimismofthisvisionwasnotjustifiedbyevents.Paul'sexperienceofthegrowingpainsofthechurchofThessalonicahadmadehimconsciousthatfounding
churcheswasnotenough.Theyhadtobenurtured.Childreninthefaithneededtimetogrow,andintheprocessproclamationhadtobecomplementedby
teaching.WhathadhappenedatAntiochontheOrontesbroughtithometohimevenmoreclearlythatthedevelopmentofachurchcouldnotbetakenforgranted.
ThuswhenhecrossedAsiaMinorforthesecondtimemaintenancehadbecomemoreimportantthanoutreach,atleastforthetimebeing.

Luke'seconomywiththetruthasregardsPaul'sreasonforleavingAntiochgiveswaytoperfectaccuracywhenhedepictshimasmeticulouslyvisitingeachplacein
GalatoPhrygiawhereacommunityhadbeenestablished(Acts18:23).24WeknowfromthelettersthatPaulpassedthroughGalatiaatleasttwice(Gal.4:13)prior
towritingGalatians.HefoundedchurchestherepriortotheconferenceinJerusalem(Gal.2:5)andsubsequentlyorganizedthecollectionforthepoorofJerusalem
whichwasagreedonattheconference(1Cor.16:1).

Itis,ofcourse,possiblethatheinvitedtheGalatianstoparticipateinthecol
24
Commonsensedemandsthissenseforkathexs(BAGD388NRSV).ThealternativeistotaketheadverbasmeaningthatPaulfirstwentthroughGalatiaandthenthrough
Phrygia(soHaenchen,(1971)545),afactsoobviousthattostateitispointless.

 Page165
25
lectionbyletter,butitismuchmoreprobablethathedidsoinperson. ThewindpatternduringthesailingseasonmadeitpreferabletocrossAsiaMinorfromeastto
westbyfootratherthansailrounditbyship.Thelongdustyroadsmightbewearying,butonecouldmakesteadyprogress.Shipsdispensedthetravellerfrom
personaleffort,butthewindswerepredominantlyadverseforthosecomingfromtheeast,andheadwindsforcedboatstoanchorfordays,ifnotweeks,onendas
theyinchedtheirwayalongthesouthcoastofAsiaMinor.26Itwastheoppositeforthosegoingfromwesttoeast,whichiswhyPaulalwaysreturnedhomebyship
(Acts18:182220:6to21:3).27

Itisvirtuallycertain,therefore,thatsincePaulhadbeeninGalatia(1Cor.16:1)priortohisarrivalinEphesus(1Cor.16:8)hisroutetothewesttookhimthrough
theanterikamer.Literallytheupperparts,28thisunparalleledexpressionmaysimplybeawayofspeakingabouttheAnatolianplateau,whichisalsotheinterior
ofAsiaMinor,butHemerfollowsRamsayingivingitamorespecificsenseasevokingthetraverseofthehillroadreachingEphesusbytheCaystervalleynorthof
Mt.Messognis,andnotbytheLycusandMaeandervalleys,withwhichPaulmayhavebeenunacquainted.29Thisroutebecomesplausibleonlyifitisassumedthat
Paulwascoming,notfromAntiochinPisidia,asHemer'sSouthGalatiahypothesisrequires,butfromsomewheremuchfurthernorth,suchastheregionaround
Pessinus.

WhathasbeensaidaboveregardingPaul'smissionarystrategyprohibitsadoptingHemer'sconfirmatoryargument,namely,thatPaulcouldnothavepassedthrough
theLycusvalleybecausehehadnotpreachedthere(Col.2:1).Atthispointinhiscareer,Paulwasconcernedwithstabilizingestablishedexistingcommunities,not
withfoundingnewones.ThusevenifhehadtakenthegreatcommonhighwaytothewestviatheLycusandMeandervalleys,30hewouldnothavestoppedalongthe
waytoevangelize.HisgoalwastoreachEphesus.
25
SorightlyFee(1987),812.
26
Casson(1979),1512.
27
TheemperorGaiusadvisedAgrippaInottoreturnfromRometoPalestineoverlandbuttowaitfortheEtesianwindsandtaketheshortroutethroughAlexandria.Hetoldhimthat
theshipsarecracksailingcraftandtheirskippersthemostexperiencedtherearetheydrivetheirvesselslikeracehorsesonanunswervingcoursethatgoesstraightasadie(Philo,
InFlaccum26trans.Casson).
28
BAGD77theuppercountry(RSV)theinteriorregions(NRSV)theinteriorofthecountry(NAB)overland(NJB)lehautpays(BdeJ).
29
(1989),120,cf.187.
30
ThereisakindofcommonroadconstantlyusedbyallwhotravelfromEphesustowardstheeast,Artemidorustraversesthistoo:fromEphesustoCarura,aboundaryofCaria
towardsPhrygia,throughMagnesia,Tralleis,Nysa,andAntiocheia,isajourneyofsevenhundredstadia(Strabo,Geography14.2.29trans.Jones).

 Page166

Ephesus

Paul'schoiceofEphesusforhissecondlongtermbasewasaswellthoughtoutashisearlierselectionofCorinth.Thecentralityofthiscityonthewesterncoastof
AsiaMinorwithrespecttochurcheshehadpreviouslyfoundediswellillustratedbysomesimplestatistics.Asthecrowflies,EphesusisequidistantfromGalatiaand
Thessalonica(480km.,288miles).Corinth(400km.,240miles),Philippi(445km.,267miles),andAntiochinPisidia(330km.,198miles)fiteasilywithinthesame
circle.PaulhimselfdoesnottellushowlonghestayedinEphesus.Lukegivestwofigures,firsttwoyearsandthreemonths(Acts19:810),andlaterthreeyears
(Acts20:31).Thelatterisaroundfigure,butthespecificityoftheformerinspiresconfidence.IfLuke'sinformationwerenotavailable,asimilarfigurewouldhaveto
bepostulatedinordertoallowtimefortheactivitiesofPaulwhichcanbededucedfromtheletters.

TheoldestremainsofthecitydatefromthemidsecondmilleniumBC.Itsantiquityisconfirmedbythemythicaloriginofitsname.AccordingtoPausanias,itwascalled
afterEphesos,whowasbelievedtobethesonoftheriverCayster.31Around286BCthecitywasgivenitspresentlocation(betweenthehillsnownamedBulbulDagh
andPanayirDagh)byLysimachus(360281BC),acompanionandsuccessorofAlexandertheGreat.Themajestyofthewallhebuilt(7m.high,3m.wide,and9
km.long)wasaccentuatedbyitspositiononthecrestsofthehillssectionsstillexist.Hispurposeinmovingthecitytothewestwastocompensateforthesiltingupof
therivervalley.32Hedidnotsolvetheproblemwhich,accordingtoStrabo,33wasexacerbatedbyoneofhissuccessors,who,byorderingabadlyplacedbreakwater,
intensifiedthesiltingupoftheharbourcalledCoressos.34TherewasanotherharbournamedPanormusfurthertothewest.35Afunctioningportwasessentialif
Ephesuswastorealizeitsfulleconomicpotential,andinscriptions36confirmthattheproconsulBareaSoranusinAD61wasnottheonlyonetohaveseenthe
necessityofperiodicallydredgingtheharbour.37

In133BCbythetestamentofAttalusIII(170133BC)Romeacquiredthe
31
DescriptionofGreece7.2.4.
32
Fromthese[thetributariesoftheCayster]comesaquantityofmudwhichadvancesthecoastlineandhasnowjoinedtheislandofSyrieontothemainlandbytheflats
interposed(Pliny,NH5.31.115t1ans.Rackham).SeethemapinPW5.2780.
33
Geography14.1.24.
34
Herodotus,Histories5.100.
35
ThencomestheharbourcalledPanormus,withatempleoftheEphesianArtemis,andthenthecityofEphesus(Geography14.1.20trans.Jones).SeethemapinPW5.2780,
whichissimplifiedinDBSup2.1087.
36
Oster(1992),543,drawsattentiontoIvEph23,274,2061,3066,3071.
37
Tacitus,Annals,16.23.

 Page167
38
kingdomofPergamum,whichbecametheprovinceofAsia. IthadastormyhistoryuntilOctaviansucceededinestablishingcontrol.EventhoughPergamum
remainedthetitularcapital,Ephesuswasinfactthemoreimportantcity.39ThisundoubtedlyinfluencedthedecisionofAugustustomakeittheseatoftheproconsul.
HealsosawtheopportunitytoenhancehisownglorybyensuringthatEphesusblossomedwithmagnificentbuildings.40TheAttalidshadmadePergamumoneofthe
mostbeautifulofGreekcities,whereasthepossibilitiesofthegridplanofLysimachusatEphesushadneverbeenfullyexploited.41

AnumberofnotablebuildingsaredatedtothereignofAugustus,42andwereadominantfeatureofthecityatthetimeofPaul(seeFig.2).Onecomplexinthe
southernpartofthecitycontainedthetownhall,thedoubletemplededicatedtoRomeandJuliusCaesar,anda200metrelongopenbasilicawhichfilledthenorthern
sideoftheStateAgora.CeremonialgatesgavedignitytothesouthentranceoftheSquareAgora(112112m.)andtothewestendofthegreatstreetrunningfrom
thetheatretotheharbour.Threenewaqueducts,theAquaFuliaandtheAquaTroessitica,towhichtheemperorcontributed,andtheaqueductofC.SextiliusPollio
bothimprovedthequalityoflifeinthecityandprovidedforanexpansionofthepopulation.43Theyalsofacilitatedtheconstructionofbathscumgymnasia(sixare
known),inwhichthesociallifeoftheRomancitywasconcentrated.

Thestageareaofthegreat25,000seattheatre(Acts19:31)wasexpandednotlongbeforePaul'sarrival.44Theonlyothermonumenttorivalitinsizewasofcourse
thetempleofArtemis(Acts19:35).RebuiltmanytimessinceitsfoundationintheseventhcenturyBC,45itquicklyfounditsplaceintheearliestlistsoftheseven
wondersoftheworld.46IntheearlysecondcenturyBCAntipaterofSidonwrote,
IhaveseteyesonthewallofloftyBabylon,onwhichisaroadforchariots,andthestatueofZeusbytheAlpheus[atOlympia],andthehanginggardens[of

38
Inadditiontothestandarddictionaryarticles,seeespeciallyKnibbeandAlzinger(1980).
39
Inhisreporton29BCDioCassiusnoted,Caesar[Augustus],besidesattendingtothegeneralbusiness,gavepermissionforthededicationofsacredprecinctsinEphesusandin
NicaeatoRomeandtoCaesar,hisfather,whomhenamedtheheroJulius.ThesecitieshadatthattimeattainedchiefplaceinAsiaandinBithyniarespectively(History51.20.6
trans.Cary).
40
KnibbeandAlzinger(1980),759.
41
Ibid.811814.
42
Ibid.81518.Thecityplangivenoppositep.760appearsinlargerscaleinPWSup12.1584with1600.
43
Alzinger(1970),16045.
44
Erdemgil(1989),96.
45
AschematichistoricaloverviewisgivenbyStrabo(Geography14.1.223)who,thoughfamiliarwiththecanonofthesevenwonders(14.2.514.2.1616.1.517.1.33),doesnot
classifythetempleofArtemisamongthem.
46
Lanowski(1965),102030.

 Page168

Fig.2
CentralEphesusC.AD50(Sources:W.Alzinger,PWSup.XIIW.Alzinger,ANRWII,7/2(1980))

 Page169

Babylon],andthecolossosoftheSun[atRhodes],andthehugelabourofthehighpyramids[inEgypt],andthevasttombofMausolus[atHalicarnassus],butwhenIsawthe
houseofArtemisthatmountedtotheclouds,thoseothermarvelslosttheirbrilliancy,andIsaid,Lo,apartfromOlympus,theSunneverlookedonaughtsogrand.(Greek
Anthology9.58trans.Paton)

Thistemplemeasured11555m.,andthe98columsinthedoublerowsurroundingthebuildingwere17.65m.high.47ThepilgrimsitattractedtoEphesuswerean
importantfactorintheeconomy.ItsurviveduntilthethirdcenturyAD.

Ifsuchmajesticstructurescontributedtotheethosofthecity,theywerenotwheretheinhabitantslived.Privatedwellingstellusmuchmoreabouttheconditionsunder
whichPauloperated.TwocomplexeshavebeenexcavatedontheslopeofBlblDagh,southofthestreetlinkingtheSquareAgoraandtheStateAgora.48Firstbuilt
inthefirstcenturyBC,thequalityofconstructionwassuchthattheywerestillinuse600yearslater,thoughoftenrepaired.Thegroundflooroftheeasterncomplex
spreadover3,000sq.m.andwasthehouseofasingleverywealthyfamily.49Itsspaciousandnumerouspublicroomswouldhavebeenaboontothenascent
Christianchurch,butsuchmagnateswererarelyifevertobefoundamongitsmembers.

Thosewhocouldaffordtohosttheliturgicalassembliesofthecommunityweremuchmorelikelytohavelivedinahousesimilartooneoftheseventwostorey
dwellingsinthewesterncomplex(seeFig.3).ThegroundfloorareaofHouseAis380sq.m.50FromtherightofthevestibuleadoorleadstotheRomanbath,which
alsoheatedthehouse.Directlyaheadistheatrium(7.55m.)withitsimpluvium(33.75m.).Asmallroomononesidegivesaccesstothediningroom(35.5
m.)thekitchenisnearby.Amuchlargerroom(6.5x4.25m.)isentereddirectlyfromanothersideoftheatriumthroughalargearcheddoorway.

Thesewerethepublicroomstherestofthehousewasofflimitstocasualvisitors.ThesizeoftheroomsmeantthatoncetheChristiancommunityreachedacertain
sizecomplicationswereinevitable.Whenitbecameimpossibletogeteveryoneintothesameroom,therewasadangerofcreatingfirstandsecondclassmembers,
whichinfacthappenedinCorinth(1Cor.11:1734).51Inevitablytherewasatendencytomeetinsmallergroups,suchasthehousechurchwhichassembledinthe
homeofPriscaandAquila(1Cor.16:19).

TheheterogeneouscharacterofthepopulationofEphesusneedsnoemphasis.ItwasthedoortothewestfortheAnatolianhinterland,andtheopeningtoAsiafor
GreeceandRome.Manywentnofurther.Itwasasmucha
47
Erdemgil(1989),30.
48
SeethemapinAlzinger(1970),1600.
49
KnibbeandAlzinger(1980),824.
50
ThemeasurementswhichfollowaretakenfromtheplaninErdemgil(1988),14.
51
Seemy(1992e),1619.

 Page170

Fig.3
Ephesus:PrivateHouses(Source:S.Erdemgiletal.,
LamaisonsduFlaneEphese(Istanbul,1988))

 Page171
52
meltingpotasRomeitself. Thepopulationisestimatedataquarterofamillion.Citizensinthestrictsense(i.e.withvotingrights)wereperhapsaquarterofthat
figure.Inthelightofourpresentknowledge,itseemsthattherewerenineTribeseachwithsixThousands.53

TheFoundingoftheChurch

WhenPaulheadedforEphesusinthesummerofAD52,54hewasnotventuringintotheunknown.AccordingtoLuke,hehadmadeabriefstopthereenrouteto
Palestine,afterfoundingthechurchatCorinth(Acts18:19).MoreimportantlyhehadpreparedhiswelcomebyleavingtherePriscaandAquila(Acts18:248),the
couplewhohadprovidedhimwithabasewhenhefirstwenttoCorinth(Acts18:23).ThismeansthattheyhadbeenthereforayearpriortoPaul'sarrivalafterthe
JerusalemConference.Itisextremelyimprobablethattheyhaddevotedalltheirenergyexclusivelytoreestablishingtheirtentmakingbusiness.TheyhadbeenPaul's
partnersintheevangelizationofCorinth,andpreachingthegospelwouldhavebecomesecondnaturetothembynow.Evenwhileatwork,theywouldhaveavailedof
everyopportunitytoproclaimthegoodnews.Prisca,andAquila,therefore,weretherealfoundersofthechurchatEphesus.

ThereliabilityofLuke'sinformationregardingtheprecedenceofthecoupleinEphesusisconfirmedbythefactthatitembarassedhim.Thisisclearfromthecurious
note,They[Paul,PriscaandAquila]cametoEphesus,andheleftthem[PriscaandAquila]there,buthehimselfwentintothesynagogueandlecturedtothe
Jews(Acts18:19)thereasonfortheemphatichehimselfcanonlybetodrivehomethefactthatitwasPaulwhodeliveredthefirstmissionarysermonin
Ephesus.55Suchinsistence,however,hintsthattherealsituationmayhavebeenrathermorecomplex.

WereLukefreetocreate,hewouldhavemadePauldirectlyresponsiblefortheevangelizationofEphesus.Luke'sconcern,itwillberecalled,wastotiethe
foundationofthechurchthereintoapatternofcontrolledexpansion,andPaul'smissionaryrolehadbeenformallyacceptedbyJerusalem(Acts15).Itwasdefinitely
notinLuke'sinteresttoinventtheactivityofpeoplesuchasPriscaandAquila.Itwasafactthathehadnochoicebuttointegrate.Andhedidsoinawaywhich
probablycorrespondstoreality.Thecouple,heinsinuates,wereactingincollaborationwithPaul.
52
Juvenal,Satires3.6178.
53
Knibbe(1970),2756.
54
SeeCh.1,AfterAD51.
55
SorightlyHaenchen(1971),87,543.TheconversionofEpaenetus,mydearfriendandthefirstfruitofAsiaforChrist(Rom.16:5),mayhavebeenduetoPaul,butnotnecessarily
(cf.1Cor.16:15).

 Page172

Thelettersconfirmthisinference.Wecandeducefrom1Corinthians16:19,notonlythatPriscaandAquilahadmovedfromCorinthtoEphesus,butthattheywere
veryclosetoPaul.ThisverseisthemostcomplexclosinggreetinginthePaulineepistles.ThefirstofthethreesourcesofgreetingsisthechurchesofAsia,whichis
perfectlyappropriateinanofficialletterwrittenfromthefirstcityofAsia(1Cor.16:8).ThesecondisPrisca,Aquilaandtheirhousechurch,andthethirdisallthe
believers.Theorderisintriguing.ManifestlyitwasPaul'sintentiontomentiononlythechurchesoftheprovinceofAsia,forthereasongivenabove.Theabruptshift
fromthisimpersonalleveltotheintimatelevelofaparticularcouplesuggeststhatAquilaand/orPriscawerepresentasPaulendedtheletter,andfeltcloseenoughto
himtoasktobementioned.Themostplausiblemotiveforsuchaninterjection,namelyapreviousconnectionwiththeCorinthians(cf.Acts18:13),isconfirmedby
thequalificationoftheirgreetingasheartyitwasnotamereceremonialgesture.56ThementionoftheirhousechurchinturnstimulatedPaultoincludeareferenceto
allthebelievers,i.e.thewholechurch(1Cor.14:23).

ThoseWhoHadReceivedtheBaptismofJohn

NosoonerhadtheChristianmissioninEphesusbegunthananunusualphenomenonoccurred.Totheirimmensesurprisethemissionariescameintocontactwith
peoplewhoalreadyknewJesus!ThediscussionofActs18:24to19:7hasgivenrisetoalivelydebate,57whichhasbeenperfectlycharacterizedbyKsemanninhis
bestmordantstyle,Thisconspectushasbroughtbeforeuseveryevenbarelyconceivablevarietyofnaivete,defeatismandfertileimaginationwhichhistorical
scholarshipcandisplay,fromtheextremelyingenuousontheonehandtotheextremelyarbitraryontheother.58

Suchconfusion,Isuggest,isduetoafalseperceptionoftheproblem.AttheriskofsomesimplificationIthinkitfairtosaythatallinterpretationswrestlewiththe
question:howcouldfollowersofJohnbeclassifiedasdisciplesandbelievers,i.e.asChristians?Researchhasbeensidetrackedbythisformulationofthe
problem,whichisinaccurate.Despitethetitleofsomanyarticles,itisneithersaidnorsuggestedanywhereinthetextthatApollosandtheothersweredisciplesof
John.TheyhadreceivedthebaptismofJohn,andtherealquestionis:whoadministeredit?

InthelightofJohn3:22theobviousansweristhatitwasadministeredbyJesuswhenhewaspreachingJohn'sbaptismofrepentanceinJudaea.ThelanguageofJohn
3.22contradictsR.Schnackenburg'sgratuitousassumptionthattheperiodmusthavebeenveryshort.59Onthecontrary,thesuccessof
56
Fee(1987),835.
57
AsurveyoftheopinionsisgivenbyWolter(1987).
58
(1964),140.
59
(1965),449.

 Page173

Jesusisexplicitlyemphasized(John3:26).Thereweremany,therefore,whothoughtofthemselvesasfollowersofJesusandinconsequencewereacceptedas
believersatEphesus(andelsewhere)untilsomehowtheirbaptismand/orthecontentoftheirbeliefwasquestioned.TheyweredisciplesofJesusofNazareth(inthe
senseofhavingbeenconvertedtorepentancebyhim),buthadknownhimonlywhilehewasstillassociatedwithJohn,andhadlostcontactwithhimsubsequently.
TheyhadvividmemoriesofJesusastheassistantofaprophet,butknewnothingofthePassion,Resurrection,orPentecost.Itismostunlikelythattheythoughtof
JesusastheMessiah.

InevitablytherelationofsuchpeopletoJesuswouldhavebeensuspecttothosewhoknewhimastheRisenLord.Someactionwasimperativeiftherewerenottobe
tworadicallydifferenttypesoffollowersofJesus.ThenaturalassumptionisthatPriscaandAquilainvitedthemtobecomefullbelievers,andthatthosewhoaccepted
werebaptized.ThescenarioofActsispredictableinthatitmakesPaultheinstrumentoftheirconversion,butLukeaddsafurtherdimensionwhichsuggestsanew
Pentecost(Acts19:57cf.2:4).

OneofthosewhohadreceivedthebaptismofJohnandwhohadendedupinEphesus,accordingtoLuke,wasApollos,awelleducatedJewfromAlexandria(Acts
18:24).Fortheirpart,thelettersrevealthatanApolloshadministeredinCorinth(1Cor.3:6)andthatsubsequentlyhewaswithPaulatEphesus(1Cor.16:8,12).
AsweshallseewhendealingwiththeCorinthiancorrespondence,thisApolloswasatrainedoratoracquaintedwiththeteachingofPhiloofAlexandria.Thereislittle
doubt,therefore,thatwehavetodowiththesameperson.60

Apartfromthisgroup,nothingspecificisknownaboutthecompositionofthechurchatEphesus.SincethecitywassimilartoCorinthinsomanywayswecanassume
withsomeconfidencethatthetwocommunitiesresembledeachotherinbothsizeandmakeup(1Cor.1:269).Eachwasthecityinmicrocosmafewrelatively
wealthymembers,themajoritytradespeopleandslaves,possiblymorewomenthanmen.

MissionaryExpansion

ThesuccessofPaulandhiscollaboratorsinestablishingaflourishingcommunityinEphesushadunexpectedsidebenefitsinthefoundationofchurcheselsewherein
theprovince.ThehyperboleofActs19:10and26islackinginthePaulineletters,buttheexistenceofChristiancommunitiesoutsideEphesusisattestedbythe
greetingswhichthechurchesofAsia(1Cor.16:19)sendtoCorinth.TheonlynamesofsuchchurchesknowntousfromthePaulineletters
60
SeeCh.11,TheArrivalofApollos.

 Page174

areColossae,Laodicea,andHierapolis(Col.4:13),butitwouldbeunwisetoassumethatthislistisexhaustive.ThesethreearementionedonlybecausePaulhadto
ensurethatneighbouringchurcheswerenotinfectedbythefalseteachingwhichhaddividedthechurchatColossae.

PaulhimselfdidnotfoundthechurchesoftheLycusvalley(Col.2:1).InthethanksgivingofColossians,hespeaksofthedayyouheardandunderstoodthegraceof
GodintruthasyoulearneditfromEpaphrasourbelovedfellowslave.HeisafaithfulministerofChristonour/yourbehalfandhasmadeknowntousyourloveinthe
Spirit(Col.1:68).InColossians4:12,Epaphrasisidentifiedasoneofyours,whichisreasonablyinterpretedasmeaningthathecamefromColossae.Fromthe
complimenthehasworkedhardforyouandforthoseinLaodiceaandinHierapolis(Col.4:13),onecandeducethathewasthefounderofallthreechurches.

WasEpaphrasactingonhisowninitiativeorasPaul'sagentwhenheevangelizedtheLycusvalley?Thequestionisnotreallyansweredbyasimplechoiceamongthe
variantsinColossians1:7onthebasisofthemanuscripts.EvenifEpaphraswerePaul'sdeputy,thelattercouldstillspeakofhimastherepresentativeofthe
ColossiansinexpressingtheiraffectionfortheApostle.WerethisPaul'smeaning,however,itdoesnotseemlikelythathewouldhavecalledEpaphrasafaithful
ministerofChristonyourbehalf(Col.1:7)theitalicizedgenitiveisnotappropriatetoamessengerfromtheColossians(cf.Phil.2:25).61Itrathersuggestsaduly
authorizedmissionary,i.e.onesentbyPaul(cf.2Cor.11:23).Thisisconfirmed,notonlybyPaul'suseofministerandslaveelsewheretoidentifyhisownroleas
anapostle,butparticularlybythecombinationfaithfulministerandfellowslave,whichinthisletterisappliedtoTychicus(Col.4:7),whowascertainlyPaul's
emissary(Col.4:8).ThefactthatEpaphraswasimprisonedwithPaul(Philem.23),whereasEpaphrodituswasnot(Phil.2:25),indicatesthattheauthorities
understoodtheformertobePaul'sagent.Itismoreprobable,therefore,thatonourbehalfshouldbereadinColossians1:7.62ThewarmthwithwhichPaulspeaks
ofEpaphrasrevealshisconfidenceinhim.EpaphrascouldnothavebeenresponsibleforwhateverproblemshadariseninColossae.HisrelationshiptoPaulprobably
typifiesthatofthemissionarieswhoweresentelsewhereinAsia.63

ThefactthatPaulhimselfdidnotgototheLycusvalleyconfirmswhathasbeensaidaboveregardinghiscommitmenttonurturingalreadyexistingcommunities.Butif
thedemandsonhistimeatEphesus,andrestrictionsonhisfreedomofmovement(seebelow),precludedmissionarytravel,hecouldcommissionotherstopreachin
hisname.Paulhadatlastlearnt,notonlythathecouldnotdoeverything,butthathedidnotevenhavetotry.Itisunlikelythat
61
Abbott(1897),200.
62
SorightlyAbbott(1897),200Moule(1957),27Lohse(1968),534.
63
SeefurtherCh.10,MissionaryStrategy.

 Page175

EpaphraswastheonlymissionarysentoutfromEphesus,anditisfarfromimpossiblethatmostifnotallofthechurchesinwesternAsiawereestablishedaspartof
theplannedoutreachoftheEphesiancommunityguidedbyPaul.

IfEphesusandLaodicea,twoofthesevenchurchesoftheApocalypse(Rev.2:1to3:22),werePaulinefoundations(thelatteratleastindirectlythroughEpaphras),
thenthereisnoobstacletoattributingthecreationofcommunitiesatSmyrna,Pergamum,Thyatira,Sardis,andPhiladelphiatothemissionaryinitiativeofEphesus.To
thesemightbeaddedMagnesiaandTralles,whosechurchesareknownfromthelettersofIgnatius.Allarewithina192km.(120mile)radiusofEphesus,andlinked
bymajorroads.Colossae,thefurthestaway,couldbereachedinacomfortableweek'swalkfromEphesus.

TheabsenceofanylettersfromPaultothesechurchescannotbeconstruedasanobjectiontotheirPaulineorigin.Therearemanypossiblereasonsforhissilence,but
thesimplestisthathehadadoptedapolicyofdelegation.Hetrustedthemissionaryresponsibleforaparticularchurchtodealwithwhateverissuesarosethere.No
doubthewasavailableforconsultation,buthemaintaineddirectcontactonlywiththechurcheshehadfoundedpersonally.

ThelettertotheColossiansisanexceptiontothisselfimposedrule,butonewhichiseasilyexplained.EpaphrashadgonetoEphesustoinformPaulofthesituationat
Colossaeandtodevelopastrategyfordealingwiththefalseteachingwhichattractedsomemembersofthechurch.TherehefoundPaulaprisoner(Col.4:10,18)
andwashimselfheldforinterrogationbytheRomanauthorities(Philem.23),whichpreventedhimfromreturningtoColossae(Col.4:1213).Thedefectionofoneof
theleadershipgrouptheremadeitimperativetodealpromptlywiththesituation.64Paulhadonlytwoalternatives,eitheramessengeroraletter.Theformerapparently
wasnotaviableoptionnoneofPaul'scollaborators,whowasfreetoundertakethetask,hadtheauthoritythatthesituationdemanded.Aletterwastheonlyoption,
anditwaswrittenbyPaultogiveitthegreatestpossibleweight.

Imprisonment

ThescenariojustoutlinedassumesthatPaulwasimprisonedinEphesus.AccordingtoActs,however,hissojourninthecitywasentirelypeaceful,withtheexception
oftheriotofthesilversmiths,whichdidhimnodamagetheonlyimprisonmentsmentionedinActsarethoseatPhilippi(Acts16:23),Caesarea(Acts23:23to26:
32),andatRome(Acts28:16).Itisnotsurprising,therefore,thatfromthebeginningofpatristicexegesisitwastakenforgrantedthatthelettersinwhichPaulsays
thatheisaprisoner(Eph.,Phil.,Col.,andPhilem.)
64
SeeCh.10,MissionaryStrategy.

 Page176
65
werewritteninRome. OnlyinthetwentiethcenturydidCaesareaMaritimainPalestine,andEphesussurfaceasrivalstotheEternalCity.Caesareahaswonvery
littlesupportbecausealltheargumentsinvokedinitsfavourcarrygreaterforcewhenappliedtoEphesus.66Moreover,weknowfromPaulhimselfthatheexperienced
alifethreateningsituationinEphesus(1Cor.15:32cf.2Cor.11:23).67Thechoice,therefore,isbetweenthecapitalofAsiaandRome.Unfortunatelythedecision
mustbebasedonvagueandoftenambiguoushintsintheletters.

Althoughverydifferentincontent,ColossiansandPhilemonwerewritteninidenticalcircumstancestogroupswhichoverlappedconsiderably.InbothlettersPaulisa
prisoner(Col.4:1018Philem.1,9,23).InbothheisaccompaniedbyTimothy(Col.1:1Philem.1),Epaphras(Col.4:12Philem.23),Aristarchus(Col.4:10
Philem.24),Mark(Col.4:10Philem.24),Luke(Col.4:14Philem.24),Demas(Col.4:14Philem.24),andOnesimus(Col.4:9Philem.1012).68Inboth
Archippusappearsamongtherecipients(Col.4:17Philem.2).Theseagreementsdonotoccurinthesamerelationshipsandformulations,however,sothatthe
thesisisunconvincingthattheindubitablyPaulinePhilem.hasbeenimitatedbyanonPaulinewriteronlyinthesepersonalremarks.69Threefactsindicatethatthe
housechurchofPhilemonwasatColossae:(1)EpaphrasofColossaeknowstherecipientsofPhilemonwellenoughtosendgreetings(Philem.23)(2)Onesimuswas
fromColossae(Col.4:9)(3)ArchippusofColossaeisamongtherecipientsofbothletters.Henceinformationfromonelettercanbeusedtosupplementthatofthe
other.

AccordingtothedominantinterpretationofPhilemon,Onesimus,oneofthebearersofColossians,wasarunawayslavewho,afterencounteringPaulinthecityin
whichthelatterwasimprisoned,wassentbacktoColossae.Wherehadhetakenrefuge?Itisbothunreasonableandunnecessarytoassumethathewentalltheway
toRome.Thelongjourneyinvolvingtwoseavoyageswasanexpensiveundertaking,whichcanonlybemadeplausiblebyassumptionsregardingstolenfunds,ora
newemployerwhojusthappenedtobeheadingforthecentreoftheempire,whichinturndemandotherassumptions.InordertobesafeOnesimusdidnothaveto
goveryfar.Therewasnopoliceforcecon
65
Curran(1945).
66
ArepresentativevoiceoftheEphesianhypothesisisstillDuncan(1929).Forthealternative,seeJohnson(1956)Robinson(1976)60.
67
Nothingmorespecificcanbesaidbecausethereferencetofightingwithwildbeastsmustbetakenmetaphorically(cf.2Tim.4:17)sorightlyFee(1982),770.
68
Col.alsomentionsTychicus(4:78)andJesus/Justus(4:11)whodonotappearinPhilem.
69
SorightlyKmmel(1975),345andmostrecentlyKnox(1990),2645,itmustberecognizedthatthetiesbindingColossianstoPhilemonarefarstrongerthananybondswith
Ephesianstiessostrongandintricate,soveryimprobableastheinventionsofeventhecleverestpseudepigrapheragainstKoester(1982),2.267.Forexample,whywouldaforger
shifttheadjectivefellowprisonerfromEpaphras(Philem.23)toAristarchus(Col.4:10)?

 Page177
70 71
stantlyonthealertforfugitives. Rewardnoticesmightbepublished, but,unlesstheauthoritieswerepressuredbysomeoneofirresistibleinfluence,thatwastheonly
actiontheywouldnormallytake,andonecannotimaginethenoticesbeingdistributedoutsidetheimmediatelocality.OnceinEphesus,Onesimuswouldhavebeen
perfectlysurethattherewasonlytheslightestchanceofbeingdiscovered.Achanceencounterwithanacquaintanceofhismasterwashisonlydanger.

WasitjustbadluckthatbroughtOnesimusintoPaul'sorbit?Ordidhegolookingforhim?P.LampehasdrawnattentiontoaprovisionofRomanlawwhich
permitedaslaveindangerofpunishmenttoseekoutafriendoftheownertoactasanintermediaryinthereestablishmentofgoodrelations.72Undersuch
circumstancestheslavedidnotbecomeafugitiveinthelegalsense.Ifhewenttoafriendoftheowner,nointentiontoescapecouldbeassumed.Thesituationis
perfectlyillustratedbyaletterfromPlinytheYoungertoSabinianus.
Thefreedmanofyourswithwhomyousaidyouwereangryhasbeentome,flunghimselfatmyfeetandclungtomeasifIwereyou.Hebeggedmyhelpwithmanytears,though
heleftagreatdealunsaidinshortheconvincedmeofhisgenuinepenitence.Ibelievehehasreformed,becauseherealizedhedidwrong.Youareangry,Iknow,andIknowtoo
thatyourangerwasdeserved,butmercywinsmostpraisewhentherewasjustcauseforanger.

(Letters9.21cf.9.24trans.Radice)

ItseemsclearfromPhilemon18thatOnesimushadcausedsomedamagetoPhilemon.73Itmusthavebeenratherserious,becauseOnesimusrecognizedtheneedfor
notjustanyadvocatebutonewithconsiderableinfluenceoverhismaster.Althoughapagan(Philem.10),hewasawarethatPaulhadultimateauthorityoverthenew
religiousgrouptowhichhisownerbelonged.Hence,insteadofseekingoutafriendofPhilemoninColossae,hewentlookingforPaul.

Inthisscenario,whichdoesmuchfullerjusticetothetoneandcontentofPhilemonthanthehypothesisthatOnesimuswasarunaway,theepisodemusthavetaken
placeatatimewhenthesenseofPaul'sinvisiblepresenceinthechurchofColossaewasstrong,becausehewasknowntobeinthevicinity(cf.Col.2:5).Thiswas
trueonlywhenheresidedinEphesus.BythetimeofPaul'simprisonmentinRomehehadbeenoutofcontactwiththechurchesofAsiaforseveralyears,anditis
doubtfulthattheyevenknewwherehewas.Moreover,inthesituationenvisaged,timewasoftheessence.Theproblemhadtobesolved
70
Millar(1981),67,71.
71
TwoexamplesaregiveninMoule(1957),347.
72
(1985),1357.
73
ForarefutationoftheviewespousedbyGoodspeedandKnoxthatArchippuswastheownerofOnesimus,seeGuthrie(1966),24750.

 Page178

beforethemomentaryangerofPhilemonbecamepermanentbitterness.ThedelayofalongjourneytoRomewouldhavemadetheeffortofOnesimuspointless.
Ephesuswasatthelimitofthefeasible.

OnlyinthehypothesisofanEphesianimprisonmentdoesPaul'splantovisitColossae,whichwasconcretizedinarequestforlodgingstobepreparedforhim(Philem.
22),becomeintelligible.Nothingismorenaturalthanhisdesiretofollowupinpersontheimpactofhisletteroncommunities,whichhadbeendisturbedbyfalse
teachingofJewishorigin.ThechurchesoftheLycusvalleywerenotquitehalfwaybetweenEphesusandGalatia.IftheyhadexhibitedapartialityforJewishinspired
doctrinemighttheynotfallvictimstotheJudaizers,whomhehadhadtocombatinGalatia?WheninRome,onthecontrary,Paul'sattentionwasfocusednotonthe
eastbutonthewest,notonAsiabutonSpain(Rom.15:24).

TheslendercluesinPhilemonunambiguouslypointtoEphesusasitsplaceoforigin.Inconsequence,Colossiansmusthavebeenwrittenfromthesameprison.
Attemptshavebeenmadetofindconfirmationfromwithintheletter,buttheresultsareunconvincing.Bowen,forexample,arguesthatthefourteendirectallusionsto
theconversionoftheColossianssuggeststhatthechurchhadbeeninexistenceonlyamatterofweeksorofmonthsatmost.74However,onefindsthesamesortof
allusiontothebeginningoftheirChristianliveswhenPaulisspeakingtotheGalatians(3:234:89),andthosechurcheshadbeenfoundedatleastsixyears
previously.

AtleasttwoofthethreeletterscombinedtocreatePhilippiansLetterA(4:1020)andLetterB(1:1to3:1and4:29)75speakinfavourofEphesusastheir
placeoforigin.76Astheseatoftheproconsul,thecityhadapraetorium(1:13).ThegreatimperialestatesinAsiademandedthepresenceofmembersofCaesar's
household(4:22),whosesojournatEphesusisconfirmedbyinscriptions.77ThefrequentcontactsbetweenPhilippiandPaul'splaceofimprisonmentsuggestthatthe
latterwassomewheremuchcloserthanRome.78

Finally,assoonashegothisfreedomPaulplannedtovisitPhilippi(1:262:24).NotonlyisthistheoppositeofwhathetellsushisplanswereafterRome(Rom.15:
24),butitcanonlybethevisitprojectedin1Cor.16:59,whichwaswrittenfromEphesus.Philippians1:26and30givetheimpressionthatthisvisitwillbethefirst
sincethefoundationofthechurchatPhilippi(contrastthelanguageofGal.4:132Cor.12:1413:1),butbythetimePaulgottoRomehehadalreadyvisited
Philippiatleasttwice(2Cor.1:162:13).

Althoughnotentirelyfreefromambiguity,thehintscontainedinColossians,
74
(1924),190.
75
OnthedivisionofPhil.intothreeletters,seemy(1965).
76
Gnilka(1968),1825againstKmmel(1975),32432.
77
Feine(1916),948Knibbe(1970),2645.
78
EpaphroditusbringsagiftfromPhilippi(4:18)andfallssick.ThePhilippianshearofhisillness,andheismadeawareoftheirdistress(2:26).

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Philemon,andPhilippianshaveacumulativeforce.ThecaseforEphesusastheprisonfromwhichtheywerewrittenismuchstrongerthanonewhichcouldbe
developedinfavourofRome.

Romanlawatthisperiodcontainednoprovisionforaprisonsentencedetentionwasnotusedasapunishment.Individualswereremovedfromcirculationforlonger
orshorterperiodsthroughbeingsentintoexile.79Theywereheldunderrestraintintwosituations,eitherwhileunderinvestigation80orafterthedeathsentencehad
beenpassedandtheywereawaitingexecution.81Otherpunishments(e.g.scourging,fines)werecarriedoutimmediately.Inpractice,ofcourse,detentioncoulddrag
oninterminably.

ThesetheoreticalpossibilitiesoftheapplicationofRomanjusticeareperfectlyillustratedbytheActsoftheApostles,which(withoutassumingthehistoricityofdetails)
reflectsveryaccuratelytherealitiesofthelegalsituationintheprovinces.Oncethemagistratesacceptedthechargeslaidagainstthemissionaries,Paulandhis
companionswerepunishedwithoutdelaytheywerebeatenandtossedintojailforthenightbeforebeingexpelledfromthecity(Acts16:1935).Whileawaiting
judgementonaccusationsmadeagainsthimPaulwasheldfirstinJerusalem(Acts21:33to23:22),theninthepraetoriumofCaesarea(Acts23:23to26:32),and
finallyinRome(Acts28:16).Peterwasincarceratedwhileawaitingexecution(Acts12:119).Accesstotheoutsideworldwasdependentonthewhimoftheofficial
(Acts24:22).

ThereisnohintinanyofthecaptivitylettersthatPaulisawaitingexecution.Onthecontrary,heexpresseshishopeofbeingreleasedinthenearfuture(Phil.2:24
Philem.22).Weshouldassume,therefore,thathewasbeingheldwhileunderinvestigation.IfPaulofferedpubliclecturesinthehallofTyrannus(Acts19:9),
someonemayhavetriedtocurryfavourwiththeauthoritiesbydrawingattentiontoanewreligiousgroup,whichmightpossiblybesubversive.Toarresttheleader
andhisagentsinoutlyingareaspendinganinvestigationwouldappearaprudentdecisiontoanyadministrator(cf.John19:12).
79
Nothingboostsyourdiviner'screditsomuchasalengthyspellintheglasshouse[militaryprison],withfettersdanglingfromeitherwrist.Noonebelievesinhispowersunless
he'sdodgedexecutionbyahair'sbreath,andcontrivedtogethimselfdeportedtosomeCycladicislandSeriphos,andtoescapeafterlengthyprivations(Juvenal,Satires6.5615
trans.Green).
80
AeliannextsummonedApolloniusandorderedhimintotheprison,wherethecaptiveswerenotbound.Until,hesaid,theEmperorshallhaveleisure,forhedesirestotalkwith
youprivatelybeforetakinganyfurthersteps.Apolloniusaccordinglyleftthelawcourtandpassedintotheprison,wherehesaid,Letustalk,Damis,withthepeople,forwhatelse
isthereforustodountilthetimecomeswhenthedespotwillgivemesuchaudienceashedesires?(Philostratus,LifeofApolloniusofTyana7.22trans.Conybeare).
81
Mommsen(1955),299305,9458Humbert(1899a)Pollack(1899).

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TheDateofGalatians

BeforeattemptingtoestablishachronologyforPaul'sstayinEphesus,animportantquestionmustbeanswered:doesGalatianshavetobetakenintoaccount?In
otherwords,wasGalatianswrittenduringPaul'sstayinEphesus?

TheonecluetothedateoftheepistleprovidedbytheletteritselfisGalatians2:5which,aswehaveseen,fixesalowerlimitofAD51theletterwaswrittenafterthe
JerusalemConference.TheupperlimitisfurnishedbythecompositionofRomansinCorinthduringthewinterofAD5556,82becausethereisgeneralacceptanceof
Lightfoot'sconclusion,

TheEpistletotheGalatiansstandsinrelationtotheRomanletter,astheroughmodeltothefinishedstatue.Thematter,whichintheoneepistle[Gal.]ispersonaland
fragmentary,elicitedbytheneedsofanindividualchurch,isintheothergeneralisedandarrangedsoastoformacomprehensiveandsystematictreatise.83

ThesuccessofhisattempttoestablishthepriorityofGalatianswithrespecttoRomansledLightfoottousethesametypeofcomparativeterminologicalandthematic
studytodateGalatiansafter1and2Corinthians.84Hisbrieftreatment,however,ismoreimpressionisticthanconvincing.85ThisfaultwasremediedbyU.Borse,
whoseexhaustiveapplicationofthesamemethodologyrefinedLightfoot'sconclusionbydatingGalatiansbetween2Corinthians19and2Corinthians1013,and
thusheassignedMacedoniaasitsplaceoforigin.86ThestrengthofBorse'sapproachisthatheusesonlycontactsthatareuniquetoGalatiansandthedocumentwith
whichheiscomparingit.Itsweaknessisillustratedbyhistreatmentoftheformulaanothergospel(Gal.1:62Cor.11:4).Thestyleandconstructionofitscontext
in2Corinthians,accordingtoBorse,ismoredevelopedthanthatinGalatianshenceinthisrespectGalatiansismoreprimitive,andthereforeearlier,than2
Corinthians1013.87

Theunderlyingprinciplethelaterisalwaysbetterismanifestlyfalse,andtheaestheticvaluejudgementintrinsictothemethodisalwaysdebatable.88Moreover,
thereisasubtle,butunjustified,shiftfromprioritytoproximity.Borsetakesitforgrantedthatthematicandverbalagreementsarealwaystimerelated,whenitismuch
moreprobableinthisinstancethattheyaresubject
82
SeeCh.1,AfterAD57.
83
(1910),49.
84
Ibid.55.
85
Robinson(1976),567,addsnothingnewinhisacceptanceofLightfoot'sconclusion.
86
(1972),177.TheattemptofLdemann(1984),86,toreinforcethepositionofBorseisvitiatedbythefactthathisargumentsareallfromsilence.
87
(1972),89.
88
ThesametypeofargumentisusedbyLongenecker(1990),pp.lxxxiiilxxxviii,toprovethatGal.antedatestheJerusalemConference.

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related.ThecontactshehighlightsrevealonlythatwheneverPauldealtwiththesameproblemhetendedtoexpresshimselfinasimilarway.Itisnotatallsurprising
thatBorsefindsthegreatestnumberofcontactsbetweenGalatiansand2Corinthians1013becauseinthesetwodocumentsPaulisnotonlydealingwiththesame
issue,namelytheinroadsintohiscommunitiesmadebyJudaizers,buthedoessoinpreciselythesamebitterlydisappointedframeofmind.Inevitablythesamewords
andideassurgetohislips.

OncethehypothesisoftheproximityofGalatiansto2CorinthiansandRomansisseentobewithoutfoundation,theopeningwordsofthelettercanbereadnaturally,
IamastonishedthatyouaresoquicklydesertinghimwhocalledyouinthegraceofChrist(Gal.1:6).Thereisnojustificationforwateringdownthenormalsenseof
quickly(cf.2Thess.2:2Phil.2:19,24)byassumingthatPaulhasinmindtheintervalsincetheGalatiansfirstbecameChristians.Heisastoundedthattheir
resistancetotheintruderswassoshortlived.ThebrevityofthetimefactorisuppermostinhisminditisnotasiftheenduranceoftheGalatianshadbeentestedbya
longperiodofhostilepressure.ManifestlyheiscontrastingpreviousinformationconcerningthehappysituationinGalatiawithwhathehasnowbeeninformedisthe
sorrystateofthecommunity.89WhenandhowdidhelearnthattheGalatianswererunningwell(Gal5:7)?

Borse,inordertomaintainhisMacedoniandatingofGalatians,attemptstoarguethat1Corinthians16:1impliesthatattheendofhisstayinEphesusPaulstillhada
goodopinionoftheGalatians.90OnemightagreeifPaulhadpraisedthegenerosityofthelatterandheldthemupasanexample.Butallheinfactsaysisthatthesame
administrativedirectiveregardingthecollectionforthepoorofJerusalem,whichhenowgivestheCorinthians,hehadgivenpreviouslytotheGalatians.Inanycase,if
theGalatianshadagreedtoPaul'srequest,hecouldbequitesurethattheywouldbeevenmoreresponsivetotheirnewguides,theJudaizers,whoviewedthe
JerusalemchurchmuchmorefavourablythanPauldid.

Thereisinfactnoalternativetotheonlysubstantiatedhypothesis,namely,thatPaullearnedofthesituationoftheGalatianchurcheswhenhepassedthroughthat
region,andpreachedthecollectionforJerusalem,enroutetoEphesus,ajourneywhichIhavedatedtothespringandsummerofAD52.Itisnotimpossiblethatthe
JudaizersfollowedcloselyontheheelsofPaulwhenheleftAntioch,andsoreachedGalatianotlongafterhehadleft.Ifwefurtherassumethattheirimpactwas
immediate,andthatPaulwaswarnedassoonaspossible,GalatianscouldhavebeendispatchedbeforethesnowsclosedthehighcountryintheautumnofAD52.

Itmaybedoubted,however,thateventsmovedquitesoquickly,particularly
89
ThesetwopointsarewellbroughtoutbyBorse(1972),47.
90
Ibid.46.

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sinceitisaquestionofanumberofchurchesinGalatia.ItismorereasonabletoassumethattheJudaizersspentthewinterinGalatia,andthatnewsoftheir
depredationsreachedPaulinEphesusonlyafterthesnowshadmeltedandtheroadswereagainopentotraffic.WecanbesurethatPaulrespondedimmediatelythe
useofthepresentparticipleswhoaredisturbingyouandwhoaredesiringtopervertthegospelofChrist(Gal.1:7)indicatethatthetroublemakersarestillatwork
ashewrites,andhavenotentirelysucceeded(cf.Gal.5:10).91HenceGalatiansshouldbedatedinthespringofAD53.

AnEphesianChronology.

InworkingoutthechronologyofPaul'slife,IarguedthathearrivedinEphesusinAugustAD52anddeparteddefinitivelyinOctober54.92HowPaulspentthe
summerofAD54canbededucedwithoutdifficultyfrom1and2Corinthians.Ithasbeentouchedonaboveandwillbeconsideredinsomedetailwhendealingwith
theCorinthiancorrespondence.Thusthetimeframewithwhichweareconcernedisnotquitetwoyears,thetwentytwomonthsfromAugust52toMay54.The
previousdiscussioninthischaptergavesomeideaofhisactivitiesduringthisperiod.Thechallengenowistoarrangethoseactivitiesinatleastarelativechronological
order.

Paul'sfirstyearinEphesus,itwouldappear,wastroublefree.AfterhavinginformedhischurchesinMacedoniaandinAchaiawherehecouldbereached,hewas
abletodevotehisenergiestothedevelopmentofthelocalcommunityandtoitsmissionaryoutreachintothehinterland.

TheperiodofPaul'simprisonmentmustfallbetweenthecompositionofGalatians,whichgivesnohintthatPaulPaul'saprisoner,andthewritingof1Corinthiansin
MayAD54,whenheisfreetoplanajourneythroughMacedoniatoCorinth(1Cor.16:5).

Thisperiodisfurtherlimitedbytwofactors.CommunicationsbetweenAsiaandGreecewouldhavebeencutfromtheendofthesailingseasoninOctobertothe
followingApril,andPaulisunlikelytohaveventuredintotheinteriorofAnatoliainthedepthsofwinter.IfheplannedtowinterinCorinth(1Cor.16:6),itis
improbablethatheleftEphesusinwinter.AsweshallseewhendealingwiththeCorinthianletters,allofPaul'sattentioninthespringandsummerofAD54was
concentratedonCorinth.

Inconsequence,themovementsimpliedinPhilippians,andthesendingoftwoofitscomponentletters,musthavetakenplacebetweenthespringofAD53andthe
autumnofthatsameyear.RathermorelatitudecanbeallowedforconnectionswiththeLycusvalley.Strongmotivationandunseasonablygood
91
E.Burton(1921),25.
92
SeeCh.1,AfterAD57.

 Page183

travelconditionswouldhavemadeitfeasibleforEpaphrasandOnesimustogettoEphesuseveninwinter,andforPaultotraveltoColossae.

LetuslookfirstatPaul'srelationswithPhilippi.Sincetheprevailingwindwasfromthenorthernquadrant,onewouldexpecttravellersfromPhilippitoEphesusto
comeallthewaybyboat,andActsprovidesfigureswhichareeminentlyplausible:PhilippitoTroasfivedays(20:6)TroastoEphesusfourdays(20:1316).In
total,therefore,ninedays,whichcouldbeextendedordiminisheddependingonweatherconditions,andonhowmuchtimetheboatspentinharboureachday.
ReturninghomeitwasmoresensibletotravelbyroadtoTroas,inordertoavoidthedelaysimposedbycontrarywinds.Thosewhotookshipcouldadvanceonly
whenthewindswungbrieflyintothesouth.Troaswas350km.(210miles)fromEphesus,awalkoftwoweeksatanaverageof25km.(15miles)perday.From
thereitwasimperativetotakeaboat.UnderoptimumconditionsthecrossingtoNeapolistooktwodays(Acts16:11),andthebetterpartofanotherdaywas
neededtocoverthe15km.(9miles)fromNeapolistoPhilippi.Theroundtripcouldbedoneintwentysixdays.Inordertoallowtimeforavisitonarrival,however,
amonthwouldbeamorereasonableminimumestimate.

IfweassumethatGalatianswaswritteninAprilorMayAD53,thesubsequenteventsofthatsummerwithrespecttoPhilippicanbereconstructedasfollows.The
churchtheresentEpaphrodituswithgiftsforPaul(Phil.4:18).WhileinEphesushefellill(Phil.2:26),whichmeantthatPaulhadtofindanothermessengertocarrya
letterexpressinghisgratitudetoPhilippi(LetterA:Phil.4:1020).NaturallythisemissaryexplainedwhathadhappenedtoEpaphroditus,andbroughtbackto
EphesusthenewsoftheconcernofthePhilippiancommunityfortheinvalid(Phil.2:26).ItisnotatallcertainthatPaulwasunderarrestatthisstage.Thereisno
necessaryconnectionbetweenfinancialaidfromPhilippiandimprisonmentthePhilippianshadpreviouslyhelpedhimfinanciallyatThessalonica(Phil.4:16),andat
Corinth(2Cor.11:9),whenhewascertainlyfree.Atleasttwomonthsshouldbeallowedforthesecontacts,whichbringsustoJulyAD53.

ThisdatesuggeststhepossibilitythatPaul'sarrestwasduetothezealofthenewproconsulofAsia(Phil.1:13).Thisofficial,whowasappointedforoneyear,took
uphisdutieson1July,93andmayhavewantedtoappeardecisiveandenergetic,whenwarnedofapotentiallysubversivegroup.Howlonghisinvestigationofthe
nascentchurchlastedwecanneverknow,butitwasnotmorethanninemonthsandperhapsconsiderablyshorter.Paulandtheothersmayhavebeenreleasedbefore
theendofthesummer.ThelimitationsonwintertravelmakeitimprobablethatLetterBtoPhilippi(1:1to3:1and4:29),Colossians,andPhilemonwerewritten
afterOctober.IfPaulwasreleasedin
93
SeeCh.1,DatingtheProconsulshipofGallio.

 Page184

latesummerorearlyautumn,hecouldhavemadehispromisedvisittotheLycusvalley.Whetherhespentthewinterthere,orreturnedtoEphesus,remainsanopen
question.

AccordingtoActs19:1,ApolloshadleftEphesusforCorinthpriortoPaul'sarrivalinEphesus.ThisispartiallyconfirmedbyPaul'switnessthatApolloshad
succeededhimatCorinth(1Cor.3:6),anditisunlikelytohavebeeninventedbyLuke,becauseitispreciselythesortoftheuncontrolledexpansionthatLuke
wantedtocorrectandcontrol.ApolloshadcertainlymovedbacktoEphesuspriortothewritingof1CorinthiansinMayAD54,becauseheiswithPaulatthat
moment.SincetheletterbroughtbytheCorinthiandelegationinthelatespringofthatyearrequestedthatApollosreturntoCorinthwiththem(1Cor.16:12),94the
lattermusthavebeeninEphesussincetheprevioussummer.ItismosteconomicaltosupposethathebroughttheinformationwhichpromptedPaultowritethenow
lostPreviousLetter(1Cor.5:9).

Inbroadoutline,therefore,Paul'sschedulesubsequenttohisdeparturefromAntiochinthespringofAD52wasasfollows:

Summer52 PaulinGalatia.
ApollostoCorinth.

September52 PaularrivesinEphesus.
JudaizersarriveinGalatia.

Winter5253 ConsolidationofthechurchinEphesusand
beginningofitsmissionaryoutreachtoAsia.

Spring53 EpaphrasbeginshismissionintheLycusvalley.
BadnewsfromGalatia.
PaulwritesGalatians.

Summer53 GiftfromPhilippians.
PaulwritesLetterAtothePhilippians.
Paulandhiscollaboratorsarrested.
EpaphrasreturnstoEphesus.
FromprisonPaulwritesLetterBtothePhilippians,
Colossians,andPhilemon.
ApollosreturnstoEphesus.
PaulwritesthePreviousLettertoCorinth.

Autumn53 PaultravelstotheLycusvalley?

Winter5354 PaulwintersinEphesus.

SpringSummer54 IntensecontactswithCorinth.

94
ItismostimprobablethatPaulwouldhaveinitiatedtheprojectofareturnofApollostoCorinth(cf.1Cor.1:12)sorightlyFee(1987),82324.

 Page185

8
ConflictinGalatia
TwopointshavealreadybeenestablishedwithregardtotheGalatiansandtheletterwhichPaulwrotetothem.TheGalatiansinquestionweremembersoftheCeltic
tribesintheareaofPessinus(modernBalahissar),1andthemostprobabledateoftheletteristhespringofAD53.2ThetasknowistoexplorePaul'srelationswith
thesepeople,andthecontributiontheyunwittinglymadetothematurationofhisthoughtbyforcinghimtodealwithaproblemthathehadnothithertoencountered.
BelieverswithadifferentvisionofChristianitywerebiddingfortheallegianceofmembersofacommunitywhichhehadfounded.

Galatia:LandandPeople

EpigraphicalstudiesincentralAnatolia,theareasettledbytheGalatians,revealthatCeltic,Greek,Roman,andPhrygiantypesofnamesappearintheonefamily.3It
wouldbedifficulttofindamoregraphicillustrationofthecomplexethnicbackgroundofthemembersofthechurchesofGalatia.

TheCeltsorGalatiansthenamesareusedinterchangeablybytheclassicalsourceswhomovedintoAsiaMinorin278BCwerenottheusualtypeofmercenaries.
Warriorsmadeuponlyhalfthe20,000whocrossedtheBosphorustheybroughttheirwivesandchildreninadditiontoagedparents.4Theywereanationonthe
move,searchingforahomeland.5WithadmirablebrevityStrabosummarizes,
1
SeeCh.7,GalatiaandGalatians.
2
SeeCh.7,TheDateofGalatians.
3
S.Mitchell(1980),1058.
4
Livy,HistoryofRome38.16.
5
ThepeoplewhoarecalledtheTectosagescloselyapproachthePyrenees.Itappearsthatatonetimetheyweresopowerfulandhadsolargeastockofstrongmen,that,whena
seditionbrokeoutintheirmidst,theydroveaconsiderablenumberoftheirownpeopleoutofthehomeland,thatotherpersonsfromothertribesmadecommonlotwiththeseexiles
andthatamongthesearealsothosepeoplewhohavetakenpossessionofthatpartofPhrygiawhichhasacommonboundarywithCappadociaandthePaphlagonians(Strabo,
Geography4.1.13trans.Jones).Thefollowingcitationmaydescribepurecoincidence,butitshouldnotgounremarked,TheChristiansinGaulseemtohavecomefromAsia
MinorcertainlyIrenaeus[ofLyon]didandatanyratehadcloselinks

(Footnotecontinuedonnextpage)

 Page186

TheGalatiansaretothesouthofthePaphlagonians.ThiscountrywasoccupiedbytheGalataeaftertheyhadwanderedaboutforalongtime,andaftertheyhadoverrunthe
countrythatwassubjecttotheAttalicandtheBithyniankings,untilbyvoluntarycessiontheyreceivedthepresentGalatiaorGalloGraeciaasitiscalled.(Geography12.5.1
trans.Jones)

Thissettlementtookplaceabout232BCunderAttalusIofPergamum,andtheGalatianswerethenconcentratedintheareaofAncyra(modernAnkara).Afterthe
deathofthisstrongkingin197BC,theGalatiansrecommencedtheirwestwardraidsintoAsia.TheyweredecimatedintheviciousRomanreactionof189BC,6but
theirlandswerenotconfiscated,andtheysubsequentlybecamecommittedalliesofRome.7Some25yearslater,theyhadpeacefullypenetratedtheregionaroundthe
futurecityofPessinus(seeFig.4).8

InevitablytheybroughtintoAsiaMinorthecustomswhichmadethemdistinctiveinthewest,andwhichAthenaeus(floruit.c.AD200)foundworthyofcitationfrom
Poseidonius(13550BC):
TheCeltsplacehayonthegroundwhentheyservetheirmeals,whichtheytakeonwoodentablesraisedonlyslightlyfromtheground.Theirfoodconsistsofafewloavesof
bread,butoflargequantitiesofmeatpreparedinwaterorroastedovercoalsoronspits.Thistheyeatinacleanlyfashion,tobesure,butwithalionlikeappetite,graspingwhole
jointswithbothhandsandbitingthemoffthebone.If,however,anypieceproveshardtotearaway,theysliceitoffwithasmallknifewhichliesathandinitssheathinaspecial
box.

Whenseveraldinetogether,theysitinacirclebutthemightiestamongthem,distinguishedabovetheothersforskillinwar,orfamilyconnectionsorwealth,sitsinthemiddle,
likeachorusleader.Besidehimisthehost,andnextoneithersidetheothersaccordingtotheirrespectiveranks.Menatarms,carryingoblongshields,standclosebehindthem,
whiletheirbodyguards,seatedinacircledirectlyopposite,shareinthefeastliketheirmasters.Theattendantsservethedrinkinvesselsresemblingourspoutedcups,eitherof
clayorofsilver.Similaralsoaretheplatterswhichtheyhaveforservingfoodbutothersusebronzeplatters,othersstill,basketsofwoodorplaitedwicker.(Deipnosophistae4.
151e152btrans.Gulick)

TheCeltssometimeshavegladiatorialcontestsduringdinner.Havingassembledunderarms,theyindulgeinshamfightsandpractisefeintswithoneanothersometimesthey
proceedeventothepointofwoundingeachother,andthen,exasperatedbythis,ifthecompanydoesnotintervene,theygosofarastokill.(Deipnosophistae4.154btrans.
Gulick)

(Footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

withAsiaMinor:theletterdescribingthecourseofthepersecutionoftheGallicmartyrswasaddressedtotheChristiansinAsiaandPhrygia(Louth(1989),p.xxiv).
6
Livy,HistoryofRome38.1727.
7
Ramsay(1900),97,116S.Mitchell(1993),2741.
8
Ramsay(1900),62.AdetailedmapofGalatiawithmodernequivalentsistobefoundinPW7.530.Thearchaeologicalevidenceisneatlysummarizedinmap4binMitchell(1993),1.
53.

 Page187

Fig.4
Paul'sGalatia
(Sources:RichardKiepert,KartevonKleinasien,BIII(Angora,1907)PWVIII)

TheCelts,evenwhentheygotowar,carryroundwiththemlivingcompanionswhomtheycallhangerson.Thesepersonsrecitetheirpraisesbeforemenwhentheyaregathered
inlargecompaniesaswellasbeforeanyindividualwholistenstotheminprivate.AndtheirentertainmentsarefurnishedbythesocalledBardsthesearepoets,asithappens,
whorecitepraisesinsong.

(Deipnosophistae6.246dtrans.Gulick)

Amongthebarbarians,theCeltsalso,thoughtheyhaveverybeautifulwomen,enjoyboysmoresothatsomeofthemoftenhavetwoloverstosleepwithontheirbedsofanimal
skins.(Deipnosophistae13.603atrans.Gulick)

 Page188

AnequallyvividportraitispaintedbyDidorusSiculus(8020BC).HeisspeakingoftheCeltsofFrance,butthevalidityofhisdescriptionfortheGalatiansisattested
bybothmonument9andtext.10Unfortunatelyitistoolongtobequotedinitsentirety:

TheGaulsaretallofbody,withripplingmuscles,andwhiteofskin,andtheirhairisblond,andnotonlynaturallyso,buttheyalsomakeittheirpracticebyartificialmeansto
increasethedistinguishingcolourwhichnaturehasgivenit.Someofthemshavethebeard,butothersletitgrowalittleandthenoblesshavetheircheeks,buttheyletthe
moustachegrowuntilitcoversthemouth.Consequently,whentheyareeating,theirmoustachesbecomeentangledinthefood,andwhentheyaredrinking,thebeveragepasses,
asitwere,throughakindofstrainer.

Theyinvitestrangerstotheirfeasts,anddonotinquireuntilafterthemealwhotheyareandofwhatthingstheystandinneed.Anditistheircustom,evenduringthecourseof
themeal,toseizeuponanytrivalmatterasanoccasionforkeendisputation,andthentochallengeoneanothertosinglecombatwithoutanyregardfortheirlives.

Theclothingtheywearisstrikingshirtswhichhavebeendyedandembroideredinvariedcolours,andbreeches,whichtheycallintheirtonguebracae,andtheywearstriped
coats,fastenedbyabuckleontheshoulder,heavyforwinterwearandlightforsummer,inwhicharesetchecks,closetogetherandofvariedhues.11

TheGaulsareterrifyinginaspectandtheirvoicesaredeepandaltogetherharshwhentheymeettogethertheyconversewithfewwordsandinriddles,hintingdarklyatthingsfor
themostpart,andusingonewordwhentheymeananotherandtheyliketotalkinsuperlatives,totheendtheymayextolthemselvesanddepreciateallothers.Theyarealso
boastersandthreatenersandarefondofpompouslanguage,andyettheyhavesharpwitsandarenotwithoutclevernessatlearning.Amongthemarefoundlyricpoetswhom
theycallBards.

(TheLibraryofHistory5.2831trans.Oldfather)

Astheconquerers,theGalatianswereanaristocraticcaste,butthisdidnotmakethemimmunetotheirenvironment.12Theextentofintermarriagewiththeindigenous
populationisunderlinedbyLivy'scharacterizationoftheGalatiansamixedrace.13TheyadoptedthelocalPhrygianreligion.Notonly
9
ThefamousmarblestatueofTheDyingGaulisaRomancopy(nowintheCapitolinRome)ofthebronzeoriginalsetupbyAtallusIinPergamumaround230BC.Itis
reproducedasFig.7inMitchell(1993),1.46.
10
ComparethedescriptionofLivy,Theirtallphysique,theirflowingredlocks,theirvastshieldsandenormousswords,togetherwiththeirsongsastheygointobattle,their
howlingsandleapingsandthefearfuldinofarmsastheybattertheirshieldsfollowingsomekindofancestralcustomallthesearecarefullydesignedtostriketerror(Historyof
Rome38:17trans.Bettenson).
11
Inafootnote,Oldfathercomments,DiodorusappearstobetryingtodescribeakindofScotchtartan.
12
SeeinparticularRamsay(1900),1445.
13
HistoryofRome38.17.

 Page189

wasitmoreprudenttopropitiatethelocalgods,buttheCelticnobilitygainedaccesstoindigenouspowerthroughmembershipintheimmenselyinfluentialpriesthood
ofPessinus.14InadditiontoCeltic,whichcontinuedtobespokenintotheByzantineperiod,15Greekwasadoptedasasecondlanguage.Itwastheindispensable
mediumofcommunicationthroughoutthearea,andanyonewhotravelledhadtobebilingual.16Nonetheless,theGalatiansthemselveswerenotHellenized.About
AD50GalatiawasessentiallyunHellenic.Romanideas[particularlyofadministration]weretheresuperinduceddirectlyonaGalatiansystem,whichhadpassed
throughnointermediatestageoftransformationtotheHellenictype.17ThisisparticularlyevidentinthecontinuingprominenceinGalatiaoftribalstructures.

ThetitlesofthethreeadministrativeregionssetupbyAugustusin22or21BCweretheSebasteniTolistobogiiPessinuntii,theSebasteniTextosagesAncyrani,andthe
SebasteniTrocmiTaviani.ThepopulationofthethreeGalatiantribeswasconsideredtobeidenticalwiththethreevillagestransformedbyimperialfiatintocities.The
territoryofPessinus,however,withwhichweareconcerned,stretchedonlyfromMountDindymus(modernGnyzDag)tothesourceoftheriverSangarios.18
Elsewhereinthetribalterritorytherewereonlyunfortifiedvillages.19

Thequickwitted,enterprisingGreeksoftheprovinceofAsialookedonthosewhodweltinthemiddleofAsiaMinorwithcontempt.ThePhrygianshadareputation
forbeingslow,apathetic,contented,andunutterablyignorant,incapableofbeingrousedorexcitedbyanycauseexcepttheirvulgaranddegradingsuperstitious
rites20Understandably,then,therewasnobodymoredespicablethanaPhrygian,21andtobeaslaveamongthemwasthenadirofhumanexistence.22TheGalatians
fortheirpartwereconsideredtobelarge,unpredictablesimpletons,ferociousandhighlydangerouswhenangry,but
14
Strabo,Geography12.5.3Ramsay(1900),62Mitchell(1993),1.48.
15
Pausanias,DescriptionofGreece10.19.1136.1Jerome,Comm.inEp.adGalatas2.3Mitchell(1980),1058.
16
AccordingtoMitchell(1993),1.175,FromtheseillustrationsofthelinguisticcomplexityofRomanAnatolia,itseemsreasonabletoconcludethatbetweenthefewwhospokeno
Greekatall(perhapsinparticularwomenwhohadlesscontactoutsidethehouseholdwithcommerce,officialdom,orpubliclife)andthelargerminoritywhohadbeencutoff
completelyfromtheirnativeculturalandlinguisticheritagebyabsorptionintocitylife,amajorityoftheinhabitantsofAsiaMinorwereinsomemeasurebilingualinGreekandan
indigenouslanguage.
17
Ramsay(1900),160cf.1423.
18
Mitchell(1993),1.87,withmap3facingp.40.
19
Strabonotesthatthemajoragglomerationswerehabitationswhichpreservenoteventracesofcities,butareonlyvillagesslightlylargerthantheothers(Geography12.5.4
trans.Jones).SeealsoLivy,HistoryofRome38.1819.
20
Ramsay(1900),31.
21
DioChrysostom,moredespisedthanthePhrygians(Discourses31.158).
22
DioChrysostom,slavesintheinteriorofPhrygia(Discourses31.113).

 Page190
23
withoutstaminaandeasytotrick. Theywerethearchetypalbarbarians.ItwouldbehardtofindamorecharitablecommentonthemixtureofGalatiansand
PhrygiansthanthatofLivy,adegenerate,mongrelrace.24

Thelandinwhichthisracedweltwashardlymoreinterestingthanitspeopleandperhapscontributedtotheirlassitude.Ramsay'sdescriptionhasneverbeenbettered,

Itconsistsofavastseriesofbare,bleakuplandsandslopinghillsides.Itisalmostdevoidoftrees,25except,perhaps,insomeplacesonthenorthfrontiersandthewantofshade
makestheheatofsummermoretrying,whiletheclimateinwinterissevere.Thehillsoftenreachaconsiderablealtitude,26buthaveneverthecharacterofmountains.Theyare
commonlycladwithaslightgrowthofgrasstothesummitonatleastoneside.Thesceneryisuninteresting.Therearehardlyanystrikingfeaturesandonepartissingularlylike
another.Thecitiesarefarfromoneanother,separatedbylongstretchesofthesamefatiguingcountry,dustyandhotandaridinsummer,coveredwithsnowinwinter.In
ancienttimestheaspectofmostofthelandawayfromthefewgreatcitieswasmuchthesameasitisatthepresentdaybleakstretchesofpastoralcountry,fewvillages,sparse
population,littleevidenceofcivilization.27

TheheavyrainsandsnowofwinterusuallybegininNovemberandlastuntilApril.Thetemperaturecandropto20Candlongperiodsoffrostarenormal.The
groundremainssoftandmuddyintoJunewhenthehotdryseasonbegins.28RomanroadscertainlytraversedGalatiainthetimeofPaul,eventhoughthegreat
constructioneffortwhichgaveAsiaMinorits9,000km.(5,400miles)ofgradedroadsisdatedbetweenAD80and122.29

ThestapleproductsofGalatiaarerevealedbyitsuniqueartisticcreation,carvedtombstones.30Themostcommonmotifisadistaffandspindle,31which
23
AccordingtoStrabo,ThewholeracewhichisnowcalledbothGallicandGalaticiswarmad,andbothhighspiritedandquickforbattle,althoughotherwisesimpleandnot
illmannered(Geography4.4.2trans.Jones)Inadditiontotheirtraitofsimplicityandhighspiritedness,thatofwitlessnessandboastfulnessismuchinevidence,andalsothat
offondnessforornaments(Geography4.4.5trans.Jones).
24
HistoryofRome38.17.
25
WestofAbassionandsouthoftheriverSangariosistheterritorycalledAxylon(Woodless).Thisgetsitsnamefromthefactthatitproducesnowoodatall,noteventhornsor
anyotherfuelthepeopleusecowdungasasubstituteforwood(Livy,HistoryofRome38.18trans.Bettenson).Forthelocalization,seethemapinPW7.530.Thelackoftreesin
thesouthofGalatianeartheborderwithLycaoniaisnotedbyStrabo(Geography12.6.1).
26
AccordingtoRamsay(1990),17,thealtitudeoftheriverSangariosisroughly2,000feet(615m.)andthelandrisestowardsthesouthwestto3,600feet(1,107m.)
27
(1900),1214.
28
Mitchell(1993),1.1435.
29
Mitchell(1993),1.1246withmaps7and8.
30
Mitchell(1980),1070.
31
TocitebutasinglevolumeofMAMA,1.nn.89,93,94,99,103,104,105,106,107,113,118,119,135,219,263,265,297,300,310,341,348,353,391,413,422,423.

 Page191

highlightstheimportanceofwoolintheeconomyoftheprovince.Strabonotedthat,althoughthecountryisunwatered,itisremarkablyproductiveofsheepbutthe
wooliscoarse,andyetsomepersonshaveacquiredverygreatwealthfromthisalone.Amyntashadoverthreehundredflocksinthisregion(Geography12.6.1
trans.Jones).Strabo'sjudgementonthequalityofthewoolwasnotsharedbyPlinywhoconsidereditamongthefinestintheworld.32Inmanytombstonesthedistaff
andspindleisassociatedwithamattockandpruninghook.33Thehintthatviticulturewasimportantisconfirmedbyrepresentationsofavine34orbunchesofgrapes.35
Winemayhavemadelifeinthatdesolateareamorebearable,butitisunlikelytohavemadethesamecontributiontotheeconomyasthecultivationofcereals.Earsof
wheat36andayokeofoxenpullingaplough37aredepictedonmanytombstones.TheeconomicsituationisperfectlysummarizedbyMitchell,Grainkepttheprovince
alive,woolbroughtitwealth.38

Paul'sMinistryinGalatia

JewettmentionsthetownsofPessinus,Germa,andAncyraastheareaofPaul'sministryinGalatia.39Nojustificationisoffered,andonemaypresumethathesimply
listedthethreeknowncitiesinordertojustifythepluralchurchesintheaddressofGalatians.

Pauldoesusechurchinthesenseofallthebelieversinatownorcity(1Thess.1:12Thess.1:11Cor.1:22Cor.1:1),buthecanalsouseittomeana
subgroup,thosewhoassembleinaparticularhome(1Cor.16:19Col.4:15Philem.2contrastRom.16:23).Inthelatterinstanceschurchisneverqualified,
whereasintheformeritisalwaysspecified,inGodtheFatherandtheLordJesusChrist(1Thess.1:12Thess.1:1),ofGod(1Cor.1:22Cor.1:1).Thefact
thatGalatiansisaddressedsimplytothechurchesofGalatiamightimplythatPaulisthinkingofanumberofhousechurcheswithinaratherrestrictedarea.Itseems
moreprobable,however,thatPaul'sdisappointmentatthebackslidingoftheGalatianswassointensethathedecidedtotreattheGalatiantowncommunitiesasifthey
weremeresecularassemblies,inwhichcasewecandeducenothingabouttheextentofhismissionfieldinGalatia.

IfPaulreachedAbassiom(modernJzgadren)ontheborderofGalatia,40
32
Themostesteemedwoolisallfromtheneck,andthatfromthedistrictsofGalatia,Tarentum,Attica,andMiletus(NH29.33).
33
MAMA,1.nn.126,138,154,420.
34
Ibid.1.nn.156,248,274.
35
Ibid.1.n.110.WinefromtheareaismentionedbyStrabo(Geography12.7.2)andPliny(NH31.84).
36
MAMA,1.n.5
37
Ibid.1.nn.149,293,340.
38
(1980),1069(1993),1.146.
39
(1979),60.
40
Livy,HistoryofRome38.15.

 Page192

hecouldhavemarchedeastkeepingtheSangariosriveronhisleftasdidtheRomangeneralC.Manlius.Theadvantagewouldhavebeentousethebridgewhich
Manliushadbuiltovertheriver.ButthatroutewouldhavebroughthimalongtheedgeofthedesolatedesertoftheTreelessLand,41anditwouldhavebeenoutof
characterforPaultowastehisenergyinanareaofwidelyscatteredvillageswhoseinhabitantsshepherdsandfieldworkersspokeaGreeksocorruptastobe
virtuallyunintelligibletosomeonelikePaul.42

Paul,however,probablyhadlittlechoicewherehewent.Hewasill(Gal.4:13),andifconsulted,hispreferencewouldcertainlyhavebeenforthesortofurban
environmentinwhichhefeltmostathomeandworkedmosteffectively,andinwhichhecouldreceivewhatevermedicalcarewasavailable.Theeasiestwaytocover
the40km.totheSangarioswouldhavebeenbyboatdowntheAkTsha'yr,whichflowedintotheAlander,atributaryoftheSangarios.Fromthelatteritwasonly12
km.toPessinus.AccordingtoStrabo,
Pessinusisthegreatestcommercialcentreinthatpartoftheworld,containingatempleoftheMotherofthegods,whichisanobjectofgreatveneration.TheycallherAgdistis.
Thepriestswereinancienttimespowerfulandreapedthefruitsofagreatpriesthood,butatpresenttheirprerogativeshavebeenmuchreduced,thoughthemarketstillendures.
ThesacredprecinctwasbuiltupbytheAttalidkingsinamannerbefittingaholyplace,withasanctuaryandalsowithporticoesofwhitemarble.TheRomansmadethetemple
famouswhen,inaccordancewithoraclesoftheSibyl,theysentforthestatueofthegoddessthere,justastheydidinthecaseofthatofAsclepiusatEpidaurus.

(Geography12.5.3trans.Jones)

AgdistisisbetterknownasCybele,43theGreatMother,whosecultwasrecognizedofficiallybyRomein204BC.ShewasthesupremedivinebeingofPhrygia,and
themalegod,Attis,wasmerelyherinferiorcompanionandservant.44Naturallythecultwasespeciallyfavouredbywomen.Cybelewasresponsibleforallaspectsof
thewellbeingofherpeople,ensuringfertility,curingdisease,givingoracles,andprotectingheradherents.Ecstaticstatesaccompaniedbyinsensibilitytopainand/or
thegiftofprophecywerecharacteristicofherworship.45

WemustpresumethatPaul'sinitialpreachinginPessinustooktheformofconversationswiththosegenerousenoughtogivehimhospitality(Gal.4:1314).They
werepaganshecouldnothavesaidformerlyyoudidnotknowGod(Gal.4:8)toJews.Ashisstrengthreturned,hebecamemoreenergetic,andhisinfluence
increased.ThepresenceinPessinusofpilgrimstotheshrineof
41
Ibid.38.18.
42
Mitchell(1983),1.174.
43
Strabo,Geography10.3.12.
44
Ramsay(1900),38Mitchell(1993),2.202.
45
OCD246.

 Page193

CybelemightexplainwhyhestayedoninGalatiaafterhisrecovery.TheyofferedhimsomethingwhichhewaslatertoseemorefullyrealizedinCorinthandEphesus.
Hesawinsuchvisitorsthepossibilityofreachingoutintothevasthinterlandwhichhecouldneverhopetocover.Returningtotheirhomestheycouldcarryhis
messagetoplacestowhichhecouldnotgo,andwhosenameshemaynotevenhaveknown.Perhapsthisiswhytheaddressoftheletterissovague.

TheCauseoftheCrisis

TheproblemswhichdevelopedamongtheChristiansofGalatiawerenotintrinsictensionswhichincreaseduntiltheyreachedflashpoint.Theywerecausedby
outsiders,whoattemptedtopersuadetheGalatianstoadoptavisionofChristianitywhichwasradicallydifferentfromthatofPaul.

WhoWeretheIntruders?

IntheletterwhichhewrotetotheGalatians,Paulconsistentlydifferentiatesbetweenhisconverts,whomheaddressesasyou(e.g.Gal.3:15),andotherstowhom
hedisdainfullyrefersassomepeople(Gal.1:7),anyone(Gal.1:9),they(Gal.4:176:13).Inantiquityadversarieswerenevergivenfreepublicity!Theclear
hintthattheselatterwereoutsidersisconfirmedbytheverbheusesoftheiractivitytodisturb,unsettle,throwintoconfusion(Gal.1:75:10)belongstothepolitical
languageoftheperiodanddescribestheworkofagitatorswhomoveintodestroyapreviouslypeacefulsituation.46

Inadditiontoidentifyinghisadversariesasintruders,Paulgivesusjustenoughinformationtospecifyfurtherthattheywerenotpaganphilosophers(cf.Col.2:8)or
Jews,butChristiansofJewishorigin,eitherbybirthorbyconversion.Theybelongedtothecircumcision(Gal.6:13),47butconsideredtheirmessagetothe
Galatiansasagospel(Gal.1:6).48

Wheredidthesepeoplecomefrom?ThevastmajorityofscholarsoptforJerusalem,butdifferontherelationshipoftheintruderstotheauthoritiesofthechurchinthe
HolyCity.49Itismuchmorelikely,however,thattheintruderscamefromAntioch.50WhenPaulfoundedthechurchesofGalatia,he
46
Lightfoot(1910),77Betz(1979),49Longenecker(1990),16.
47
Betz(1978),316Longenecker(1990),292againstE.Burton(1921),3523.
48
ThefactthatPaulhastocorrecthimselfanddenythatthereisanothergospelbetrayshisawarenessthathewasconfrontedbyadifferentversionofChristianity.Sorightly
Martyn(1985),314.
49
AgoodsurveyisprovidedbyLongenecker(1990),p.lxxxviiixciv.
50
SorightlyDunn(1993),1417,buthemistakenlylimitsthesphereofAn
tioch'sjurisdictiontothechurchesestablishedduringthefirstjourneyofActs.

 Page194

hadbeenactingasanagentofAntioch.UnderpressurefromJerusalem,however,theAntiocheancommunityhadoptedsubsequentlyforacompletelyJudaized
versionofChristianity,whichPaulcouldnotaccept(Gal.2:1121).HisfailuretopersuadethosewhohadoncesponsoredhismissionarydriveintoEuropethatthey
werebeingunjusttoGentilemembersofthechurchledtoacompletebreak.

IfPaulcouldnolongerbeamemberofsuchacommunity,stilllesscouldhepropagateitsvisionofChristianity.Thereweremany,however,whonotonlywere
preparedtodoso,butbelievedthattheyhadanobligationtoextendtothechurchesfoundedundertheaegisofAntiochthenewpracticesadoptedbythemother
church.51Thedaughtercommunities,whichnaturallyreflectedthegeneroustoleranceandopennessofAntioch,nowhadtobebroughtintolinewithitsnewethos.
PresumablythismeasurewasnotdirectedexclusivelyatthePaulinechurchesitaffectedthosefoundedbyBarnabasandothersaswell.52

InJerusalemandonhisreturntoAntioch,PaulhadspokenfreelyofthesuccesseswithwhichGodhadblessedhisministry.Thismadeiteasyforthosenowsentout
byAntiochtoretracehisstepstheyknewexactlywherehehadbeen.ThegroupneednothavebeenmadeupexclusivelyofJewishChristians.Theinclusionofafew
GentileChristianswhohadwillinglyacceptedJudaizationwouldhavestrengthenedtheclaimthatwhatPaulhadoncepreachedinGalatiahadbeensupersededby
subsequentdevelopmentsinChristianity.

AsfarasPaulwasconcerned,theJudaizerswereintruderswhohadnobusinessinterferingwithhisconverts.Fortheirpart,therepresentativesofAntiochbelieved
thatPaulhadlosthisrightsinthechurchesofGalatia.ThesewereAntiocheanfoundationsandthedelegatesfeltthatbyrepudiatinghiscommissionPaulhadabdicated
fromanypositionofauthorityinGalatia.ThedelegatesnowworethemanteloflegitimacytheyweretheofficiallinkwiththeauthenticrootsofChristianity.Itisnot
necessarytopostulateanypersonalanimositytowardsPaul.TheidentityoftheAntiocheanmissionaries,asweshallsee,wasnotrootedinanantiPaulpolemic.
Perhapstheyevenexperiencedacertainsenseoflossthatawonderfulmissionaryhadsidelinedhimselfbecauseofhistragicallymistakenconvictionthathealone
possessedthetruth.TheytoowereconvincedthattheyhadthebestinterestsoftheGentilesdeeplyatheart.

TheTacticsoftheJudaizers

WhentheyarrivedinGalatia,theJudaizershadtwotasks.First,theyhadtounderminetheauthorityofPaul.Itwasnotenoughtosaythattheywerenow
51
Ibid.1314.
52
HencetospeakofaplannedandconcertedantiPaulinemovement(Barrett(1985),22)mustbedonewithcarefulnuances.

 Page195

takingover.Theyhadtodiscredithim.Secondly,theyhadtoputacrosstheirversionofChristianitywithclarityandpower.TheycouldnotsimplysaythatPaulwas
wrong.Theyhadtoproposeaviablealternative.

Unfortunatelytheydidnotleavethenotesoftheirspeeches,whichmeansthattheirteachinghastobereconstructedfromPaul'sreaction.Thistechniqueofmirror
readinginvolvesratherobviousdangers.53Theintruders,forexample,maynothavesaidexactlytheoppositeofPaul'sresponse.Hemayhaveexaggeratedtheir
positionsinordertofacilitatehisowncounterattack.Moreover,itmustalsobekeptinmindthatPaulwasnotconfrontedpersonallybyhisopponents.Hehadno
directknowledgeoftheiraccusations.HebecameawareofwhatwasgoingoninGalatiaonlythroughthereportsofhispartisansamongtheGalatians.

Theopacityofthisfilter,however,shouldnotbeexaggerated.If,asIhavearguedabove,54theintrudersspentthewinterofAD5253inGalatia,therewasplentyof
timeforPaul'ssupporterstolearnexactlywhathisrivalsweresaying.ItisunlikelythatsomeofthosewhohadtrulycommittedthemselvestothePaulinegospeltook
verylongtorealizehowdifferentwasthevisionofChristianitynowbeingproposedtothem.Lackingthetheologicalbackgroundnecessarytodevelopacounter
argument,theycouldofferonlypassiveresistance.Concernenhancedtheirconcentration.Theyrecognizedtheneedtoretaineverythingthattheywerehearingwitha
viewtoreportingtoPaulinEphesusassoonastheroadsopenedtotravelinthespring.

DiscreditingPaul

Itisprobable,therefore,thatPaulreceivedveryaccurateinformationregardingthetacticsoftheintruders,andthereisinfactaratherhighdegreeofagreementonthe
natureoftheproblemswhichhehadtoconfront.F.F.BrucevividlysummarizesalargeconsensuswhenheputsthefollowingwordsintothemouthsoftheJudaizers:

TheJerusalemleadersaretheonlypersonswithauthoritytosaywhatthetruegospelis,andthisauthoritytheyreceiveddirectfromChrist.Paulhasnocomparableauthority:any
commissionheexerciseswasderivedbyhimfromtheJerusalemleaders,andifhediffersfromthemonthecontentorimplicationsofthegospel,heisactingandteachingquite
arbitrarily.InfactPaulwentuptoJerusalemshortlyafterhisconversionandspentsometimewiththeapostlesthere.Theyinstructedhiminthefirstprinciplesofthegospeland,
seeingthathewasamanofuncommonintellect,magnanimouslywipedoutfromtheirmindshisrecordasapersecutorandauthorizedhimtopreachtoothersthegospelwhichhe
hadlearnedfromthem.ButwhenheleftJerusalemforSyria

53
Suchdangers,however,havebeenexaggeratedbyLyons(1985)seeBarclay(1987),7393.TheagnosticismofBorse(1984),240,isentirelyunjustified.
54
SeeCh.7,TheDateofGalatians.

 Page196

andCiliciahebegantoadaptthegospeltomakeitpalatabletoGentiles.TheJerusalemleaderspracticedcircumcisionandobservedthelawandthecustoms,butPaulstruckout
onalineofhisown,omittingcircumcisionandotherancientobservancesfromthegospelhepreached,andthushebetrayedhisancestralheritage.Thislawfreegospelhasno
authoritybuthisownhecertainlydidnotreceiveitfromtheapostles,whodisapprovedofhiscourseofaction.Theirdisapprovalwaspubliclyshownononeoccasionat
Antioch,whentherewasadirectconfrontationbetweenPeterandhimonthenecessityofmaintainingtheJewishfoodlaws.55

AnAlternativeVisionofChristianity

HearingsuchanattackonPaul,theobviousquestionthathissupportersaskedconcernedthenatureofthesocalledauthenticgospel.Inwhatpreciselydiditconsist,
andhowwasitjustified?Themostdetailed,andcarefullyargued,reconstructionisthatofJ.LouisMartyn:
Listennow.ItallbeganwithAbraham.HewasthefirsthumanbeingtodiscernthatthereisbutoneGod.Becauseofthatperceptionheturnedfromtheserviceofdumbidolsto
theworshipofthetrueGod[Jub.12].ThereGodmadehimthefatherofourgreatnationbutthatwasonlythebeginning,forGodmadetoAbrahamasolemnutterancewhich
throughourmissionhasbeguntofinditsfulfillmentinthepresenttime.Speakingthroughagloriousangel,GodsaidtoAbraham:

Inyoushallallthenationsoftheworldbeblessed[Gen.12:3]forIshallmultiplyyourdescendantsasthestarsofheaven[Gen.22:17].Comeoutside,andlook
towardheaven,andnumberthestars,ifyouareableSoshallyourdescendantsbe[Gen.15:5]forIspeakthisblessingtoyouandtoyourdescendants.

WhatisthemeaningofthisblessingwhichGodgavetoAbraham?Payattentiontothesethings:Abrahamwasthefirstproselyte.Aswehavesaid,hediscernedthetrueGodand
turnedtohim.GodthereforemadeanunshakablecovenantwithAbraham[Gen.17:7],andasasignofthiscovenanthegavetoAbrahamthecommandmentofcircumcision[Gen.
17:10].HealsorevealedtoAbrahamtheheavenlycalendar,sothatinhisownlifetimeourfatherwasinfactobedienttotheLaw,notonlykeepingthecommandmentof
circumcision[Gen.17:23],butalsoobservingtheholyfeastsonthecorrectdays[Jub.15:12].

Later,whenGodactuallyhandeddowntheLawatSinai,hespokeonceagaininthemouthsofhisgloriousangelswhopasstheLawthroughthehandofthemediator,Moses
(Galatians3:19).AndnowtheMessiahhascome,confirmingforeternityGod'sblessedLaw,revealedtoAbrahamandspokenthroughMoses(6:2).

AndwhatdoesthismeanforyouGentiles?Weknowfromthescriptures

55
(1982b),26.

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thatAbrahamhadtwosons:IsaacandIshmael(4:22).OnthedayofthefeastofthefirstfruitsIsaacwasbornofSarahthefreewoman[Gen.21:17],andthroughhimhavecome
weJews,whoaredescendantsofAbraham.IshmaelwasbornofHagartheslavegirl[Gen.16],andthroughhimhavecomeyouGentiles.Thusyoualsoaredescendantsofthe
patriarch.Weareinfactbrothers!

WealsoknowfromthescripturewehavejustquotedthatGodmadehisindeliblepromisetobothAbrahamandhisdescendants,sayingInyoushallallthenationsbeblessed.
Theinheritanceofsalvationistoyourchildren'schildren![Sir.44:21].Thatfactfacesusallwiththecrucialquestion:Whoisitwhoarethetrueandthereforeblessed
descendantsofAbraham(3:7,29)?Andtheanswerisequallyclearfromthescriptures:AbrahamhimselfturnedfromidolstotheobservanceoftheLaw,circumcisinghimselfand
Isaac.Aswehavesaid,heevenkepttheholyfeastsattheirpreciselyappointedtimes.Andnotleast,bykeepingGod'scommandments[Jub.21.2],heavoidedwalkinginthe
poweroftheEvilImpulse(5:16cf.Genesis6:5).ItfollowsthatthetruedescendantsareclearlythosewhoarefaithfullyobedienttotheLawwithfaithfulAbraham(Galatians3:6
9).AtthepresentholytimeGodhasbeenpleasedtoextendthislineoftruedescentthroughthecommunityinJerusalem,thecommunitywhichlivesbytheLawofChrist(6:2),
thecommunityofJames,CephasandJohn,andthroughthecommunitywhichwerepresent(2:110).

Whatareyoutodo,therefore,asAbraham'sdescendantsthroughIshmael,thechildofHagar,theslavegirl?Thegateofconversionstandsopen(4:174:9)!Youaretocastoff
yourenslavementtotheEvilImpulsebyturninginrepentanceandconversiontoGod'srighteousLawasitisconfirmedbyhisChrist.FollowAbrahamintheholyandliberating
riteofcircumcision(6:13)observethefeastsattheirappointedtimes(4:10)keepthesacreddietaryrequirements(2:1114)andabstainfromidolatryandfromthepassionsof
theflesh(5:1921).ThenyouwillbetruedescendantsofAbraham,heirsofsalvationaccordingtotheblessingwhichGodsolemnlyutteredtoAbrahamandhisdescendants(3:
7,8).

YousaythatyouhavealreadybeenconvertedbyPaul?Wesaythatyouarestillinadarknessentirelysimilartothedarknessinwhichnotlongagoyouwereservingthe
elements,supposingthem,asAbrahamoncedid,tobegodsthatruletheworld(4:3,9).Infactthefightsandcontentionsinyourcommunitiesshowthatyouhavenotreallybeen
converted,thatPauldidnotgiveyouGod'sholyguidance.Paulleftyou,agroupofsailorsonthetreacheroushighseasinnothingmorethanasmallandpoorlyequippedboat.
Hegaveyounoprovisionsforthetrip,nomap,nocompass,norudder,andnoanchor.Inaword,hefailedtopassontoyouGod'sgreatestgift,theLaw.Butthatisexactlythe
missiontowhichGodhascalledus.ThroughourworkthegoodnewsofGod'sLawisinvadingtheworldofGentilesin.Weadjureyou,therefore,toclaimtheinheritanceofthe
blessingofAbraham,andthustoescapethecurseoftheEvilImpulseandsin(5:16).For,beassured,thosewhofollowthepathoftheEvilImpulseandsinwillnotinheritthe
KingdomofGod(5:21).Itisentirelypossibleforyoutobeshutout(4:17).Youwilldowelltocon

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siderthispossibilityandtotremblewithfear.ForyouwillcertainlybeshutoutunlessyouaretrulyincorporatedintoAbraham(3:29)byobservingthegloriousandangelicLaw
oftheMessiah.Turnthereforeintruerepentance,andcomeunderthewingsoftheDivinePresence,sothatwithusyoushallbesavedastruedescendantsofourcommonfather
Abraham.56

EventhoughthisreconstructioncontainswhatMartynhimselftermsapinchoffantasy,57itsvalueistomakeexplicitthepersuasivepowerofthecasetheJudaizers
werecapableofmaking.

Againstsuchlogic,however,onemustsetthepracticalconsequencesfortheGalatiansofadoptingtheviewsoftheintruders.Circumcisionwasanextremelypainful
operationforanadult,andobediencetothemultifariousdemandsoftheLawwouldbeburdensome.WhythenweretheGalatiansattractedtothemessageofthe
intruders?Theanswermustlieintheirpsychologicalmakeup.

AsweknowfromtheThessaloniancorrespondence,itwasPaul'spracticeinestablishingacommunitytogiveanumberofgeneralguidelineswhosefunctionwasto
indicatetothenewbelieversthatadifferentlifestylewasnowexpectedofthem(1Thess.4:112).Heexpectedthemtoworkoutforthemselveswhatsuch
incarnationofthegospelmeantinpractice.

Themajorityofhisconvertsacceptedthechallenge,somewithgreaterenthusiasmthanothers,andPaulintervenedtorefinetheirperceptionofwhatthefollowingof
Christdemandedonlywhenhesawthatmistakeswerebeingmade.Believersmadethedecisionsheactedasasoundingboard.TheGalatiansalonerejectedthe
challenge.TothemthefewdirectivesPaulgave(Gal.5:21)58werebutfeebleflickeringflameswhich,ratherthanilluminating,servedonlytoaccentuatethe
surroundingdarkness,whichhidamyriadoflandmines.Toputafootwrongmeantdeath.WithunusualinsightBetzwrote,

TheGalatianshadbeengiventheSpiritandfreedom,buttheywerelefttothatSpiritandfreedom.Therewasnolawtotellthemwhatwasrightorwrong.Therewerenomore
ritualstocorrecttransgressions.Underthesecircumstancestheirdailylifecametobeadanceonatightrope.59

Tothosefrightenedbyfreedom,andparalysedbyincertitude,theLawappearedablessing.Itwasabalancingpolepermittingthoseonthetightropetoadvance
confidently.Its613preceptswereamultitudeoftallsteadyflames,whichdissipatedthedarknesscompletely.Theburdenandthepain,itseemedtosomeinGalatia,
wereasmallpricetopayforthesecurityofferedbytheLaw.
56
(1985),3213.ThereferencesinroundbracketsareinMartyn'stext.Ihaveaddedthoseinsquarebrackets.Forasimilarreconstruction,seeMatera(1992),711.
57
TheonlyreallyfantasticalelementistheassumptionthatpeasantsdwellingintheinteriorofAsiaMinorwouldbefamiliarwithboat,compass,rudder,andanchor.
58
SeeLongenecker(1990),258.
59
(1979),9.

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Paul'sResponse.

OnhislongjourneyacrossAsiaMinor,afterhisbreakwiththechurchatAntioch,Paulhadtimetoreflectonhisalteredsituationandonthechangessweepingthrough
thechurchesinJudaea.Itisunlikelythathespenthistimeformulatingcontingencyplanstodealwithsimilarproblemsinhisowncommunities.HisJewishconverts
werefewinnumber,anditwouldhavebeenreasonabletothinkthatthefurtherwesthewentthelesslikelytheyweretobeinfluencedbytheJewishnationalismwhich
hadworkedtohisadvantageinJerusalem,buttohisdisadvantageinAntioch.TheeasthadsurrenderedtothosewithadifferentvisionofChristianity,butthewest
washis.Itisunlikely,therefore,thatonhissecondvisithesaidanythingtotheGalatiansaboutwhathadtakenplacesincehispreviousstayamongthem.Onthe
contrary,heprobablyinsistedontheunityoftheChristianmovementandthereciprocityofitsvariouspartsinordertodisposetheGalatianstocontributetothe
collectionforthepoorofJerusalem(1Cor.16:1).

ItiseasytoimaginetheshockproducedonPaulbythetotallyunexpectedinformationthatpeoplefromAntiochwerebentontakingoverhisfoundationsinGalatia,
andthathisconvertswereprovingreceptivetoatotallydifferentvisionofChristianity.Thesenseofbewilderment(Gal.5:7),almostofdespair(Gal.4:11),comes
throughveryclearlyinhisresponse,butthedominantemotionisrestrainedanger.Thecontrastbetweenthevenemousblusterof2Corinthians1013andthecold
furyofGalatiansisstriking.InbothcasesJudaizersaretheproblem,butPaul'sbitterdisappointmentwiththeCorinthiansfindsreliefinrecrimination,whereasin
Galatiansitischannelledintoanargumentoficyprecision.

Onemighthaveexpectedtheoppositetobethecase,sincecontrolcomeswithageandexperience.TheCorinthians,however,haddisappointedPaulmanytimes.
Whateverprovokedtheoutburstof2Corinthians1013wasthelaststraw.Moreover,itcamejustatthemomentwhentheApostlethoughtthathewasfreeof
maintenance,andcouldreturntofoundingnewchurches.WhenhewroteGalatians,PaulhadexperiencedmisunderstandingonthepartoftheThessalonians,butthat
wasanaccident,andhewasnotthetargetofanypersonalanimosity.ThedeliberateoppositionrevealedbythereportfromGalatiawasanentirelydifferentmatter.
AndtherewastheveryrealpossibilitythatitwouldbesystematicallyextendedtotheotherchurcheshehadfoundedundertheaegisofAntioch.Paulrealizedthathis
credibilitywasatstake.Hisgospelwasthreatened.Hiswholefuturewasendangered.

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AComplexStrategy

ItwascleartoPaulthatthesituationwasmuchtooseriousforanoutburstwhichwouldonlyservetorelievehisfeelings.Toventhisspleenonalreadybewildered
Galatianswouldplayintothehandsofhisadversariesexpostulationisoftenasignofguilt(cf.2Cor.11:711).Herealizedthathehadtoproduceacarefullycrafted
responsetoeachdetailoftheargumentsurgedagainsthim.ItwasnotmerelyaquestionofreassuringtheGalatiansthathisgospelwasthetruth.Theintruderswere
stillinGalatia(Gal.1:75:10),60anditwasmuchmoreimportanttopersuadethemthattheirperspectiveonthegospelwasnotatallaswellfoundedasthey
imagined.

AlthoughaddressedtotheGalatians(Gal.1:23:1),thelettercouldnotbekeptfromtheintruders,particularlyifitwasreadinpublic(cf.Col.4:16),andPaulwas
certainlyawareofthis.Infactitbecamethebasisofhisstrategy.InevitablyhespeaksdirectlytotheGalatians,buttheintrudersareitsrealaudience.61Iftheir
presenceinGalatiawasbutthefirststepinaneffortbyAntiochtorecoverwhatitconsidereditsdaughterchurches,Paulcouldnotcontenthimselfwithdealingwith
thesymptomsbydetachingtheGalatiansfromtheJudaizers.Hehadtogototherootoftheproblembydevelopingalongtermsolution.Theonlywaytodeterany
furtheradvanceintohisterritory,andtosecurepermanentlythefutureoftheGalatianswastounderminetheconvictionsoftheJudaizers.Thushemadethecrucial
decisiontofocusontheJudaizers,leavingtheGalatiansinthebackground.Therecoveryofthelatterwastobeabyproductofthedefeatoftheformer.

PaulcouldnothaveexpectedtheGalatians,whowereconvertsfrompaganism(Gal.4:8),tograsptheforceofargumentswhichdependedonadetailedknowledge
ofJewishtradition.62Suchcarefullycalculatedthrustsweredesignedtothrowtheintrudersintodisarray.Theensuingconsternation,Paulhoped,wouldbethemost
persuasiveargumentasfarastheGalatianswereconcerned.HecountedonreestablishinghisauthorityamongthembyreducingtheJudaizerstosilence.Ofcourse,if
theGalatianscaughtthedriftofhisarguments,somuchthebetter.Moreover,hisevocationoftheirconversionexperiencekepttheminthepicture.Theycould
understandthethrustofsuch
60
E.Burton(1921),25.
61
ThispointisgenerallyignoredintreatmentsofGal.,andmeansthatnoconclusionscanbedrawnfromtheletterregardingthecultureoftheGalatians(againstBetz(1979),2),which
issometimesinvokedbypartisansoftheSouthGalatiahypothesis.
62
TothosewhogratuitouslyassumethattheGalatianswereGodfearers,IcanonlyrecommendreadingthedesperateeffortofLightfoot(1910),911,toprovethattherewereJewsin
northernGalatia.Betz(1979),5,referstoJewishtombstonesintheinnerpartsofAnatolia,butgivesneitherdatenorlocation.Mitchell(1993),2.317,showsthatJewishcommunities
existedonthewesternandsouthernfringesofPhrygia,butnotinGalatia.

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anappeal,butsocouldtheintruders,whoseconversiontoChristianitywasinnowayrelatedtotheLaw.

ThesophisticationofthisapproachtoadangerouslyvolatilesituationbothconfirmswhatwassaidaboveregardingthedetailedinformationthatPaulhadofhis
opponents'arguments,andatthesametimeunderlineshismentalcapacityandintellectualformation.Onlysomeonetotallyconvincedofthequalityofhisrhetorical
ability,andliteraryskill,wouldhaveattemptedtocarryoutsuchadelicatestrategybyletter.Itwouldhavebeenmucheasierinperson.IfPauldidnottakethislatter
option,itcanonlybebecausesomethingmadeavisittoGalatiaimpossible(Gal.4:20).PerhapsthemoveswhichledtohisimprisonmentinEphesushadalready
beguninwhichcaseflightmightbetakenasevidenceofguilt.OrtheremayhavebeensensitiveproblemswithintheEphesiancommunity,aboutwhichwehavehints
inPhilippians,63andwhichmadeitnecessaryforhimtostaythere.

ADivineCommission

TheattackonhispersonalstatusasamissionaryforcedPaultogiveformtoreflections,whichmusthavebeenmaturingsinceheleftAntioch.Heknewthestrengthof
hisopponents'case.HehadinfactacceptedacommissionfromtheAntiocheanchurch,andhisparticipationinitsdelegationtoJerusalem(Gal.2:110)wasatleast
implicitrecognitionoftheauthorityofthemotherchurch.Nowitbecameimperativeforhimtojustifytheindependence,whichhadbeenthrustuponhimbythe
changesatAntioch.

AtacticalmistakeonthepartoftheintrudersmadePaul'saboutfacealittleeasier.InordertostrengthentheirpositiontheyhadinsistedonPaul'sdependenceon
Jerusalemwhich,theyclaimed,wasthesourceoftheauthenticgospel.ThingswouldhavebeenverydifferenthadtheydweltonthelongassociationofPaulwiththe
churchofAntioch.Notonlyhadhelivedthereforconsiderableperiods,buthehadbeencooptedintomissionaryworkbyBarnabas.Itwouldhavebeenimpossible
forPaul,whoinsistedsostronglyontheimportanceofcommunity,todenyhavingbelongedtoAntioch.Andsuchbelonging,fromhisperspective,implied
dependence.

Itwasrelativelyeasy,however,forPaultodocumenthowlittletimehehadinfactspentinJerusalemasaChristian.Theitalicizedwordsareimportantbecause,of
course,hehadspentsometentofifteenyearsthereasaPharisee.64IftheJudaizershadnotmentionedthis,Paulwasnotgoingtocomplicatemattersbybringingitup.
Thesituationdemandedacertaineconomywiththetruth.Anditwasabasicrhetoricalrule,withrespecttothestatementoffactsinaspeechforthedefence,that
whileanythingthatmightbedisadvantageousto
63
SeeCh.9,OppositionatEphesus.
64
SeeCh.3,PharisaicStudies.

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65
thedefendantshouldnotbeomitted,itdidnothavetobeemphasized. ThusasregardshisfirstcontactswithChristiansPaulspeaksonlyofhavingpersecutedthe
churchofGod(Gal.1:13)andthechurchesofChristinJudaea(Gal.1:22).TheHolyCityisnotmentioned.

SubsequenttohisconversionPaulhadmadeonlytwovisitstoJerusalem,bothverybrief.Somethreeyearsafterhisconversion,hehadspentfifteendaysin
Jerusalem,andhiscontactshadbeenlimitedtoCephasandJames(Gal.1:1719).Thesecondwasfourteenyearslater(Gal.2:1).SyriaandCilicia(Gal.1:21)are
mentionedashismissionfieldsintheinterval,butweknowthathewentmuchfurther.66InthissilencewecatchaglimpseofPaul'srhetoricalskill.Quintilianhad
advisedorators,Wheneveraconclusiongivesasufficientlyclearideaofthepremisses,wemustbecontentwithhavinggivenahintwhichwillenableouraudienceto
understandwhatwehaveleftunsaid.67ItispreciselybecausePaulhadbeentotheGalatians,andwasheadingwestwhenheleftthem,thathecouldaffordnotto
mentionhismovements.Suchdiscretionwouldhavemadehispresentationallthemoreconvincing,becauseitbetrayedaconfidencethatcarrieditsownpersuasive
power.Tohavegivendetailswhich,fromthepointofviewoftheGalatians,wereunnecessary,mighthavecreatedanimpressionofanxiety.Theassumptionofshared
knowledgeflatteredhisreaders.

AlthoughnothinghadbeensaidabouthisrelationshiptothechurchofAntioch,Paulhadtopreempttheoptionbyassertingfromtheoutsetthathisapostolicmandate
didnotcomefrommenorthroughaman(Gal.1:1).Hiscommissiondidnotderivefromanycommunity,norfromanychurchleader,butcamedirectlyfromJesus
Christ,whoseauthoritywasguaranteedbyhisresurrection.TheunstatedimplicationwasthatJesusalonehadtherighttojudgewhetherPaulwasafaithfulenvoy.The
miraculouscharacterofPaul'sconversionwasnotsomethingthathisopponentscoulddenytheGalatianswereawarethathisfirstcontactswithChristianshadbeen
asapersecutor(Gal.1:13).

ButhisopponentscouldassertthatforthecontentofhisgospelhewasdependentontheChristiantraditionmostauthoritativelyrepresentedbyJerusalem.Foreseeing
thisobjection,Paulinsistedthatthegospelpreachedbymeisnotworkedoutbyman68forIdidnotreceiveitfromanyonenorwasItaughtit,butitcamethrougha
revelationofJesusChrist(Gal.1:11).HereitwouldbeeasytochargePaulwithbeingsomewhatlessthanhonest,becausehehadlearntmuchfromtheChristian
communitiesofDamascus,Jerusalem,and
65
Quintilian,InstitutioOratoria4.2.101.
66
SeeCh.1,GalatiaandaJourneyintoEurope.
67
InstitutioOratoria4.2.41.
68
InPaul'slexiconaccordingtoman(Rom.3:51Cor.3:39:815:32Gal.3:15)istheantithesisofaccordingtoGod(Rom.8:272Cor.7:911Eph.4:24),andevokesfallen
humanity.

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Antiochinwhichhehadlived.Hewasthinking,however,ofthecoreofhislawfreegospelwhich,aswehaveseen,floweddirectlyfromtherearrangementofhisideas
causedbyhisencounterwiththeRisenLord.69WhatheabsorbedfrombelieversinDamascus,Jerusalem,andAntiochwassothoroughlysiftedthroughhismental
filtersthatitbecamemerelytheconfirmationandelaborationofhisintenselypersonalfundamentalinsight.

ItisdoubtfulthatPaulwasconsciousoftheselectivityoperativeinhisappropriationoftheembryonicChristiantradition.Thatwhichharmonizedwithhisperspective
wasintegrated,butthatwhichdidnotfitwasignoredwithoutbeingrepudiated.Thus,forexample,atthebeginning,hehadnoobjectiontoJewishconvertscontinuing
toobservetheLaweveninhisowncommunities.Hewascontentaslongastheydidnotimposeitonconvertsfrompaganism.Itwasmuchlaterwhenherecognized
thedangersofthisunreflectingconcession,andonlythendidherepudiateit.

NotunnaturallyPaulgotareputationforbeingerratic,whichsurprisedandangeredhim.Hewasconsistent,however,onlyinwhathepositivelychosefromthe
Christiantraditionwhatheacceptedorpermitted,howeverimportantitmightbetoothers,wastohimirrelevantandimpliednocommitmentonhispart.Hisfocuson
whatheconsideredtheessentialwasfromanotherangletunnelvision.Whathesawwasclearbutseverelylimited.Theobscureperipheryeverretaineditscapacityto
surprisehim.

TheLivingChrist

IntheThessaloniancorrespondencePaulhadnotgonebeyondthetraditionalformulationsconcerningthesavingdeathofJesusandhisanticipatedreturninglory.In
Galatians,onthecontrary,wefindthebeginningsofhisdistinctiveChristology.HisneedtodeveloparesponsetotheprominencegiventoAbrahambytheJudaizers
forcedhimtoreflectmoredeeplyonJesusChrist.Paulhadalwaysrecognizedhimasthedivinelyappointedagentofsalvation,butnowheisforcedtoexploreJesus'
individualhumanity,aquestwhichledhimtounexpectedinsightsregardingthenatureoftheChristiancommunity.

TheintrudershadconcededtheMessianiccharacterofJesus.HisinaugurationoftheeschatonwasthejustificationoftheirmissiontoGentiles.AlthoughJewstookit
forgrantedthattheMessiahwouldbeahumanbeing,70hisattributesandachievementswerenotthoseofanordinaryman.71Thestressonuniversaldominion,for
example,couldeasilybemisunderstoodasaccordinghimdivinestature.Paul,inconsequence,hadtoensurethattheGalatians
69
SeeCh.4,RecognizingtheRisenLord.
70
Mowinckel(1959),285,323.
71
SeeinparticularthePsalmsofSolomon17and18,andthecommentsofMowinckel(1959),31121.

 Page204

understood,andthattheintruderswerereminded,thatJesuswasbornofwoman(Gal.4:4),thestandardJewishexpressiontoindicateanormalmemberofthe
humanrace.72

ThedimensionofJesus'lifethatPaulhighlightsishispistis.InthisepistlementionismadeofpistisIsouChristou(2:163:22cf.Rom.3:22),ofpistisChristou
(2:16cf.Phil.3:9),andofpististouhyioutoutheou(2:20)inRomanswefindpistisIsou(3:26).Theproblemsofinterpretationaremanifestbecausepistiscan
meanbelieforfidelity/faithfulness,andthegenitiveofJesuscanbeeitherobjectiveorsubjective.TheoldercommentatorstookitforgrantedthatPaulintended
beliefcoupledwithanobjectivegenitive(faithinChrist)butfromthebeginningofthetwentiethcenturyeminentvoiceshavebeenraisedinfavourofthesubjective
genitive(Christ'sfaith).73

ThepolarizeddebatehasbeengivenanewdimensionbytheobservationsofS.K.Williams,
First,inthesefourtexts(Rom.3:22Gal.2:163:22Phil.3:9),eachinstanceofpistisChristouoccursinaprepositionalphraseindicatingmeansorbasis.Second,eachofthese
prepositionalphrasesexpressesthemeansbywhichGodeffectssalvation.Third,itisstrikingthatineachcasewefind,inadditiontoe k(ordia)pistes[Isou]Christou,
anotherwordorphrasewhichrefersexplicitlytothebeliever'sfaith.74

Theimplicationoftheseobservationsisthatthefaith/fidelityofChrist75isevoked,notinandforitself,butbecauseitisboththecauseandexemplarofthethe
faith/fidelityofChristians.Theiractivecommitmentisbothenabledby,andmodelledon,thatofChrist.

ExplicitconfirmationofthisinterpretationisfurnishedbyaliteraltranslationofGalatians2:20,IhavebeencrucifiedwithChrist.ItisnolongerIwholive,butChrist
wholivesinme,andthelifeIliveinthefleshIlivebyfaith,thatoftheSonofGod,wholovedmeandgavehimselfforme.Thistextalsoallowsustogoastep
furtherbecauseitidentifiesthepistisofChristasloveexpressedinselfsacrificeforothers76thisisfaithworkingthroughlove(Gal.5:6).Themagnitudeofthelove
isrevealedbytheformoftheselfsacrifice,thehorribledeathbycrucifixion.Thatlove,however,isnotmerelyafactitisthepowerwherebyPaulhasbeenraised
fromdeathtolife.

Christ'sselfgivingisthecreativeact,whichistheessenceofauthentichumanity.Paulalreadyhasinmindathoughthewillformulateonlysometime
72
Job14:115:1425:4Matt.11:111QH13:141QS11:21.ThereisnoevidencethatPauleverenvisagedthedivinityofChristseemy(1982b),5869.
73
Whencombined,thebibliographiesofLongenecker(1990),87,andMatera(1992),104,coverthesignificantworks.
74
(1987),443.
75
Matera(1992),1001,hasacutelyobservedthatthegenitivesinGal.2:16arepointlessunlesstheyareintendedtobesubjective,andnotedthestrictparallelismbetweenekpistes
Christou(Gal.2:163:22Rom.3:26)andekpistesAbraam(Rom.4:16)whichiscertainlysubjective.
76
Theandinwholovedmeandgavehimselfformeisexplanatory(BDF442[9]).

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later,withoutloveIamnothing(1Cor.13:2).CreativeloveiswhatmakesapersonbothhumanandChristianitisthelawofthebeliever'sbeing.ThencePaulis
ledtotheconclusionthatthelawisChrist,Bearoneanother'sburdensandsofulfilthelawofChrist(Gal.6:2).77Christ'scomportmentexemplifiesauthentic
behaviour.ThisisthetrueanswertotheGalatians'question:howdoweknowwhattodo?

ThelifeofChristrevealedtoPaulthattheoneessentialcommandoftheLawistoloveone'sneighbour(Gal.5:14).Thus,inoppositiontotheintruders,whosawthe
MessiahasaffirmingandinterpretingtheLaw,andtherebysubordinatinghimselftoit,PaulsawtheLawassubsumedinChrist.Theperfectionofhislove(Gal.2:20)
wasallthattheLawcouldpossiblydemand.Christ,then,wastheLawinthemostradicalsense.AtonestrokePaulreplacesobediencebyfaith/fidelity,andinsteadof
describingfaith/fidelity,whichriskedcreatinganewLaw,heillustrateditbythebehaviourofChrist.Itwasuptoeachbelievertodiscernhowinanygivensetof
circumstancesthecreative,selfsacrificinglovedemonstratedbyChristshouldbegivenreality.

OnlyinthisperspectivecanweunderstandwhatPaulmeanswhenhesaysIlivenow,notI,butChristlivesinme(Gal.2:20).Theegocentricityofdeathhasbeen
replacedbythecreativealtruismoflife.NotonlyishisnewbeingcreatedbyChrist,buthiscomportmentismodelledonthatofChrist.Intheactofloving,Paulis
Christ,insofarashemakespresentintheworldtheessenceofChrist'sbeing.Butthisistrueofallcommittedbelievers.Hence,theyaretogetherChrist.Theyhave
putonChristandareonepersoninChristJesus(Gal.3:278).InoppositiontothoseundertheLaw,whoacquireafunctionalunitythroughobedienceto
commandments,theChristiancommunityisanorganicunityitsmembersaretheintegralpartsofalivingbeing(Gal.5:4).

InthisinsightwehavetheseedsoftwofurtherdevelopmentsinPaul'sChristology,thegivingofthenameChristtothisnewrealitythebelievingcommunity(e.g.1
Cor.6:15),andtheclarificationofitsnatureasthebodyofChrist(e.g.1Cor.12:12).Itwilltakeanothercrisis,however,toforcethemtothesurfaceofhismind.
InPaul'scharacteracertainintellectuallethargywastheenemyofprogressivelogic.Heneverpursuedalineofthoughtforitsownsake.Hefunctionedmost
effectivelyinreaction,butonlytothelimitoftheconcreteproblem.Hehadatenaciousmind,however,andwasinstinctivelyconsistent.Eachnewproblem,in
consequence,stimulatedgreaterprofundityitdidnotleadtofragmentation.HisChristologygrewasacoherentwhole,andwhatatfirstmightappeartobeadhoc
solutionscanalwaysbetracedbacktobasicinterrelatedinsights.78
77
Ontheproblemsofthistext,seeCh.6,PastoralInstruction.
78
Barrett(1994),56,asserts:BeyondtheoccasionalismofPaul'stheologythereisarealunityhereactstocircumstancesspontaneously,buthedoesnotreactatrandomhereacts
inaccordancewithprinciples,seldomstatedassuchbutdetectable.

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FaithandLaw

Aswehaveseen,theargumentoftheJudaizingintruderswasessentiallyareviewofthehistoryofsalvationstartingwithAbrahamandmovingviahiscovenantand
circumcisiontothecentralityoftheLaw.ThestorywasnotonlyfamiliartoPaul,itwasthefoundingnarrativeofhispeople.HisacceptanceofChrist,however,
enabledhimtoseeitfromanewanddifferentperspective.HenowknewthatthetruestorywasthelifeofChrist.Allthathadgonebeforewasmerelyapreface.
GiventhedirectnessofPaul'scharacter,wecanbesurethatinhispreachingheignoredthepreparatorystagesinordertoconcentrateontheessential,therevelation
broughtbyChrist.Itismostunlikely,therefore,thathehadworkedoutanalternativeversionofthehistoryofsalvation,whichhecouldnowproduceinorderto
countertheintruders.

ThefundamentalinsightwhichenabledPaultobegintounraveltheapparentlyseamlessargumentofhisadversariescamefromtheobservationthattheGalatianshad
beengracedbytheSpiritandhadexperiencedthepowerofGodsimplybecausetheyhadacceptedPaul'spreaching.79ThisdemonstratedtheirrelevanceoftheLaw,
ofwhosedemandstheGalatiansheardonlylongaftertheirconversion(Gal.3:15).ItalsodirectedPaul'sattentiontothefactthat,inpreciselythesameway(Gal.3:
6),AbrahamhadrespondedtoGod'swordandhadbeenblessedforit(Gen.12:1215:1).Thisactoffaithwasthebasisofallthatfollowed,firstthecovenant
(Gen.15:18)andthentheadditionalrequirementofcircumcision(Gen.17:10).Faith,therefore,isfundamental,andallelseissecondary(Gal.3:11).

Havingestablishedfaith,notobediencetotheLaw,astheessentialcharacteristicofAbraham,Paultakesupthequestionofhisdescendants,onwhichtheintruders
hadlaidsomuchweight.CapitalizingonthefactthatthesingulartotheseedisusedinthepromisetoAbraham(Gen.13:1517:78),PaulidentifiesChristasthe
descendantofAbraham(Gal.3:16).Hence,itisthosewhoareofChristwhoarebroughtintobeingbyhim,andwhoreproducehisfaith/fidelityintheir
comportmentwhoarethegenuinedescendantsofAbraham(Gal.3:269).Theintruders,ofcourse,correctlyunderstoodseedasacollective,butPaul'sboldand
unprecedentedinsistenceontakingthesingularliterallycutthegroundfromunderthem.Itisaperfectdebater'sargument,simple,unambiguous,impossibletorefute.
AndifpressedPaulcouldalwaysallowthecollectivesense,becauseheknewittobeverifiedbythosewhohadputonChrist!

Suchlegalisticaggressivity,whichunconsiouslyrevealssomethingofthequalityofPaul'seducation,isaccentuatedbyhistreatmentofcircumcision.
79
Theenigmatichearingoffaithisprimarilyahearingwhichculminatesinfaith.WhileinAntiochtheintrudershadlistenedtothesamewordsthattheGalatiansheardbut
reactedverydifferently.Seemy(1964),21722,andWilliams(1989).

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WithmagnificentaplombhesimplyignoresthefactthatAbrahamhadbeencircumcised(Gen.17:23),anddeflectsattentionfromtheproblembyspeakingofthe
circumcision(Gal.2:79).ThisunprecedentedwayofreferringtotheJewishpeople80hadtwoadvantages.Itcausedtherecipientstofocusonthepresentrather
thanonthepast,andcapitalizedontherepugnancewithwhichtheGrecoRomanworldviewedcircumcision.

Thenotionofcovenantcouldnotbedismissedquitesoeasily,notleastbecausethewordsthiscupisthenewcovenantinmyblood(1Cor.11:25)werepartofthe
eucharisticliturgy,whichPaulhadinheritedfromAntioch,andwhichhehadpassedontotheGalatians.Theintrudersexploitedtheintrinsicconnectionbetween
covenantandLaw,andinsistedthatanewcovenantcarriedtheconnotationofanewlaw.TheycouldclaimthesupportofJeremiah,ThisisthecovenantwhichIwill
makewiththehouseofIsraelafterthosedays,saystheLord:Iwillputmylawwithinthem,andIwillwriteitupontheirhearts,andIwillbetheirGodandtheywillbe
mypeople(31:33).TheinternalizationoftheLaw,intheviewoftheintruders,implieditscontinuingvalidity.

SincePaulcouldnotrejectoutrighttheconceptofanewcovenanthehadtoensurethatitcouldnotbeusedasapremissinthewaytheintrudersfoundsoconvenient.
Whathedidwastodivorcelawfromcovenantinanintellectualtourdeforce,whichhighlightstheextraordinaryflexibilityandpowerofhismind.

First,heassociatescovenantwithfreedom.ChristiansarethechildrenoftheJerusalemabove(Gal.4:26),whichisidentifiedwithSara,andthusbelongtothe
covenantofthefreewoman(Gal.4:31).ThisistheantithesisofthecovenantoftheslavewomanassociatedwithMountSinai(immediatelyevocativeoftheLaw),
andwiththepresentJerusalem(Gal.4:225).ThiscovenantoffreedomisthecovenantofAbraham(Gal.3:17)which,Paulinsists,isessentiallypromise(Gal.3:16
18,214:28)notlegislation.

Secondly,PaulpointsoutthatcovenantandLawarenotindissolublylinked.TheLawcannothavebeenpartofGod'soriginalplanbecauseitappearedonly430
yearsafterthecovenant/promise(Gal.3:17).Moreover,theLawwasordained,notbyGod,butbyangels(Gal.3:19).Henceitcannotmodifyinanywaythe
covenant/testamentdrawnupbyGod.Finally,theLawdoesnotenjoythepermanencyofthecovenant/promise,becauseitwasgivenonlyforalimitedtime(Gal.3:
19).ItsroleceasedoncethepromisetoAbrahamhadbeenfulfilledinChrist(Gal.3:14).Believers,inconsequence,couldseethemselvesaspartnersinanew
covenantwithoutinanywaybeingboundbytheLaw.81
80
OutsidethePaulinecorpusitisfoundonlyinActs10:45and11:2.
81
Paul'sapproachtothesameproblemofcovenantandLawin2Cor.isatoncesimplerandmoreelegant.Withthematurityofgreaterexperiencehemakesaneatdistinction.God
qualifiedustobeministersofanewcovenantnotoftheletterbutofthespirit(2Cor.3:6).Mostcommenta

(Footnotecontinuedonnextpage)

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SetFreeforFreedom

AfeatureofthevocabularyofGalatiansisthefrequencyofslave(1:103:284:1)anditscognatestoperformthedutiesofaslave(4:8,9,255:13),to
enslave(4:3),andslavery(4:245:1).PreviouslyPaulhadusedonlythefirstverb,andtheninthesenseoffreelychosenserviceofGod(1Thess.1:9).The
irruptionofslavelanguageintohislexiconwhendealingwiththecrisisinGalatiaisrelatednodoubttohisawarenessoftheconstraintimposedbytheLaw(Gal.2:
23),butthisisnotthewholeexplanation.TheLawwasnottheonlyslavemaster.ItservedasthetriggerwhichbroughtintofocusPaul'sexperienceasatraveller.82
Societyitselfimposedacertaincomportmentonitsmembers,whichPaulknewtobeinimicaltoauthentichumandevelopment.Herecalledthetimeswhenhewas
obligedtobehaveselfishlymerelyinordertosurviveandrealizedthattheGalatianshadbeensubjecttothesamepressures.

Inordertoconveythisideatothemaseconomicallyaspossible,hesaidthattheyhadbeenenslavedtotastoicheiatoukosmou(Gal.4:3,9).Unfortunatelyhe
wastoosparingwithwords.ThevarietyoftranslationsoftheGreekformulatheelementalspiritsoftheworld(NRSV),theelementalprinciplesofthis
world(NJB),theelementsoftheworld(NAB)highlightstheinconclusivecharacterofthedebate,whichisduetothefactthatninediversemeaningsareattested
forstoicheon.83DunnisprobablycorrectinseeingthephraseasPaul'swayofreferringtothecommonunderstandingofthetimethathumanbeingslivedtheirlives
undertheinfluenceorswayofprimalandcosmicforces.84Therealquestionhoweveris:howdidtheyexperiencesuchpressure?Evidently,throughthecircumstances
oftheirdailylives.WhatPaulwantedtogetacrosswasthatsocietyinitsmostbasicelements,theverystructureofsociety,wasoppressive.

HeusesthesameenigmaticformulatwiceinColossians,andtheretheallusiontosocietyismadeunambiguousbytheappositionofhumantradition(Col.2:8)and
belongingtotheworld(Col.2:20).BythetimehecomestowritetotheRomanshewillexpressthesameideabysayingthatall,bothJewsandGreeks,areunder
thepowerofSin(Rom.3:9).Inallcasesheisthinkingof

(Footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

tors,perhapsundertheinfluenceofRom.7:6,understandhimtobereferringtoaoldcovenantoftheletterandanewcovenantofthespirit(e.g.Furnish(1984),199Klauck
(1986),37Westerholm(1988),212).Grammatically,however,notoftheletterbutofthespiritqualifiesnewcovenant(sorightlyWindisch(1924),110).Paulisnotdistinguishing
betweenanoldandanewcovenant,butbetweentwotypesofnewcovenant,onecharacterizedbyletter,theotherbyspirit.Ineffectheissayingwearenotletterministers
butspiritministersofthenewcovenant(Plummer(1915),88).Letterministers,ofcourse,aretheJudaizers,whoinpracticereducethenewcovenanttotheoldcovenant.
82
SeeCh.4,DangersontheRoad.
83
Blinzler(1963).
84
(1993),213.

 Page209
85
thetotalcontrolovertheindividualexercisedbythefalsevaluesystemofsociety.

OnesuchfalsevaluewastheblindobediencetheJewsgavetheLaw.Justasthoselivinginpollutedenvironmentshavenoalternativebuttobreatheintoxins,sothose
bornintotheworldareautomaticallyinfectedbyitsattitudesandstandards,itsrootprinciples.Theycannomoreofferoppositionthanwoodchipstossedintoafast
flowingriver.Pauldeliberatelyevokesenslavementinordertounderlinethatnoresistanceispossible.Theechosofhisownexperience,bothreligiousandsecular,are
unmistakable.

FreedombecomesarealityonlyinChrist,namely,inandthroughtheChristiancommunity.ButPaulwasnotsonaveastobelievethatthedeeplyingrainedhabitsof
alifetimewereautomaticallyeradicatedbytheactofconversion.Muchmorethannominalmembershipwasnecessary.ThushewarnstheGalatiansthatifthevictory
ofthedesiresofthespiritoverthedesiresoftheflesh(Gal.5:17)isavictoryonlyinprinciple,thentheirfreedomwillexistsolelyintheory.Onlythosewhohavein
factcrucifiedthefleshwithitspassionsanddesiresbelongtoChristJesus(Gal.5:24).Inotherwords,theGalatianshaveonlybeensetfreeforfreedom(Gal.5:
1).86Apossibilityhasbeenofferedthemitisuptothemtomakeitreal.How?

Paul'sanswerisunambiguous.Youhavebeencalledtofreedomonlydonotuseyourfreedomasanopportunityfortheflesh,butthroughlovebeservantsofone
another(Gal.5:13).Thechoiceistheirs.Iftheirbehaviourreflectstheegocentricityoftheworksoftheflesh(Gal.5:1921),theyacceptagaintheyokeof
slavery(Gal.5:1).Freeserviceofothersinlove,onthecontrary,istheonlyauthenticresponsetothesummonstofreedomwhatthisinvolvedinpracticeisoutlined
inGalatians5:223.

HerewecatchaglimpseoftheprincipleunderlyingPaul'sunderstandingofenslavementandfreedom.Whatpromotescommunitygeneratesfreedom,whereaswhat
militatesagainstcommunitydestroysfreedom.Inthelastanalysis,therefore,freedomisapropertyofthecommunity,notapossessionoftheindividual.Onlythose
believerswhobelongtoanauthenticcommunityarefree.Thosewhobelongtoanominalcommunityarenot.Theonlyprotectionagainsttheallpervasivepowerof
thefalsevaluesystemoftheworldisaffordedbythesupportandinspirationofferedbythelivedauthenticvaluesoffellowChristians.

Painfulastheexperiencemusthavebeen,thecrisisprovokedbytheJudaizingintrudersinGalatiawasofcrucialsignificanceinPaul'sintellectual
85
Formoredetail,seeCh.13,Sin,LawandDeath.
86
E.Burton(1921),271,translatesWiththisfreedomChristsetusfreetherebybetrayinghisdesiretoseefreedomasagiftratherthanasanachievement.Actsofsacral
manumissionrevealthedativetobepurposeful,forfreedomsoBetz(1979),2556Barrett(1985),55Longenecker(1990),224.

 Page210

development.InreactiontotheprominencegivenAbraham,Paulwasobligedtoexploremoreprofoundlythaneverbeforethefaith/fidelityofChrist,anditsrelationto
thatofChristians.ThisledhimtoacriticalnewinsightintotherelationshipbetweenChristandthebelievingcommunity.Reflectionontheconstraintimposedbythe
LawbroughttomindthepressuresofsocietyandobligedhimtodefinemoreclearlythanhithertothedifferencebetweenlifeintheworldandlifeintheChristian
church.Forthefirsttimehegraspedthenatureofauthenticfreedom.

InGalatianstheseseminalideasappearintheirembryonicform.Theirformulationisnotasclearasonewouldwish,anditappearsthatPaulisnotfullyawareoftheir
implications.Fortunatelytherewouldbeothercrisestostimulatetheirexploitation.

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9
PartnershipatPhilippi
PhilippiwasthefirstEuropeancitytobeevangelizedbyPaul.1HearrivedthereinthelatesummerorearlyautumnofAD48,havingtrampedacrosswesternTurkey
fromGalatia.2HisshipfromTroasdockedatNeapolis,modernKavalla(Acts16:11).AccordingtoLuke,Pauldidnotspendanytimeinthisportcity,butcontinued
inlandtoPhilippi(Acts16:12).3ThisisconfirmedbyPaul'shintthathisfirstconvertscamefromPhilippi(Phil.4:15).

GivenPaul'ssubsequentpreferenceforcoastalcities,notablyCorinthandEphesus,hishastetomoveinlandissurprising.Atthispointinhiscareer,however,hehad
notrealizedthathewouldhavetokeepintouchwithhisfoundations.Heunderstoodhismissionassimpleevangelization,toplantthegospelandmarchonthe
wateringoftheseedwasnothisresponsibility(1Cor.1:17a).Itwasonlytwoyearslater,whenhearrivedinCorinthandwasforcedtoconcernhimselfwiththe
affairsofthechurchatThessalonica,4thathebecameawarethatfacilityofcommunicationshadtobeacriticalfactorinthechoiceofamissionarybase.

Philippi

ThemostdetailedancientdescriptionofPhilippiisthatofAppian:

PhilippiisacitythatwasformerlycalledDatus,andbeforethatCrenides,becausetherearemanyspringsbubblingaroundahillthere.Philip[IIof
1
ThewordEuropeisfirstattestedinthe7thcent.BCHomericHymntoApollo,andbythe5thcent.BCithadbecomethenameofoneofthethreegreatterritorialdivisionsofthe
ancientworld,theothersbeingAsiaandLibya(=Africa).AccordingtoHerodotus,ThePersiansclaimAsiafortheirown,andtheforeignnationsthatdwellinit.Europeandthe
Greekracetheyholdtobeseparatefromthem(1.4).AppianplacesthemainpassfromEuropetoAsia4kmsnorthofPhilippi(CivilWars4.106trans.White),butthewater
barrieroftheHellespontandBosphorusisamuchmorenaturallineofdivision(Pliny,NH5.141Philo,Leg.adGaium281).
2
SeeCh.1,PriortoAD51.
3
Thedistanceisgivenas12RomanmilesbytheAntoniniItinerariumandas10RomanmilesbytheBordeauxPilgrim.
4
Seeabove,Ch.5.

 Page212

Macedonin356BC]fortifieditbecauseheconsidereditanexcellentstrongholdagainsttheThracians,andnameditfromhimself,Philippi.Itissituatedonaprecipitoushillandits
sizeisexactlythatofthesummitofthehill.TherearewoodsonthenorththroughwhichRhascupolisledthearmyofBrutusandCassius.Onthesouthisamarshextendingtothe
sea.OntheeastarethegorgesoftheSapaeansandCorpileans,andthewestaveryfertileandbeautifulplain.Theplainslopeddownwardsothatmovementiseasytothose
descendingfromPhilippi,buttoilsometothosegoingupfromAmphipolis.ThereisanotherhillnotfarfromPhilippiwhichiscalledtheHillofDionysus,inwhicharegoldmines
calledtheAsyla.(CivilWars4.1056trans.White)5

ThisdescriptionsetsthesceneforthebattleofPhilippiin42BC,whenOctavianandAntonydefeatedBrutusandCassius,andaccuratelyreflectstheexcellentquality
ofAppian'ssources.Theconstructionc.130BCoftheViaEgnatia,thegreatRomanroadrunningacrossnorthernGreecefromtheAdriaticSeatoNeapolis,had
broughtnogreatprosperitytoPhilippi.Thingschanged,however,afterthebattle.MorespacewasnecessarytoaccommodatetheRomanveteranssettledthereby
MarkAntony.Thetownspilleddownthemountainsidetowardstheswampylandsurroundingthelake.6CoinsattestitsstatusasacolonywiththetitleAntoniIussu
ColoniaVictrixPhilippensium.7AfurtherinfluxtookplaceafterOctavian'sdefeatofAntonyin31BC.AccordingtoDioCassius,Byevictingthosecommunitiesin
ItalywhichhadtakenAntony'sside,Octavianwasabletosettlehissoldiersbothintheircitiesandonthelandsofhisopponents.Hecompensatedmostofthosewho
hadbeenpenalizedinthiswaybyallowingthemtosettleinDyrrachium,Philippi,andelsewhere(RomanHistory51.4.6trans.ScottKilvert).

ThereaftertheofficialtitleofthecolonybecameColoniaIuliaAugustaPhilipp(i)ensis.8ThesettlersnaturallyretainedtheirprivilegesasRomancitizens,andPhilippi
enjoyedtheIusItalicum.9ItwasasifthecityhadbeentransferredtothesoilofItalyitsresidentswerenotsubjecttoprovinciallandandpersonaltaxes,andintheory
atleastwereindependentofthegovernoroftheprovinceofMacedonia.10

Thecitywasthecivicandadministrativecentreofanareaofsome2,100sq.km.(730sq.miles).11Thevastmajorityofthesettlerslivedontheirland,butthecity
wasthemarketfortheirproduce,andthesourceofservicesandmanu
5
GoodmapsaregiveninSchmidt(1938),2210,2218.
6
SeetheplaninFinley(1977),176.
7
Schmidt(1938),2233.
8
Ibid.2234.
9
Justinian,DigestofRomanLaw,1.16.67.
10
vonPremerstein(1917).
11
Papazoglou(1982)withmap2inPortefaix(1988).TheonlyvariantofActs16:12whichcorrespondstohistoricalrealityistheWesternText,whichidentifiesPhilippiasacityofthe
firstdistrictofMacedonia,acolony.ThecapitalofthefirstdistrictwasAmphipolis(Livy,HistoryofRome45.29.9).SeeJ.J.Taylor(1994b),2445.

 Page213

facturedgoods.Asitexpanded,facilitiesincreased,andthecitybecameamoreattractivestoppingplaceforthosetravellingontheViaEgnatia.Increased
opportunitiesdrewinnonRomanimmigrantsfromGreeceandfurthereast.

Asthetongueofthedominantclass,Latinwastheofficiallanguagethroughoutthecityandcolony.Greek,ofcourse,continuedtobeusedbytheindigenous
population.TherelationshipofthetwoisveryaptlyillustratedbyPaul'suseofPhilippesioi(Phil.4:15),whichisderivedfromtheLatinPhilippenses,ratherthanthe
moreauthenticallyGreekformsPhilippeisorPhilippnoi.12ARomanveneerhadbeenappliedtoapopulationthatremainedessentiallyeastern.Moreover,manyof
thecolonists,andcertainlytheirdescendants,wouldhaveknownatleastsomeGreek.13

ThegreatpreponderanceofLatininofficialinscriptionsonlyservestohighlightthefactthatGreekisthelanguageofhalfoftheinscriptionspertainingtotheworshipof
theEgyptiangods,whoenjoyedtheonlyrealtempleontheslopesoftheacropolis.Itsdevoteeswerebetteroffthanothers,whocouldnotaffordthesamequalityof
construction.AquarrynearthebaseofthehillhousedwoodensanctuariesoftheRomandeitiesSilvanusandDiana,andtheeasternMagnaMater.Scatteredoverthe
acropolisare187rockcutreliefsofratherpoorworkmanship.ThefigureofDianapredominates,buttheThracianrider,MagnaMater,Isis,JupiterandMinervaare
alsorepresented.TheRomanstatereligiondominatedtheareasouthoftheViaEgnatia.TheemperorandtheCapitolinetriadwereveneratedthereinadditionto
DianaandMercury.14

TheFoundingoftheChurch

TheabundanceofevidenceforthereligiouspreferencesofthepaganpopulationofPhilippimakestheabsenceofanyarchaeologicalorepigraphichintofaJewish
presencesignificant.Luke'ssourceevokesaplaceofprayeroutsidethecityneararivertowhichPaulandhiscompanionswentonthesabbath(Acts16:13).The
implicationthatitwasaJewishplaceofworshipcannotbedenied.Thetermplaceofprayerdoesnotexcludeabuilding,15butneitherdoesitnecessarilyimplyone.
TheknownfirstcenturyDiasporasynagogues,however,areallwithincities,16asonemighthaveexpected,sinceJewshadalegalrighttoaplaceofworship.Ifthey
weretoofewtobuildasynagogue,aroominoneoftheirhouseswouldbetheobviousplacetomeetfor
12
Ramsay(1899),116.
13
Itshouldalsobekeptinmindthat,ifRomanboysstudiedHomeratschool(Pliny,Letter2.14.2Quintilian,InstitutioOratoria,1.8.5),theirsistersfeltthataknowledgeofGreek
addedtotheirattractiveness(Juvenal,Satires6.18499),
14
Excellentsurveysofthearchaeologicalandepigraphicdata,withfullreferencestothesources,areprovidedbyPortefaix(1988),702,andHendrix(1992a),316.
15
SoJ.J.Taylor(1994b),247.
16
Kraabel(1979).

 Page214

studyandprayer.Moreover,noJewsarementionedamongPaul'sconverts.LydiaisexplicitlyidentifiedasaGentile(Acts16:14)andthesamemustbesaidofthe
jailer(Acts16:301).Finally,thegroupwhomPaulfoundassembleddidnotcontainanymen.Luke'ssourcementionsonlywomen(Acts16:13),oneofwhom,
Lydia,isidentifiedasaworshipperofGod.Inotherwords,shewasaGodfearer,apaganwhoassociatedherselfwithJudaismbutwithoutbecomingaformal
convert.17SinceaJewishpresenceinherhometown,ThyatirainAsia,isapparentlyattested,18itisnotnecessarytoassumethatshewasattractedbyaJewish
communityinPhilippi.

Inordertoaccountforthesedata,itisnecessaryonlytoassumethattheplaceofprayerserved,notJewishresidentsofPhilippi,butJewishtravellersontheVia
Egnatia,whohappenedtobeinthecityonthesabbath.Lydiaherselfhadcomefromafar.IntheabsenceoftransientJews,localGodfearersgatheredthere,and
perhapsJewishwomenmarriedtopagans.AccordingtoLuke'ssource,itwasamongthisgroupthatPaulmadehisfirstconverts.Someconfirmationisprovidedby
theletterswhichattesttheprominenceoftwopaganladies,EuodiaandSyntyche,whoexpectedrecognitionfortheircontributiontotheevangelizationofthecity(Phil.
4:23seebelow).

ThetraditionhistoryofthematerialcontainedinLuke'sdetailedaccountofPaul'sexperiencesinPhilippi(Acts16:1340)iscomplex.19Thenarrativeoftheencounter
withthemagistrates,however,anditsconsequences(beating,imprisonment,apology),belongstoafirstclasssource,indeedaneyewitnessaccount[whose]details
arehistoricallyexact.20Moreover,itisconfirmedbytheletters.InwritingtotheThessaloniansPaulmentionsthatheandhiscompanionshadalreadysufferedand
beenshamefullytreated(hybristhentes)atPhilippi(1Thess.2:2).TheverbhybrizisperfectlyapttodescribethepunishmentofaRomancitizenwithouteventhe
semblanceofatrial.TherecanbenoseriousdoubtthatPhilippiwasoneoftheplaceswherePaulwasimprisonedandbeatenwithrods(2Cor.11:235).

ThedisagreeableepisodeendswiththedepartureofPaulfromPhilippi(Acts16:40).Howlonghadhespentthere?ThisisonequestionwhichLukedoesnot
answer.HaenchenrightlyrefusesanyrealvaluetothetwochronologicalindicationsinActs.21Theinitialallusiontosomedays(16:12)probablyreferstothetime
betweenthearrivalofthemissionariesandthesabbath.Thesubsequentmentionofmanydays(16:18)ismerelyaningredientinLuke'sstorytellingtechnique.
Thereissomething,however,inLuke'saccountwhichsuggestsamorerealisticsolution.

WhatconcernedthosewhodraggedPaulbeforethemagistrateswastheloss
17
Seemy(1992c).
18
Schrer(197387),3.19.
19
SeeBoismardandLamouille(1990),2.288933.21423.
20
J.J.Taylor(1994b),253.
21
(1971),4945.

 Page215

oftheirlivelihood,butwhattheysaidincourtwasThesemenaredisturbingourcitytheyareJewsandareadvocatingcustomsthatarenotlawfulforusasRomans
toadoptorobserve(Acts16:201).Thediscrepancypermitsustoseparatethetheoccasionfromthecharge.Itispossibletorefrainfromjudgementonthe
exorcism,whileatthesametimeaccordingthechargeserioushistoricalprobability.22

Loisy'sinterpretationofthecharge,23asimplyingamissionaryeffortofconsiderabledurationandsuccess,isconfirmedbyPaul'scorrespondencewithPhilippi.The
lettersrevealawellorganized,generouscommunity,withtheenergytosupportPaul'smissionaryendeavourselsewhere(Phil.4:1516).InnootherletterdoesPaul
singleoutwomenwhohavelabouredsidebysidewithmeinthegospel(Phil.4:3).Nowhereelsedoeshethankachurch,whoseveryexistenceisaholdingforth
ofthewordoflife(Phil.2:16),foritspartnershipinthegospel(Phil.1:5).WhattheseallusionsimplyabouttherelationshipofthebelieverstotheApostle,andtheir
livedembodimentofauthenticallyChristianvalues,couldnothavebeenachievedinabriefvisit.24

Wemustassume,inconsequence,thatPaulspentatleastthewinterofAD4849inPhilippiwherehemadeconvertsamongpagans.Itisentirelypossiblethathis
staytherewascutshortbythesortofeventreportedbyLuke'ssource.EventhoughtherewasnoorganizedJewishproselytizationinthefirstcentury,25sufficient
RomanshadbeenattractedtoJudaismthatTiberiusinAD19felthimselfobligedtoreactagainstthephenomenonbyexpellingthemajorityofJewsfromRome.26The
exampleoftheEternalCitywouldcarryweightinaRomancolony.

ASeriesofLetters.

TheNewTestamentcontainsonlyonecanonicallettertoPhilippi,butfromthebeginningsofcriticalstudyoftheNewTestament,seriousdoubtsaboutitsintegrity
havebeenvoiced.Somecommentatorsdistinguishtwoletters.Themajoritydetectthreeletters.Buttherealwayshavebeenthosewhomaintaintheunityoftheepistle.
ThehistoryofthedebatehasbeensummarizedatlengthbyB.Mengel,27butmorethoroughlybyD.E.Garland.28Theonlynewargumenttoappearsubsequentlyhas
beenthethesisthatPhilippiansexhibitstherhetoricalschemaandsomustbealiteraryunity.29Obviouslythehistorical
22
SorightlyHaenchen(1971),496n.5.
23
(1920),639.
24
SimilarlyHawthorn(1983),p.xxxv.
25
Seemy(1992a)andWillandOrrieux(1992).
26
Fordetails,seeSmallwood(1981),2029.
27
(1982).
28
(1985).
29
D.F.Watson(1988)Bloomquist(1993).

 Page216

reconstructionofPaul'srelationswithPhilippichangesradicallyifthereisaseriesoflettersratherthanasinglecommunication.Hence,someattentionmustbedevoted
tothisproblem.

Methodologically,literaryunityisapresumption.Itcannotbeprovedwithoutthedirectwitnessoftheauthor.Thepresumption,however,canbeoverturnedby
argumentswhoseeffectistoshowthatparticularcombinationsareinthemselvesimprobableorincompatiblewithagivenauthor'sstyleandapproach.Inhisletters
Paulregularlybeginswithwhatisuppermostinhismind,e.g.thebackslidingoftheGalatians(Gal.1:6),thefactionsatCorinth(1Cor.1:10).InPhilippians,
however,weencountertheexactopposite.

AnAmbivalentExpressionofGratitude

Paul'sgratitudeforthefinancialassistanceofthePhilippiansappearsonlyin4:1020,attheveryendoftheletter.Effortshavebeenmadetointerpret1:5and2:30
asexpressionsofthanks.30Itiscleartoanysensitivereader,however,thattheseallusionsratherpresumethattheprecisenatureoftheservicehasalreadybeen
acknowledged.IfthePhilippianshadnotbeenthankedpreviously,itisinconceivablethattheirfinancialaidshouldnothavebeenmentionedin2:2530.Moreover,
thehypothesisthat4:1020belongstothelettercarriedbyEpaphroditusonhisreturntoPhilippiinvolvestheunacceptableassumptionthatPauldidnotavailhimself
ofthemessengers,whobroughtthenewsofEpaphroditus'illnessbacktohiscommunity(2:26),tothankthePhilippiansfortheirgift.Allofthesedifficultiesdisappear
ifPhilippians4:1020wasoriginallyanindependentletter,andthefirstaddressedbyPaultothePhilippians.ForthisreasonIcallitLetterA.

TheonecluetothedatingofLetterAisitsselfconscious,defensivetone.AtfirstsightthisissurprisingbecausePaulwasusedtoreceivingaidfromthePhilippians
theyhadassistedhimfinanciallymorethanonceatThessalonica(Phil.4:16),andsubsequentlyatCorinth(2Cor.11:9).Ifhefoundthegestureoffensive,hehadhad
manyopportunitiestoensurethatitwasnotrepeated.Paul'sembarassmentbecomesunderstandableifthegiftcameatatimewhentherewasdangerthatitmightbe
misinterpreted.ThisconditionwasverifiedonlyafterhehadbeguntopreachthecollectionforthepoorofJerusalem.Atthatpointacceptanceofapersonalgiftcould
appearasifhewereappropriatingfundsgivenforanotherpurpose.ItbecameimportanttoemphasizethathehadnotsolicitedfundsfromthePhilippians(Phil.4:17),
andthatheneedednothingmore(4:18).LetterA,inconsequence,mustbedatedaftertheJerusalemassembly.

ThereisnoneedtoassumethatPaulwasunderarrestwhenhewroteLetter
30
Garland(1985),153.Contrasttheuseofthetechnicalformulahereismyreceiptforeverythingin4:18(Hawthorn(1983),206).

 Page217
31
A. HehadnotbeenimprisonedwhenhebenefitedbyprevioussubsidiesfromPhilippi.OfallhisfoundationsthePhilippiansalonehadtheinsighttorecognizethat
Paul'seffortstobefinanciallyindependentwerenotentirelysuccessfuland,whentheywereinapositiontoassemblesomesurpluscash,theysentittohimnomatter
wherehewas.InthepresentinstancewemustassumethatPaulhadinformedPhilippi,andtheotherEuropeanchurches,wherehewastobefoundincasehewas
needed.

ThefactthatPaulreceivedmoneyonafairlyregularbasisfromPhilippiimpliessomeorganization.Thechurchtheremusthavedelegatedresponsibilityforthe
collectionandtransmissionoffundstocertainmembersofthecommunity.Inallprobabilitytheseindividualsweretheepiskopoikaidiakonoisupervisorsand
assistantswhoarementionedintheaddress(Phil.1:1),whichmayhavebelongedtoanyorallofthethreeletters.32WithregardtoitsleadershipstructurePhilippi
wasexactlythesameastheotherPaulinechurches.Pauldidnotselectleaders.Heexpectedthemtoemergefromthecommunityastheirgiftswereexpressedin
service.WhathesaystothePhilippians,Markthosewhosoliveasyouhaveanexampleinus(3:17),echoeswhathehadwrittentotheThessalonians(1Thess.5:
12),andanticipateswhathewoulddirecttheCorinthianstodo(1Cor.16:1518).

OtherchurcheslookeduptoPaulastheirfounder,andtreasuredhisletters,butdidnotsendhimfinancialassistance.Thiswasnotbecausetheylackedresources.
TheadjectiveallantiquityappliedtoCorinthwaswealthy,33andEphesuswasnotfarbehind.Unlesswearetoassumethatsuchcommunitieswerenotanimatedby
aChristianspirit,thegenerosityofthePhilippianscannotbeexplainedmerelybyfraternalcharity.Iftheygavedespitetheirpoverty(2Cor.8:1),itmusthavebeenfor
somethingoverandabovetheiraffectionforPaul.ThereasonsuggestedbyPhilippiansistheapostolicspiritofthechurchatPhilippi.IfPaulgivesthanksfortheir
partnershipinthegospel(Phil.1:5cf.1:7),itmustbebecausethePhilippiansactivelyparticipatedintheevangelizationoftheircity(cf.Phil.4:3).

Veryquicklytheybecameawareofthedrainontheirtimeandenergytheystillhadtoearnaliving.Yettheywereinamuchbetterpositionthanamissionarylike
Paul.Theyhadremunerativeoccupationswithanestablishedclienteleandastablenetworkoffamilyandfriends.AnewcityofferedPaulnoguaranteeof
employment.Hewasalwaysthevulnerableoutsider,operating
31
AmistakemadebyGarland(1985),152,inordertocreateaspuriousobjection,WhywouldPaulspinoffathankyounote,adankeloseDankatthat,andnotexplainhis
personalsituationthathadarousedthePhilippians'concerninthefirstplaceandhadpromptedthemtodispatchEpaphrodituswiththeirgift?
32
EpiscoposisusedofthoseentrustedwithfiscalsupervisionseeLSJ.IntheEssenewritingsoneoftheresponsibilitiesoftheoverseerwastocollectanddistributecharitable
funds(CD14.1216).
33
Homer,Iliad2.570Strabo,Geography8.6.20.

 Page218

withoutanycushionofconnections.Onthebasisoftheirownexperience,thePhilippiansrecognizedthatifPaulwastoliveasanapostleheneededtobesubsidized.

OncehehadtheopportunitytoreflectontheimplicationsofhisgenerousgestureatthemeetinginJerusalem(Gal.2:10),Paulquicklyrealizedthatalifewhichhad
neverbeeneasywasgoingtobecomemuchmoredifficult.TheexperienceofhisfirstjourneyintoEuropehadtaughthimthat,asthedemandsofhisministrybecame
morepressing,thelesstimehehadtoearnhisliving,andthemoredependenthewouldbecomeongiftsfromothers.Nowthathewascommittedtorequestingfunds
tobeheldintrustforJerusalem,itbecameimperativeforhimtodeviseawaywhichwouldmakeclearthathewasnotusingforhisownneedsmoneygivenforthe
pooroftheHolyCity.Paul,itwillberecalled,livedinaworldinwhicheveryofficialstolefromthepublicpursequestionswereraisedonlywhentheytooktoo
much.34Taxcollectorswerehatedbecauseonlyapercentageofwhattheyexactedwentforitsostensiblepurpose(cf.Luke3:1213).

NodoubtPaulconsideredandrejectedanumberofdifferentplansasheploddedacrossAsiaMinor.BythetimehereachedGalatia,however,hehadasatisfactory
answer,whichhesubsequentlyrepeatedtotheCorinthians:
Nowconcerningthecontributionforthesaints.AsIdirectedthechurchesofGalatia,soyoualsoaretodo.Onthefirstdayofeveryweek,eachofyouistoputsomethingaside
andstoreitup,ashemayprosper,sothatcontributionsneednotbemadewhenIcome.AndwhenIarrive,Iwillsendthosewhomyouaccreditbylettertocarryyourgiftto
Jerusalem.IfitseemsadvisablethatIshouldgoalso,theywillaccompanyme.(1Cor.16:14)

Thisstrategyhadseveraladvantages.Weeklysavingswerecertaintoproduceagreatersumthananyonecouldcontributeatshortnotice.Paulwasnotresponsiblefor
safeguardingfundsentrustedtohim,andsohismobilitywasnotimpaired.Oncethecontributionswereassembled,theyweretheresponsibilityofrepresentativesof
thedonors.PaulhimselfwasinvolvedwiththetransmissionofthegifttoJerusalemonlytotheextentthathisaccompanyingletteridentifiedthegiftasthefulfilmentof
hispromisetothethreePillars(Gal.2:10).

Despitesuchprecautions,however,withinayearorsorumoursspreadbyPaul'senemiessmearedhisreputationatCorinth.35Theunsolicitedpersonalgiftfrom
PhilippimayhaveprovidedthemwiththeopportunitytoinjectanoteofdistrustintoPaul'smonetaryarrangements.
34
Narcissus,theSecretary,andPallas,theTreasurer,wereabletoacquiresuchriches,byillegitimatemeans,thatwhenonedayClaudiuscomplainedhowlittlecashwasleftin
theimperialtreasury,someoneansweredneatlythathewouldhaveheapsofpocketmoneyifonlyhistwofreedmentookhimintopartnership(Suetonius,Claudius28trans.
Graves).
35
SeeCh.12,FinancialAssistance.

 Page219

TwoFurtherLetters

ThematerialremainingaftertheabstractionofLetterA,namely,Philippians1:14:9,isnotaliteraryunity.Itfallsintotwopartseachwithadifferentatmosphereand
concern.In1:28Paul'sattitudetowardsathreattothecommunityatPhilippiisoneofcalmsuperiority.Butthesneeringtoneofthedeliberatelyinsultingcommentsin
3:2and19conveysahintofdesperation.Manifestlyonedangerismuchmoreseriousthantheother.

InthelatterinstancethecommunityismenacedbyJudaizationtheallusionstomutilation(3:2)andtothestomachasthematterofultimateconcern(theirgodistheir
belly,3:19)unambiguouslyevokecircumcisionandJewishdietarylaws,respectively.WhenconfrontedbyJudaizers,hereaselsewhere(e.g.Gal.3:1),Paul'sfearis
thathisconvertswillbeseducedfromthetruefaith.Themethodofalienationevokedin1:28,however,involvesthreats,andorforce,orboth,anapproachwhich
mightfrightenthePhilippians.Paulevidentlyisthinkingintermsofpersecutionbypagans.

Whenassociatedwiththesetwocontrasts,anargumentfromsilencegainsweight.Paulmentionshisimprisonmentin1:7,13,andafurtherreferencewouldbe
perfectlyinplaceintheevocationofhissufferingsin3:811.Theabsenceofanyhintmightsuggestthatch.3waswrittenafterPaul'srelease.

IfwecallLetterBthesectionofPhilippiansinwhichanimprisonedPauliscomplacentregardingtheeffectofpaganpersecution,andLetterCthesectioninwhichhe
fearsJudaizinginfiltration,wheredobothbeginandend?

Philippians3:1isthekeytotheanswer.ThewordsFortherest,mybrethren,farewellintheLordinthefirstpartoftheversearecloselyparalleledby2Corinthians
13:11,Fortherest,brethren,farewell,whichistheconclusionto2Corinthians1013.Thesecondpartoftheversereads,Towritethesamethingstoyouisnot
irksometome,andissafeforyou(3:1b).SomecommentatorsunderstandthesamethingsasanallusiontoPaul'srepetitionoftheprecedingexhortation.36But
howcouldsuchreiterationcontributetothePhilippianssafety?HencethesamethingsmustrefertowhatPaulisgoingtowrite.Innoway,however,does3:2ff.
repeatanythinginchs.12.Theonlyalternativetouncontrollablehypothesesoforalorlostinstructions,istolookforwardtotheadmonitionaddressedtoEuodiaand
Syntychein4:2,fortherePaulrepeatsinamorespecificformthepleasforunityin1:27and2:24.37ThepartisanshipandvainambitionwhichPauldeprecatesin2:
3haveaspecificapplicationinthecaseofthesetwowomen.38Hemayhavehopedthattheywouldrecognizethegeneralpleasasdirectedtothem,butatthelast
moment
36
e.g.Hawthorn(1983),124.
37
Beare(1969),102.
38
SorightlyBeare(1969),143.

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39
hedecidedthatitwouldbesafertobeexplicit. Hence,LetterBconsistsofPhilippians1:13:1and4:29,whileLetterCismadeupof3:2to4:1.

TheLetterfromPrison

Mostunusually,LetterBtellsusmoreaboutPaul'ssituationinEphesusthanitdoesaboutthePhilippians.ThisiscertainlyareflectionoftheclosenessofPaul's
relationshipwiththechurchatPhilippiandthequalityofitscommunitylife.Itsufferedtheminorcrisestypicalofagrowing,vitalcommunity,buttherewerenoserious
problems,andingreatparthecouldwriteforthepleasureofmaintainingcontact.

FromthewayPaulintroducesthetopic(1:7,12),itwouldappearthatthePhilippiansalreadyknewthathehadbeenimprisoned.Hisfocusisontheimpactofhis
incarceration,bothasregardstheChristiancommunityandthosewithwhomhecameintocontactwhileinprison.Heisheldwhileunderinvestigationinthe
praetorium(1:13),theofficialresidenceofthegovernorofAsia,andinwhichhealsoexercisedhisjuridicalfunctions.40SincethecapitaloftheAttalidkingshadbeen
Pergamum,itseemslikelythatthiswasoneofthenewedificeserectedbyAugustus.41

Theformofdetentionwasentirelyatthediscretionofthemagistrate,whosedecisionwasdeterminednotonlybyhisownpersonalityandthenatureofthecase,but
particularlybythedegreeofinfluencetheprisonerandhisfriendscouldbringtobear.Thetreatmentaccordedtherich,particularlyintheirowncity,differed
significantlyfromthatmetedouttothepoorandstrangers.42HisplaceofdetentionidentifiesPaulasoneofthelatter.EventhoughPhilippians1:13usesbondsinthe
senseofimprisonment,whichconformedtocontemporaryusage,43itisvirtuallycertainthattheexpressionshouldbetakenliterally.44Whatpreciselythisinvolvedis
amatterofspeculation.Paulmayhavebeenchainedtoasoldier(cf.Acts28:16,20),ortothewallofhiscell,orhemayhavebeenforcedtowearhandcuffsorleg
irons.

Althoughhismovementswerehampered,theconditionsunderwhichPaul
39
ThishypothesisisanadaptationofthehypothesisofFurnish(1963)thatPauloriginallyintendedthebearerofthelettertodeliverthereprimandorally.
40
Onthedifferentsensesofpraitorion,seeinparticularBenoit(1952),5326.
41
Seeabove,Ch.7,TheCity.
42
PowerfulfriendsofthefutureAgrippaImanagedtoensurethatthesoldierswhokepthimshouldbeofagentlenature,andthatthecenturionwhowasoverthem,andwastoeat
withhim,shouldbeofthesamedisposition,andthathemighthaveleavetobathehimselfeveryday,andthathisfreedmenandfriendsmightcometohim,andthatotherthingsthat
tendedtoeasehimmightbeindulgedhim(Josephus,AF18.203trans.WhistonandMargoliouth).
43
Mommsen(1955),300.Bondscoveredbothchainsandfetters(cf.Mark5:4Luke8:29).Thecognatemeansprisoner(Philem.9).Paul'ssituationcannotbeidentifiedasaform
ofhousearrestseeMommsen(1955),217.
44
Ibid.301.

 Page221

wasimprisonedinEphesuscannothavebeentoosevere.Hewasnotplacedinsolitaryconfinement.Hecouldcommunicatewithhiscollaborators,whowereheld
withhim(Phil.2:19Philem.23Col.4:10).OneofthemmayhaveservedasthesecretaryheneededtowritetheletterstoPhilippi,Colossae,andPhilemon,butthe
factthatoutsiderssuchasEpaphrodituswereabletovisithimandreceivecommissionsfromhim(Phil.2:25)leavesopenthepossibilitythathehadaccesstoa
professionalsecretary.

DealingwiththePossibilityofBeingExecuted

Pauladmits,however,thatatonestagehehadtofacethepossibilitythathewouldbeexecuted(Phil.1:205).Likeallhiscontemporariesheknewthatthearbitrary
abuseofauthoritywasrestrainedonlybythefearofreprisals.AsanoutsiderlackinganyhighlevellocalsupportinEphesus,therewasnowayhecouldcreate
difficultiesfortheproconsulofAsia.Paulconfessesthatdeathgreatlyappealedtohim,notbecausehewastiredoflifeorafraidofsuffering,butbecauseitwould
meanunionwithChrist.

QuiteclearlyPaulisthinkingintermsofconsciouspersonalfellowshipwithChrist.In1Thessalonians4:1617,however,hehadsaidthatthedeadwouldberestored
tolife,andwouldbewiththeLord,onlyattheSecondComing.IfhenowthoughtthattherewouldbenodelayinfullcommunionwithChrist,wouldnotthe
resurrectionbesuperfluous?Paulwouldhavebeenshockedatsuchaconclusion(Phil.3:201).Theinconsistencyderives,notfromachangeofposition,butfromthe
factthat,whilethehumanmindcanenvisageitsownannihilation,itcannotconceiveofaninterruptioninitsexistence.Hencetheparadoxthatinordertobenefitby
resurrectiononemustcontinuetoexistotherwiseitwouldbethecreationofanentirelynewbeing.45

SpeculationonhowPaulconceivedthesocalledintermediatestateispointless.Intermsofunderstandinghispersonality,itismuchmorerevealingtonotethethrust
ofhisinternaldebate,whichpivotsontheconvictionthatwhatisbestintheoryisnotalwaystobechoseninpractice.TodieandbewithChrististhebestoption
absolutelyspeaking,butthatisnotanadequatebasisforadecision.TheneedsofthePhilippiansandothersmakeitimperativetochooselifeandstruggletoremain
inthefleshismorenecessaryonyouraccount(Phil.1:24).Inotherwords,thedecisivecriterioninPaul'smoraljudgementisnotwhetheracourseofactionisgood
orbadinitself,butwhetheritwillempowerorinjureone'sneighbour.Thiskeyinsight,derivedfromatensionfilledexperience,willplayacriticalroleinPaul's
correspondencewiththeCorinthians(cf.1Cor.8).
45
ThisiswhyeventhoseJewishtextswhichspeakmostexplicitlyofresurrectioncontainstatementswhichseemtoimplythecontradictorybeliefinimmortalityofthesoulsee
Cavallin(1974),199.

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TherecognitionthathewasstillneededperhapscontributedtoPaul'sconvictionthatdivineprovidencewouldensurereleaseinthenottoodistantfuture(Phil.2:24).
Hishopewasalsofedbytheawarenessthatallthoseinthepraetoriumwithwhomhecameincontactwereconvincedthathewasneitherarevolutionarynora
criminal(Phil.1:13).Itwouldnotbelong,heimagined,beforewordofhisinnocencefiltereduptothoseresponsibleforthedispositionofhiscase.

Assoonasheregainedhisfreedom,PaulplannedtomakeavisittoPhilippi(Phil.2:234).Thismayhavebeenconceivedasatactfulgesture,ortheremayhave
beenpastoralreasons.Inanycase,hehadtopreparefortheeventualitythatevenifhewereexonerated,hemightbeexpelledfromEphesus,ashehadbeenfrom
Philippi.Hewasnotacitizenwithlegallyguaranteedrights.AsaJewhehadanindirectlegalstatusinsofarashewasacceptedbythepoliteuma,theofficial
corporationrepresentingtheJewishcommunityvisvisthecivilauthorities.46Awordfromthelatter,ofcourse,wouldmakehimunwelcomeamonghisownpeople.

OppositionatEphesus

Asthingsturnedout,oncehewasfreedPaulwaspermittedtoremaininEphesus(1Corinthians16:8).HedidnotcarryouthisplantovisitPhilippi.Itwasstillonhis
calendarashisnextstopwhenhewrote1Cor.16:5,butasuddendeteriorationinthesituationinCorinthdemandedhispresencethere,anditwasonlyonhisway
backthroughMacedoniathathefinallyrevisitedPhilippi(2Cor.1:16).

ThereasonwhyPaulstayedoninEphesuswastheunhappysituationofthecommunitythere.Hisimprisonmenthadsplitthechurchintothreefactions(Phil.1:14
15).Onegroupwasfrightenedintosilence.ItsmemberspresumablywereconsideringwhetheritwaswisetoremainChristians.Themajority,however,becameeven
moreactivemissionaries.Thisgroupwasnothomogeneous.Thepreachingofonefaction,inPaul'sjudgement,wasinspiredbyenvy,rivalry,selfishambition,
insincerity,adesiretoinjurePaul,andembodiedanelementofpretence.Itwouldbedifficulttofindaharshercatalogue.Yethedoesnotaccusethemofpreaching
anotherJesus(cf.2Cor.11:4).Theproclamationoftheothers,onthecontrary,wasrootedingoodwillandlove,andwascharacterizedbytruth.

ThelattermakesitclearthatthedistinctionbetweenthetwogroupslayintheirrelationshiptoPaulnodoctrinaldifferenceisevenhintedat.Helikedonepartyand
reciprocatedthedislikeoftheother.Commentatorshavemadenoplausiblesuggestionsastotheidentityofthefactions,ortherootsoftheper
46
SeeSmallwood(1981),2256.

 Page223
47 48
sonalityconflict. Onebecomesapparent,however,onceitisrecalledthatPriscaandAquilahadbeenatworkinEphesusforayearbeforePaul'sarrival. Itisnot
unknownformembersofacommunitytoresenttheassumptionofauthoritybyalatecomer.49ThehistoryoftheEssenesprovidesaninstructiveparallel.The
movementsplit,whentheSadokitehighpriestdispossessedbyJonathanbecameamemberofthesectandtriedtoassumecontrol.50SimilarlywhenPaularrivedin
Ephesus,theremusthavebeensomewhodidnotwelcomehimwithopenarms.EventhoughhepresumablyhadbeenwarmlyrecommendedbyPriscaandAquila,
certainbelieverssawhimasanintruder.Whenhelandedingaol,theyweredelightedtobeinapositiontoshowhimthathewasinnowaynecessarytothelifeand
missionofthechurch.Ithadgrownwithouthiminthepastandcouldexpandwithouthiminthefuture.

GiventheextremelypositivewayhespeaksofPriscaandAquilasubsequently(Rom.16:34),itseemsimprobablethattheytookanypartintheoppositiontoPaul.51
NoraretheycoveredbytheblanketcriticismofthewholecommunityatEphesus(withtheexceptionofTimothy)asfundamentallyselfish.Theyalllookaftertheir
owninterestsnotthoseofJesusChrist(Phil.2:21).ThecontextlimitstheapplicabilityofthisapparentlyuniversalcriticismtotheissueofgoingtoPhilippi.52

HisforcedinactivitygavePaultheleisuretoworryaboutthefateofthePhilippians,whoweresufferingpersecution(Phil.1:28).Heseethedwithanxiety,and
desperatelyneededsomeonetogotoMacedonia,andtobringbackwordofthestateofthecommunity.Timothywaspreparedtoundertakethetask,butPaul
preferredtokeephisclosestcollaboratorwithhimuntilhisfateshouldbedecided(Phil.2:23).Therefusalofotherswasperhapsmotivatedbytherealizationthat
PaulcouldcommunicatewithPhilippiviathelettersentwithEpaphroditus(Phil.1:25),andthattheproblemstherewerenotsosevereastoneedtheadditional
presenceofatroubleshooter.Why,arguedEphesianbelievers,shouldtheyinterruptafruitfulmissionaryeffortintheirowncitysimplyinordertogratifyPaul'sdesire
forinformation?Onthecontrary,wasitnotselfishofhimtopreferhisownconsolationtothespreadofthegospel?Notunnaturally,Pauldidnotseethematterinthis
light!
47
Hawthorn(1983),378,noncommittallynotesanumberoffarfetchedhypotheses.
48
SeeCh.7,TheFoundingoftheChurch.
49
Withhiscustomaryinsight,Lohmeyer(1974),47,noted,Vonneuembesttigtsichdannhier,dasPaulusandemOrteseinerHaftnichtdieAutoritteinesBegrndersundLeiters
beanspruchen,sondernnurdieDistanzeinesZuschauerswahrenkann.Unfortunately,hesawitasanargumentinfavourofCaesarea.
50
Seemy(1985),23941.
51
SomethingsimilarhappenedatCorinthlater,wherePaulhadproblems,notwithApollos(1Cor.16:12),butwiththosewhoattachedthemselvestohim(1Cor.1:12).
52
SorightlyBeare(1969),97,followedbyHawthorn(1983),111.

 Page224
53
Paul'stantrumbetraysawilfulnessthatcouldnotbeartobethwarted. ThechildishnessoftheidentificationofhisneedswiththoseofChristneedsnoemphasis.
Werethereotheroutburstsofthistype,ashetriedtoestablishhisauthorityatEphesus,thenaturalreluctanceofthecommunitytoacceptanewcomerwouldbe
intensified,andtheoppositiondiscussedabovebecomesmoreexplicable.ThehostilitywhichPaulattractedwasnotentirelyduetohistheologicalpositions.Hisown
charactertraitswerealsoasignificantfactor.

TensionsatPhilippi

ThedegreeofPaul'sselfabsorptionatthispointinhiscareerisremarkable.Thatheshouldrevealhisfeelingssofranklytofriendsisunderstandable.ButLetterB
wasaddressedtoachurchthatwasitselfbedeviledbyaclashofpersonalities!

InotedabovethatthedirectiveDonotactoutofaspiritofrivalry,noroutofvainambition,butinhumilitycountothersbetterthanyourselves(Phil.2:3)hasa
specificapplicationtothedisputebetweenEuodiaandSyntyche(Phil.4:2).Bothoftheseladieshadparticipatedinthespreadofthegospel,theyfoughtatmyside
forthegospel(Phil.4:3),andevidentlyfeltthattheirtalentsanddevotionhadearnedthemanauthoritativeroleinthenascentchurch.Suchambitionwouldbe
irrelevantunlesstheybothhadsupporters.Itisnatural,therefore,tothinkthateachheadedahousechurch,asdidPhoebeatCenchreae(Rom.16:12).Their
competitiveattitudeengenderedadisruptivespirit,whichendangeredthefutureofthecommunity.

OnewonderswhatthePhilippiansmadeofPaul'scallforunityandreconciliation,whenheexhibitednothingbutcontemptforthoseatEphesuswhodisagreedwith
him?DidheperceivethathewassendingcontradictorymessageswhenhetoldthemDowhatyouhaveheardandseeninme(Phil.4:9)?Evenwhenherecognized
thathisdutywastoriseabovehurtfeelings,hecouldnotresistameanaside,Whatthen?Onlythatineveryway,whetherinpretenceorintruth,Christis
proclaimed.AndinthatIrejoice(Phil.1:18).Thesincerityofhispleasureisatleastopentoquestion.Ifherecognizedthatthepowerofthegospelwasderivedfrom
itseffectiveincarnationinthosewhopreachedit(1Thess.1:68Phil.2:1416),howcouldheevenadmitthepossibilitythatitcouldbeproclaimedwithfalse
motives,aspartofaplantohurtafellowbeliever?
53
AlthoughwrittenfromaperspectivewithwhichIdonotwhollyagree,thereismuchtruthinFortna(1990).

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ALiturgicalHymn

AfurtherindicationofPaul'sselfabsorptionishiscitationofamagnificentChristologicalhymn,whichisperhapsthemostdamningcondemnation,albeitimplicit,ofhis
egocentricattitude.

SincethebeginningofthetwentiethcenturyithasbeenrecognizedthattherhythmandformulationofPhilippians2:611makeitstandoutfromitspresentcontextin
theletter.SincePauldoesnotcrafthisparagraphswiththegreatcaredisplayedintheseverses,thereisawideconsensusthatheisquotingapreexistentdocument.
Itsidentificationasahymnisduetothedetectionofdifferentstrophes.Thereisagreatdealofdisagreementonthenumberofstrophes,54butIremainconvincedthat
athreestrophearrangementbestrespectstheformalelementsinthetext.55

I v.6a WhobeingintheformofGod

v.6b Didnotclaimgodlytreatment

v.7a Butheemptiedhimself

v.7b Takingtheformofaservant.

II v.7c Beingborninthelikenessofmen

v.8a Andbeingfoundinshapeasaman

v.8b Hehumbledhimself

v.8c Becomingobedientuntodeath.

III v.9a ThereforeGodsuperexaltedhim

v.9b Andgavehimthesupremename

v.10a SothatatJesus'nameeverykneeshouldbow

v.11a AndeverytongueconfessJesusChristisLord.

Theclarityofthepatternisitsownjustification.Somethingsoperfectdidnothappenaccidentally.Onlydeliberateintentionexplainsthestructuralbalanceofthefirst
twostrophes.ThedoublementionofGodinthefirststrophematchestherepeatedreferencetomaninthesecond.Inbothstrophesthethirdlinecontainstheverb
followedbyareflexivepronoun,whosemeaningisexplainedinthefourthline.Thehumiliationofthefirsttwostrophesgiveswaytoexaltationinthethird.Tothe
elevationofJesusinlineoneofthethirdstrophecorrespondsthesubmissionofhumanityinlinethree.ThenameconferredonJesusinlinetwoisproclaimedinline
four.

Noonewhogoestothetroubleofcreatingsuchaperfectarrangementwilldestroyit.Hence,theextrawordswhichappearintheletter,namely,deathona
cross(v.8c),inheaven,onearth,andundertheearth(v.10b),andtothegloryofGodtheFather(v.11b),musthavebeenaddedbyahandotherthan
54
AbriefsurveyisgivenbyHawthorn(1983),767.
55
Jeremias(1953)and(1963).

 Page226
56
thatoftheoriginalcomposer.Whosewasit?TheinsistenceonhighlightingthebrutalmodalityofChrist'sdeathpointstoPaul. Paul,therefore,notonlyquotesa
hymn,butadaptsittohisowntheologicalperspective.Originallythehymnmusthavebeentheinspiredcompositionofacharismaticbeliever(1Cor.14:26Col.3:
16),whichPaulsawasreflectingtoagreatextenthisvisionofChrist.Heacceptedwhatitsaid,butmadeexplicitwhathefeltwaslacking.

Wedonotknowinwhichcommunitythehymnoriginated,butinallprobabilityitwasonewhichhadbeenfoundedbyPaul.Thestrongemphasisonthedeliberate
choiceinvolvedintheselfsacrificeofChristheemptied/humbledhimselfreflectstheperspectiveofGalatians2:20,helovedmeandgavehimselfforme(cf.
Gal.1:4).TheinsistencethatChristbecameLordisechoedin1Corinthians15:45Romans1:34and14:9.ThehymngrewoutofPaulineteaching.

Inbiographicaltermstheimportanceofthehymnistwofold.IttellsussomethingaboutthewayPaulinteractedwithhiscommunities,anditrevealsacritical
developmentinhisunderstandingofthepersonofJesusChrist.

TheTeacherLearns

Paul'smessagewasalwaysverysimple.ThiscausedproblemsinGalatia,andwouldagainatCorinth.Hedidnotbelieveinaspeculativetheology.Allthatwas
necessary,inhiseyes,wastounderstandwhatChristhaddoneforusandtoactaccordingly.Whatthismeantinpracticewasamatterforeachcommunitytodecide.
HehadmadethiscleartotheGalatians,andsaysthesamethingtothePhilippiansworkoutyoursalvationinfearandtrembling,forGodisatworkinyou,bothto
willandtoworkforhisgoodpleasure(Phil.2:1213).ThedepthofPaul'sconvictionthatthelocalchurchshouldbeautonomousinitsdevelopmentisunderlinedby
hiswillingnesstolearnfromit,notonlybywayofchallengebut,asinthecaseofthehymn,bywayofformulation.Thehymngavedramatic,memorableformulationto
histhought,andheacknowledgeditpubliclybycitation.

Paul'sreflectiononthetangibleevidenceoftheactionoftheSpiritinsuchspiritualsongs(Col.3:16)culminatedultimatelyinhisvisionofthecommunityasaspiritual
temple(1Cor.3:16176:19),inwhichthepresenceofGodmadeitselfeffectivethroughavarietyofgifts(1Cor.1214).57
56
ThetraditionalmaterialdiscernedinthePaulinelettersmentionsonlythefactofthedeathofJesuswithoutspecifyingitsmodalityseeRom.1:344:258:341Cor.15:27Gal.
1:341Thess.1:10.

57
AnumberofscholarshavearguedthatPaulborrowedtheconceptofthecommunityasaspiritualtemplefromQumran.EarlierstudiesarereviewedandexpandedbyKlinzing(1971),
210.TheEssenes,however,derivedtheirconceptofaspiritualtemplefromthatofspiritualsacrifice(1QS8.599.35),whereasforPaulitwasadeductionfromtheindwellingofthe
Spirit.

 Page227

Paul'sAdoptionofanAdamicChristology.

TheChristologyofthehymnisfiercelydebated,andithasbeenmadetosaymanydifferentthingsaboutthepersonandroleofJesus.58Thereislittledoubtinmy
mind,however,thatitwasintendedtobereadagainstthebackgroundofthestoryofAdamasfilteredthroughthesapientialliterature.59

InGalatianstheJudaizers'stressonthefigureofAbrahamforcedPaultopenetratemoredeeplythanhithertointothemysteryofthepersonofJesusChrist.Thehymn
tookhimevenfurtherbackintothehistoryofsalvation.Paul'sadoptionofitsAdamicperspectiveonChristprovedtobeadecisivedevelopmentwhichwould
influenceallhissubsequentsoteriologicalteaching.60

Ifoneispreparedtocleavetotheessential,theinsightofthehymncanbesummarizedwithoutgreatdifficulty.Astherighteouspersonparexcellence,Christwasthe
perfectimageofGod.HewaswhatAdamshouldhavebeen,theinspiringillustrationofwhatGodintendedahumanbeingtobe.Christ'ssinlessnessgavehimtheright
tobetreatedasifhewereagod,thatis,toenjoytheincorruptibilityinwhichAdamwascreated.Thisright,however,hedidnotusetohisownadvantage.Onthe
contraryhegavehimselfovertotheconsequencesofamodeofexistenceinauguratedbyfallenAdam.Hefreelychosethelifeofaslavewhichinvolvedsufferingand
death,thestatewhichAdamexperiencedaspunishment.AlthoughinhishumannatureChristwasidenticalwithothermembersofthehumanrace,heinfactdiffered
fromthembecausehehadnoneedtobereconciledwithGod.Itwasthiswhichenabledhimtobecometheirsaviourthroughobedienceanddeath.ThereforeGod
exaltedhimaboveallthejustwhowerepromisedakingdom,andtransferredtohimthetitleandauthoritywhichpreviouslyhadbeenGod'salone.Hebecamethe
Lord,whomeveryvoicemustconfessandtowhomeverykneemustbow.

Thisisnottheplacetodetailthelighttheseinsightsthrowonthehumancondition,onthenatureofsalvation,andonChrist'ssalvificrole.Hereitmustsufficeto
indicatethebroadoutlinesofideaswhichPaulwilldevelopinsubsequentletters.61Thestateofhumanitywasnotsimplyagiven,butwasalivingoutofthe
consequencesofAdam'ssinitwasaradicallyunnaturalwayofbeing.SalvationwasthereacquisitionofAdamicidentityasportrayedbyJesusinhisrevelationof
loveastheessentialconstituentofauthentichumanity.
58
SeeMartin(1983).
59
Inadditiontomy(1976),seeDunn(1980),11321.
60
ItispossibletoreadGal.4:4asindicatingthatPaulwasalreadythinkingofChristinAdamicterms(soDunn(1980),41),butIdoubtthatanyonewouldthinkofdoingsowithout
themuchclearerindicationsinPhil.,1Cor.,andRom.
61
SeeDunn(1980),98128.

 Page228

TheLetterofWarning

LetterC(Phil.3:2to4:1)beginswithatripleimperativeblepete.Itisusuallytranslatedaslookoutfor(RSV),bewareof(NRSV,NAB),beonyourguard
against(Phillips).G.D.Kilpatrick,however,hasarguedthatwhenblepeinisusedinthissenseitisfollowedeitherbymwiththesubjunctiveorbyapowiththe
genitive.Herewehavethedirectobjectandso,heclaims,itshouldbetranslatedconsider,takenoteof.62Inconsequence,anumberofcommentatorshaveinsisted
thatthefunctionof3:2to4:1isnottowarnthePhilippiansagainstanyparticulargroup,buttoholduptheJewsasacautionaryexample.63Thechurchwasnot
menacedbyintruders,butbyattitudesamongitsmemberswhichPauldesiredtocorrectbyillustratingtheireffectamongJews.

Despiteitsapparentlysoundgrammaticalbase,thisinterpretationfailstodojusticetoeitherthetoneorcontentofLetterC.ItisimplausiblethatPaulwouldusethe
Jewsasacautionarymodelforachurchwhosemembershadcomeentirelyfrompaganism.Ifhisintentionwastocontrastrelianceonselfwithrelianceondivinehelp,
thereweremanyexamplesfromGreekhistorywhichwouldspeakdirectlytoPhilippians.IfJudaismdidenterhismind,hehadonlytomentionhisownexperience.
Therewasnoneedtorefertodogs,evildoers,andmutilators,whosegodwastheirbelly(Philippians3:2,19).Theviciousnessofsuchinvectivebetraysthedepthof
Paul'sfearforthefutureofthePhilippians.Thetoneevokes,notaremotepossibility,butanimminentdanger.Itisnotsurprising,therefore,thateventhosewho
acknowledgetheaccuracyofKilpatrick'sobservationsdonotalwaysendorsehisinterpretation,andcontinuetoreadLetterCasawarning.64

ThereisawidevarietyofopinionsregardingtheidentityofthoseagainstwhomthePhilippiansarewarned.65Mosthaveonlyatenuousbasis,ifany,intheletter.The
firstelementinPhil.3:2BewareofthedogswouldmakeonethinkofGentileswho,becausetheydidnotdiscriminateinwhattheyate,wereconsidereddogsby
Jews.66Thethirdelement,however,Bewareofthemutilators.ForwearethetruecircumcisionclearlyreferstoJews,orChristiansofJewishorigin.Thepossibility
thatPaulhastwodistinctgroupsinmindisexcludedbytheGentilecharacterofthechurch.PaulwouldnotusedogsinasenseapplicabletothePhilippians.Hence
wemustassumethatheis
62
(1968),1468.
63
e.g.Caird(1976),131Garland(1985),1656Hawthorn(1983),125.
64
e.g.Martin(1976),124Bruce(1983),80.
65
Hawthorn(1983),163,listsJudaizers,libertines,gnosticizingbelievers,faithfulwhofearedpersecutionorwhodidnotrecognizethedecisiveeschatologicalsignificanceoftheCross
anditsimperativeofselfsacrifice,andproselytizingJews.
66
Billerbeck(19228),1.72453.6212.

 Page229

turningbackonJewsoneoftheirmostviciousslurs.TherecanbelittledoubtthatPaulintendstoevokecircumcisionandthedietarylaws.

Thosefromwhomdangercomesarealsoalludedtoin3:19,whichwhentranslatedinsuchawayastorespectitsstructuretheyhavemadetheirstomachandtheir
gloryintheirshametheirgod67revealsthatPaulhasinmindtwomattersofultimateconcern,oneisstomachandtheothershame.Therelationshipbetween
stomachanddietneedsnoemphasis.ThatbetweenshameandcircumcisionbecomesevidentonlywhenitisrecalledthatGreeksandRomansheapedscornand
ridiculeoncircumcision,68andthatoutofshamesomeJewsunderwentanoperationtorestoretheforeskin.69

ItisdifficulttoimaginethatthesecondelementinPhilippians3:2,bewaretheevilworkers,isdirectedagainstallJews.IfPaulhadsufferedatthehandsofsome,
mostweretotallyignorantofhisexistence.Thesubstantiveimpliesenergeticeffort.SinceitcannotrefertoJewishproselytization,70itmustalludetothephenomenon
withwhichPaulhadtodealinGalatians.Theparalleldeceitfulworkers(2Cor.11:13)confirmsthatwhatPaulfearedwasthatthePhilippianswouldcomeunder
pressurefromJewishChristianstoadoptcircumcisionandthedietarylaws.ForPaulJudaizersweretherealenemiesofthecrossofChrist(Phil.3:18),becausethey
denieditssalvificvalue.ForthemChristsimplyinauguratedtheeschatonsalvationwasstillconditionalonobservanceoftheLaw.Thosewhothoughtofacrucified
saviourasfolly(1Cor.1:23)werelessdangerous.

ThisinterpretationisreinforcedbytheparallelswithGalatians,whosebroadoutlineLetterCreproduces.Theautobiographicalmaterial(Phil.3:48)isreminiscentof
Galatians1,butitisnotusedinpreciselythesameway.InGalatiansPaulwasconcernedtodemonstratehisindependenceofJerusalem,andthusindirectlyof
Antioch,whereasherehispointistoshowthathehadoncebeenastrictlyobservantJew,buthadfoundsomethingbetter.Thecontrastbetweenrighteousness
acquiredbyobediencetotheLawandrighteousnessgivenbyGodthroughthefaith/fidelityofChrist(Phil.3:9=Gal.2:16)isevocativeofGalatians34.The
admonitionthatsalvationisnotanimmutablegiven,butanongoingstruggletowardsafutureprize(Phil.3:1016)couldserveasanaccuratesummaryofGalatians5
6.NoteinparticulartheparallelbetweenPaul'sbearingthestigmataofJesus(Gal.6:17)andhissharinginthefellowshipofChrist'ssufferings(Phil.3:10).The
concludingexhortationtoimitatePaul(Phil.3:17)echoesGalatians4:12,butinviewofthedivisionswithinthechurchatPhilippitheApostlecreatestheword
fellowimitatorstounderlinethecorporatedimensionofthebelievers'existence.71
67
Hawthorn(1983),166.
68
Martial,Epigrams,7.35and82.
69
1Macc.1:15Josephus,AF12.241.SeeHall(1988).
70
Seemy(1992a)andWillandOrrieux(1992).
71
SeeinparticularHawthorn(1983),160.

 Page230

WhereandhowdidPaullearnthatPhilippiwasmenacedbyJudaizers?IhavearguedabovethattheJudaizerswhotroubledthechurchesofGalatiaweresentby
AntiochtoreformthechurchesfoundedbyPaul.72TheirnaturalcoursesubsequentlywouldhavebeentofollowhistrackstoEurope,wherePhilippiwashisfirst
foundation.OnceherealizedwhatwasgoingoninGalatia,Paulshouldhaveanticipatedthisdanger,butthereisnohintineitherLetterAorLetterBthathedid.
SuchcarelessnessmaybeanotheraspectoftheselfabsorptionsoevidentinLetterB.

ItisnotimpossiblethatPaulsuddenlywokeuptothepotentialthreattoPhilippi,anddashedoffLetterCinfulfilmentofhisresponsibility.Inthiscase,however,one
mighthaveexpectedahintofselfreproach.Thenoteofurgency,whichpenetratestheletter,suggestsratherthatitwasareactiontopreciseinformation.Thesimplest
hypothesisisalsothemostprobable.OneofPaul'ssupporterscamefromGalatiatoinformhimoftheplansoftheJudaizerstomoveagainstPhilippi,andtheother
Paulinechurches.Itwouldbemostsurprising,ifthosewhohadalertedhimtothepresenceofthelattershouldnothavekepthimintouchwiththeevolutionofthe
situationinGalatia.AmorecomplexhypothesismightclaimthattheJudaizersknewthatPaulwasheadedforEphesuswhenheleftGalatia,andfollowedhimthere.
Whentheyfailedtoconvincehimandhisconverts,theyheadednorthforPhilippi.Notonlyisthishypothesismorecomplicatedthanthedatademands,butthereisno
hintinColossiansorPhilemonthatJudaizersoftheGalatiantypehadcomewestintoAsiafromGalatia.
72
SeeCh.8,WhoWeretheIntruders?.

 Page231

10
ContemplationatColossae
Paul'sstrategyduringhistwoyearsandthreemonths'residenceinEphesus(Acts19:810)hadtwofacets.Hestayedinthecitydedicatinghimselftotheformationof
thecommunityandtomaintainingcontactwithhisotherfoundations.Thechurch,however,hadtobeapostolic.Hence,hecommissionedotherstospreadthegospel
outsidetheurbanarea,followingthepatterndictatedbytheRomanroadsradiatingoutfromthecapitalofAsia.1Aswehaveseen,somewentnorthtoSmyrnaand
Pergamum.Otherstookaroadanglingofftothenortheast,andevangelizedPhiladelphia,Sardis,andThyatira.Stillotherstookthegreatcommonhighwaytotheeast
andbroughtthegospeltoMagnesiaandTralles.2Onewentmuchfurther,intotheLycusvalleyonthefringesoftheprovinceofAsia.Itwashishomeland(Col.4:12).

TheRomanroad,whichEpaphrasfollowed,wasconstructedbyManiusAquillius,whowasproconsulofAsia129126BC.Forthefirst80milesoutofEphesusit
followedthenorthbankoftheriverMeander,whichitcrossedonabridgeatAntiochontheMeander,andcontinuedalongthesouthbankuntilitwasblockedbya
tributary,theLycus(modernrksu),cominginfromthesoutheast.3Turningtostayonthewestsideofthisconsiderableriver,theroadfirstreachedLaodicea,
andthenColossae(192km.or120milesfromEphesus),afterwhichtherewasabifurcation.TheroadofManiusAquilliusswungsouthtothecoast.TheCilician
roadcurvedtothenorthtothecitiesofPaul'sfirstjourney(Acts1314).4

TheLycusValley

Theeyeofanyoneenteringthevalleyfromthewestiscaughtbyadazzlingblazeofwhiteagainstthebrownofthecliffacrosstheriver.Formillennia,mineralsaturated
hotwaterhaspoureddowntheslopegraduallybuildingupa
1
J.J.Taylor(1994b),195.
2
SeeCh.7,MissionaryExpansion.
3
Strabo,Geography14.2.29.
4
French(1980),707map3inS.Mitchell(1993),1.40.

 Page232
5
depositsothattodayitlookslikefoamingcataractsfrozeninthefall. ThephenomenonwasknowntoStrabo,whonotedtheingenioususethenativesmadeofit,
thewaterofthehotspringssoeasilycongealsandchangesintostonethatpeopleconductstreamsofitthroughditchesandthusmakecontinuousstonefences.6
TodaythesitehastheentirelyappropriatenameofPamukkale,CottonCastle,butinthefirstcenturyitwasknownasHierapolis.

ItwouldbemostunusualiftheuniquepropertiesofthewatershadnotattractedsettlerstoHierapolisfromremoteantiquity,butit,anditsneighbourLaodicea(6miles
awayacrosstheriver)appearonthestageofhistoryonlyintheHellenisticperiod.TheoldestdocumentedtowninthevalleyisColossae,whichis11milesupstream
fromLaodicea.ThedoublessinitsnameisthoughttobearelicofapreGreeklanguage,7anditismentionedinthefifthcenturyBCbyHerodotus(7.30)and
Xenophon(Anabasis,1.2.6)asalargeandprosperouscity.

ThevirtualmonopolythatColossaeenjoyedintheexploitationofthenaturalresourcesofthevalleycameunderthreatinthethirdcenturyBC,whenSeleucidmonarchs
intervenedtocreatenewcommercialcentres.AntiochusISoter(281261BC)raisedHierapolistothestatusofacity,8andhissonAntiochusIITheos(261246BC)
conferredthesamefavouronasettlementcalledDiospolis/Rhoas,whosenamehechangedtoLaodiceatohonourhiswife.9In220BCacertainAchaeusraisedthe
standardofrebellioninLaodiceaagainstAntiochusIIItheGreat(233187BC).

Therisingwasabortive,butinordertoguaranteethatitcouldnothappenagain,AntiochusIII,around213BC,settled2,000JewishfamiliesfromBabylonandits
environsinPhrygiaandLydia.10ItwouldbemostsurprisingifasignificantnumberofthesecolonistsdidnotendupintheLycusvalley.11Acenturyandahalflater,the
Jewishpopulationwasconsiderable.In62BCthedistrictofwhichLaodiceawasthecapitalhadatleast11,000adultmaleJews.12Sometwentyyearslater,the
authoritiesofLaodiceaassuredtheRomanauthoritiesthatJewswouldnotbehinderedinthepracticeoftheirreligion.13ThepresenceofaJewishcommunitywithits
rootsinBabylon,iscrucialforanunderstandingoftheproblemsthatPaulandEpaphrashadtoconfront.

Despitetheseniorityimplicitingivingitsnametoaparticularcolour(seebelow),Colossaelackedcertainadvantagesenjoyedbyitsyoungerrivals.
5
Lightfoot(1904),10.
6
Geography13.4.14.SimilarlyVitrivius,DeArchitectura8.3.10.
7
McDonagh(1989),370.
8
Kolb(1974)Bruce(1992a),195.
9
Pliny,NH5.105.
10
Josephus,AF12.14853seeSchrer(197387),1.17n.38.
11
Lightfoot(1904),19.
12
ThisisthecalculationofLightfoot(1904),20,basedonthetwentypoundsofgoldconfiscatedbyFlaccusseeCicero,ProFlacco68.
13
Josephus,AF14.2413.

 Page233

Laodiceawasthecapitalofthedistrict.ThecourtsoftheproconsulofAsiamightbeinfrequent,butitsroleasthefinancialandtaxcentregaveitalatentpower,which
provedattractivetothoseinterestedinpolicyandbusiness.14Inevitablyleisurefacilitieswouldbebetterthanelsewhereinthevicinitygladiatorialshowsareattested.15
Hierapolisnodoubtenjoyedashareofthistouristmarket.Thepleasuresofnaturalhotbathswereintensifiedbythemedicinalpropertiesofthewatersanddrew
seekersofluxuryandhealthfromawidearea.ThemerelycuriousnodoubtflockedtoinspectthePlutonium,acavewhosepoisonousvapoursslewanimals.16

TheextenttowhichColossaelostoutintheprosperitystakesisgraphicallyillustratedbythedearthofvisibleremainswhencomparedwiththeextensiveruinsof
LaodiceaandHierapolis.17Itcannotevenboastafamousname,whereasHierapoliscouldclaimtheStoicphilosopherEpictetus(AD55135),andLaodiceathe
rhetoricianZeno,thebraveryofwhoseson,Polemon,whenthecitywasattackedbytheParthiansin4039BC,wonhimthekingdomofCiliciaTracheia.18

ThevolcanicspringsandundergroundriversalertedStrabototheunstablecharacterofthelandintheLycusvalley,ifanycountryissubjecttoearthquakes,Laodicea
is(Geography12.8.16).Manywentunrecorded,butmajorearthquakeshitinthereignofAugustus,19andagaininAD60,asTacitusreports,IntheAsian
provinceoneofitsfamouscities,Laodicea,wasdestroyedbyanearthquakeinthisyear,andrebuiltfromitsownresourceswithoutanysubventionfromRome.20No
earthquakethatdevastatedLaodiceawouldhavespareditsneighbours.TherecoveryofHierapolisisguaranteedbytheexistenceofabishopricthereatthebeginning
ofthesecondcenturyAD,headedbyPapias.21Colossae,onthecontrary,sinksintooblivion.22

Intheirheydaythesecitieslivedfromwool.TheLycusvalleywasavastpastureinwhichnumerousflockswandered.InthisitwasnodifferentfrommuchofAnatolia.
Yettheinhabitantsmanagedtocarveoutauniquenicheinthetextilemarketbythequalityoftheirproducts.AccordingtoStrabo,ThecountryaroundLaodicea
producessheepthatareexcellent,notonlyforthesoftnessoftheirwool,inwhichtheysurpasseventheMilesianwool,butalsoforitsravenblackcolour,sothatthe
Laodiceansderivesplendidrevenuefromit,asdoalsotheneighbouringColossiansfromthecolourwhichbearsthesamename(Geography12.8.6trans.Jones).

ItwouldappearthattheglossyblackfleecesassociatedwithLaodiceawerenatural.CertainlythisistheinterpretationofVitrivius,forwhomitwas
14
Cicero,Att.5.15Fam.3.5.
15
Cicero,Att.6.3.
16
Strabo,Geography13.4.14.
17
McDonagh(1989),37081.
18
Strabo,Geography12.8.16.
19
Suetonius,Tiberius8.
20
Annals14.27.1trans.Grant.
21
Eusebius,ChurchHistory2.153.369.
22
ThesilenceofPlinyinNH5.105isgivensignificancebyAletti(1993),11n.3.

 Page234

explainedbythewaterofcertainspringsfromwhichthesheepdrank(DeArchitectura8.3.14).Strabo'sfailuretospecifytheprecisecolourassociatedwith
ColossaeisremediedbyPliny,whotellsusthatcolossinusisapurpleresemblingthatofthecyclamenblossom(NH21.51cf.25.114).Thattheunusual
characteristicsofthewateroftheregioncontributedtothedistinctivecolourissuggestedbyanoteofStraboaproposofaneighbouringcity,ThewateratHierapolis
isremarkablyadaptedalsotothedyingofwool,sothatwooldyedwiththeroots[madderroot]rivalsthatdyedwiththecossus[kermesberries]orwiththemarine
purple(Geography13.4.14trans.Jones).

MissionaryStrategy

WhenPaulmarchedacrossAsiaMinorforthesecondtime,hisgoalwasEphesus,andhedidnotattempttofoundnewcommunities.23Wherethendidhemeet
Epaphras,anativeofColossae(Col.4:12)?Theencountercouldhavetakenplaceontheroad.Paulwouldhavebeengladofacompanion,apotentialconvert,
whosepresenceenhancedhissecurity.OritmighthavebeeninEphesus.Butitcouldhavebeenmuchfurtherafield.TheprobabilityisthatEpaphraswasinsomeway
associatedwiththeexportoftextilesfromtheLycusvalley,andifLydiafromThyatirawassellinginPhilippi(Acts16:14),itisnotatallimpossiblethatthesuperior
productoftheLycusvalleywasbeingmarketedbyEpaphrasinMacedoniaorAchaia.Thislatterhypothesis,however,isnotreallyplausible.IfEpaphrashadbeen
commissionedbyPaulinGreecetoplantthegospelinhishomevalleywhenhereturned,itisratherimprobablethatPaulwouldnothaveturnedasideforafewdays,
afterhavingvisitedtheGalatians,inordertocheckonhowthingsweregoing.Ifhedidnotdoso(Col.2:1),itcanonlybebecausethechurchesintheLycusvalley
didnotyetexist.

Wherevertheymet,EpaphraswasformedasamissionarybyPaulinEphesus,andhemusthavebeentypicalofthosewhomPaulchosetofanouttofoundother
churches.FrompersonalexperienceinAsiaMinorandMacedonia,Paulknewthedifficultyofcomingintoastrangecityinwhichheknewnoone.Hehadtofind
workinacongenialsituationwhichwouldpermithimtopreach.Wherewashetobegin?Hemusthaverecognizedimmediatelyhowmucheasierhistaskbecame
whenhelinkedupwithPriscaandAquilainCorinth.Theyprovidedabaseandareadymadesetofcontacts.Inanycase,thereafterhebuiltitintohismissionary
strategy.HeleftthecoupleinEphesusinordertohaveeverythinginreadinessforhisreturnfromJerusalem,24andlaterwould
23
SeeCh.7,MaintenancenotMission.
24
SeeCh.7,TheFoundingoftheChurch.

 Page235
25
sendthemtoRometoprepareforhisarrivalthere. Theynowcarriedtheburdenoflonelinessandalienation,buttheywerestrengthenedbytheconfidencethatPaul
wouldsoonarrivetosharetheresponsibility.

Paulcouldhavedemandedofothers,andprobablydid,thesacrificeshedemandedofPriscaandAquila.Therearealwaysthosewillingtostrikeoutintounknown
territory.Butwoulditnothavebeenmuchmoreefficienttoselectasmissionariesthosewhostartedwithabuiltinadvantage?Theprimecandidateswerethe
energeticandenterprisingwomenandmen,likeEpaphras,whocametothecapitalofAsiaonbusiness.Itdidnotmatterwhethertheywereactingasprincipalsor
agents,theyreturnedhometoanetworkofacquaintancesrootedinlongstandingfamily,social,andbusinesscontacts.Theydidnothavetolookforwork.They
wereknownandtrusted.Therespecttheyhadearnedguaranteedthattherewerealwaysatleastsomesympatheticearstoheartheirfirststumblingsermons.

ThefreedomofEpaphrastomakeatriptoEphesusinordertoseekPaul'sadvicewhenproblemsdevelopedatColossaesuggeststhathewasinbusinessonhisown
account.Thealternativeistosupposethatheconvertedhisemployer,whoprovedtobemostsympatheticintermsoftimeoffinordertopermitEpaphrasto
dischargehisdutiesasfounderofthechurch.Thehypothesisisnotimpossible,butitismorecomplicated,andevenPauldidnottaketheChristianityof
employers/ownersforgranted.TherelationshipofPhilemonandOnesimusisacaseinpoint.

Thelegalaspectofthisdisputehasalreadybeendealtwith.26Herewemustconfrontmuchsimplerquestions,whichleadusintounexploredaspectsofthe
evangelizationoftheLycusvalley.HowdidOnesimus,apagan(Philem.10),knowofPaul'sinfluenceonhismaster,andhowdidheknowwheretofindPaulinfar
awayEphesus?Inthelightoftheprecedingdiscussion,oneisimmediatelyinclinedtoconsiderEpaphrasasthesourceofthisinformation.InPhilemon19,however,
PaultakesthepenfromthehandofhissecretarytoguaranteetherepaymentofwhateverdamageOnesimushadcaused,andunderlineshiscreditworthinessby
pointingoutthatPhilemonisintheApostle'sdebt,youoweyourselftome.

ThenaturalinterpretationofthisphraseisthatPhilemonhadbeenconvertedbyPaulpersonally,presumablyinEphesus.27Itwouldhavebeennaturalofhimtospeak
tohishouseholdoftheimportanceofPaulinhislife.Acceptanceofthisinterpretation,however,leadstounacceptableconsequences.ItmeansthatPaulhadsenttwo
apostlestotheLycusvalley,butgivesthecreditfortheestablishmentofthechurchesofColossae,Laodicea,andHierapolistoonlyone,Epaphras(Col.4:13).Had
Philemonmadenocontribution,Paul's
25
SeeCh.13,PlanningfortheFuture.
26
SeeCh.7,Imprisonment.
27
SoLightfoot(1904),303,342Lohse(1968),2845.

 Page236

complimentsinPhilemon67appearascondemnationbyfaintpraise.WouldPaulhaveslightedPhilemonjustatthemomenthewantedsomethingfromhim?The
difficultyofadmittingthatPaulwouldhaveactedsostupidlyforcesustoconsiderthepossibilitythat,inwritingPhilemon1and19,hewasactingontheprinciplethat
mastersareresponsiblefortheactionsoftheiragents.Ifthosewhocommandareliablefordamages,theycanalsoclaimthecreditforsuccess.Inotherwords,
PhilemonwasconvertedbyEpaphrasasPaul'sagent.28

PhilemonwasfollowedintothefaithbyhiswifeAppia,29andbyArchippus(Philem.1).Togethertheybecamethenucleusofahousechurch(Philem.2),whichmay
havebeenthefirstofanumberofsuchsubunitswhichtogethermadeupthewholechurchofColossae.ThesocialstatusofPhilemoncanbededucedfromhis
ownershipofatleastoneslaveitisconfirmedbyhispossessionofahouselargeenoughtocontainaguestroom(Philem.22).HadPaulimpressedonEpaphrasthe
strategy,whichhehimselfwastoemploysosuccessfullyatCorinth?Itwasimportanttorecruitquicklyoneortwopeoplewhocouldprovideacentreforthenascent
community.30NymphamayhaveplayedthisroleatLaodicea,whereshebecameresponsibleforahousechurch(Col.4:15).Philemoniscalledfellowworkerand
Archippusfellowsoldier(cf.Phil.2:25).TheimplicationthatbothwereactiveinthedevelopmentofChristianityintheLycusvalleyisconfirmedbyPaul'streatment
oftheformerasapartner(Philem.17cf.Phil.1:5)andbythewordsaddressedtothelatterinColossians4:17,seethatyoufulfiltheministrywhichyouhave
receivedintheLord.

ThecuriousformofthisadmonitionitisintroducedbyTellArchippusandthecontrastwiththecomplimentaryepithetinPhilemon2,indicatethatthestatusof
ArchippushadchangedbetweenthewritingofPhilemonandColossians.31Whatmighthavehappened?Onescenariowhichdealsadequatelywiththedatarunsas
follows.OnesimushadinjuredhismasterPhilemoninaseriousway.EpaphrassentOnesimustoEphesustobeseechPaul'smediationinthedisputewithPhilemon.
AlthoughnotaChristian,Onesimus,likeanyoftheservants,wasfullyawareofthecompositionofthelittlecommunitythatmetinhismaster'shouse.OnceOnesimus
hadbeenbaptized(Philem.10cf.1Cor.4:15),thesignificanceoftheactivemissionaryroleofPhilemonandArchippusbecameevidenttohim.AndhetoldPaul,
whoneededtoflatterPhilemoninordertowinafavourfromhim.Paulhadneverwrittenthissortofletterbefore,anditdemandedseriousreflection.Beforethe
missivewasfinished,EpaphrasarrivedandwasarrestedbytheRomansbecauseofhis
28
SomescholarshavereadPhilem.5asimplyingthatPauldidnotknowPhilemonpersonallyseeLohse(1968),270n.4.
29
SorightlyLightfoot(1904),304Lohse(1968),267.
30
SeeCh.11,TheFirstConverts.
31
TheanteriorityofPhilem.isdefendedbyLohse(1968),247.

 Page237

officialassociationwithPaul.InadditiontoinformingPaulaboutthefalseteachingthatcirculatedatColossae,hespokesadlyaboutArchippus.Giventhegravityof
thetheologicalsituation,itdoesnotseemadequatetopostulatemerelythatArchippuswassomehowlessactivethanhitherto.TellArchippus(Col4:17)makes
senseonlyifhehadleftthecommunityandwouldnotheartheletterwhenitwasreadpublicly(Col.4:16).Hadhebecomeinvolvedwiththefalseteacherstothe
pointthathenolongerfoundtheliturgyofthechurchsatisfying?OnlyanaffirmativeanswerexplainstheurgencyofColossians.IfaleaderofArchippus'qualityhad
beenseducedbyesotericteaching,thedangerforothersinthecommunitywasveryreal.AresponsecouldnotwaituntilPaulorEpaphraswasreleasedfromprison.

Paul'sApostolicOffice

NoconsensusexistsregardingtheauthenticityofColossians.Thescholarlycommunityissplitdownthemiddle.ThosewhoaffirmPaulineauthorship,however,are
rathermorehesitantthanthosewhodenyit.32Nonetheless,theconclusionsofthelatterarenotalwaysaswellfoundedastheforcewithwhichtheyarearticulated
wouldappeartoindicate.

Thestylisticargument,whichhasalwaysbeenconsideredthemostobjective,mustbesetaside.33Paul'suseofcoauthorsandsecretariesprecludestheestablishment
ofawritingstyleexclusivetotheApostleagainstwhichletterscanbemeasured.34Equally,withoutevidencethatitwasastandardpseudepigraphictechnique,the
namesandpersonalnotices(Col.1:782:14:718)cannotbedismissedasanartificialattempttogiveColossiansaplaceinPaul'sministry.Thosewhomaintain
theinauthenticityof2ThessaloniansandEphesiansfindnoreasontopostulatesucharequirement.If,asIhavearguedabove,35suchpersonalreferencesaretaken
seriously,thenColossiansmustbedatedtothesummerofAD53,duringPaul'simprisonmentatEphesus.Thecriticalquestions,then,are:(1)arethedifferences
betweenColossiansandtheotherletterswrittenduringthisperiodasgreatashavebeenthought?(2)ifso,cantheybeexplainedasduetotheparticular
circumstancesunderwhichthisletterwaswritten?

OpponentsoftheauthenticityofColossiansfindjustificationfortheirpositioninitsviewofPaul'sapostolicofficeandofthevalueofhissufferings.Thelatter,weare
told,areunderstoodtohaveavicariousvalue,andPaulis
32
CompareAletti(1993),280,withFurnish(1992),1094.
33
TheobservationsofBujard(1973)arenegatedbythemoresophisticatedstudiesofKenny(1986)andNeumann(1990).SeealsoSappington(1991),23.
34
Seemy(1995),ch.1.
35
Ch.7,Imprisonment.

 Page238
36
presentedastheuniversal,uniqueapostle.Suchinflationofhispositionisincompatiblewithhishistoricalrole,andthuspointstotheartificialityofColossians.

UniversalisticlanguageiscertainlynotlackinginColossians,butwhenlookedatclosely,itdoesnotconfirmtheinterpretationforceduponit.Thenotethatthegospel
isbearingfruitandgrowinginthewholeworld(Col.1:6)isasimplereflectiononthesuccessoftheministrytotheGentiles,andinnowayimpliesthatPaulalone
wasresponsible.Onthecontrary,theintrinsicpowerofthewordofGodisanauthenticallyPaulinetheme(cf.1Thess.1:52:13).LaterPaulspeaksofthegospel
whichyouheard,whichhasbeenpreachedtoeverycreatureunderheaven,andofwhichIPaulbecameaminister(Col.1:23).Thelackofthedefinitearticlebefore
ministerunderlinesthatPaulisnottheexclusiveagentofpropagation,andthehyperboleispreciselyparalleledintheApostlesveryfirstletter,bothwithrespectto
thepasttenseandtotheuniversalextension,yourfaithinGodhasgonefortheverywhere(1Thess.1:8).Finally,thesoleimplicationofteachingeveryoneinall
wisdomthatwemaypresenteveryonematureinChrist(Col.1:28)isthatPaul'smessageisforallwithoutexception.

ColossiansdiffersfromtheotherEphesianlettersinthatitiswrittentoachurchthatPauldidnotfound.Itwouldnothavebeenwritten,aswehaveseen,37had
EpaphrasbeenfreetoreturntotheLycusvalleyafterhavingconsultedPaulinEphesus.Onlywhenhetoolandedinprisondiditbecomeimperativetodeviseanother
wayofdealingwiththesituation.Apparentlynocompetentemissarywasavailableandthatleftaletterastheonlyoption.Whowastowriteit?Epaphraswasthe
obviouscandidate,sincetheColossianswerehispeople,andhisproblem.38Couldhenotsayonpaperwhatheplannedtosayverbally?SomeinPaul'sentourage
werelesssanguine.Toexpressoneselfadequatelyinwritingincircumstanceswhereafalsewordcouldbedisastrousdemandsaveryspecialskill.Epaphrashadgiven
noevidenceofthistalent,whichPaulhaddemonstratedinhislettertotheGalatians.InanyeventPaulacceptedtheresponsibility.Epaphrasmightthenappeartobe
theobviouschoiceascoauthorhewasthelocalexpert.ThesamecouldbesaidofApolloswithrespecttothedevelopingsituationinCorinth,39but,asinthepresent
case,PaulpreferredtorelyonTimothy.

Paul'slackofpersonalinvolvementwiththeChristiansinColossaeandhissenseoftheautonomyofthelocalchurchexplainstheuniversalismofthetextsjust
discussed.Ontheformallevel,hecouldanddidpointoutthatEpaphrashadbeenactingashisagent(Col.1:7),butonaamoreprofoundlevel,hefelt
36
Furnish(1992),1094.
37
Cf.Ch7,MissionaryExpansion.
38
Therearethosewhoclaimthatheinfactwrotetheletter.
39
SeeCh.12,Weaning.

 Page239

theneedtoevoketheworldwidescopeofhisapostolicresponsibilityinordertojustifyhisconcernfortheColossians(Col.1:25).Thecontextinwhichthismustbe
understoodistheJerusalemagreement(Gal.2:9),whichauthorizedallmissionariestogoeverywhere.40InPaul'smindthismeantthathecouldnotexempthimself
fromanyeffortthatmightdrawpeopletoChrist.Innowaydoesitimplythathefeltthateverythinghadtobedoneunderhisaegis.Hetookitentirelyforgrantedthat
othermissionarieswouldworkinparallelwithhimandmadeitaprinciplenottoduplicatetheirefforts(Rom.15:20).

Paul'sinterpretationofhissufferingsinColossians1:24hascausedmuchinktobespilled.TheNRSVreflectsthecommontranslationofthisverse,NowIam
rejoicinginmysufferingsforyoursake,andinmyfleshIamcompletingwhatislackinginChrist'safflictionsforthesakeofhisbody,thatis,thechurch.Questions
immediatelyarise:wasChrist'ssacrificesomehowimperfect?isthegenitiveofChristtobeunderstoodassubjective,asobjective,asqualitative,etc.?howcan
Paul'ssufferingsbeaddedtothoseofsomeoneelse?isthereaquotaofsufferingsthatmustbeenduredbeforetheParousia?Themindreelsbeforethepermutations
andcombinationsofthepossibleanswers,eachofwhichhasfoundanadvocate.41

Suchcomplications,however,ariseonlybecausethetranslationisfaulty.TheinterpretationoftheverseisgreatlysimplifiediftheorderofthekeyGreekwordsis
respected,42andhyphensareaddedforclarification,IamcompletingwhatislackinginChristsafflictionsinmyfleshforthesakeofhisbody.Paulisnotspeaking
ofthesufferingsofChristinthemselves,butofhisownsufferings,whichinacertainsensearethoseofChrist.Inapreviousletterhehadwritten,Ilivenow,notI,but
Christlivesinme(Gal.2:20).SubsequentlyhewouldtrytogetthesameideaacrossbywritingalwayscarryinginthebodythedyingofJesus(2Cor.4:10).Paul
didnotneedgreatinsighttoknowthathispainwouldbeprolonged,andhewasfullyawareofpreciselyhowitbenefitedthechurch.Hisimprisonmentdramatizedhis
commitmenttoChrist,whichbothimpressedpagansandfortifiedbelievers(Phil.1:1314).Colossians1:24isnothingmorethanatypicallyPaulineChristologization
ofthistheme.

TheintensificationofPaul'sfunctionalidentificationwithChristinColossianscanbeseenassimplythelogicalconsequenceoftheinsightofGalatians2:20,butitwas
notPaul'sstyletodevelopmethodicallytheramificationsofanidea.TheremusthavebeensomethingintheattitudeoftheColossianstowardsChristwhichstimulated
hisreflection.
40
SeeCh.6,TheAgreement.
41
TheyaredocumentedbyKremer(1956).
42
Aletti(1993),135.

 Page240

TheCosmicChrist

ThedifferencebetweentheChristologyofColossiansandthatoftheotherlettersisusuallyexplainedinoneoftwoways.DefendersoftheauthenticityofColossians
dateitattheveryendofPaul'slifeinordertogiveenoughtimeforsucharadicaldevelopmentofhisthought.ThosewhorefusetheauthenticityofColossiansfindthe
differencesogreatastomakePaulineauthorshipinconceivable.Athirdapproach,whichdoesmorejusticetothedataoftheletter,hasbeenespousedbyC.K.
Barrett,ItseemsratherthattheColossianshaddonetheirbesttogiveChristaprominentplaceintherealmofcosmicspeculation.Whattheyhadnotdone,and
theeditornowproceedstodo,istorecognizehisearthlyactivity.43Inotherwords,theconcernofColossiansisnottoliftitsreadersintothecosmicsphere,butto
ensurethattheydonotlosecontactwiththemundane.TheSaviourmuststandonterrafirma.Hisdisciplesmustnotretreatintoasceticisolation.

AsBarrettperceived,theclearestillustrationofwhatisactuallygoingonintheletterisfoundinColossians1:1520.Didactichymnswerepartoftheliturgyat
Colossae(Col3:16),anditisgenerallyrecognizedthatPaulisherequotingoneofthesehymns.Itspreciseextentandstructurehasbeenthesubjectofintense
debate.44Thisisnottheplacetoenterintodialoguewiththewidevarietyofviewswhichhavealreadybeenexpressed.Thejustificationofmypositionwillemerge,I
hope,fromthecoherenceofwhatfollows.

Theoriginalhymnwasmadeupoftwofourlinestrophes,whichareidenticalinstructure:

I v.15a Whois(the)imageoftheinvisibleGod

v.15b Firstbornofallcreation

v.16a Forinhimwerecreatedallthings

v.16f Allthingsthroughhimandtohimwerecreated.

II v.18b Whois(the)beginning

v.18c Firstbornfromthedead

v.19 ForinhimalltheFullnesswaspleasedtodwell

v.20a Andthroughhimtoreconcileallthingstohim.

Therepetitionofkeytermsinthesameorderineachstrophereinforcesthestructure.Thefirsttwolinesofeachstropheareaffirmationswhicharesubsequently
justifiedinthelasttwolines.Suchperfectionofbalancebetraysadeliberatecreativeeffort.Noartistwhohadinvestedsomuchwoulddestroytheeleganceofhis
work.Theelementsintheexistenttextwhichdisturbthebalancemusthavebeenaddedbyalaterhand,moreconcernedwithcontent
43
(1994),146.
44
ThemostdetailedsurveyisthatofBenoit(1975).

 Page241
45
thanwithform.ThesamephenomenonwasnotedaproposofthehymncitedbyPaulinPhilippians2:611. Suchsimilaritygreatlyreducesthesubjectivefactor
whichisintegraltoeveryliteraryjudgement.Itisinstructivetoputthetwosetsofadditionsinparallel:

Colossians1 Philippians2

v. inheavenandonearth v.10binheaven,onearth,andunderthe
16b earth

v. visibleandinvisible
16c

v. whetherthronesordominations
16d

v. orprincipalitiesorpowers
16e

v. Andheisbeforeallthingsandallthings
17 inhimholdtogether

v. Andheistheheadofthebody,the
18a church

v. thathemightineverythingbecome
18d preeminent

v. makingpeacebythebloodofhiscross v.8cevendeathonacross
20b throughhim

v. whetherthoseonearthorthosein v.10binheaven,onearth,andunderthe
20c heaven earth

v.11btothegloryofGodtheFather

Thesimilaritiesaresoobviousastohardlyneedpointingout.Inbothinstancestheredactorisconcerned(1)toinsistonthemodalityofthedeathofChrist,and(2)to
restrictthemeaningofallthingstointelligentbeings.InthecaseofthePhilippianhymnthereisnodoubtthattheredactorwasPaultheauthenticityofthatletteris
unquestioned.Thelanguagefurnishesconfirmation.Ifweleaveasidetheworkoftheevangelists,crossandtocrucifyarevirtuallyexclusivelyPaulinetermsinNew
Testamentusage.46Thisisallthemoresignificantinthatthetraditionalmaterial,whichPaulincorporatesintohisletters,mentionsonlythefactofthedeathofChrist
withoutspecifyingitsmanner.47TheparallelscreateaprimafaicecasethattheredactoroftheColossianhymnwasalsoPaul.Itistypicalofhimtoemphasizethe
bloodofChrist(v.20b).48ItisalsocharacteristicofPaultostressthatChristgainedsomethingbytheresurrection(v.18c).49

Thereisanobviousquantitativedifferencebetweentheretouchesofthetwohymns.ThoseinColossians1:1520aremuchmoreextensivethanthosein
45
SeeCh.9,ALiturgicalHymn.
46
TheexceptionsareHeb.6:612:2Rev.11:8.
47
ThetextscommonlycitedareRom.1:344:258:3410:891Cor.15:27Gal.1:341Thess.1:10.
48
Rom.3:255:91Cor.10:16,11:25,27.
49
Rom.1:3414:91Cor.15:45.

 Page242

Philippians2:611.ThenaturalinferenceisthattheoriginalPhilippianhymnwasclosertoPaul'stheologicalperspectivethanthehymnwhichEpaphrasbroughtfrom
Colossae.ThisinturnopensthepossibilitythatPaulretainedthehymnforaspecificpurposewithoutacceptingallitsdimensions.

Thedistinctionoftwoliterarylevelspermitsustodeveloptworeadings,namely,themeaningoftheoriginalhymn,andthemeaningPaulgaveitbymeansofhis
additions.

TheOriginalHymn

ThebasicthemeoftheoriginalhymnisobviouslythemediationofChrist,firstincreationandtheninreconciliation.Godismentionedexplicitlyonlyasthereferentof
image,butheiscertainlyevokedbythepassiveverbsinverse16aand16f,andpossiblymaybethesubjectofwaspleased(v.19).ThecreativepowerofGodis
revealedintheactionofhischoseninstrument,andtherebyChristisexaltedaboveallotherbeings.

Inthefirststrophethereisnorealdifferencebetweentheformulaeinhimandthroughhimtheformercanbeinstrumental,andistobalanceinhiminthesecond
strophe(v.19)where,however,themeaningisdifferent.OnhisfirstreadingPaulmayhaveunderstoodimageofGodinthelightofhisAdamicChristologybased
onGenesis1:27,butthatwouldhavequicklybeencorrected.50Thecombinationofimagewithfirstbornofallcreationismorelikelytohaveevokedthefigureof
Wisdominthesapientialwritings,notablyWisdom7:2268:69:9.PaulafterallwasachildoftheHellenisticsynagogue.Theambiguityoffirstbornofall
creationisremarkable:isheoforabovecreation?Theemphasisonallcreationandallthingsmakesthecosmicdimensionunambiguous.Theparticipationof
Christintheactofcreationextendedtothetotalityofbeing.Butinwhatsense?Thecontextisofnohelp,nomorethanitisinansweringthequestionarisingfromthe
oneelementwhichdoesnotfitthesapientialbackground,namely,thepresentationofallrealityasdirected,tohim.Whatpreciselydoesthismean?Thefailureof
exegetestoreachaconsensusontheanswerstothesequestionssuggeststhatobscuritywasintendedbytheauthor(s).

InthesecondstrophebeginningagainevokesWisdom(Prov.8:22),butleavesvaguethesenseinwhichChristvanquisheddeath.Theoriginalauthormayhave
thoughtintermsofimmortality,inkeepingwiththesapientialinspirationofhisapproach,buttheformulationdoesnotexcluderesurrection.Christ'sbeingthefirstto
experiencelifeafterdeathisduetoadivinegift.TheformulatobepleasedtodwelloccursregularlyintheOldTestamentwithGodassubject,e.g.themountainin
whichGodwaspleasedtodwell(LXXPs.
50
Dunn(1980),188.

 Page243
51
69:17). WhythesurrogateFullnessshouldhavebeenusedhereisunclear.Perhapstheauthorfeltitwouldbemoreappropriatetothecosmicdimensionofhis
theme,orfearedthattheOldTestamentformulawouldbemisunderstood.ThosecomingfromaJewishbackgroundwouldneverhavetakendivineindwellingtomean
thatthepersonorplacewasdivinized.ApantheistfromPhrygia,however,wouldhavegoneawaywithaverydifferentimpression.Christ'ssalvificmissionisevoked
onlyinthelastlineandbytheverbtoreconcile,whichforthefirsttimeintroduces,ahintoftensionwithincreation.

ThehymnisaperfectexampleofwhatPaulcallsbeguiling,persuasivespeech(Col.2:4).FormalbeautyclothesanabstractvisionofChrist,whichisallusiverather
thanexplicit.Thelapidaryphrasesareredolentofprofundity,butyieldnoclearunderstanding.Thepervasiveambivalenceindicatesthataunivocalmeaningwasnot
intended.Thehymncouldbesungorrecitedbyallbelievers(Col.3:16)inthebeliefthattheywerearticulatingamysterybeyondthem.Theinitiatedcoulddebatethe
questionsthatstilltesttheingenuityofexegetes.InoppositiontothehymncitedinPhilippians2:611,nothingintheoriginalhymnbetraysPaulineroots.The
preachingofEpaphrashasbeendivestedofrealismbybeingtransposedintoaloftierandcolderdimension.

Paul'sRevisions

ThetruthofthetitlesgiventoChristmeantthatPaulcouldnotrejectthehymnoutofhand.ItevokedaspectsofChristthathewouldnothavechosentoemphasize,
buttheywererootedintherevelationaccordedtohispeople.Toacceptthemwasthepricehehadtopayforthelapidaryformulaeofthehymnwhichherealizedhe
couldturnagainstitsoriginators.52

Beforediscussingthispoint,itisimportanttonotetheflexibilityofPaul'smind.Hedidnotdisdaintotakeoverakeyconceptofthehymn.Hehadalreadyused
fullnessinthephraseinthefullnessoftime(Gal.4:4).HenowadoptsthepersonaldimensionofFullness,andintegratesitintohisownthought.Laterintheletter
itappearsinaformulawhererealityreplacesmystification,inChristthewholefullnessofdeitydwellsbodily(Col2:9).Byusingtheexplicativegenitive,ofdeity,
Pauldemonstratesthatheunderstoodcorrectlytheroleoftheterminthehymnandremovesanypossibleambiguity.Bytheintroductionofbodilyhedirectsthe
readersattentiontothephysicalexistenceofhimwhoisnowtheRisenLord(cf.Col.1:22).Paul'sconcernistoblockanytendencytodisassociateJesusandChrist
youreceivedChrist(as)JesustheLord(Col.2:6).53Asintheoriginalhymn,thepresenceoftheverbto
51
Forotherreferences,seeAletti(1993),110n.81.
52
Thisistheanswertothosewhoobjectthat,ifPauldidnotagreewithpartofthecontentsoftheoriginalhymn,hewouldhaveomittedtheideaswhichdidnotharmonizewithhis
owntheology,e.g.O'Brien(1982),56.
53
SeeinparticularLightfoot(1904),110,174.

 Page244
54
dwellin2:9meansthatPaulisthinkingintermsofhisJewishformation, andthestatementcannotbereadasifitwerethePaulineversionoftheprologuetoJohn's
gospel.55

InhisredactionaladditionsPaul'sconcernsarebothnegativeandpositive.HehastoreducethespiritworldtoitsproperproportionsandtoreplaceChristinhis
essentialrole.

Byinserting1:16be,20cPaulrestrictsthemeaningofallthingstoangelicandhumanbeings.Theprominencegiventotheangelicpowersbylistingtheirnamesis
striking,56andmustbeunderstoodinthelightofthereferencetotheworshipofangels(2:18).Themeaningofthiscrypticphraseisdisputed,butitseemsmost
probabletounderstanditasPaul'swayofassertingthatcertainColossianswerebeingencouragedtogivetoomuchimportancetovisionsofthethroneofGod
surroundedbyadoringangels.57FromPaul'sperspectivesuchaninvitationintoatotallyunattainableworldcompromisedtheprimacyandcentralityofChristinthe
realworld.PaulcleverlyturnedthetablesontheteachersatColossae,byusingthecreationdimensionoftheirhymntounderlinethat,astheoneresponsibleforthe
comingintobeingofthespiritpowers,Christwasinfinitelysuperiortothem(Col.2:10).

Theadditionofthoseonearthorinheaventothelastlineofthesecondstrophe(1:20c)parallelsthatin1:16b(thoseinheavenoronearth)butchiastically
reversestheorder,sothatthoseinheavenoccupiesthedramaticfinalplace.Paultherebyagainusestheoriginalhymntocreateanewargumentagainstitswriter(s).
Theneedofhumanbeingsforreconciliationneedsnoemphasis,andthepointismadeseveraltimesduringtheletter(1:212:133:7,13b).Paul'sinsertion,
however,insinuatesthatthespiritualpowersalsoneedreconciliation.58Theangelicworld,therefore,cannotbevieweduncritically.Wickedangelsareunlikelytobe
satisfactorymediatorsbetweenhumanityandGod.Buthowareterrestrialbeingstojudgetheircelestialcounterparts?Pauldoesnotneedtomakeexplicitthefutility
oftheexercise.Hisrhetoricaltraininghadmadehimawarethatconclusionsaremoreconvincingwhendrawnbytheaudience.

TotheintellectualpleasureofseeingtheColossianteachershoistwiththeir
54
InthelastdaysGodwillsendhiscompassiononearthand,whereverhefindsbowelsofmercy,hedwellsinhim(TestamentofZebulun8.2cf.Jubilees1.171Enoch49.2
3).
55
SeeparticularlyWright(1990),4623.
56
Aletti(1993),102,notesthattheheapingupoftermsisaPaulinetrait(1Cor.15:24Rom.8:38).Thesetwoletters,however,aresubsequenttoCol.andthetechniqueprobablyowes
itsorigintothelineofthoughtintowhichthecrisisatColossaeforcedhim.
57
O'Brien(1982),1423,andAletti(1993),196,againstLohse(1968),174.TheJewishtextsdocumentingapocalypticvisions,whichfindtheirclimaxinaglimpseoftheheavenlythrone
praisedbytheangelichosts,arebestassembledanddiscussedbySappington(1991),55111.
58
ManifestlyPaulisthinkingofthefallenangelssomeoftheangelsofheaventransgressedthewordoftheLord,andbeholdtheycommitsinandtransgressthelaw(1Enoch106.
1314cf.6.1815.11269.31686.188.32Bar.56.1113Sir.16:7).

 Page245

ownpetard,PauladdsthesatisfactionofdirectingtheirattentiontotheprecisemodalityofChrist'sachievementbyinsertingthephrase,makingpeacebythebloodof
hiscross(1:20b).59TheamendmentevokesthatofthePhilippianhymn,evendeathonacross(Phil.2:8c),buttheformulationisinfinitelymoredramatic.The
graphicimagerywillbeintensifiedsubsequentlybythementionofnailing(2:14).Paulwillneverletanyoneforgetthatredemptionhasbeenachievedwithinhistory
throughagonizingsuffering.Hischoiceoftheverbtomakepeaceprobablyhaslesstodowithanysupposedanimositybetweenheavenlybeings,orbetween
celestialsandterrestrials,thanwiththetensionswithintheColossianchurch.Thelettercontainsevidencethatthefalseteachersdidnothaveitalltheirownwaylet
thepeaceofChristruleinyourhearts(3:15).Notealsotheletter'semphasisonmutualforgiveness(3:13),andonunity,knittogetherinlove(2:2),putonlove
whichbindseverythingtogetherinperfectharmony(3:14).

ThethemeofunityalsoappearsinthesecondpartofeachofthetwolineinsertionwhichPaulplacesbetweenthestrophesoftheoriginalhymn(1:1718a).Thefirst
partofeachsimplymarksthesupremacyofChrist.Allthingsinhimholdtogetherisanothermatter.Onehasonlytoreflectonhowthisworkedinpracticeinorder
torealizethatPaulinverse17isparodying,notonlythetone,buttheenigmaticcharacterofhissource.60Thisabilitytofindaverbwhoseambivalencefitssoperfectly
intoitscontextthatveryastuteexegeteshavetakenitseriouslyonceagainrevealsthequalityofPaul'seducation.WhatPaulreallywantstoconveyisclearly
expressedinthesecondline,wheretheunityofthechurchisdefinedasthatofabody(v.18a).ThisisbutthelogicalextensionoftheinsightofGalatians,youare
alloneinChristJesus(Gal.3:28).ThatPaulisherethinkingalongthesamelinesisclearfromtheextremelycloseparallelbetweenthisverseandColossians3:11,
whichspeaksofthenewmanwheretherecannotbeGreekandJew,circumcizedanduncircumcized,barbarian,Scythian,butChristisall,andinall.

ThesourcesofPaul'svisionofthechurchasabodyhavebeenlongdebated.ThepredominantviewthathedrewonGreekphilosophicalreflectionsonthebody
politicisalsothemostimplausible.61ItispsychologicallyimpossiblethatPaulshouldhavetakenovertodescribethechurchatermusedtocharacterizesociety.The
latterappearedtohimasrivenbydivisions(Gal.3:285:1920),whereasthebasicqualityofthechurchwasunityrootedinlove
59
Barrett(1994),149,rightlyunderlinesthattheChristologyoftheColossianswasdeficientinemphasisuponthehistoricactsofthemanJesus.Itwasstaticandontological
ratherthaneschatological.
60
ThecommentaryofLightfoot(1904),154,istypical,Heimpressesuponcreationthatunityandsolidaritywhichmakesitacosmosinsteadofachaos.Thisismerelytoreformulate
Paul,nottoexplainhim.Dunn(1980),191,ismuchclosertothemarkinaskingisdeliberateambiguityintended?
61
Arrianus,Dissertationes2.5.2472.10.34.

 Page246

(1Thess.4:9).ItismuchmorelikelythathewasjoltedintothinkingofthechurchasabodybyreflectingonthemostmemorablefeatureofthetemplesofAsclepius
scatteredthroughouttheeasternMediterranean,namely,theceramicrepresentationsofpartsofthebodywhichhadbeencured.62TherecommendationofVitruvius
thatsuchtemplesbesitedonlyinareaswithcleanairandpurewatermadethemfavouriteplacesofrecreation,63andthereisnoreasontothinkthatPauldidnot
frequentthemonoccasion.Thesightoflegswhichwerenotlegs,broughtPaultotherealizationthatalegwastrulyalegonlywhenpartofabody.Believers,he
inferred,weretrulyaliveonlywhentheybelongedtoChristashismembers(Col.2:6,133:4).Thedeathofegocentricisolationhasbeenreplacedbythelife
ofsharedexistence.

Whenprolonged,thissamelineofthoughtgivesus,holdingfasttothehead,fromwhomthewholebody,nourishedandknittogetherthroughitsjointsandligaments,
growswithagrowththatisfromGod(Col.2:19).Thisuseofheadinthesenseofsourceisbetterattestedthanthealternativemeaningsuperior,whichis
certainlythesenseinColossians2:10.64ThevisionofthechurchastheBodyofChristalsoappearsinlaterletters.65Itisnotsurprisingthattheydonottakeupthe
distinctionofheadandbody,whichwasdictatedherebythetheologicalclimateoftheColossianchurch.InneitherCorinthnorRomewasthesupremacyofChrist
questioned.

Paul'sinsistencethatChristispresentinhim,andinallmembersoftheChurchdrawsthecosmicdimensionoftheChristologicalreflectionoftheColossiansdowninto
ecclesiology.ParadoxicallythispointisfurtherunderlinedbyanotherspecificfeatureofColossians,namely,itsidentificationofthegospel(1:5,23)asthe
mystery(1:26,272:24:3),athemethatwillappearlaterin1Corinthians2:69.Thisshiftwasnodoubtinspiredbythephilosophicalapproachtoreligionthat
hadbecomefashionableatColossae(2:4,8,18).Thereisnointentiontoexaltthegospeltoalevelthatitdidnotpreviouslyenjoy.WhatPaulwantstogetacrossis
thatthemysteryisnolongeramystery!TherevelationwhichJewsandGentilesstruggledtofindisnolongerasecret.IthasnowbeenrevealedbyChristandin
Christ(1:272:24:3).Therichesofassuredunderstanding,wisdom,andknowledgeareachieved,notbycontemplationofaheavenly,spiritfilleddreamworld,but
byreflectionon,andcommitmentto,Christ(2:23).SometimelaterPaulwillexpressthesameideabypresentingChristasthepowerofGodandthewisdomof
God(1Cor.1:24).
62
Hill(1980).
63
DeArchitectura1.2.7.
64
Fitzmyer(1989).
65
SeeCh.11,TheBodyofChrist.

 Page247

EschatologyandEthics.

OpponentsoftheauthenticityofColossiansgivegreatimportancetoitsrealizedeschatology,whichtheyclaimisincompatiblewiththefuturisteschatology
characteristicofthegenuineletters.Aclosereading,however,revealsthatfuturestatementspredominateinColosians.Christisthehopeofglory(1:27)because
whenheappears,youwillappearwithhiminglory(3:4cf.1Thess.4:17).Therewillbeafinaljudgement(3:6,1516),atwhichboththegoodandthebadwill
beassessed.Thegoodwillbepresentedholyandblameless,onlyiftheycontinueinthefaith(1:22cf.1Thess.3:13).Itiswithinthisclearlydefinedcontextthatthe
twostatementsofrealizedeschatologyyouwereraisedwithhim(2:12)ifyouhavebeenraisedwithChrist(3:1)youdiedandyourlifeishiddenwithChristin
God(3:3)mustbeunderstood.ManifestlytheycannotmeanthattheColossianshavealreadybeenphysicallyraisedfromthedead.Theyaresimplyanalternative,
andmorevivid,expressionofthebodytheme,youwhoweredeadGodhasmadealivetogetherwithhim(2:13cf.3:3).Gracehasbroughtaboutafundamental
change.ForPaulitwasimperativetomakesurethattheColossiansunderstoodthatChristhaddoneeverythingessential.Hisplenitudemeantthattherewasnothing
thatthespiritpowerscouldadd.66

In1Thessalonians4:112PaulfoundithelpfultoremindhisconvertsthattheirlifestyleasChristiansmustberadicallydifferentfromtheirpreviouscomportment.In
Colossianshedoesthesame,butmoreexplicitly,andatgreaterlength(3:1to4:6).Nodoubtashisexperienceasapastorincreased,thegenerosityofhis
assumptionsregardinghumannaturediminished.Nolongerdidhetakeitforgrantedthathisconvertswouldbeaswholeheartedashehadbeeninworkingoutwhat
behaviourwasappropriatetolifeinChrist.InadditionthesituationatColossaewascomplicatedbythefactthatsomemembersofthechurchwereattractedto
excessiveritualismandasceticrigour(2:1623),andlookeddownonotherswhodidnotsharetheirviews.

TheinsistenceonJewishobservancesmattersoffoodanddrink,afestival,anewmoon,orasabbath(2:16)revealsthatthesituationatColossaewas
analogoustothatwhichobtainedatGalatia,yetPaul'sreactioniscompletelydifferent.NowhereinColossiansdoesheevokefaithortheworksoftheLaw.Thishas
ledsometodisqualifyhimastheauthorofColossians.67Theyshouldratherhavequestionedjusthowsimilarthetwosituationswere.

InGalatia,aswehaveseen,thechurchsweretroubledbyintrudersinsisting
66
Aletti(1993),208,isentirelycorrectinwriting,leglissementdescategoriesestdavantagedlalogiqueinternedel'pitrequ'unchangementradicald'eschatologie.Similarly
Sappington(1991),2267.
67
Furnish(1992),1093.

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thattheyhadamandatefromthemotherchurchinAntiochsystematicallytocorrectthegospel,whichPaulhadpreached,byimposingfullobservanceoftheLaw.68It
wasafrontalattackonPaulpersonally,andonallthathebelieved.NothingofthesortoccurredintheLycusvalley.Thechurchestherewerenotfoundedunderthe
aegisofAntioch.ThereisnottheslightesthintthatPaul'sauthoritywasquestioned.ThereisnoconclusiveevidencethatthefalseteacherswerefellowChristians,or
thattheywereactiveproselytizers.SomebelieversmayhavebeenattractedtoaformofesotericJewishteachingwhichcirculatedatColossaeandwantedtoshare
theirnewinsightswithothers.TheydidnotreduceChristtoirrelevanceasdidtheintrudersinGalatia,butratherexaltedhismediatoryrole.Theproblemwithwhich
PaulhadtodealwasnotadoctrinaireattitudetowardstheLaw,buttheasceticmysticalpietyofJewishapocalypticism,69whoserootsweremoreemotionalthan
theological.InGalatiaPaulhadtocounterareallyseriousthreat,whichwasbeingpushedhomeasamatterofprinciple.AtColossaetheissuewasafashionablefad,
whosefollowerssoughtheavenlyascentsbymeansofvariousasceticpracticesinvolvingabstinencefromeatinganddrinking,aswellascarefulobservanceofthe
Jewishfestivals.Theseexperiencesofheavenlyascentclimaxedinavisionofthethroneandinworshipofferedbytheangelichostssurroundingit.70Jewish
observanceswereimportant,notinthemselves,butasthemeanstoanend.

Givensuchdifferences,itwouldhavebeensurprisingtofindPaulusingatColossaethetacticswhichhadsuitedthesituationinGalatia.Therehehadtodemolisha
thoroughlyworkedoutvisionofChristianity,whosecoherentargumentswererootedinrevelation.HisopponentsatColossae,onthecontrary,hadnosuch
intellectualdepth.Theydescribedmysteries,apocalypticvisions,whoserealitynoonecouldverify.IncontrasttothewellrootedepresentativesofAntioch,they
floatedinafantasyworld.Paul'sconcernwastorestoreasenseofreality,tosetthefeetofthemisguidedonsolidground.Theygraspedatshadowshehadtoshow
themthatChristwassubstance(2:17).Themosteffectivetacticwasnottochallengethemysticsheadon,buttoconsistentlyintroducediscreetmodifications,whose
cumulativeimpactwouldsubverttheirteachingcompletely.Hereliedonthesoberingeffectofthecalmassumptionofauthority.

TheHouseholdCode

ItisinthisperspectivethatwemustapproachPaul'suseofahouseholdcode(3:18to4:1)which,ifheweretruetohimself,heshouldneverhaveemployed.
68
SeeCh.8,TheCauseoftheCrisis.
69
ThishasbeenmostthoroughlyarguedbySappington(1991),15070.
70
Ibid.170.

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Nothingsimilarappearsinanypreviousorsubsequentletterofhis.Thisseriesofpairedinjunctions(wiveshusbands/childrenparents/slavesmasters),notonly
representedtheconventionalmoralityofsociety,asocialgroupingthatforPaulwastheantithesisofthechurch,butitflatlycontradictsthestructureofthechurch
wheretherecannotbeGreekandJew,circumcisedanduncircumcised,slaveandfreeman(3:11).Theuseofthecodeheremakessenseonlyasaninvitationtothe
Colossianstoleavethemysticalrealmoftheangelsandtoreturntotherealworld,wherethefabricofdailylifewaswovenfromamultitudeofinterpersonalrelations,
ofwhichthemostbasicwerethethreepairslistedhere.

Whatissaidtoslavesstandsoutfromtheothersbothquantitativelyandqualitatively(Col.3:225).Inevitablycommentatorshaveseenarelationshiptothesituation
ofOnesimus,whowasreturningtoconfronthisinjuredmaster(Col.4:9).Inthatcase,however,onewouldhaveexpectedeitherawarningtoslavesnottoimitatethe
dishonestyofOnesimus,oranexpandedmonitiontoownersonhowslavesshouldbetreated.Neitherappearshere.Itmightbethoughtthatthedirectivewasmade
necessarybyagitationamongChristianslavesatColossaetobegiventheequalitytheytheoreticallyenjoyedasmembersofthesameBody,buttheformulation
militatesagainstthisinterpretation.71

WeareforcedtoconcludethatColossians3:2225reflectsPaul'shabitualattitudetowardsslaveswhoacceptedChristianity.Contrarytowhatonemighthave
expected,hewasnotconcernedwiththeirliberation.Withinthecommunityhetookitforgrantedthattheywouldshowandsharethelovethatwasitsmostdistinctive
feature,butthereisnohintthathedidanythingtochangethesocialorder.ThisiswellillustratedbythecaseofOnesimus.Paul'srequestwasthatheshouldnotbe
treatedasaslavewhenhereturnedtoColossae.Thereisnodemandthathebemanumitted(Philem.1617).72WhensometimelaterPaulwasforcedtoconfront
theissueofslaverybytheCorinthians,whobelievedthattheirrelationshipwithGodcouldbeimprovedbyachangeinsocialstatus,heresponded(a)thatnochange
shouldbeinitiatedforthesakeofprinciple(b)thatasocialchangecouldbeinitiatedtocompensateforahumanweaknessand(c)thatasocialchangeinitiatedby
factorsoutsideone'scontrolcouldbeaccepted(1Cor.7:1724).

InColossians3:225allPaul'sattentionisfocusedontheauthenticityofaslave'slife.Ofthesixrelationshipsdealtwithinthehouseholdcode,onlytwowerelikelyto
bemarkedbydeception.Inmanywaysthepositionofchildrenwasparalleltothatofslavestheydidnotcontroltheirlives.Theformer,however,areminors,anditis
afather'sdutynottocreatetheconditionsfordeception.Evenifilltreated,slavesareadults,andresponsiblefortheir
71
SorightlyAletti(1993),2545.
72
AgainstBartchy(1992),71.

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attitudes.WhatPauldoesnotwantthemtodoistoobeyorderstotheletter,whiletheheartraged,andhatecorrodedthespirit.Thereasonbehindthispositioncan
bededucedfromColossians4:56,wherePaulstressesthewitnessvalueofthecomportmentofChristians(cf.1Thess.4:12).Theinternaltension,whichwasthe
occupationaldiseaseofslavery,hadtoberesolvedinordertopermitthetransformingeffectofgracebecomevisible.73

DidPaulVisitColossae?

WhileinprisoninEphesusPaulplannedtwovisitsassoonashewasreleased,onetoPhilippi(Phil1:262:24)andtheothertoColossae(Philem.22).Hedidnot
makethevisittoPhilippi.ItwasstillonhisagendaintheearlysummerofAD54whenhewrote1Corinthians16:5.WasthevisittoColossaealsoaborted?

PaulwasprobablyreleasedinthelatterpartofthesummerofAD53.WehaveseenthatthelikelyreasonwhyhedidnotgotoPhilippiwasthesituationinthechurch
atEphesus,wheretherewassignificantoppositiontohisleadership.74Theroundtripwouldhavetakentheminimumofamonth75andbroughthimdangerouslyclose
tothemomentwhennormalseatravelceased.IfshipsnolongersailedfromNeapolis,hewouldbetrappedinMacedoniaforthewinter,withunacceptable
consequences.AprolongedabsencemightguaranteethesuccessofadifferentvisionofChristianityatEphesus.Moreover,toleavethecityatthatcrucialmoment
mightbeinterpretedastheflightofacoward.

ThesereflectionsdonotmilitatewiththesameforceagainstavisittoColossae.Paul'sreasonforgoingtoPhilippiwasessentiallyforthepleasureofseeingbelievers
whohadalwaysbeenloyalandcooperative.Itwasintendedtorefreshhisspiritafteratensetimeunderinvestigation.Apartfromthetensiongeneratedbythe
personalcompetitionofEuodiaandSyntyche(Phil.4:2),therewerenoproblemsthatimperativelydemandedhispresence.ItwouldnothavebeendifficultforPaulto
rationalizehisfailuretokeephispromisetothePhilippiansastherepudiationofaselfishdecisionmadeinamomentofweakness.

TheplannedvisittoColossaecouldnotbeavoidedsoeasily.Animportantdoctrinalpointwasatstake,and,Paulhadacceptedresponsibilityfortheworkofhis
agent,Epaphras,bywritingletterstotheColossiansandtotheLaodiceans.Heneededtoknowwhetherthewayhehaddealtwiththefalseteachershadbeen
successful.Ifnot,itwasimperativetomakeafurthereffort.Paul,however,didnothavetogotoColossaehimself.Therewereatleasttwoothersourcesof
informationavailable.Tychicuswasapermanentmemberof
73
SeeCrouch(1972),160.
74
SeeCh.9,OppositionatEphesus
75
SeeCh.7,AnEphesianChronology.

 Page251

Paul'sentourage(2Tim.4:12).Althoughitisnotstated,itmustbepresumedPaulexpectedhimtoreturntoEphesuswithareportonthesituationatColossae.76
EpaphraswouldcertainlyhavereturnedtoColossaethemomenthewasreleased,andcouldbebackinEphesuswithintwoweeks,ifthesituationwarrantedit.

Paulmusthavewonderedwhetherheshouldrelyonsecondhandinformationorgoandseeforhimself?Adecisivefactorinhisinternaldebatewashisconvictionof
theautonomyofthelocalcommunity.Whateverneededtobedoneastheresultofhisletterwouldhavetobeaccomplishedfromwithin,asamemberofthe
community.Inmanyotherchurchesthiswouldmeannomorethanslippingbackintothenichewhichhehadoccupiedforayearormore.AtColossaeheknew
peopleonlybyreputation.Hehadmetnoneofthempersonally(Col.2:1).Toknowthem,andtobeknownbythem,wouldtaketime.Themorehethoughtaboutit,
themorePaulbecameconvincedthat,ifhewenttotheLycusvalley,hewouldbeobligedtospendthewinterthere.

CouldheaffordsomuchtimeawayfromEphesus?OnbalancePaulthoughtnot.Hispersonalpositiontherewasindanger,anditwastheplacewhichhehad
selectedashisbaseforcontactswithotherchurches.HehadjusthadtodealwithaprobleminCorinthviathePreviousLetter(1Cor.5:9).Moreover,hehadnot
formallypromisedtheColossiansthathewouldvisitthem.NothingaboutavisitismentionedinColossiansandhedidnotplantostaywithEpaphras,theleaderofthe
community,withwhomhehadsharedaprisoncell.TherequestforaguestroomwasaddressedtoPhilemon(Philem.22),andcouldbeconsideredapurelyprivate
matter.Itwouldbemoreprudent,Pauldecided,towaitforthereportsofTychicusandEpaphras.

Whatnewstheybroughthimweshallneverknow.FromthefollowingspringPaulwascompletelyabsorbedbytheproblemsofthechurchinCorinth,andleft
ColossaetothecareofEpaphras.
76
SomemanuscriptsofCol.4:8makethisexplicitbytransforminginorderthatyoumayknowthethingsconcerningusintoinorderthatImayknowthethingsconcerning
youseeLightfoot(1904),233,253.

 Page252

11
ConfusionatCorinth
AfterleavingPhilippi,PaulwenttoThessalonica,andthenceviaAthenstoCorinth,wherehearrivedsometimeintheearlyspringofAD50.ThechoiceofCorinthas
amissionarycentrewaswellmotivated,1andthecommunityhefoundedtherereflectedthebestfeaturesofthedynamictradingcity.Itsmemberswerecommittedand
enthusiastic,anddidnothesitatetoaccepttheresponsibilityofworkingoutwhatChristianitymeantforthem.Buttheyprovedtobethemostexasperatingchurchwith
whichPaulhadtodeal.Theimprecisionofhispreachingexacerbatedapositivegeniusontheirpartformisunderstandinghim.Virtuallyeverystatementhemadetook
rootintheirmindsinaslightlydistortedform,andfromthisdefectiveseedfloweredbizarreapproachestodifferentaspectsoftheChristianlife.

Paul,inconsequence,foundhimselfobligedtothinkmuchmoredeeplyaboutawholearrayofissues.Moreimportantlyforourpurposes,thepressuresofan
extremelyturbulentrelationshipforcedtothesurfaceaspectsofhispersonalitywhicharenotperceptibleelsewhere.Theintenseemotionwhichimbuedallhisdealings
withtheCorinthiansactsasaprismthroughwhichfacetsofhischaracterarerefractedinvividcolours.AlthoughGalatiansisostensiblythemostautobiographical
letter,itremainsverymuchonthesurfaceofthings.TheexternaleventslistedinGalatians12disclosevirtuallynothingofthecomplexnatureoftheApostle.The
Corinthiancorrespondenceismuchmoreselfrevelatory.InittheApostleunwittinglylaysbarehissoul.

LetterstoCorinth

TheintensityofPaul'srelationshipwiththeCorinthiansisillustratedbythefactthathewrotemoreletterstothemthantoanyotherchurch.TheNewTestament
containsonlytwoletters,butthesementiontwoothers,thePreviousLetter(1Cor.5:9)andthePainfulLetter(2Cor.2:4).Hence,fourinall.Fromtheendofthe
eighteenthcentury,however,doubtshavebeenraised
1
Seeabove,Ch.5,TheMovetoCorinth.

 Page253
2
regardingtheintegrityofboth1and2Corinthians. Thedivisionof2Corinthiansintotwooriginallyindependentletterswaspostulatedin1776.Ittookahundred
yearsfortheintegrityof1Corinthianstobecalledintoquestion.Fromthatmomenthypothesesbecameevermorecomplexasfragmentsfromoneletterwere
associatedwiththosefromanother.ThistrendinNewTestamentresearchreacheditsclimaxwiththethesisthatoriginallytheCorinthiancorrespondenceconsistedof
ninedistinctletters.3

Itiseasytomockthearbitrarinessofsuchtheories.Theexaggerationsofsomepractitioners,however,donotinvalidatethemethod.Partitiontheoriesarenever
developedfortheirownsaketheyaredesignedtoaccountforobservationsthataremadeingoodfaith,andsotheydeservetobetakenseriously,evenifultimately
theydonotcommandassent.Thelitmustestis:aretheinternaltensionssogreatastodestroythemethodologicalassumptionofliteraryunity?Answerswillvary
becausecompleteobjectivityisimpossibleeveryliteraryjudgementnecessarilyembodiesasubjectiveelement.Adetailedevaluationofalltheproposalswouldtake
ustoofarafield.Nonetheless,somethingmustbesaidbecausethenumberandorderofthelettersisobviouslyfundamentaltoanyreconstructionofPaul'srelations
withCorinth.

1Corinthians

1Corinthiansisrelativelyeasytodealwithbecausetheprincipleonwhichthepartitiontheoriesarebasedcanbediscernedwithoutdifficulty.Thesalientfeatureof1
Corinthiansistheabsenceofanydetectablelogicinthearrangementofitscontents.Insomemindsthisproducedanimpressionofdisorder,whichwasexplainedby
postulatinganineptconflationofanumberofletters.Thekeyusedbysuchscholarstounlockthesecretoftheoriginaldocumentshasbeenthevarioussourcesof
informationwhichPaulhadavailabletohim,namely,Chloe'speople(1Cor.1:11),thelettersentbytheCorinthians(1Cor.7:1),andthedelegationcomprising
Stephanas,Fortunatus,andAchaicus(1Cor.16:17).Differentpartsof1Corinthiansarecombinedtocreatewhatareconsideredtobeappropriateandinternally
consistentresponsestoeachonetakensinglyorincombination.4

Oncetheunderlyingassumptionsarebroughtoutclearly,thefundamentalflawofthismethodologybecomesapparent.Itassumesknowledgesuperiortothatofthe
authorbydictatingwhatheshouldhavesaid.Theresultantlettersowemoretotheaestheticsenseofthescholarthantoanyobjectivefactors.
2
AsurveyofthehistoryofresearchintotheliteraryunityoftheCorinthianlettersisprovidedbyBetz(1985),336.
3
Schmithals(1973).Forasurveyofthevariousmodernpartitiontheories,seeSellin(1987),29658.
4
InadditiontoSchmithals,seethemuchmoresoberHring(1959),1012Schenke(1969)Senft(1979),1725.

 Page254
5
Moreover,asG.D.Feehasrightlypointedout,allthesocalledinternalcontradictionsin1Corinthianscanberesolvedbyamoreexactingexegesis. Finally,no
satisfactoryexplanationiseverprovidedfortheprocedure,andnojustificationfortheintentionoftheredactor(s),whogave1Corinthiansitspresentshape.Itisnot
surprising,therefore,thatthemajorcommentatorshavebeenfirmlyinfavouroftheunityof1Corinthians.6

2Corinthians

Thosewhomaintaintheunityof2Corinthiansaremuchfewerthanthosewhoinsistontheintegrityof1Corinthians.Thereasonistheradicalbreakbetweenchs.19
andchs.1013.ItisimpossiblethatPaulshouldhavefollowedhiscelebrationofhisreconciliationwiththechurchofCorinth(chs.19)byatorrentofreproaches
andsarcasticselfvindication(chs.1013).7Eventhemostcommitteddefendersoftheunityof2Corinthianshavetorecognizetheforceofsuchobservations.How
theydealwiththemisanothermatter,andtheapproachofE.B.Alloistypical.8Sometimeafterfinishingchs.19,heclaims,Paulreceivednewsthatintrudersat
CorinthhadspreadrumoursthathewasappropriatingfundsforJerusalemforhispersonaluse,andthatthecommunitytherehadnotcometohisdefence.Inreaction,
wearetold,hewrotetheblisteringattackinchs.1013andattachedittochs.19.

Thishypothesisredefinestheconceptofliteraryunityinsuchawayastomakeitmeaningless.Ifchs.1013werewrittenafteracertaininterval,andmotivatedbya
concernotherthanthatanimatingchs.19,itisaseparateletterbynormalstandards.Werechs.19stillinPaul'spossession,whentheinformationarrived,theanger
bubblingtothesurfaceinchs.1013makesitmorelikelythathewouldhavetornupchs.19,andsentonlychs.1013.Allo'sreconstructionispsychologically
impossible.9

Theviewthatchs.17exhibitacompleterhetoricalargument,andthat,inconsequence,chs.89aresuperfluousandmustbetreatedasalateraddition,sincethey
aretoolongtobeapostscript,10iscontradictedbyaletterofCicerotoAtticus(Att.12.289),inwhichthepostscriptisproportionatelymuchlongerthan2
Corinthians89relativetochs.17.11Rhetoricalcriticismisalso
5
(1987),1516.Forgreaterdetail,seeMerklein(1984).
6
e.g.Barrett(1968),15Conzelmann(1975),34Merklein(1992),468.
7
ThebestdescriptionofthedifferenceremainsthatofPlummer(1915),pp.xxixxxx.
8
(1956b),2678.
9
Otherdefencesareevenmoreunsatisfactory.Bates(1965)treatschs.1013asarecapitulationofchs.19,ahypothesiswhichisnotjustifiedbythecontentandwhichfailsto
explainthechangeoftone.Hyldahl(1973)forcestheexegesisofkeytextsinanattempttoprovethattherewasnotimeforchs.1013tobewrittenexceptasthecontinuationofchs.
19.
10
Kennedy(1984),92.
11
ArigidapplicationoftheirownrhetoricalrulesisforcefullyopposedbytheRhetoricaatHerennium3.16,andQuintilian,InstitutioOratoria2.13.17.

 Page255

invokedtoprovethat2Corinthians8and9wereoriginallyindependentlettersbyclaimingthateachexhibitstherhetoricalschema. Thisisnotinfactthecase.13
12

Theoverlapbetweenthe2Corinthians8and9does,however,requireanexplanation.Theshiftintothefirstpersonsingularatthebeginningofch.9,whencoupled
withtheparallelinstructurewithGalatians6:1118,whereapersonalappealalsoshadesintoaprofoundtheologicalargument,identifiesch.9asapersonal
postscriptauthenticatingtheletter.ThiswasasmuchpartofPaul'sepistolarytechniqueasitwasofthatofhiscontemporaries.14

If2Corinthians19and2Corinthians1013aretwoletters,whichwaswrittenfirst?AsignificantnumberofscholarsfollowA.Hausrath,whoin1870arguedthat
chs.1013shouldbeidentifiedwiththePainfulLettermentionedin2Corinthians2:4.ThemostabledefenceofthishypothesisisthatofF.Watson,15buthis
argumentsultimatelyfailtocarryconviction.16

2Corinthians1013wasoccasionedbyanattackonPaul'sapostolicauthoritybyJudaizingintruders,asubjectwhichisneverevokedinwhatPaulsaysofthePainful
Letter.Equally,theissuewhichgaverisetothePainfulLetterwasaninsulttoPaulbyanindividualthisisnotevenhintedatinchs.1013.Finally,2Corinthians10
13waswritteninpreparationforavisittoCorinthintheimmediatefuture,Paul'sthird(12:1413:12),whereasthePainfulLetterwaswrittenasasubstitutefora
visit,whichPaulhadpromisedonhissecondvisitbutthenrefusedtomake(2Cor.2:14).

Theothermissingletteristhatmentionedin1Corinthians5:9.Hringidentified2Corinthians6:14to7:1aspartofthisepistle,17andhehasbeenfollowedby
others,whoexpanditwithmaterialdrawnfrom1Corinthians.18Thisthesishasbeenfacilitatedbytheimpressionthatthisblockofmaterialbreakstheconnection
between2Corinthians6:13and7:2.ManyinfacttreatitasapostPaulineinterpolationofEsseneinspiration.19Infact,however,thesocalledEssenelinguistic
parallelsaremuchinferiortothosedrawnfromthelanguageoftheDiasporasynagoguewhichisbestrepresentedbyPhilo.Whenunderstoodinthissense,6:14to7:
1fitsperfectlyintotheargumentof2Corinthians19.20

Todrawtogetherthestrandsofthisdiscussion,PaulwrotefiveletterstoCorinth:(1)thelostPreviousLetter(2)1Corinthians(3)thelostPainfulLetter(4)2
Corinthians19and(5)2Corinthians1013.Therelativeorderofnos.1and2hasbeenestablished,ashasthatofnos.35.Theonequestionremainingopenisthe
relationshipof1Corinthianstoletters35
12
Betz(1985),pp.viiviii.
13
Stowers(1987),72730.
14
Richards(1991),8090,17682.
15
(1984),32446.
16
Foramoredetailedresponse,seemy(1991b).
17
(1959),1012.
18
Schmithals(1973),276Hurd(1965),238.
19
e.g.mostrecentlyKlauck,(1986),601.
20
Seemy(1988a).

 Page256

Ifweabstractfromtheorieswhichcompletelydismember1and2Corinthians,noone(tothebestofmyknowledge)hassuggestedthat1Corinthiansshouldbedated
aftereitherofthecomponentelementsof2Corinthians.Theprincipalargumentforthetraditionalarrangementisthereferencestothecollectionforthepoorof
Jerusalem.In1Corinthians16:14,inresponsetoarequestfromtheCorinthians,PaulgivespracticaldirectivesastohowthemoneyatCorinthshouldbe
assembled.From2Corinthians89,however,itisclearnothinghadinfactbeendoneeventhoughayearhadelapsedtheircommitmenthadtoberevived(9:2).21

Moreover,1CorinthiansgivestheimpressionthatitisPaul'sfirstcontactwithCorinthsincehisfoundingvisit.Manyproblemshaveaccumulated.Allhisinformationis
secondhand.AndhehashadtosendTimothy,whoisnotlistedintheaddressoftheletter(1:1),toprovideanindependentassessmentofthesituationthere(4:17
16:1011).From2Corinthians19,onthecontrary,welearnthatTimothyisagainwithPaul(1:1),andthatthelatterhasbeenrecentlyinCorinth,avisitwhose
bitterconsequencestotallyexcludeitsidentificationwiththefoundingvisit(2:14).Moreover,Paul'splannedvisittoMacedonia(1Cor.16:5)fromEphesuswas
actuallymadeviaCorinth(2Cor.1:16).

TheRoadfromAthenstotheIsthmus

ThereasonsforPaul'smovefromAthenstoCorinthhavebeendiscussedalreadyinthecontextofhiscorrespondencewithThessalonica.22Nowwemustlookathis
firstvisitthereinsomedetail

InordertogetfromAthenstoCorinth,Paulandhiscompanions,TimothyandSilas(2Cor.1:19)hadtwooptions.Theycouldgobylandorbysea.Shipsplied
regularlybetweenPiraeusandSchoenusorCenchreaeviatheislandofSalamis.Delays,however,werefrequent.Badweather,adversewinds,orsimplybadomens
impededdeparture.Thesearoute,therefore,couldtakeaslongasthetwodaylandrouteviaMegara.23SincePaul'scontemporariesundertookaseavoyagesolely
whenitwastheonlywaytogetfromoneplacetoanother,orwhenitofferedimmensesavingsoftimeandenergy,24thereislittledoubtthattheApostleoptedforthe
overlandroute.
21
e.g.Ldemann(1984),87Wolff(1989),3.
22
SeeCh.5,TheMovetoCorinth.
23
DiognetusbyspendingthenightnearMegaracouldveryeasilybeinAthensonthefollowingday.Orelse,ifhepreferred,atEleusis.Otherwisehecouldtakeashorterway
throughSalamis,withoutpassingthroughanydeserts(DioChrysostom,Discourses,6.6trans.Cohoon).
24
Everyonewasconsciousoftheunpredictabledangersofthesea.Horaceevokedtheinventionoftheboatwiththewords,Oakandtriplebronzewereabouthisbreastwhofirst
committedhisfragileboattothesurlyseaandsoimpiousboatstraversethesoundsthatoughttoremain

(Footnotecontinuedonnextpage)

 Page257

WhenPaulsetoutfromAthenshehadawalkofsome80km.(50miles)aheadofhim,arouterichinreligiousassociations,butwhosedangerwasunderlinedbythe
epicdeedsofTheseus.AteverystepofthewaytherewassomethingtoremindtheApostleofthereligiousandpoliticalhistoryofGreece.25Forthefirst22km.(14
miles)hispathfollowedtheSacredWaytoEleusis,alongwhichpassedthegreatprocessioneachautumntohonourDemeter.Oncehereachedtheshoreofthe
EleusinianGulfhehadonhisrightthesaltwaterfishpondssacredtotheMaidandDemeter,andtheRharianmeadow,thefirstplaceeversownorcropped,
accordingtoGreeklegend.TobalancesuchtranquilscenerymemorycarriedthestoryofProcrustes,abrigandwhomadehisvictimsfithisbedbyrackingtheshort
andamputatingthelong.OnemaydoubtthatPaulwastedtimeadmiringthegreatsanctuaryatEleusis.HisconcernmusthavebeentoreachMegara,19km.(12
miles)furtheron,beforenightfall.Itwouldhavebeenanexceptionallylongday'swalk.

ThatnightPaul'sthoughtswouldhavebeenconcentrated,notontheproblemsthatwouldfacehimonarrivalatCorinth,butonthefirstpartofhisjourneynextday,
whichpresentedamoreimmediatethreat.The8km.(5miles)sectionoftheroadknownastheSceironianRocksisdescribedbyStrabo:
Theyleavenoroomforaroadalongthesea,buttheroadfromtheIsthmustoMegaraandAtticapassesabovethem.However,theroadapproachessoclosetotherocksthatit
manyplacesitpassesalongtheedgeofprecipices,becausethemountainsituatedabovethemisbothloftyandimpracticableforroads.(Geography9.1.4trans.Jones)

AccordingtoPausaniasthetrackwashewnforactivemenandwasenlargedintoarealroadonlybyHadrian.26ItsassociationwithbanditsdidnotendwhenTheseus
threwSceironintothesea.Hehadbeenarobberwhoforcedtravellerstowashhisfeetand,astheyfinished,kickedthemoverthecliff.27InPaul'sdayitwasaplace
inwhichhecertainlyexperienceddangerfromrobbersdangersinthewilderness(2Cor.11:26).

OncePaulreachedCrommyon(todayHagiosTheodoros)hewasinCorinthianterritory,inanareaassociatedwithtwofurtherexploitsofTheseus,theslaughterof
thesowPhaeaandtheexecutionofthebanditSinisbythetechniquehehimselfusedtodisposeofhisvictimshewastornintwowhenthebentpinetreestowhichhis
legsweretiedwereallowedtospringup.28

(Footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
unstained(Odes1.3.9and23trans.Shepherd).Theship,inotherwords,wasconceivedbyasadisticdegeneratecommittedtothedestructionofhumanity.
25
Twoancientdescriptionsareextant.Pausanius(DescriptionofGreece1.36.3to44.10)goesfromAthenstoCorinth,asdidPaul.Strabotravelsinthereversedirection(Geography
9.1.116).
26
DescriptionofGreece1.44.6.
27
Ibid.1.44.8Strabo,Geography9.1.4.
28
Pausanias,DescriptionofGreece2.1.3.

 Page258
29
AtSchoenusPaulhadhisfirstexperienceofthedynamismofCorinth. Iftheisthmuswasalandbridge,permittingtradetofloweasilybetweenthePeloponneseand
theGreekmainland,itwasabarriertoeastwestshipping,andmarinersneededanalternativetothelongroutearoundthePeloponnese.30Asearlyasthesixth
centuryBC,theCorinthiansthoughtofcuttingacanal.31Likelaterplans,thisprojectcametonothing,32andaningenious,provisionalsolutionremainedinplacefor
1,300years.TheCorinthianslaidapavedroad,thediolkos,tojointheCorinthianandSaronicgulfs.About400metresoftheroadhavebeenexcavatedonthewest
sideoftheIsthmus.Thewidthvariesfrom3.4to6metres.Groovescutinthepaving1.5metresapartguidedthewheelsofthewoodenplatform(theholkos),on
whichsmallboatsandgoodswerehauledacrosstheisthmus.Earthentracksoneithersidewereusedbypackanimals.33

Thejostling,shoutingmultitudeoflabourersalongthisroad,throughwhomPaulhadtopushhisway,wouldhavebeenhisfirstconcreteperceptionofwhatlifeat
Corinthwasgoingtobelike.Thusfarhehadencounterednothingsimilar.TheprovincialtownsofAsiaandMacedoniawere,bycomparison,sleepyoasesofleisure,
inwhichhismissionwouldhavebeenanagreeabledistraction.Corinthhadmorebusinessthanitcouldcomfortablyhandle.Theimmensevolumeoftradewas
augmentedbyhugenumbersoftravellers.Profitcameeasilytothosepreparedtoworkhard,andcutthroatcompetitionensuredthatonlythecommittedsurvived.34
Wouldpeoplesobusyandpreoccupied,soeagerintheirpursuitofgain,haveanytimetolistentohismessage?Theobstaclesappearedgreaterthanthosehe
encounteredatAthens,whereatleasthewasgivenahearing(Acts17:1634).

Oncethroughthecrowds,Paulfoundhimselfinadifferentworld.TheroadledtothesanctuaryofPoseidonatIsthmiawithitstemple,theatre,andstadium.35Paul
cannothavebeenunawarethatthiswasthesceneoftheIsthmianGames,oneofthefourgreatpanHellenicfestivals,whichwascele
29
OnCorinth,seemy(1992b)and(1992e),andEngels(1990).
30
Theperilsofthe8km.(5miles)widechannelbetweenCapeMalea,thesoutheasterntipofGreece,andtheislandofCytherawereemphasizedbyHomer(Odyssey9.80cf.3.2864.
551419.186).Thereafter,itbecamepartoftheliterarytradition,whichitwasintheinterestofCorinthtoreinforcebyrepetitionoftheproverb,WhenyoudoubleCapeMaleaforget
yourhome(Strabo,Geography8.6.20).ThestrongelementofhyperboleisrevealedbythementiononthetombstoneofFlaviusZeuxisofHierapolisinAsiaMinorthatasa
merchantheroundedCapeMalea72timesonvoyagestoItaly(CIG3920).Thechannelwasclearofrocksandallthedifficultieswerecausedbythe50%chanceofcontrarywinds,
whichmeantdelaysthatmerchantscouldnotafford.
31
DiogenesLaertius(1.99)givesthecredittoPeriander(625585BC).
32
Pliny,NH4.911.
33
Wiseman(1978),45.
34
Thisistheoriginalsenseoftheproverb,NotforeveryoneisthevoyagetoCorinth(Horace,Epistles1.17.36),althoughbothStrabo(Geography8.6.20)andGellius(AtticNights
1.8.4)giveitanexclusivelysexualconnotation.
35
Pausanias,DescriptionofGreece2.1.7to2.2.

 Page259

bratedeverytwoyearsinthelatespring.PerhapstherewerestilltracesofthegamesofAD49celebratedsomeninemonthsearlier.Hewastoomatureforhisblood
tostiratthethoughtofthedrycelerycrownsawardedthevictors.36Ifanything,hethoughtoftheunitythatthefestivalachievedamongGreeksfromalloverthe
knownworld.AshemarvelledatwhatthegamesdidforGreekidentity,didhepraythatthemembersofhisfarflungchurcheswouldfeelunitedbyabondequally
vividandsecure?

SuchspiritualthoughtswouldhavebeencomplementedbythegratefulrealizationthatheshouldhavelittledifficultyfindingworkinCorinth.Duringtheweekofthe
festivalvisitorsthrongedtheareaandallCorinthwentouttoserveandtocelebratewiththem.37Theformerneededtentsinwhichtostay,andthelatterbrought
boothsinwhichtodisplaytheirwares.Agoodtentmakerwouldfindplentytodo.Repairswereasnecessaryasthemanufactureofnewtents,andthenextIsthmian
Gameswereonlyfifteenmonthsaway.Theliftoftheheartcausedbythesolutiontooneofhismanyproblemscarriedhimeasilyupthefinal10km.(6miles)tothe
city(seeFig.5).

TheNarrativeofActs

Paul'ssojourninCorinthisrecountedinsomedetailinActs18:118.Unfortunately,thisaccountcannotbeacceptedatfacevalue.Notonlydowehavetheproblem
oftwotextualtraditions(theWesternandtheAlexandrian),butthenarrativeaboundsinhintsofredactionalactivity.38Luke'saccountofPaul'sministryatCorinthisin
factamanylayeredtext.39

Themostprimitivestory40narratedonlyanabortiveattempttoconvertJews,afterwhichPaulwasconsoledbyavisionofChrist,whoseefficaciousprotectionwas
immediatelydemonstratedbytherefusalofGalliotohearthechargelaidagainstPaulbytheJews.Iseenoreasontorefusethehistoricityoftheeventsnarratedinthis
document.41Manifestly,however,itisnotacompleteaccountofPaul'sfoundingvisittoCorinth.ThatmuchhasbeenomittedisindicatedbythefactthatPaulboth
stayedaconsiderabletimeandmademanyconverts(18:18).
36
DioChrysostom,Discourses8.15Plutarch,Quaestionesconviviales5.3.13(675D677B)onwhich,seeBroneer(1962).
37
AvividdescriptionisgivenbyDioChrysostom,Discourses8.610.
38
BoismardandLamouille(1990),3.22832.TheirargumentsareofacompletelydifferentorderfromthoseputforwardbyLdemann(1984),15762.
39
ForthedetailsseeBoismardandLamouille(1990),2.2479,3003,366.
40
Consistingofverses1,4a,5b,6,9,10,1214a,15b,1618.
41
ThechronologicalimplicationsofPaul'sencounterwithGalliohavebeenworkedoutinCh.1,Paul'sEncounterwithGallio.

 Page260

Fig.5
Corinth:TheWalls
(Source:DavidGilmanRomano,TheCorinthiaintheRoman
Period,JRASup.8,ed.T.E.Gregory(AnnArbor,1993))

 Page261

WorkingwithPriscaandAquila.

Redactionaladditionsfilloutthestory.ThefirstintroducesPriscaandAquilaasPaul'shosts(18:23).Thisshouldbeacceptedashistoricalfactbecause,aswehave
seen,1Corinthians16:19demonstratesthattheyhadbeeninCorinthandthattheywereparticularlyclosetoPaul.42AccordingtotheWesterntext,however,the
reasonwhyPaulstayedwiththemwasthathehadpreviouslyknownAquila,sincetheybelongedtothesametribe.ThisiscorrectedintheAlexandriantext,which
presentsPaulasjoiningthembecausetheywereofthesametrade.

Theformerissuspiciouslylikeadeductionfromacoincidence.BothwereofthetribeofBenjamin(orsimplyJewscf.Acts10:28),hencetheymusthaveknown
eachother!Wheretheymighthavemadeeachother'sacquaintanceisconvenientlypassedoverinsilence.Asfarasoursourcesgo,theirpathshadnevercrossed.
RecognitionofthisdifficultyexplainstheAlexandrianversionhecametothembecausehewasofthesametradeandheremainedwiththemandhe/theyworked,for
theyweretentmakersbytrade(18:3).

ThelastclauseapparentlyhasonlyPriscaandAquilainviewitsfunctionistoexplainsametrade.J.J.Taylorarguesthatlogicdictatesthatthesamecouplearethe
subjectintheyworked.43InwhichcasetherewouldbenomentionofPaul'smanuallabourhelodgedwiththembuttheyworked.Thecontinuationofthe
narrativemakesitcertainthattheredactordidnotintendthiscontrast.ThemoneybroughtbySilasandTimothy,theeditorletsusunderstand,madeitpossiblefor
Paultogiveupmanuallabourandtogivehimselffulltimetotheministryoftheword(18:5)previouslyhehadpreachedonlyonthesabbath(18:4).44Thescribe
whotransformedthepluralintoheworkedrealizedthenecessityofavoidingafalseimpression.Commonsensemilitatesagainststrictgrammaticallogicinsuch
constructions.PaulworkedsidebysidewithPriscaandherhusbandasatentmaker.

Cananyconfidencebeplacedinthisinformation,whichenteredthenarrativesolate?Whatissecondaryfromaliterarypointofviewdoesnotnecessarilyimply
fabrication.Inthiscaseinventioncanbeexcluded.Notonlydidthetradeoftentmakinghavenosymbolicconnotations,buttheoccupationofPaul,AquilaandPrisca
musthavebeenwellknowninGreece,AsiaandItaly(Rom.16:3).Falsificationwouldhavebroughtridicule.Silenceisanothermatter.Itisentirelypossiblethatthe
WesterntextwasmotivatedbyaconcerntoraisePaul'ssocialstatusbyrefusingtoacknowledgethemanuallabourbywhichtheApostlehimselfclaimedtoearnhis
living(1Thess.2:92Thess.3:81Cor.4:12).45
42
SeeCh.7,TheFoundingoftheChurch.
43
(1994b),315n.3.
44
SoHaenchen(1971),534,539.
45
SeeCh.4,LearningaTrade.

 Page262

SilasandTimothy

ThesecondredactionaladditionbringsSilasandTimothyonthescene(18:5).TheconsequenceforthestorylineisthatPaulispresentedashavingministeredalone
inCorinthforsometimebeforebeingjoinedbyhiscompanions.Fromahistoricalpointofviewthisismostimplausible.AsIhavearguedabove,theanxietydisplayed
inPaul'sfirstlettertotheThessaloniansguaranteesthatheremainedinAthensuntilTimothy'sreturnfromMacedonia.46ItisinconceivablethatPaulwouldhavemade
himselfdifficulttofindbymovingtoanothercity,particularlyoneaslargeasCorinth.IfanythinghewouldhavemovednorthtoanticipateTimothy'sarrival,ashelater
didinthecaseofTitus(2Cor.2:1213).SilvanusandTimothywerePaul'scompanionswhenhearrivedinCorinthandparticipatedintheevangelizationofCorinth
fromtheverybeginning(2Cor.1:19).

Thisconclusioncallsintoquestiontwoelementsintherevisednarrative,namely,theinfluxoffundswhichmadeitunnecessaryforPaultowork,andsofacilitatedhis
movetoamoreupmarketaddress(18:5,7).Timothy'smissiontoMacedoniahadonlyoneobjective,namely,toreinforcethefaithoftheThessaloniansandto
reportbacktoPaulasquicklyaspossible(1Thess.3:110).Itwasnotthemomenttosolicitfinancialsupport,eveniftheThessalonianshadsurplusfunds,something
whichisfarfromcertain(cf.Phil.4:15).WhileworkinginThessalonicaPaulhadtobeaidedbythePhilippians(Phil.4:16).Moreover,itishighlyimprobablethat
TimothyexceededhismandatebymakingavisittoPhilippifromThessalonica.47Thefivedayjourneyeachway,andastayofseveraldays,wouldhaveincreasedhis
alreadylongabsencefromAthensbynearlythreeweeks.ItisnotimpossiblethatsomePhilippiansarrivedinThessalonicawithasubsidyforPaulwhileTimothy
happenedtobethere,buthistoryhasnothingtodowithsuchwishfulcoincidences.Nothingsuggeststhat,whenthethreemissionariesarrivedinCorinth,theyhadfull
pockets.Theyneededtofindwork,andquickly.

AChangeofLocation

AsregardsPaul'smove(18:7),thefirstredactor(intheWesterntext)says,MovingfromAquila'shousehedepartedtothehouseofJustus,whereashissuccessor
(intheAlexandriantext)notes,movingfromthere[thesynagogue]hecametothehouseofamancalledTitiusJustus.Theformerimpliesachangeofresidence,
whereasthelattermeansonlythathetaughtatadifferentlocation.
46
SeeCh.5,LetterA.
47
AsisassumedbyLdemann(1984),176.

 Page263

TheWesterntextissuspectbecause,fromaliterarypointofview,itisaratherblatantsymbolofachangeinPaul'spolicy.NotonlydoeshenolongerpreachtoJews
buthedoesnotevenliveamongthem!

Inreality,itmustbeassumedthatPriscaandAquilawereChristians,whomPaulwouldneverhaveabandonedforthesakeofasymbolicgesture.Thiscouplewere
exslavesofJewishorigin,whohaddecidedtoleaveItalyinAD41,aftertheemperorClaudiushadcloseddownaRomansynagogueasaresultofcontinuous
turmoilcentringonthefigureofChrist.48JewishrefugeeswhohadlosteverythingthroughthemachinationsofChristianmissionariesinRomewouldhardlyhavegiven
workandshelterinCorinthtothesamesortofmissionary,namelyPaul.49Finally,itiscertainthattheywerenotconvertedbyPaulinGreece(1Cor.16:15).

If,asseemsmostlikely,PriscaandAquilawerebelievers,theAlexandriantextcanbeseenasthecorrectionoftheWesterntextintheinterestsofhistorical
probability.50AsPaul'sministryexpanded,particularlyamongGodfearers,theenmityoftheJewsincreased,anditbecameprogressivelyimpossibletopreachinthe
synagoguehehadonlytoopenhismouthtobeshouteddown.

ThesortoflittleshopswhichartisanssuchasPriscaandAquilaoccupiedwerescatteredalloverthecity.Theylinedbusystreetsandwereconcentratedinspecially
builtcommercialdevelopments.ThePeribolosofApollojustofftheLechaeumRoadwastheoldestsuchmarketinthecity.ShortlybeforePaularrived,theNorth
Marketwascompleted,anditsarrangementissotypicalastoserveasavalidillustrationoftheconditionsunderwhichPaullivedandworkedinCorinthandlaterin
Ephesus.51

Theshopsgaveontoawide,coveredgalleryrunningroundallfoursidesofthesquare.Theyhadauniformheightanddepthof4m.(13feet).Thewidthvariedfrom
2.8m.(8feet)to4m.(13feet).Therewasnorunningwaterortoiletfacilities.Inoneofthebackcorners,aseriesofstepsinstoneorbrickwascontinuedbya
woodenladdertoaloftlitbyanunglazedwindowcentredabovetheshopentrance,whichatnightwasclosedbywoodenshutters.PriscaandAquilahadtheirhome
intheloft,whilePaulsleptbelowamidthetoolstrewnworkbenchesandtherollsofleatherandcanvas.

Theworkshopwasperfectforinitialcontacts,particularlywithwomen.WhilePaulworkedonacloak,orsandal,orbelt,hehadtheopportunityforconversation
whichquicklybecameinstruction(cf.1Thess.2:9),andfurther
48
Fordetails,seemy(1992d).
49
Haenchen(1971),533n.4.
50
ThereisthusnoreasontothinkthatAquilaandJustuswerePaul'shostsontwodifferentvisitstoCorinth.TheduplicationisunderstoodbyJ.J.Taylor(1994b),317,toimplythatin
Acts18:118aredactorhasfusedtheaccountsoftwovisitsofPaultoCorinth.Hefindsconfirmationinthementionoftwoarchisynagogoi,anddatesthevisitstoAD40and51
(3256).InthishecomesveryclosetothepositionofLdemann(1984),1713,againstwhichIarguedin(1982a).
51
DeWaele(1930)seeChapot(1899)Schneider(1932).

 Page264
52
encounterswereeasilyjustifiedbytheneedfornewpiecesorotherrepairs.Ashisministryexpanded,however,somethingmoresuitablewasrequired. Thespacein
theworkshopwassolimitedthatworkhadtostopifheaddressedagroup,andtheassemblyinevitablyattractedtheattentionofpassersby.Thelackofprivacy
precludedintimatediscussions.Onlythehouseofarelativelywealthybelieverwithitsatriumandspaciousroomswouldprovidethenecessaryspaceandseclusion.
Asweshallseeshortly,Paul'sfirstconvertsatCorinthwerepreciselysuchpeople.Thefactthattheownerofthehouse,(Titius)Justus,isnotlistedamongthem(cf.1
Cor.1:1416)mightsuggestthathecameonthesceneatalaterstage.

ManyConversions

TheWesterntextexpandstheverybriefreferencetoconvertsintheoriginalsource(brethren,Acts18:18)byanallusiontotheconversionofamajorfigure
associatedwithasynagogue,Crispus,togetherwithhisentirehousehold,andagreatcrowdofCorinthians(18:8).Thetwoeventsaresimplyjuxtaposed.Acausal
relationshipisexcludedbytheexplicitmentionthatthelatterwereconvertedbythewordoftheLord.TheAlexandriantext,however,makestheformerthecauseof
thelatter.MostcommentatorsacceptthehistoricityoftheconversionofCrispus,becauseheismentionedin1Corinthians1:14.53Itisundeniablethatsuchanevent
musthavehadanimpactontheGodfearersassociatedwiththesynagogue.TheconclusiondrawnbytheAlexandriantextwasperhapsinevitable.Theconversionof
aneminentJewishpersonagecanonlyhaveenhancedthecredibilityofamessagewhichpromisedthepurityofmonotheismwithoutthedisadvantagesofcircumcision
anddietarylaws.

Thesourcealsomentionsanothersynagoguepersonage,Sosthenes,whowasbeatenupafterthefailureoftheJewishappealtoGallio(18:17).Thesurvivalofthis
scrapofinformationprobablyimpliesthathesubsequentlybecameaChristian.54InoppositiontoCrispus,thereisacertainhesitancyaboutidentifyingthisindividual
withtheSostheneswhoappearsascosenderof1Corinthians.55Thefactthatthenameiswidespread,however,hastobeweighedagainsttheonlypossiblereason
whySosthenesshouldbecitedbyPaulasacoauthorinthisoneinstance,namely,intimateknowledgeofthefactionalizationoftheCorinthiancommunity.56

Thenumberofconvertsisalsoexplainedbythetemporalprecision.Themanydaysofthesourceisspecifiedasoneyearandsixmonths(18:11).Theintrinsic
plausibilityofthisfigureisitsstrongestrecommendation.Giventhe
52
Haenchen(1971),539.
53
J.J.Taylor(1994b),318.
54
Ibid.324.
55
Haenchen(1971),536n.5,rejectsitoutofhand.Fee(1987),301,ismuchmoremeasured.
56
Seemy(1993),56670.

 Page265

limitationsontravel,itwouldhavebeenpointlesstospendlesstimeinsuchagreatcity.PaulwouldhavearrivedinCorinthinAD50,whenspringopenedtheroads
totravellers,andleftjustbeforetheendofthesailingseasoninAD51.57

HavingseenwhatcanwithsomejustificationbeacceptedashistoricalinActs18:118,wenowhavetointegrateitwithdatafromtheletterstobuildupapictureof
theevangelizationofCorinth.

TheEvangelizationofCorinth

IfPaulforesawemploymentinCorinth,asherecalledthedemandsoftheIsthmianGames,hecouldnothaveimaginedthathewouldfinditwithfellowChristians.He
andhiscompanionswereusedtooperatinginvirginterritory,andthiscustomeventuallybecameaprinciple(Rom.15:20).HowlonghewalkedthestreetsofCorinth
beforefindingPriscaandAquilawecanneverknow(Acts18:13).58

Perhapstheytookhimin,notbecausetheyneededhelp,butbecausetheysawhiscraftassharedgroundthatwouldfacilitatetheconversionofafellowJew.Itis
easytoimaginethestunnedamazementwhentheyrealizedthattheywereallfollowersofChrist.PaulmusthavebeenasdisconcertedasPriscaandAquilawere
overjoyed.TheyhadhadtostruggleforthefaithfornineyearswithonlytherudimentaryinformationacquiredduringtheirconversionprocessinRome,andnowthey
foundthemselveshosts,notonlytoanauthorizedemissary,butonewhohadbeeninJerusalem!

TheFirstConverts

PaulnamesthehouseholdofStephanasasthefirstfruitofAchaia(1Cor.16:15),andliststhatsamehouseholdasoneoftheveryfewwhichhehimselfhad
baptized(1Cor.1:16).IfPaulmadethefirstconvertsinCorinth,itmeansthatPriscaandAquilahadnotbeensuccessfulasmissionariesduringtheiryearsinCorinth.
Onemaywonderwhethertheyhadeventried.TheirexperienceinRomemighthaveprovedsotraumaticthattheyfeltinadequatetocommunicatetheirfaithtoothers.
TheymayhaveslidbackintothelifeoftheJewishcommunity,whilestillretainingthememoryofJesuswhomtheyhadacceptedastheMessiah.

ThearrivalofPaulchangedallthat.ThefaithofPriscaandAquilawasgivenanewimpetus,andtheybecametwoofthemostcommittedmembersofhismissionary
team,eventotheextentofriskingtheirlives(Rom.16:4).They
57
SeeCh.1,DatingtheStagesoftheJourney.
58
Foradetaileddescriptionofthecity,seemy(1984)andFig.6.

 Page266

Fig.6
CentralCorinthc.AD50
(Source:C.K.WilliamsII,TheCorinthiaintheRomanPeriod,JRASup.8,ed.T.E.Gregory(AnnArbor,1993))

 Page267

preparedthewayforPaulinEphesus(1Cor.16:19).andsubsequentlyinRome(Rom.16:3).

ThefactthathewasoperatingfromasmallworkshopmakesitmostsurprisingthatthosewhomPaulrememberedbaptizingwereallfromasuperiorclass.The
prejudiceofsuchpeopleagainstmanuallabourersiswelldocumented.59TheleadershiproleassumedbyStephanasandhisfamilyinthecommunity(1Cor.16:15)
impliesadegreeofleisuredifficulttoassociatewiththosewhohadtosweatforeverymorseloffood.Ifthereisadeliberatecontrastwiththeauthorityofcharismatic
gifts,asW.Meeksmaintains,theircontributionmusthavebeenintheformofbenefactions.60EquallythefreedomofStephanastotakepartinthedelegationto
Ephesus(1Cor.16:17)meanseitherthathewassuccessfullyselfemployedordidnotneedtowork.

Crispus(1Cor.1:14)isidentifiedbyActs18:8asanarchisynagogos.Thetitleisnotlegallydefined,andthecommonassumptionthathewasresponsibleforthe
publicworshipofthecongregation61isnotjustifiedbythedata.62Allthatonecansay,inthelightofJewishinscriptionalevidence,isthatitwasanhonorifictitle
awardedbyacommunityingratitudeforadonationtotheirplaceofprayer(e.g.awholebuildingorpartsthereof,amosaicfloor,achancelscreen,muralandceiling
paintings).Sincesufficientsuperfluouswealthtobecomeapatronwastheonlyqualificationthetitlecouldbegiventoamanorawoman.63OreventoanonJew.The
titlewasalsousedinspecificallypagancontexts,64withthemeaningmasterofaguildorcompany.65Absolutelyspeaking,therefore,CrispusmayhavebeenaGod
fearerandnotaJew.Inanycase,hecertainlywasnotapoorman.

Gaius(1Cor.1:14)isalsomentionedinRomans16:23ashosttomeandtothewholechurch.TheadjectivewholeisunnecessaryiftheCorinthianChristians
metonlyasasinglegroup(cf.1Cor.14:23).66Othersubgroupsmusthaveexisted,andthesecanonlyhavebeenhousechurchesonasmallerscale,thechurchin
thehomeofX(e.g.Rom.16:51Cor.16:19Col.4:15Philem.2).Anextralargehousewasnecessarytoaccommodatetheentirecommunity.Gaius,in
consequence,musthavebeenwealthierthantheaveragebeliever.

Itcanhardlybecoincidencethatthefew,whomPaulrecallshavingbaptizedattheverybeginningofhisministryatCorinth,happenedtobejustthevery
59
SeeCh.4,LearningaTrade.
60
(1983),58.
61
Soe.g.Schrer(197387),2.435.
62
RajakandNoy(1993),82.
63
Ibid.878.This,ofcourse,callsintoquestionthethesisofBrooten(1982)thatfemalearchisynagogoiexercisedaliturgicalfunctioninthesynagogue.
64
SixinscriptionsarecitedbyRajakandNoy(1993),923.
65
LSJ,s.v.253.
66
Theissen(1982),89.Dunn(1988),910,refutestheolderviewthatGaiuswasconsideredhosttotheuniversalchurchbecauseofthehospitalityheofferedtotravellingChristians.
TheallusionistoallbelieversinCorinth.

 Page268

sortofpeoplewhocouldbeofusetohim.Hehadthepracticalsensetorecognizethat,whilethegospelwasofferedtoall,onlythosewithinitiative,leisure,and
educationcouldfunctionaseffectiveassistantsinthespreadofthegospel.SlavesmightbemodelChristians,buttheywerenottheirownmasters.Theycouldnot
disposeoftheirtimeastheywished.NeithercouldPriscaandAquila,whohadalivingtoearn.

ItwouldalmostappearthatPaulwasdeliberatelyfollowingtherecruitingpolicyofJesus.HisfirstdiscipleswerePeterandAndrew,whowerenotuneducated,
commonmen(Acts4:13).AndrewhadapurelyGreekname,suggestingabilingualfamily(cf.John12:202).Thebrothersworkedinpartnership(Luke5:7)with
JamesandJohn,thesonsofZebedee(Luke5:10),whohademployees(Mark1:20).Onehastheimpressionthattheyownedtheirownboats(Luke5:11).The
brothershadmovedfromtheirhometown,Bethsaida(John1:44),intheterritoryofPhilip,toCapernaum(Mark1:29)intheterritoryofAntipas,becausetheythen
paidlesstohavetheirfishprocessedforexportatMagdala/Taricheae.TheycouldaffordtoletothersdothefishinginordertoremaininJudaeaasdisciplesofJohn
theBaptist(John1:401).Fromourperspectivetheywouldbedescribedasuppermiddleclass,eventhoughthatterminologyisanachronisticasregardsthefirst
century.

BythetimehereachedCorinth,therefore,itwouldappearthatPaulhadworkedoutacarefulmissionarystrategy.Inordertogetanywherequickly,herealizedthat
thenascentchurchneededasolidnucleusofthosewhowereinapositiontofurnishfacilities,preciselythesortofpersontypifiedbyJustusintheLukanaccount(Acts
18:7).Aplaceofassemblywasonlyoneadvantage.ThehouseofGaiuswasapparentlytheplacewhereTertius(thesecretaryofGaius?)tookdowninshorthand
Paul'sdictationofthelettertotheRomans

thehostaddedhisnamewhenheheardothersfillupthepagewiththeirgreetings(Rom.16:23).

Paul'sattitudetothisnucleusofwealthyindividualsintheCorinthiancommunitywascomplex.Whileavailinghimselfofthefacilitiestheyoffered,herefusedtopermit
himselftobecomedependentonthem.Hecontinuedtosupporthimselfasbesthecould,andsupplementedhisincomebygiftsfromMacedonia,inordertoretainhis
independence(1Cor.9:1182Cor.11:79).ThiswillingnesstotakefromCorinthianbelievers,butonlyinaverylimitedway,wastobecomeaboneofcontention
atalaterstage.67

StatusInconsistency

Itisnotknownwhenanotherprominentmemberofthecommunitybecameabeliever.TheepistletotheRomansalsoincludesgreetingsfromErastusoikon
67
SeeCh.12,TheReportofTitus.

 Page269

omosofthecity(16:23).HeistheonlyconvertwhosecivilstatusismentionedbyPaul.Thismaybebecauseitwasexceptionallyhigh,butitmighthavebeen
evokedmerelytodistinguishthisErastusfromothers(2Tim.4:20Acts19:22).

ResolutionoftheproblemisfacilitatedbythediscoveryofanAD50100inscription,cutintothepavementbetweentheNorthMarketandthetheatreatCorinth,
whichread Erastusinreturnforhisaedileshippaved(thisarea)athisownexpense.68ApartfromRomans16:23andtheinscription,thenameErastusisnot
attestedatCorinthand,unlessoneispreparedtoaccepttheextraordinarycoincidencethattwoindividualsbearingthesameunusualnamebothheldpublicofficein
thesamecityatroughlythesametime,theiridentityshouldbetakenforgranted.

Tobeanaedile,oneofthefourmagistrateswhogovernedthecity,itwasnecessarytobeaRomancitizen.TheabsenceofanymentionofthefatherofErastusinthe
inscriptionsuggeststhathehadoncebeenaslave.ManifestlyErastuswasoneofthoseenergeticfreedmen,whoflourishedinthevigourouslycompetitiveatmosphere
ofCorinth,andwhohadthesurplusfundswhichenabledhimtoundertakepublicoffice.69ThenormaltranslationofaedileinGreek,however,isagoranomos,not
oikonomos,whencethewellfoundedsuggestionthatthelatterwastheequivalentoftheLatinquaestor,aninferiorfinancialpositioninthemunicipalhierarchy.
Naturally,toaccedetohigherofficeonemusthaveprovedoneselfinlowerones,andinscriptionsrevealtheofficeofquaestortobeasteppingstonetothatofaedile,
asthelatterwastothatofduovir.70

Romans16:23,therefore,revealsErastusatanearlystageofhispubliccareer,whichapparentlywasnotaffectedinanywaybyhisconversiontoChristianity!We
mustassumethathesomehowfoundawaytoreconcilehisnewmonotheisticbeliefwithhisdutytoparticipateintheworshipofthegodsofthecityeverymeetingof
thecitycouncilinvolvedapagansacrifice.Hemayhaveseenitasapurelyformalgesturewithoutanyrealreligioussignificance,asdidhisfellowChristianswhohad
nodifficultyineatingmeatofferedtoidols,becauseidolshavenorealexistenceandthereisnoGodbutone(1Cor.8:4).Onlylaterdidparticipationinpagan
ritualsbecomeatestofthefaith.71

Whateverbetheanswer,thefigureofErastusgivesusaprivilegedinsight
68
Kent(1966),99.AphotographisgiveninFurnish(1984),platevia.
69
OnservileoriginsandRomancitizenship,seeCh.2,RomanCitizenship.
70
SeethedetaileddiscussioninTheissen(1982),7583,whichhasbeenacceptedbyMeeks(1983),589.
71
AmongtheseIconsideredthatIshoulddismissanywhodeniedthattheywereoreverhadbeenChristianswhentheyhadrepeatedaftermeaformulaofinvocationtothegods
andhadmadeofferingsofwineandincensetoyour[Trajan's]statueandfurthermorehadreviledthenameofChristnoneofwhichthings,Iunderstand,anygenuineChristiancan
beinducedtodo(Pliny,Letters10.96trans.Radice).

 Page270

intoasectionofthepopulationofCorinthintowhichChristianitymadeinroads.HowevermuchErastusmayhaveachieved,hewouldneverhavefeltfullyatease
amongthefreeborn.Aswithothersofhisclass,thestigmaofhisservileoriginsblightedeverypleasure.Thefearofbeingpatronizedprovokedaninjudicious
aggressiveness.Thesenseofinsecurityofthesuccessfulfreedmanbecameafavouritetopicinliterature.Everyoneknewinstancesoftheaffectedculinaryexpertiseof
Nasidenus,72andofthepretentiouslearningofTrimalchio.73Corinthhaditsowncelebratedexample.Asmallcircularstructureontheagoracarriedthesame
inscriptiononboththepedestalandthebandabovethecolumns,GnaeusBabbiusPhilinus,aedileandpontifex,hadthismonumenterectedathisownexpense,and
heapproveditinhisofficialcapacityofduovir.74Hewasnotpreparedtotakethechancethathissuccessoraschiefmagistratemightrefusetheexerciseinself
recommendation!

Therootofsuchinsecuritywasthebitterawarenessthatonewasnotrecognizedforwhatonehadachieved.Contemporaries,itwasfelt,imposedontherealityan
unflatteringportraitdrawnfromothersources.Erastusimaginedthatthosewholookedathimsawnotthequaestorbutmerelyanexslave.Freedmen,however,were
nottheonlyonestofeelthediscomfortofambiguousstatus.PhoebeofCenchreae,thoughofsufficientindependentwealthtobeapatrontoPaulandmanyothers
(Rom.16:2),wouldhavebeenseenfirstandforemostasawoman,withthesocialandpoliticaldisadvantagesherseximplied.ThepaganJustusexperienceda
dissonanceinhisownsocietywhichdrovehimtoassociationwiththesynagogue(Acts18:7).PriscaandAquilahadtheauthorityofneededexperts,andCrispusand
Sosthenesheldresponsiblepositions,buttotheirpaganneighbourstheywereaboveallJews,whoresidedamongthemonsufferance.75

Onefactorthatmadethegospelattractivetosuchpeoplewasthatitembodiedtheparadoxtheylived.76Itscentralthesisthatthesaviouroftheworlddiedunder
torturespoketothecontradictionsoftheirexistence.Thoughclassedasweaktheyknewtheirownpower,andthuscouldunderstandwithoutdifficultytheidea,
revealedinthelifeofChrist,asinthatofPaul,thatpowerismadeperfectinweakness(2Cor.12:9).TothemChristianitymadesenseof
72
TherewasaboarfromLucania,whichourgracioushostkepttellinguswascaughtinasoftsoutherlybreeze.Thislampreywascaughtwhileshewaspregnantafter
spawningthefleshisinferior.Thesaucehasthefollowingingredients:Venafranoil(thefirstpressingofcourse),liguamen(fromthegutsoftheSpanishMackarel),winethatis
fiveyearsoldbutgrowninItaly(Horace,Satires2.8.6,427trans.Rudd).
73
Tellme,mydearAgamemnon,continuedTrimalchio,doyourememberthetwelvelaboursofHerculesandthestoryofUlysseshowtheCyclopstoreouthiseyewithhis
thumb?IusedtoreadabouttheminHomer,whenIwasaboy(Petronius,Satyricon15.48trans.Sullivan).HomerwrotenothingaboutHercules,anditwasUlysseswhoblindedthe
Cyclops.
74
Kent(1966),73.
75
Onstatusinconsistency,seeMeeks(1983),70,73.
76
Ibid.1912.

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theambiguityoftheirlives,andatthesametimeintroducedthemintoasocietycommittedtolookingatthemprimarilyaspeople,allequallyvaluableandvalued.It
gavethemaspaceinwhichtheycouldflourishinfreedom.

TheCompositionoftheCommunity

MoreisknownaboutthecompositionoftheCorinthianchurchthanofanyotherexceptthatofRome.ItistheonecaseinwhichPaultellsussomethingofthesocial
structureofthegroup.Thenamesofmanyindividualscanbedrawnfrom1Corinthians,Romans,andActs.

Bythestandardsoftheworld,notmanyofyouwerewise,notmanywerepowerful,notmanywerewellborn(1Cor.1:26).Despitesubtleattemptstofindinthese
wordsthedescriptionofspecificphilosophicalgroupings,77thesociologicalinterpretationisdemandedbycommonsense.78Thewisearetheeducated,andin
particularthosewithareputationforprudenceandmoderation,whoexhibitsoundjudgementinpoliticsorcommerce.Thepowerfularetheinfluential,thosewhose
opinionscarryweightinciviclife.79Thewellbornarethosebornintothearistocracyofwealth80createdbythefreedmenwhoweresentbyJuliusCaesartofound
Corinth.81Theoverlapofthethreetermsneedsnoemphasis,andtheycarrythefurtherconnotationoffreedom.82WithadmirablebrevityPaulevokesaprivileged
lite,whoseimpactonCorinthwasquiteoutofproportiontoitsnumbers.Itmemberswereaminorityinthecity,justaswerethosefromthisclasswhobecame
Christianssomeofthesehavebeennamedabove.Theselatternodoubtplayedadominantroleintheaffairsofthechurchthosewhotaketheirauthorityforgranted
donotneedofficialpositionstoreinforceit.

Themajorityofbelieverswerenotsofortunate,butneitherweretheyatthebottomofthethesocialscale.Amongtheunnamedmembersofthehouseholdsof
StephanasandCrispus,itisveryprobablethattherewereslaves(1Cor.7:21).Whilelegallydisadvantaged,suchhouseslavesoftenenjoyedastandardoflivingand
educationdeniedtothosebornfree,andcouldlookforwardtoexercisingtheirtrainedtalentsinfreedom.83Onlythenwouldtheyhavetoprovideforthemselvesa
slavewasguaranteedfoodandlodging.
77
Munch(1959)1623Horsley(1976),2823.
78
Theissen(1982),72.
79
Snger(1985).
80
e.g.LuciusCastriciusRegulus,seeKent(1966),70.
81
Strabo,Geography8.6.23.
82
Itisimpossibleforanyonetobenoblewithoutbeingwellbornatthesametime,orforonewhoiswellbornnottobefree(DioChrysostom,Discourses15.31trans.
Crosby).
83
Thelotofslaveswhoworkedthefieldsofgreatestatesorwholabouredinthemineswascompletelydifferent.Theseverityborderingonsadismofwhichtheywerethevictims
cannotbeconsiderednormaltreatmentforhouseholdslaves,though,ofcourse,therewereexceptions.Tohisquakinghouseholdhe[Rutilus]isamonster,amythicalogre,neverso
happyaswhenthetorturer's

(Footnotecontinuedonnextpage)

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84
ThesecretarialabilityofTertius(Rom.16:22) puthiminthesameclassasTiro,thefamoussecretaryofCicero.Hisskillmadehimvaluable.Ifnotafreedman
already,hewouldcertainlyearnthatstatussomeday.Achaicus(1Cor.16:17)isanickname,themanfromAchaia,andthusismorelikelytohavebelongedtoa
slavethantoafreeman.EvidentlyitwasacquiredoutsideAchaia,85anditsLatinformwouldsuggestsomewheretothewest.Inallprobabilityhehadbeenaslavein
Italy,andreturnedtoCorinthasafreedman.HisparticipationinthedelegationtoEphesussuggestsatleastthathewasmasterofhisowntime.Thesameistrueof
Fortunatus(1Cor.16:17).NothingisknownofQuartus(Rom.16:23)thenameiscommonamongslavesandfreedmen.

ThereissomedoubtwhetherLucius,Jason,andSosipater(Rom.16:21)weremembersofthechurchofCorinthorjusthappenedtobetherewhenthewritingof
Romanswascomingtoaconclusion.84TheformulationseparatesthemfromTimothy,whoisidentifiedasPaul'scoworker.Inconsequence,theycannotbe
consideredpartofPaul'smissionaryteam.ASopater(possiblyanabbreviatedformofSosipater)ofBeroeaappearsinActs20:4asoneofthoseaccompanyingPaul
toJerusalemwiththemoneycollectedforthepoorofJerusalem(cf.1Cor.16:14).He,likeJason,isexplicitlyidentifiedasaJew.Thelattermaybetheindividual
whohostedPaulatThessalonica(Acts17:57).Thepossibilitythatthesetwowerecollectiondelegatesoftheirrespectivechurcheshassuggestedthatthesameis
trueofLudus.ThisindividualiscommonlyidentifiedastheLukementionedinColossians4:14,Philemon24,and2Timothy4:11,butwhyPaulshouldusetheform
LukeinalltheseinstancesandthenswitchtoLuciushereisneverexplained.Moreover,wereLukeinquestionhewouldhavebeengroupedwithTimothyrather
thanwiththeothertwobecauseofhislongstandingassociationwithPaul.Thehypothesisthatwehavetodowiththreedelegatescannotbeexcluded,butneitheris
thereanythinginitsfavour.Inconsequence,1prefertoconsiderthemCorinthians.

ItisunlikelythatChloe'speople(1Cor.1:11)werefromCorinth.87TheissuesonwhichtheyreportwerenotproblemsfortheCorinthiansthemselves,e.g.divisions
withinthecommunityandthewaysomemenandwomenworetheirhairattheliturgicalassemblies.Thesematters,whichwereofcrucial

(Footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
thereonthejob,andsomepoorslavewho'sstolenacoupleoftowelsisbeingbrandedwitharedhotiron'(Juvenal,Satires14.1822trans.Green).Onevictimhasrodsbroken
overhisback,anotherbearsbloodystripesfromthewhip,athirdislashedwithacato'ninetales.Somewomenpaytheirfloggersanannualsalary(Juvenal,Satires6.47980
trans.Green).
84
Richards(1991),171,rightlynotesthatthefrequencyoforatoricalrhetoricinRom.suggeststhatitwastakendownatthespeedofnormalspeechinshorthand.
85
Meeks(1983),56,appositelypointsoutthatItwasnotonCretebutinToledothatDomenikosTheotokopouloswasnamedElGreco.
86
SeeDunn(1988),909.
87
AgainstTheissen(1982),92,andMeeks(1983),59.

 Page273

importanceforPaul,werenotmentionedintheletter(1Cor.7:1)broughtbytheofficialdelegationfromCorinth(1Cor.16:1517).Onthecontrary,theyarethe
sortofdeparturesfromthenormwhichhaveagreatimpactonvisitorsfromanotherchurch,inthiscaseEphesus,andaboutwhichtheywouldhavebeenmosteager
togossipwhentheyreturnedhome.Moreover,wereChloe'speopleCorinthianswhohadgonebehindthecommunity'sbacktoruntoPaulwithtales,itwouldhave
beenmostinsensitiveofthelattertomentionthesourceofhisinformationitcouldonlymakemischief.88

OfthemembersofthechurchatCorinthweknow16individualsbyname.Twoofthem(PriscaandAquila)aremarriedtoeachother.Twoarewomen(Priscaand
Phoebe).SixareexplicitlyofJewishorigin(Aquila,Crispus,Prisca,Sosthenes,Jason,Sosipater).TwoarecertainlyGentiles(Erastus,Justus).Fromtheselasttwo
setsoffiguresitmightappearthatonecouldinferthatJewishbelieverspredominatedinthecommunity.Anysuchextrapolation,however,isflatlyexcludedbythetype
ofproblemswithwhichPaulhastodealin1Corinthiansappealtopagancourts(6:111)frequentationofprostitutes(6:

1220)marriageandsex(7)participationinpagantemplemeals(810)andbyhisexplicitstatementsthatthemajorityofthecommunityhadatonetimebeen
idolators(6:10118:712:2).

ThepredominantgroupintheCorinthianchurchwasmadeupofGentilesofvariousgradesofthemiddleofthesocialscale.Onlytheverytop(greatmagnates)and
theverybottom(fieldslaves)ofthatscalewerelacking.89Jewswereaminority,buttwoatleast(CrispusandSosthenes)stoodoutfromthegroup.

ATurbulentCommunity

Thepotentialfordissensionwithinthecommunityisevident.MostmembershadincommononlytheirChristianity.Theydifferedwidelyineducationalattainment,
financialresources,religiousbackground,politicalskills,andaboveallintheirexpectations.Anumberwereattractedtothechurchbecauseitseemedtoofferthema
newfieldofopportunity,inwhichthetalentswhoseexpressionsocietyfrustratedcouldbeexploitedtothefull.Theywereenergeticandambitiouspeople,andthere
waslittleagreementamongtheirvarioushiddenagendas.Acertaincompetitivespiritwaspartoftheethosofthechurchfromthebeginning.
88
RobertsonandPlummer(1914),10.
89
Meeks(1983),73.

 Page274

TheArrivalofApollos.

AccordingtoActs18:248,ApolloscametoCorinthfromEphesussometimeafterPaul'sdepartureforJerusaleminthelatesummerofAD51.InsayingIplanted,
Apolloswatered(1Cor.3:6),PaulexplictlyconfirmsthatApollosexercisedaministrysubsequenttohisowninCorinth.PaulalsotellsusthatApolloswaswithhim
inEphesusatthetimeofwriting1Cor.16:12.NothingsimilarappearsinActswhich,however,tellsusmuchmoreaboutthispersonage.Howshoulditbeevaluated?

AccordingtoBoismardandLamouillethereisnothingintheWesterntextofActs18:248whichbetraysthehandofaredactor.Itisallofonepiece,theyassert,and
itsstylepointstoLukeastheauthor.90Thenarrative,however,exhibitstwoseriousinternalcontradictions,thefirstconcerningApollos'statusasaChristian,the
secondhismissiontoCorinth.(1)ApollostaughtaccuratelyaboutJesus(18:25).Nonethelessheneededfurtherinstruction(18:26).Inaddition,howcouldhe
speakaccuratelyaboutJesus,whenheknewonlythebaptismofJohn(18:25)?(2)ApolloswasinvitedtoreturnwiththembyCorinthiansresidentatEphesus.None
thelesstheEphesianswrotealetterrequestingthathebereceivedatCorinth(18:27).Hehadnoneedofaletterofrecommendation,however,sincehewas
accompaniedbyCorinthians.

TheAlexandriantextofthispassageresolvesthelatterproblembymakingApollostaketheinitiativeingoingtoAchaia.91WhyApolloschosetogotoAchaiaisnot
explained.ItmighthavebeenbetterhadtheAlexandriantextsuppressedthementionofaletterofrecommendation,becausethatwouldhavemadeitobviousthata
singlehypothesiscanexplainthetwocontradictions.

Theawkwardnessoftheclause,knowingonlythebaptismofJohn(18:25b)ismanifestitissimplyjuxtaposedtowhatprecedes.Wereasingleauthortohave
writtenthewholeverseonewouldhaveexpectedsomethinglike,AlthoughheknewonlythebaptismofJohn,henonethelesstaughtaccuratelythethingsconcerning
Jesus.ThefunctionoftheallusiontoJohn'sbaptisminthenarrativeistojustifyfurtherinstruction,AquilatookhimandexplainedtheWaytohimmore
accurately(18:26b)therehadtobeadefecttoberemedied.92ApolloshasbeentransformedfromanunattachedChristianofuncertainantecedentsintoabearerof
thePaulinegospel.ThepointisreinforcedbyhavingtheEphesianswriteaformalletterofrecommendationforhim.HehasbecomeanemissaryofaPaulinechurch.
Thoroughlydomesticated,andintegratedintoarecognizedchannelofchurchdevelopment,heisnowfreetogohisownway.
90
(1990),3.2378.
91
Ibid.2.367.
92
ThechoiceofJohn'sbaptismasthedefectmayhavebeeninfluencedbyitspresenceinthenextpericope(Acts19:17),onwhichseeaboveCh.7,TheFoundingoftheChurch.

 Page275

Whenpurgedoftheelementswhichimposeaspecificpatternofdevelopmentonthegrowthofthechurch(cf.Acts1:8),theApollosstorybecomesperfectly
coherent.ThefailuretorebaptizehiminthenameofJesus(cf.19:5)underlinesthefactthathewasafullyqualifiedmissionary.93Noreasonhasbeen,orcanbe,given
whyaredactorshouldhavecreatedhisracialorigins,hisplaceofbirthandconversion,orhisqualifications.TheappearanceofhisnameintheNewTestamenthapax
formofApollonius(correctedtothemorenormalNewTestamentformintheAlexandriantext)inpreciselythiscontextmightsuggestasource.94

NothingisknownaboutChristianityinAlexandriaatthisperiod,butifthefaithhadspreadoutofPalestinetoAntiochinthenorth,andtoDamascusinthenortheast,
nothingmilitatesagainstithavingalsopenetratedthegreatportcityofEgypt.JewishconnectionsbetweenAlexandriaandJerusalemhadalwaysbeenclose,95and
travelwasfacilitatedbythegreattraderoute,theWayoftheSea.PresumablymerchantsorreturningpilgrimsbroughtthefaithtoAlexandria,astheyhaddoneto
Damascus.

Apollosisdescribedaslogios(Acts18:24).Theadjectivehastwoconnotations,eloquentandlearned,cultured,anditcanmeanspecificallyoneortheother.96In
thepresentinstance,however,nochoiceisnecessary,forbothareintended.Apollosspokewithinspirationalenthusiasm(18:25),andwaswellversedinthe
Scriptures(18:24).1Corinthians14,wherePaulhasApollosinview,confirmsthisinterpretation,asHaenchenhasveryperceptivelynoted,AgainandagainPaul
inthesechapterscomesbacktotwothingswhichpeoplemissedinhimbutapparentlydetectedinsomeoneelse,thegiftofedifyingspeech,whichwasdeniedtoPaul
himselfandthegiftofwisdom.97ItisdifficulttoimaginethatanAlexandrianJewwithpreciselythesequalifications,andwithamindsoopenthatheeventually
acceptedJesus,couldhaveescapedtheinfluenceofPhilo,thegreatintellectualleaderofAlexandrianJewry,particularlysincethelatterseemstohavebeenespecially
concernedwitheducationandpreaching.98Philo'slifeworkwastogiveHellenizedJews,suchasApollos,aperspectiveontheLawthatwouldenablethemtoaccept
bothit,andtheirambientculture.

ActsgivestheimpressionthatApollosarrivedinCorinthbeforePaulreturnedtoEphesustowardstheendofAugustAD52(Acts19:1).InthisscenarioApollos
wouldhavebeeninEphesusforalmostayear,whichisreasonablegiventhelimitationsimposedbytheseasonalrestrictionsontravel.
93
Haenchen(1971),557.
94
Hemer(1989),233,notes,Itisofunusualinterestasit[thenameApollonius/Apollos]seemstobealmostunexampledoutsideEgypt,butisconspicuouslycommonthere.
95
SeeSmallwood(1981),2204.
96
ExcellentexamplesareassembledbySpicq(197882),1.5002.
97
(1971),5556.
98
Koester(1982),1.175Schrer(197387),3.8l8.

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RegularsailingsontheEphesusCorinthortheTroasNeapolisroutescametoanendinmidSeptember,andonlyinexceptionalcircumstanceswouldshipshaveput
toseainOctober.TheCorinthianmerchantstradinginEphesus,whoinvitedApollos(theWesterntextofActs18:27a),wouldhavewantedtoreturnhomeforthe
winter.ItisintriguingtothinkthatthetwofigureswhoweretodominatetheimmediatefutureofthechurchatCorinthmighthavemissedeachotherbyacoupleof
days.

ThisscenarioveryeasilyintegratesthePreviousLetter(1Cor.5:9).ItwasprovokedbynewsfromCorinth,inresponsetowhichPaultoldthemnottoassociate
withsexuallyimmoralpeople(1Cor.5:9).ThesimplesthypothesisregardingthebearersofthebadnewsisthattheyweretheCorinthianmerchantswhoreturnedto
EphesusatthebeginningofthenewtradingseasoninthespringofAD53,orApollos,whocouldnotacceptthewayinwhichhehadbeensetagainstPaul.Evidently
nothingwassaidaboutdivisionswithinthecommunity,becausePaulwouldcertainlyhavedealtwiththeissue,andin1Corinthianswouldhaveremindedthe
Corinthiansthattheyhadnotheededhisstressontheimportanceofunityforthelocalchurch.DivisivenessmusthavebecomeaproblematCorinthonlyafterthe
dispatchofthePreviousLetter.

Ifthisiscorrect,theremusthavebeentwophasesinApollosactivityatCorinth.Inthefirst,asActs18:28says,hefunctionedasamissionaryengagedin
controversywiththeJews.Whenthatprovedunsuccessful,heturnedhisattentioninward,andbecameasitwereatheologianinresidenceoftheChristian
community.

DifferenceswithintheCommunity

ApollosquicklyfoundanicheinthecompetitiveworldoftheCorinthianchurch.Paul'spreachingwasantiintellectual.HeproclaimedacrucifiedChristasthe
exemplarofauthentichumanity(1Cor.2:15),andsawnoneedforanyspeculativedevelopment.Hewasmoreconcernedwithevidenceofthepowerof
transforminggraceinhislifeandthatofothers(2Cor.3:2).Hecutapoorfigurebycomparisonwiththeoratorswhoattractedfollowersbytheireloquence.Healso
disappointedthosebelieverswhoaspiredtoarealtheology.Apollosmettheseneeds.Inadditiontohisoratoricalgifts,hehadtheabilitytoconnectthingsup,to
establishrelationshipsbetweendifferentaspectsofthefaith.Thiswasoneofthefundamentalaspectsofrhetoricaleducation.ByusingPhilo'smethodsof
interpretation,andhisphilosophicalframework,ApollosprovidedintellectualfulfilmentbybuildingarichsynthesisoftheelementswhichPaulhadprovided.

Humannaturebeingwhatitis,theintellectualaspirationsofthosewhoclusteredaroundApolloscertainlyalienatedothers,perhapsthelesswelleducated,who,in
reaction,insistedontheimportanceofthebareminimum

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inculcatedbythefounderofthechurchwhatmatteredmostwasloveofneighbour.

AnApollosgroupandaPaulgroupwereinevitableoncetheformerappearedonthescene.ButapparentlytherewasalsoathirdgroupclaimingallegiancetoCephas
(1Cor.1:12).CommentatorsdebatewhetherPeterpersonallyormerelyhisfollowersvisitedCorinth.99Theanswerisirrelevant,becauseineithercasethesescholars
assumethatherepresentedaJudaizingfactionwithinthechurch,whichamongotherthingspushedforobservanceofJewishdietarylaws.100Themostobvious
candidatesformembershipinsuchagrouparethoseJewishconvertswhofounddifficultyinintegratingintoapredominantlyGentilecommunity.101Thesecularstyleof
Apollosmighthavecontributedtotheirsenseofisolation.Fromthisperspective,CephasfunctionsasasymbolforatypeofJewishChristian,who,forPaul,is
exemplified,notbytheconsistentJames,butbyPeter,whosurrenderedhisfreedomunderpressure.Timehadnothealedthebitternessofthememoryoftheincident
atAntioch(Gal.2:1114).

Thisconclusionisconfirmedbytheformoftheslogansin1Corinthians1:12.L.Welbornreflectedawideconsensusinasserting,Adeclarationofallegiancetoa
partysopersonalinorganizationcouldtakenootherformthanthatwhichisgivenin1Corinthians1:12IamofPaul's.102Unfortunatelyheproducednoparallels
tothepatternofapersonalpronounfollowedbytobe(explicitorunderstood)followedbythegenitiveofapropername.M.Mitchell'sstudyrevealedthatthis
patternisvirtuallyunattestedasimplyingpoliticalaffiliationorrelationshiptoateacher,butismostcommonlyusedoftheparentchildrelationshipandthemasterslave
relationship.Theforceoftheformula,therefore,istosuggestthatthosewhothinkofthemselvesasbelongingtofactionswithinthechurchareactingchildishly(cf.1
Cor.3:14)orslavishly(1Cor.7:23).IfsuchwasthewaytheynaturallywouldhavebeenunderstoodbytheCorinthians,thesloganscannotbeselfdesignations.
TheyareadeliberateputdownonthepartofPaul,whousestherhetoricaldeviceofimpersonationtosuggestastronglycondemnatoryjudgement.103

Theformationofthesethreegroups104wasfacilitatedbythefactthatthechurchatCorinthwastoonumeroustobeaccommodatedcomfortablyinasinglehouse.Of
the16knownindividuals,twoweremarried(Priscaand
99
Barrett(1963a).
100
Vielhauer(1974)Barrett(1968),44.
101
Merklein(1992),148.
102
(1987),91.
103
(1991),856.
104
Mitchell'sinsightmakesitpossibletodispensewiththeenigmaticChristparty(83n.101).Paulwassimplycarriedawaybytherhetoricalfigureandembodiedhisownresponsein
aformulaidenticalwiththoseheattributedtoothers.Whentakeninthesensejustdefined,itisanidealdescriptionofallbelievers,YouareofChrist(1Cor.3:23cf.6:1920).Paul,
inwritingtothePhilippiansnotlongbefore,hadcalledhimselfaslaveofChristJesus(1:1).ForPaul,obviously,belongingtoChristdidnotexcludehisrelationshipasapostletothe
community,whichissuggestedastheonlyspecificfactoroftheChristparty(againstSellin(1987),301112).

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Aquila),andonewassingle(Phoebe).Onemustpresumethattheremaining13weremarried.Twohadbeenconvertedtogetherwiththeirhouseholds(Stephanasand
Crispus).Hence,oneshouldassumethattherewereatleast40believers.Theremayhavebeenmanymore.Eventhehouseofawealthyperson,suchasthevillaat
Anaploga,105couldnotaccommodatesuchanumberinthetriclinium.Insteadofrecliningincomfort,somewereforcedtositintheporticooftheatrium.

Thisdisparityoftreatmentattheliturgicalmealhighlightsanotherdivision,whichhasalreadybeensuggestedbytheallusiontoaprivilegedlite(1Cor.1:26).Among
thebelieversatCorinththerewerehavesandhavenots,andtheformerexhibitedlittleornoconcernforthelatter(1Cor.11:22).Despitevirtuallyunlimited
opportunity,economicinequalitywasafactoflife,andthebelieversdidnothingtoclosethegap.

Howtheresultantclassstrugglerelatedtothethreeothergroupingsisnotclear.Welbornoversimplifiesinconsideringittobethefundamentaldivision,andmistakenly
dismissesallotherdifferencesasirrelevant.106ItistemptingtoidentifythewealthyandbettereducatedwiththepartisansofApollos,andthelowerclasswiththose
whopreferredtheelementaryteachingofPaul.107Onemustkeepinmind,however,thecomplexityofthehumansituation.Manypeopleoflowsocialstatushavea
desperateurgetobecomeeducated,andmanyeducatedpeopledesiresimplicityinreligion.

ContactswithCorinth

WhenthesailingseasonopenedinlateAprilAD54,awealthybusinesswomanofEphesus,Chloe,sentsomeofheremployeestoCorinth,whereshipmentsofnew
goodshadarrivedfromthewest.ItmayhavebeenontheirowninitiativethattheymadecontactwiththeirfellowChristiansinthecity,butitismostimprobablethat
Paulwouldhavefailedtoavailhimselfoftheopportunitytoobtainnewsofachurchthathehadnotseenforthreeyears.AnimportantfactorinhischoiceofEphesus
ashisbasehadbeenthepossibilityofusingpreciselysuchtravellerstocarryhismessages.

AtthispointinhiscareerPaulhaddealtwiththeteethingandadolescentproblemsofaseriesofchurches(Thessalonica,Galatia,Ephesus,Philippi,andColossae).He
hadaveryclearideaofthethingsthatcouldgowrong,asachurchstruggledtodefineitselfonthewaytomaturity.ThatheshouldhaveindicatedtoChloe'speople
theareasofcommunitylifethatmightproveproblematicissuggestednotonlybycommonsense,butbythefactthathedoesnotknowthemindividually.Evidently
theywerenotimportantenoughforhimto
105
Seemy(1992e),163,andthereconstructiondrawinginPritchard(1987),1745.
106
(1987),89.
107
Merklein(1992),139.

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108
retaintheirnames,andthereisatendencytoassumethatmembersofthelowerclassneedtohaveeverythingspeltouttothem. Sexualmoralitywascertainlyoneof
thesectorstheywereaskedtoassess,becausePaulmusthavebeenconcernedabouttheimpactofthePreviousLetter.

ThereportbroughtbackbyChloe'speoplestunnedPaul.Nodoubttheystressedthebizarreanincestuousmarriage(1Cor.5:18),malehomosexualspresidingat
theliturgy(1Cor.11:216),drunkennessattheeucharist(1Cor.11:1734)buttherewereotherobservations,particularlyregardingthefactionaldivisions,which
broughtithometoPaulthatthesituationatCorinthwasmuchmorecomplexthananythinghehaddealtwithhitherto.109

HisimmediateresponsewastosendTimothytoinvestigate.110TheexcitedgabblewithwhichChloe'speoplehadpouredouttheirexperiencesmighthavejustifiedthe
hopethattheywereexaggerating.Therewasalsothepossibilitythattheymightnothaveunderstoodfullywhatwasgoingon.Afterall,theywerenotexperiencedin
churchmatters.ItwouldhavebeenunwiseforPaultoreactonthebasisofwhatwasessentiallynomorethangossip.Timothy,ontheotherhand,hadalreadycarried
outasimilarmissioninThessalonica(1Thess.3:16)hewasnotonlytrustworthy,butexperienced.Fortunately,hehadnotyetleftforPhilippi(Phil.2:1924).

Inviewoftheurgencyofthematter,itismostimprobablethatTimothytookthelandroutetoCorinththroughnorthernGreece.111Thishypothesisistheabortivefruit
ofanattempttoharmonizewhatPaulsayswithActs19:22,whichrecordsavisitofTimothyandErastustoMacedonia.Thislattervisitinfacttookplace,butafter
Timothy'sreturnfromCorinth.HereplacedPaulonaplannedvisittoMacedonia(1Cor.16:5)whentheApostlehadtomakeahastyandunforeseenvisitto
Corinth.

Inallprobability,therefore,TimothytookpassageononeofthemanyshipsplyingbetweenEphesusandCorinth.Thedurationofthevoyageisuncertain.Itdepended
onsomanyfactors,notably,fineweather,fairwinds,andgoodomens.Onofficialbusinessandusingnavalequipment,whichmeantnocargodelays,ittookCicero
from6to22July51BCtosailfromAthenstoEphesus.112ToallowTimothytwoweeksineachdirectionisprobablyaminimum.Hecouldhardlyspendlessthana
fortnightinCorinth.Hence,wecansafely
108
OnthesocialstatusofChloe'speople,seeTheissen(1982),924.
109
Hurd(1965),63,iswronginreconstructingthereportofChloe'speoplebysimplydeductingfrom1Cor.thosesectionsintroducedbynowconcerning,whichareassumedto
belongtotheletterfromCorinthseeM.Mitchell(1989).
110
While1Cor.4:17couldbereadinsuchawayastomakeTimothythebearerof1Cor.,thispossibilityisexcludedby1Cor.16:10,whichisbettertranslatedbythetemporal
when(RSV)thantheconditionalif(seeFee(1987),821).NotealsotheabsenceofTimothyintheaddressof1Cor.
111
PaceBarrett(1968),390Furnish(1984),143Ldemann(1984),93.
112
LetterstoAtt.,5.1113.

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assumethathewasawayfromPaulforsixweeks,probablyfromthebeginningofMaytothemiddleofJune.

Duringtheearlypartofthisperiod,adelegation,comprisingStephanas,Fortunatus,andAchaicus(1Cor.16:1517),arrivedfromEphesusbearingaletter,inwhich
thechurchofCorinthaskedforPaul'sopiniononanumberofissues(1Cor.7:1).ThepresenceofthedelegationmeantthatalltheinformationwhichPaulhad
expectedtoacquirethroughTimothywasnowimmediatelyavailable,andfromarepresentativesource.Hehadaccesstopeoplewhocouldspeakauthoritatively
aboutthestateofthecommunityanditsproblems,andthussupportordenythegossipofChloe'speople.Paul,therefore,wasinapositiontoformulatehisresponse,
notonlytowhattheCorinthianssawasquestions,buttoaspectsoftheirliveswhichheconsideredproblematic.Hedidsointheletterweknowas1Corinthians,
whichwaswrittensometimebefore2June,thedateofPentecost(1Cor.16:8)inAD54.113

TheKaleidoscopeLetter

Theorganizationof1CorinthiansreflectsthecomplexityofthesituationatCorinth.Pauldealswithawidevarietyofissuesbothdirectlyandindirectly,andanumber
ofcommentatorshaveconsideredthearrangementsohaphazardthattheyrefusetoseeinitasingleletter.Intheireyesitisnobetterthanacollectionoffragments
throwntogetherwithoutplanordesign.This,aswehaveseen,iscertainlyanexaggeration.114Moreover,M.Mitchellhasshownthat1Corinthiansisaconsistent
deliberativeargumentdesignedtoshowtheCorinthiansthatthefactionalisminwhichtheyindulgedwasnottotheiradvantagethroughoutPaulurgesconcord.115
Finally,acloseanalysisof1CorinthiansrevealsthatPaulwaschieflyconcernedwiththeattitudeandactivityofonegroupatCorinth.Thespiritpeoplewereatthe
rootoftheproblemsdealtwithin13ofthe16chaptersof1Corinthians.

TheInfluenceofApollos

Ifwelookcloselyat1Corinthians14,wherePaulismostexplictlyconcernedwithdivisionsinthecommunity,agroupemergeswhosemembersbelievedthattheir
possessionofwisdommadethemperfect(2:6).AspossessorsoftheSpiritwhichisfromGod(2:12),theywerespiritpeople(2:15).Theythoughtof
themselvesasfilled(withdivineblessings),wealthy,kings,(4:8),wise,strong,honoured(4:10).Theylookeddownonothersinthecommunitywho
113
Jewett(1979),48.
114
SeeCh.11,1Corinthians.
115
(1991),296304.

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116
hadnotattainedtheirexaltedspiritualstatusaschildrencapableofimbibingonlymilk(3:1),andasfoolswhowereweakanddishonoured(4:10).

WhileindividualthemesmaybeparalleledelsewhereintheGraecoRomanworld,R.A.Horsleyhasshownthatthereisaclearpatternwithinthewideselectionof
parallelsprovidedbycommentators.117ThelanguageusedbythegroupatCorinthreflectsPhilo'sdistinctionbetweentheheavenlymanandtheearthlyman.Allthe
keyelementsjustmentionedappearintwopassagesofasingleworkbytheAlexandrianphilosopher,DeSobrietate,911and557.Hence,weareentitledto
assumethatotherelementsintegraltoPhilo'sunderstandingoftheheavenlyandearthlymanalsoformedpartofthereligiousoutlookofthespiritpeople,andthatPaul
hastheselatterinmindwhenhearguesagainstsuchpoints.

Thebodywasafundamentalpointofdisagreementbetweentheheavenlyandtheearthlyman.Thewisdompossessedbytheformerrevealedtohimthatthebodyis
evilbynatureandtreacheroustothesoul(Leg.All.3.71),whereastheearthlymanwasabodylover(Leg.All.3.74).Ifthebodyisaplotteragainstthesoul,a
corpseandalwaysadeadthing(Leg.All.3.69),itisnaturaltoinferthatthespiritpeoplewerethosewhodeniedtheresurrection(1Cor.15:12).Death,fromtheir
perspective,wasliberationfromtheweightanddefilementofthebody(Som.148).Torecoverthebodyafterdeathwouldhavebeenmeaningless.Itishighlyunlikely,
therefore,thatthespiritpeoplecouldhaveacceptedPaul'spreachingofJesusastheRisenLordinthesensethatheintended.Perhapstheythoughtofhimasapurely
spiritualLordofGlory(1Cor.2:8).Inreality,theyhadnosenseofJesustheirattitudetohimineffectsaidAnathemaJesus!(1Cor.12:3).Inkeepingwiththeir
sapientialorientationtheyweretheists,and,ineveryinstancewherePaulconfrontsthem,hehastoremindthemoftheimportanceofJesusChrist(1Cor.2:l63:23
8:610:1615:35).

WhenPhilo'sdisparagementofthebodyisassociatedwithhisdictumthatonlythewisemanisfree(Post.138),whichmeansthathehasthepowertodoanything
andtoliveashewishes(Post.138),weseethebasisfortheCorinthianslogansallthingsarelawfultome(1Cor.6:1210:23),andeverysinwhichaman
commitsisoutsidethebody(1Cor.6:18).118Theirbeliefinthemoralirrelevanceofthebodyenabledthespiritpeopletoindulgetheirsexualappetites(1Cor.5:1
86:1220)andtoeatwhattheywished(1Cor.810).

TheimportancethatsomeCorinthiansattachedtoglossolalia(1Cor.1214)isdrawnintothispattern,119whenitisrecognizedthat,forPhilo,possessionofthe
propheticspiritexpresseditselfinecstasy,madness,andinspiredfrenzy,
116
Onhubrisasthegeneralcategorytodescribethissocialattitude,seeP.Marshall(1987),182218.
117
(1976),(1977),(1978).
118
Seemy(1978a).
119
Theadultchildantithesisof1Cor.3:1reappearsagainin1Cor.13:11.

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sincethemindisevictedatthearrivalofthedivinespirit(Heres2645).WhenspeakingoftonguesPaulspecificallymentionsfrenzy(1Cor.14:23)andthe
inactivityofthemind(1Cor.14:14).Mysterious,unintelligiblespeechflatteredtheconvictionofthespiritpeoplethattheyweresuperior.

GiventhatJewswereanalienatedminorityintheCorinthianchurch,theDiasporasynagogueismostunlikelytohavebeenthesourceofPhilonicinfluenceatCorinth.
TheobviouschannelbywhichPhilo'sphilosophicalframeworkenteredthecommunitywasApollos.Whathesaid,however,andwhathisfollowersunderstoodwere
notnecessarilyidentical.IftheymistookPaul'smeaningsobadly,itisimprobablethattheyunderstoodApollosadequately.CertainlyPaul'squarrelwaswiththe
practicalimplicationsoftheirinterpretationofApollos,ratherthanwiththepersonalityorteachingofthelatter(1Cor.16:12).IndeedApollosmayhaveleftCorinth,
andcometolivewithPaulatEphesus,becausehehadbecomedismayedattheusestowhichhisteachingwasbeingput.

AnUnfortunateStrategy

WhatheheardaboutthesituationatCorinthstrengthenedPaul'sbiasagainstspeculativetheology.Ithadrevealeditselfinitsfruits.Notonlywasitunnecessary,itwas
pernicious.Hence,insteadofasincereefforttogettotherootoftheproblem,andtounderstandthelegitimateaspirationsofthespiritpeople,Paul'sreactionwas
brutallydismissive.Confidentthatsuchpeoplewouldalwaysbeaminoritywithoutpopularsupport,Paulchosetoplayonthedarksideofthemajoritybyturningthe
spiritpeopleintofiguresoffun.Cruellaughterwastheweaponheselected.

PerhapsiflefttohimselfPaulwouldnothavemadewhatwouldprovetobeadisastrousmistake.Thesuggestionmayhavecomefromhiscoauthor,Sosthenes(1
Cor.1:1).120Eveninthatcase,wemustaskwhatmotivatedPaultoacceptsuchanunchristiantactic.Personalfactorswereprobablydecisive.Theinfluenceacquired
byApolloswasanimplicitcriticismofPaul'sleadership.Hemightcontenthimselfwithsimpleproclamationtothoseincapableofreceivinganythinghigher,butthe
spiritpeopleexpectedmuchmore.Alatentnoteofchallengeiseasilydetected(1Cor.2:154:3).IfPauldidnotofferthemwisdom,mightitnotbethathewas
incapableofthesoaringreligiousspeculationthattheyconsideredintegraltotruereligiousauthority?Mightnottheabsenceofsuchagiftindicatethathewasnotfitted
toleadthecommunity?Suchpresumption,fromPaul'sperspective,meritedasharpputdown,andheprovideditin1Corinthians14,whichsetsthetoneforhis
relationshipwiththespiritpeople.
120
Seemy(1993),56670.

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121
Thedifficultiesintheinterpretationof1Corinthians2:616areconsideredsoseverethatthepassagehasbeendismissedasapostPaulineinterpolation. The
mistakeofsuchcommentatorsistotakePaulseriously.Infactheisplayingacruelintellectualgamewithhisopponents.Hiswholepurposeistomystifythemand
therebyreducethemtoconfusedsilenceamidthelaughterofalltheotherswhoheartheletterreadaloud.Thisheachievesbyappropriatingsomeofthemost
cherishedtermsinthelexiconofthespiritpeopleandgivingthemameaningradicallyopposedtothatintendedbythelatter.Heagreesthattheyarespiritualand
possesswisdom,buttheirspiritisthespiritoftheworld(2:12)andtheirwisdomisthewisdomofthisage(2:6).Heconsentstotheirselfdesignationof
matureonlytoredefineitaschildishness(3:1).Thosewhosetthemselvesupasjudgesarerevealedtobeincompetent(2:14).Theunerringprecisionwithwhichhe
goestotheheartoftheirbeliefsisinexplicablewithouttheassistanceofApollos,whowaswithhimatthetimeofwriting(1Cor.16:12).Thepiercingtoneof
mockerypricksthebubbleoftheircomplacency.

Thesavagelysarcasticrhetoricalquestionswithwhichthisinitialsectionterminates(3:34)reappearin4:7,Whoseesanythingdifferentinyou?Whathaveyouthat
youdidnotreceive?Thespiritpeoplehavenoqualitieswhichwouldmakethemvaluableasalliesorsupporters.Theyarerecipientsnotcreators.Thecontemptuous
toneisheightenedasPaulgoesontomockthembytakingtheirspirituallanguageliterally,thustransformingtheirlegitimatereligiousaspirationsintoabsurdsocial
achievements.Ittakeslittleimaginationtoheartherustleoflaughterinthecongregationandseethemalicioussidewardlooksasthereaderofthelettergaveemphasis
tothewords,Withoutusyouhavebecomekings!Andwouldthatyoudidreign,sothatwemightsharetherulewithyou!(4:8).Thislanguagehasbeeninterpreted
asimplyingsocialstatus.122Thepointisdebatable,butitdoesseemratherprobablethatthespiritpeopleweredrawnpredominantlyfromthewealthier,andbetter
educatedsectionofthechurchatCorinth.Itistheywhowouldhavehadtheleisureandabilitytoindulgeinreligiousspeculation.

Paul'slackofcharityinhistreatmentofthespiritpeoplemusthavediminishedhimintheeyesofsensitivesoulsinthecommunity,whofeltthathehadgonetoofar.
Thereafterhisjudgementbecamesuspect,andunconditionalsupportproblematic.Forthespiritpeopleitwentmuchdeeper.Profoundlywoundedbythehumiliation
ofpublicridicule,theywerecompletelyalienatedandbecamehisimplacableenemies.Sincetheycouldnotattackhimdirectly,theychannelledtheirpainandanger
intofrustratinghisambitionsforthecommunity.NotlongafterreceiptoftheletteratCorinthinthesummerofAD
121
Widmann(1979).Forarefutation,seemy(1986a),814.
122
P.Marshall(1987),21417.

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54,theygavehospitalitytothosewhomPaulfearedasthegreatestthreattohisministry,theJudaizersfromAntioch,whohadtroubledthechurchesinGalatia.

AFeastofNewInsights

Despitehisdisparagementofthespiritpeople,Paulknewthathehadtodealwiththeissuestheyraised.Hecouldnotignoretheirpositions,whilerespondingtothose
ofothers,withoutrunningtheriskthathissilencewouldbeinterpretedasapproval.Hethusfoundhimselfobligedtoreflectformallyonmatterswhichpreviouslyhad
attractedhisattentiononlyfleetingly,orintowhichhadhedelvedonlysuperficially.

Paulprobablyundertookthetaskwithsomeeagerness.Despitetheirfaults,theCorinthianshadacceptedenthusiasticallythechallengetotranslatethegospelintothe
realitiesofdailylife.Itwasunfortunatethattheymademistakes,butthefactthattheyatleastmadetheeffortputthemfaraheadoftheGalatians,whoweretootimid
eventotry,andwhosoughtthesafetyofauthoritativerulesandregulations.WhereasPaulorderedtheGalatianstoaccepttheburdenoffreedom,heenteredinto
dialoguewiththeCorinthians.

ThemostnoteworthyinsightswhichwerefosteredbytheconfusionatCorinthconcernthemeansofministry,communalandpersonalfreedom,theverynatureofthe
Christiancommunity,andtheroleofwomeninthechurch.

TransformedbyGrace

HisbreakwithAntiochhadforcedPaultoreflectonthesourceofhisauthorityasanapostle.Ifhehadgivenfurtherthoughttothenatureofministry,itdoesnot
surfaceinanydevelopedwayinPhilippians,Colossians,orPhilemon.Theopposition,whichsomeatCorinthhadsetupbetweenhimselfandApollos,forcedPaulto
examineandevaluatethedifferencesbetweenthem.Wasitonlyamatterofstyle?WeretherevalidreasonswhycertainCorinthiansoptedforoneortheother?

Thebasicinsightissetoutwithexemplarysimplicity:thekingdomofheavendoesnotconsistintalkbutinpower(1Cor.4:20).Thechurchisnotasetofideas
whichinformsthemind,butacontextofdivinepowerwhichtransformsthepersonality.Authenticministers,inconsequence,donotusetheirrhetoricaltrainingto
developpersuasivearguments,butmanifestthepresenceofthegracegivingSpirit.Faithisnottheconclusionofalogicaldiscourse,butisbornofavisionofGodat
workhereandnow(1Cor.2:15).Ministersassumetheresponsibilityofbeingtheplacewherethedivineisactivetheircomportmentmustbesuchastorevealthe
powerofgrace.Theyhavetobeabletosay,Imitateme!(1Cor.4:1711:1).

TheneedtodefinehisrelationshipwithApollospromptsPaultoexplainthedescriptionofaministerasGod'scoworker,whichhehadusedinaprevious

 Page285

letter(1Thess.3:2).Goddoesnotneedanyassistanceingrantinggrace.Buthehaschosenhumansasinstrumentsthroughwhichheworkstogenerateandsustain
faith(1Cor.3:59),123andtheirmutualrelationshipisdecidedbyhiswill.Totallydedicatedcooperation,therefore,isessential,andinappropriatebehaviourempties
thecrossofChristofitspower(1Cor.1:17).Inadequateministerscanblockthepassageofgrace.

TheimportanceofthewitnessvalueofthecommunityintheproclamationofthegospelwasapparenttoPaulfromhisearliestletter(1Thess.1:684:12cf.Phil.2:
1416).ThedisparagementofthebodybythespiritpeopleatCorinthmadeitimperativeforhimtoemphasizethisinsight,whichpermeatesthewholeof1
Corinthians,eventhoughitsurfacesexplicitlyonlyoccasionally(10:3214:235).Itiswhy,afterdealingwiththedivisionswithinthecommunity(chs.14),Paul
developsatightlyknittripartitesection,whosebasicthemeistheimportanceofthebodyasthesphereinwhichcommitmenttoChristbecomesreal(chs.56).The
keysectionisthecentralonedevotedtolawsuits(6:111).Hispointisnotthatthechurchshouldhideitsdirtylinenfromtheeyesofoutsiders,butthattheyshould
grasptheopportunitytodemonstratethepowerofgracetononbelieversbyresolvingsuchdisputesthemselves.Unlessitismissionary,thechurchisuntruetoitself.
Theworldneedstoseegraceatwork.

PersonalandCommunalFreedom

AfeatureofPaul'streatmentoftheincestuousmarriageatCorinthisthestressheputsonhisspiritualpresence.

Asforme,absentinbodybutpresentinspirit,asonewhoispresent,IhavealreadyjudgedthemanwhohasdonesuchathinginthenameoftheLordJesus.Whenyouare
assembled,Ibeingwithyouinspirit,andempoweredbytheLordJesus,suchapersonshouldbehandedovertoSatan.

(1Cor.5:35)124

WhendealingwithasimilarneedforexcommunicationsomeyearsearlierPaulhadsimplyorderedthecommunitytorefrainfromallcontactwiththeoffender(2
Thess.3:14).In1Corinthians,onthecontrary,weseeadefinitedevelopmentinhissensitivitytotheneedofthelocalchurchforgenuineautonomyifitistodevelop
normally.Thosetowhomallisdictatedremainforeverimmature.ThelessonofAntiochhadbeenthoroughlylearned.125

Here,therefore,Paulbeginsbyassertingtheresponsibilityofthecommunityforitsownauthenticity(5:2).Hetherebygivesanunambiguoussignalthathe
123
Translationsof1Cor.3:9suchasweareGod'sservants,workingtogether(NRSV),God'sweare,beingfellowworkers(Fee(1987),134),whichputtheemphasisexclusively
onpossession,failtodojusticetotheproductiveactivityinwhichGodisinvolved.MinistersworkwithGod.
124
Forthejustificationofthistranslation,seemy(1977a).
125
SeeCh.6,PastoralInstruction.

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isnotgoingtoresolvetheproblembyfiat.Itisthecommunitywhichmustdecide.Allhecandoistogivehimselfavoiceandvoteintheircouncilbyclaimingtobe
spirituallypresent.Hespellsoutunequivocallywhathispositionis,butdoesnotpreemptthedecisionofthechurch.

Preciselythesameattitudeemergesinhistreatmentoftheeucharist(1Cor.11:1734).Afteranalysingthesituationinthelightofhisunderstandingoftheeucharist,
heinformstheCorinthiansthat,eventhoughtheysaythewordsofinstitution,theirlackofcharitypositivelyexcludestheirmealbeingtheLord'sSupper(11:20).He
doesnottellthemhowtosolvetheproblem.Hesimplylaysouttheneedforselfexaminationontheirpartandspecifiesthecriteriontheymustuse,Anyonewhoeats
anddrinkswithoutdiscerningtheBodyeatsanddrinksjudgmentonhimself(11:29).126Interpersonalrelationswithinthecommunityarethecrucialfactor.

Whatwasvalidforthecommunityasawholewasalsotrueforindividualmembers.Paulrefusestocommandtheirmoralbehaviour.Thus,inthecaseofeatingmeat
offeredtoidols,hemakesclearhisdisagreementwiththepositiontakenbysomeCorinthians,buthisonlyconclusionistotellthemwhathepersonallywoulddointhe
samecircumstances,Therefore,iffoodisacauseofmybrother'sfalling,Iwillnevereatmeat,lestIcausemybrothertofall(1Cor.8:13).

Itisunfortunatethatthisawarenessofwhatthebelievingcommunityneedsfromitsleadersdidnotextendtothelegitimatedesiresofthespiritpeople.Ifithad,the
situationinCorinthwouldhavedevelopedverydifferently.

TheBodyofChrist.

IndiscussingPaul'sresponsetotheGalatianswesawthatheattainedavagueperceptionoftheorganicunityofChristiansandtheirrelationtoChrist.Theyhadput
onChristandwereonepersoninChristJesus(Gal.3:278).127Col.1:18and2:19showthatPaulcontinuedtoruminateonthevistasopenedbythisperspective.
Itwasavailable,andproveditsvalue,whenthefactionalismofCorinthforcedhimtodevelopadefinitionofthecommunitywhichwouldmaketheveryexistenceof
hostilegroupsappearselfcontradictory.Theneedtoexploitpracticalapplicationsprovokedadeepeningandclarificationofthefundamentalinsight.

Inthefirstpartoftheletter,PaulfourtimesintroducesthenameChristincontextsinwhichitcannotbeunderstoodoftheindividualJesusChrist(1Cor.1:136:15
8:1212:12).Itcanonlybeadesignationofthecommunity.128But
126
ForthejustificationofgivingBodyacapitalletter,seeFee(1987),5634,andRobinson(1952),60n.1.
127
SeeCh.8,TheLivingChrist.
128
Fordetails,seemy(1978b),56364M.Mitchell(1991),242n.321.

 Page287
129
inwhatsensecouldthecommunitybecalledChrist? CommonsenseexcludedastaticidentityofbeingtheindividualJesusChristwasacompletelydifferent
reality.130OnlyfunctionallycouldChristandthecommunitybeconsideredone.BelieverswerethemeansbywhichtheRisenLordactedintheworld.Theywerehis
ears,eyes,andhands.Whathehaddonewhenphysicallypresent,theynowdoinhisnameandwithhispower.ThustoconsiderbelieversasagentsofChrist,while
trueasfarasitgoes,doesnotexhaustthedepthofPaul'smeaning.Themostfundamentalactivityofthechurchisanexpressionofitsbeing.

YouaretheBodyofChristandtakensinglymembersofit(1Cor.12:27).TheratherawkwardformulationcanonlymeanthatcollectivelytheCorinthiansarethe
BodyofChrist,whereasindividuallytheyareitsmembers.Inmanyinstancestheinterpretationofthiskeyverseisvitiatedbytheadoptionoftheholisticdefinitionof
body,whichwasfirstproposedbyJ.Weissinhiscommentaryon1Corinthians6:13andthengiventhethestatusofcommoncurrencybyR.Bultmann131andJ.A.
T.Robinson,132whichpreparedthewayforthecosmicsacramentalhypothesisofP.Benoit.133R.H.Gundry,however,hasshownthatnotextdemandstheholistic
interpretation,andthatallpassagesbecomemoreintelligiblewhenbodyispermittedtoretainitsconnotationofphysicalityorcorporeity,andheperfectlygrasps
Paul'smeaninginwritingthatadistinctionbetweentwobodiesofChristhastobedrawnanindividualbody,distinctfromthebelievers,inwhichhearose,
ascended,andlivesonhigh,andanecclesiasticalBodyconsistingofbelievers,inwhichhedwellsonearththroughhisSpirit.134BycallingthecommunitytheBodyof
Christ,therefore,PaulidentifiesitasthephysicalpresenceofChristintheworld.ThemissionofthechurchisaprolongationintimeandspaceoftheministryofChrist
bymanifesting,ashedid,thepowerandwisdomofGod(1Cor.1:24).ItsroleistodisplayGod'sintentionforhumanityandtoenablethoseunderthepowerofSin
toattainthatideal(Rom.3:9).

HowthechurchexercisesthisministrybecomesclearwhenwenotethatforPaulthefunctionalroleoftheBodyisrootedinitsverynature.Whatheoncesaidin
Galatians,youareallonepersoninChrist(3:28),isclarifiedbybeingreformulatedaswewhoaremanyareonebody(1Cor.10:17),whichislaterrepeatedas
sowe,manyasweare,areonebodyinChrist(Rom.12:5).WithgreatinsightRobinsonhaspointedoutthatinthesetextsthefactofunity,as
129
TheonlycommentatortoattempttoanswerthisquestionisWolff(1982),1078,whoinsiststhat1Cor.12:12bbereadintheperspectiveofitsbracketingverses,bothofwhich
evoketheactivityoftheSpirit.ThecommunityisChristinsofarasitisthespherewherethesavingpoweroftheSpiritisatwork.
130
SorightlyBarrett(1968),287.
131
(1965),1.195,Man,hispersonasawhole,canbedenotedbysoma.
132
(1952),289,Indeed,smaisthenearestequivalenttoourwordpersonality.Frequentlyagain,asinthecaseofsarx,smaissimplyaperiphrasisforthepersonalpronoun.
133
(1956),544.
134
(1976),228.

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thebasicdatum,alwaysstandsforPaulinthemainsentencethemultiplicity,ontheotherhand,isexpressedbyasubordinatephraseorclausewiththesenseofin
spiteof,andRobinsonalsodrawsthecorrectinference,thediversityisonethatderivesfromthepreexistingnatureoftheunityasorganic:itisnotadiversitywhich
hastodiscoverorbemadeintoaunity.135

Thechurchdiffersfromallotherhumangroupingsinsofarasitsunityisnotfunctionalbutorganic.Itsmembersarenotmerelyunitedbyacommonpurpose,butshare
acommonexistence.AnautonomousChristianisasimpossibleasanindependentarmorleg.Armsandlegsexistonlyasparts.Iftheyaregiventhestatusof
independentwholesbyamputationtheyarenolongeranarmoraleg.Forawhiletheymaylookasiftheywere,butcorruptionhasbegun,andtheycanneithergrasp
norwalk.Thesameistrueofbelievers.TheirexistenceislovingwithoutloveIamnothing(1Cor.13:2)136whichnecessarilyimpliesarelationshiptoanother
person.ToloveandbelovedisoftheessenceofChristianityandisconstitutiveofthebeingofthebeliever.Theyareboundtogetherbywhatmakesthembewhat
theyare.OnlynowdoesitbecomeclearwhatPaultentativelyenvisagedwhenhesaid,ItisnolongerIwholive,butChristwholivesinme(Gal.2:20).The
independentself,whichtheworldtakesforgrantedasnormal,isabsorbedintotheauthenticityofanorganiccommunity.

Paul'sinsightintothenatureofthechurchasanorganicunityinevitablyconditionshisunderstandingofindividuation.Individuationbyindependence,e.g.Ithink,
thereforeIam,wouldbecategoricallyrefusedbyPaul,becauseitwoulddestroytheunitywhichmakesbelieverswhattheyare.Asarmsandlegsrelativetothe
physicalbody,themembersoftheBodyofChristaredifferentiatedbytheirvariouscapacitiesforservice.Eachhasadifferentspiritualgiftwhichisnecessaryforthe
commongoodofthecommunity(1Cor.12:47).TheauthenticallyChristianuseofthefirstpersonsingularmustalwaysbeavariationofIexisttoserveyou.

Themostfundamentalministryofthechurchistobetheantithesisofaworldwhichischaracterizedaboveallbydivisions.Withintheframeworkofhostileblocks
(Gal.3:28),individualsareseparatedfromoneanotherbybarriersoffearandsuspicion(1Cor.5:10116:910).137Theroleofthechurchistoliberatethe
captivesbyrevealingtheopportunitiesoffreedomindependenceonothers.
135
(1952),60.
136
ThebestcommentaryremainsthatofSpicq(1959),71n.2,Outheneimic'estpresquel'quivalentdumtaphysiquenontre(tomon,Platon,Soph.238dAristote,Mtaph.v,
2,1026b14).Chrtiennement,ceprophteougnostiquesanscharitn'existepas(compareresteenChrist,1Cor1,30).
137
TheotherPaulinevicelistsareGal.5:1921Col.3:5,82Cor.12:201Rom.1:193113:3).Theyexhibitanunusuallyhighpercentageofsocialviceswhichmakereal
communicationimpossibleseemy(1982b),1326.

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Whenviewedagainstthisbackground,thefactionsatCorinthappearasanabberrationasradicalasthemisplacedambitionsoftheleadersofhousechurchesat
Philippi(Phil.4:2).ThewayinwhichhedealtwiththislatterproblemshowsthatwhenPaulwrotethatletterhedidnotyethavetheconceptualtoolswhichthe
Corinthiansituationforcedhimtodevelop.Hewasawarethattherivalrywasdangerous,buthedidnotthenseeitascontradictoryoftheverynatureofthechurch.

Paul'svisionofthechurchasanorganicunityhadfarreachingimplicationsforhisunderstandingofChristianmorality.Thushesaystothelitigants,Tohavelawsuits
withyourselvesisatotalfailureforyou(1Cor.6:7).ForoneChristiantosueanotherisequivalenttobringingacaseagainstoneself,becausetheyarebothmembers
ofonebody.138Woulditmakesenseforthearmtosuetheleg?Ifthesuitsucceeded,wouldnotbothlose?Inthesameperspective,Paulwillnotacceptthatwhatis
rightinitself(e.g.theeatingofmeatofferedtoidols)isanadequatemoralguidelineforbelievers.Thequestionsabelievermustaskare:willtheprojectedcourseof
actionempowerordestroyothers(1Cor.8:9,11:29)?Willitbuildupthecommunity(1Cor.14:35)?

TheMinistryofWomen

DespitetheambitionsofEuodiaandSyntychewhichtroubledthechurchatPhilippi,Paultookitentirelyforgrantedthatwomenwereministersofthechurchin
preciselythesamesenseasmen.HerecognizedtheirgiftsasfruitsoftheSpirit,whichhehadneitherthedesirenortheauthoritytooppose.Giventheandrocentric
worldinwhichhelived,however,itwouldbesurprisingiftherewerenotstirringsofoppositionamongthosewhofailedtoappreciatejusthowradicalthegospelwas.

WewouldneverknowhowPaulmighthavedealtwithsuchcriticisms,wereitnotforanepisodewhichtookplaceduringthevisitofChloe'speopletoCorinth.They
participatedinoneoftheliturgicalassemblies,andwereshockedattheleadingroletakenbyaman,whowasapparentlyhomosexual,andaverystrangewoman.

PresumablyPaulhademphasizedtotheCorinthiansthedifferencebetweenthechurchandtheworldintermssimilartothosehepennedtotheGalatians,Thereisno
moreJewnorGreek,nomoreslavenorfree,nomoremaleandfemale(Gal.3:28).139NodoubtheexhortedtheCorinthianstoworkoutalifestylewhichwould
incarnatethenewnessofthegospelandmakethemstandoutintheirenvironment.Inagesturetypicaloftheirinfantilementality(1Cor.3:
138
SorightlyRobertsonandPlummer(1914),116.Mostversionsandcommentatorstranslatemeth'heautnasifitweremet'allln.
139
Iftheformulaisnotpartofabaptismalliturgy(soSchlier(1962),1745:Betz(1979),1815Longenecker(1990),1545),itcertainlyreflectsafixedpatterninPaul'spreaching(cf.1
Cor.12:13Col.3:11andtheorganizationof1Cor.7:1728).

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214:20),theCorinthiansdecidedtotakethelastphraseliterallyandsetouttoblurthedistinctionbetweenthesexes!Unmasculineandunfemininehairdosflewinthe
faceofacceptedconvention,asdidtheirapprovalofincest(1Cor.5:12).

Inhisreaction(1Cor.11:216)Pauldevelopsthreedistinctarguments,butonlythefirstisrelevanthere.140ItskernelisdrawnfromGenesis2:212,inwhichGodis
showncreatingmanandwomanindifferentways.FromthisPauldeducedthatgenderdifferencewaspartofGod'splanforhumanity,andsomustbepreservedas
significant.Hence,amanshouldlooklikeamanandawomanlikeawoman.Forwhatthismeantinpractice,Paul,ofcourse,wasindebtedtothefashionsofhisage.
Menhadshorthaircuts,andthelonghairofwomenwasplaitedandwoundroundthetopoftheheadtomakeasmallhaircap.

Aware,however,thatGenesis2:212wasusedinJewishcirclestodemonstratetheinferiorityandsubordinationofwomen,141Paulimmediatelymovedtoensurethat
nothingmorethanwhatheintendedcouldbedrawnfromhispremise.1421Corinthians11:1112isthefirstandonlyexplicitdefenceofthecompleteequalityof
womenintheNewTestament.Pauloverturnedthetraditionalargumentfromthechronologicalpriorityofthemaleinthecreationnarrativebypointingoutthatthe
chronologicalpriorityofwomaninthebirthofamaleisjustasmuchpartofGod'splanfortheorderofhiscreation(1Cor.11:12).Thiselementaryargument
functionsasprooffortheprinciple,AsChristians,143womanisnototherwisethanman,andmanisnototherwisethanwoman(v.11).144Equalityistheissuehere,
notcomplementarity.Thestrengthandclarityofthisinsightmeansthatthedirectivethatwomenmustkeepsilentinchurch(1Cor.14:345)cannotcomefromthe
penofPaul.145
140
Forthedetails,andinparticularforthereferencesidentifyingthemalehomosexual,seemy(1980),and(1988b).
141
e.g.Josephus,AgainstApion2.201Philo,QuestionsandAnswersonGenesis1.27.
142
Thisdangerisnolessrealtodaythanitwasinthefirstcenturythemajorityofcommentatorsinterpret1Cor.11:89asprovingtheinferiorityofwomen.
143
Bultmann(1965),1.329,hascorrectlynotedthatincontextssuchasthisintheLordmerelyfillstheplaceofanadjectiveoradverbwhichthelinguisticprocesshadnotyet
developed:ChristianorasaChristian,inaChristianmanner.
144
Forthetranslation,seeKrzinger(1978).
145
ItwasaddedbyalaterhandtobringitintolinewiththenonPauline1Tim.2:1114seemy(1986a),902.

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12
CorinthinCrisis
WhenPaulfinishedwriting1Corinthiansanddispatcheditwiththereturningdelegation,heevidentlyconsideredthathehaddoneallthatwasnecessaryforthe
moment.Thecarehehadexpendedontheletter,hefelt,justifiedahighdegreeofoptimismastoitssuccessfulimpact.Aleisurelyswingthroughthechurchesof
Macedoniawhich,foralltheirproblems,wereasangelscomparedwiththeCorinthians,wouldrefreshhisspirit.ItwouldbesufficienttoreachCorinthattheendof
thesummer(ofAD54),andhecouldpassthewinterthere,ifalongstaywasindicated(1Cor.16:57).Theseplanswerecompletelydisruptedbytheneedtomake
anunplannedvisittoCorinth.

AnUnplannedVisit

WhetherornotPaulmadeavisittoCorinthbetweenwriting1Corinthiansand2CorinthiansthesocalledIntermediateVisitdependsontheinterpretationoftwo
difficulttextsin2Corinthians.1Thefirstis2Corinthians12:14whichcanbetranslatedintwoways:(a)Behold!ThisisthethirdtimeIammakingpreparationsto
cometoyouand(b)Behold!Iamreadytocometoyouforthethirdtime.TheformermeansthatPaulhadplannedtocometoCorinthonseveraloccasionsbut
neversucceedinaccomplishinghispurpose.ThelatterindicatesthatPaulhadvisitedCorinthtwicealready.Thesameambivalenceplagues2Corinthians13:1a,
whichcanberendered:(a)thisthirdtimeIamcomingtoyou(inoppositiontotwoprevioustimeswhenhetriedbutcouldnotmakeit),or(b)thisisthethirdtimeI
amcomingtoyou.

Everything,therefore,hingesonthemeaningof13:2,whichmaybetranslatedveryliterallyasIhavesaidpreviouslyandIsaybeforehand,asbeingpresentthe
secondtimeandbeingabsentnow,tothosehavingsinnedpreviouslyandtoalltheothersthatifIcomeagainIwillnotspare.Thecomplexityofthesentenceisdue
tothefactthatPaulisthinkingintwodifferenttime
1
NosuchvisitismentionedinActs.

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2
frames.Oncethisisrecognized,itiseasytoseparateandlinktheelementswhichgotogether:

(a)Ihavesaidpreviously=beingpresentthesecondtime

(b)Isaybeforehand=beingabsentnow

Theprefixprointheverbsdoesnothavethesamepointofreferenceineachcase.In(a)itlooksbacktoatimebeforethepresent,whereasin(b)itlooksforward
toamomentinthefuture.Thelatterintheperspectiveof(a)canonlybeathirdvisit.Theambiguityof13:1istherebyremovedtheonlytranslationpossibleis:
thisisthethirdtimeIamcomingtoyou,whichinturndeterminesthesenseof12:14.Paul'spointistorepeatsomethingIfIcomeagainIwillnotspare3which
heoncesaidinthepresenceoftheCorinthiansontheoccasionofasecondvisit,andwhichhenowrepeatsinanticipationofathirdvisit.Thetwostatutorywarnings
havingbeengiven,hewillbefreetoactassoonashearrives.4Thehintthatthesecondvisitwasnotapleasantoneisunmistakable.Whathappened?

TheMissionofTimothy

WehavenodirectinformationastowhatbroughtPaultoCorinthnotlongafterhewrote1Corinthians.Thedataavailable,however,permitonlyonehypothesis.
TimothycarriedbacknewswhichgalvanizedPaulintoaction.51Corinthiansinadvertentlybetraysthelatter'sanxietyregardinghowTimothywouldbereceivedat
Corinth(4:1421).Paul'sfearisnotexpressedinsomanywords,butthesuddenshiftintonefromthesereneintroductionofTimothy(4:17)totheheatedoutburst,
Somearearrogant,asthoughIwerenotcomingtoyou(4:18),revealsPaul'semotionalresponsetohissuddenvividimageofwhatTimothymightbegoingthrough.

Thepossibilitycontinuedtoworryhim,andhemadehisconcernexplicitattheendoftheletter.HedidnotwantTimothytobefrightenedordespised(1Cor.16:10
11).Paulsuspectedthatthespiritpeople,wholookeddownonhimforhislackofreligioussophistication,wouldtendtoadoptasimilarlydismissiveattitudetowards
hisdelegate.AndPauldidnotknowhowmuchsupportTimothywouldfindelsewhereinthecommunity.Fearisoftentheconcomitantofisolation.Theagitated
affectionofPaulforhisyoungercolleagueculminatedinaveiledthreat,Iamawaitinghimwiththebrethren.Commentatorshavemadeitclearthatthebrethren
cannotbeeitherthethreeCorinthiansmentionedin16:15orotherCorinthianssupposedtocomewithTimothy.Theymustthenbethemembersofthechurchat
Ephesus.Timothy's
2
Allo(1956b),336.
3
Itisadirectquotation,soPlummer(1915),374Allo(1956b),337Furnish(1984),570.
4
VanVliet(1958),4362.
5
SorightlyFee(1987),822.

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fatewouldbeamatterforthewholecommunitywithpossiblerepercussionsforthebusinessrelationsbetweenthetwochurches.

ThesimplestexplanationofPaul'ssurprisevisittoCorinthisthatitwasmotivatedbyTimothy'sreport.

WhatHappenedatCorinth?

MuchofwhathappenedwhenPaulgottoCorinthisshroudedinobscurity.Heknewwhathadoccurredandsodidhisreaders.Hedidnothavetorehearsethe
details.Wehavetotrytoworkbackwardsfromwhatisincidentallyrevealedoftheaftermathin2Corinthians2:111and7:616.Theavailablecluesmustfirstbe
tabulated,andthenassessedindividually,ifthereconstructionistohaveanyclaimtoobjectivity.6Theestablishedfactsconcernboththeoffenceandtheresponseof
thecommunity:(1)asingleChristian(2:67:12)madeaseriousattack(2:1,3,4)onPaulpersonally(2:5,10)(2)themembersofthechurchdidnotmanifestthe
personalloyaltyandenthusiasmthatPaulhadexpected(7:12).Theyweresufficientlyatfaulttoexperiencetheneedforrepentance(7:9).Yettheymanagedto
convinceTitusoftheirinnocenceinthematter(7:11).

Barretteasesthepalpabletensionbetweenthelasttwoelements(7:9and11)bysuggestingthattheoffender,thoughaChristian,wasonlyavisitorandnotamember
oftheCorinthiancommunity.7ThisinferenceisrefusedbyWolffonthegroundsthatthechurchcouldhavedisciplinedonlyoneofitsownmembers(2:67).8
However,themostseverepenaltythatthecommunitycouldinflictwastowithdrawfromallcontactwithanindividual(cf.1Cor.5:11),anditwasperfectlyfeasible
forittorefusethehospitalitywhichthevisitorhadhithertoenjoyed.Hence,unlesswearepreparedtoassumethatPaulwastellingalieinordertoexculpatethe
Corinthians(7:11),wemustconcludethattheincidentwasprovokedbyanintruder.9

WhywouldanintruderchallengePaul'sauthority?Thisquestionisaninvitationtounbridledspeculation,andhypotheseshaveproliferated.Itismuchmoreprofitable
toask:howcouldtheintruderactinsuchawaythatPaulwouldfeelhimselfprofoundlyinsultedandpersonallyinjured,butthatthecommunitywouldconsiderthe
issuetobenoneofitsbusiness?Theanswer,whichbuildsonwhatwehavealreadydiscovered,andwhichrevealstheseedsofsubsequentdevelopments,isthatthe
visitorwasaspokesmanofthe
6
ThiswasdonefirstbyAllo(1956b),55,whoseobservationsandinferenceswerefurtherrefinedbyBarrett(1970a).
7
Ibid.155.
8
(1989),43.ItisalsorefusedbyR.P.Martin(1986),238,butwithoutanyjustification.
9
Thuswecanexcludetheclassicviewsthattheoffenderwastheincestuousmanof1Cor.5:15oroneofthelitigantsof1Cor.6:111fordetailsseeAllo(1956b),5660Furnish
(1984),1636R.P.Martin(1986),237.

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10
delegationwhichAntiochhadsenttoexerciseitsrightsoverthechurchesthatPaulhadfoundedinitsname.

WhilestillaprisonerinEphesus,PaulhadbecomeawareoftheambitionsoftheJudaizerstofollowhimintoEurope,andwrotetoPhilippitoalertthechurchthereof
itsdanger(Phil.3:24:1).11Presumably,thereasonforhisplannedvisittoMacedonia(1Cor.16:5)wastocheckwhetherthesituationhefearedhadinfact
developed.Inthesecircumstances,theworstpossiblenewsthatTimothycouldhavebroughtbacktoPaulwasthattheJudaizerswerefaraheadofhim,andhad
alreadypenetratedCorinth.Paul'ssenseofshockandoutragewouldhavebeenexacerbatedbytherealizationthattheymusthavepassedthroughMacedoniatoget
there.HewouldnothavebeencaughtsounawareshadtheypassedthroughEphesus.PhilippiandThessalonica,inconsequence,werealsoatrisk.

WhatwasPaultodo?Thefirstoptionwastocontinuewithhisoriginalproject,togofirsttoMacedoniaandthentoCorinth.Thisplanhadlittletorecommendit.To
followtheJudaizersaroundputhimatapsychologicaldisadvantage.Theyweremakingtherunning,andhewasonlyplayingcatchup.Moreover,Paul'srelationswith
ThessalonicaandPhilippiweregood.Theproblemsofthesechurcheswithwhichhehadtodealhadnotaffectedtheaffectioninwhichhewasheld.AtCorinth,on
thecontrary,hewasnotuniversallyadmired.Thespiritpeople,atleast,wereagainsthim.Andonreflectioninthismomentofcrisishemayhaverealizedthatthe
strategyhehadadoptedin1Corinthianswouldnothavemadethemanyfriendlier.

Recognitionofthisfactwasdecisive.JustbecausetheJudaizerswereopposedtoPaul,theyweremorelikelytogetafavourablereceptionatCorinththanin
Macedonia.Hence,itwasimperativeforPaultogoinpersontoCorinth.ButsomethinghadtobedoneaboutMacedonia.EventhoughPhilippiwasawareofPaul's
viewsonJudaizers(Phil.3:2to4:1),apersonalvisitcouldonlybebeneficial.EvenwithouttheevidenceofActs19:22,itwouldhavebeennaturaltoassumethatthe
responsibilitywasentrustedtoPaul'smostvaluedcooperator,Timothy,particularlysincehisvisittoPhilippihadalreadybeenannounced(Phil.2:19).

Timothy'sheartmusthavebeenheavyasheheadednorthwithErastus(Acts19:22)totakeshipfromTroas.TheimpactofhisnewsfromCorinthonPaulhad
dismayedhim,andhedidnotknowwhathostilityhemightfaceamongthebelieversinMacedonia,wheretheJudaizershadhadthetimetoestablishafirmbase.The
burdenhecarried,however,couldnotbecomparedtothatbornebyPaul.AstheshipswoopedoverthewavesenroutetoCenchreae,theeasternportofCorinth,it
iseasytoenvisagethedepressedstateinwhichhisimagina
10
SeeCh.8,WhoweretheIntruders?Barrett(1970a),156,withhisusualfineperception,findsintheincidenttheseedsoftheproblemswithwhich2Cor.1013struggles.
11
SeeCh.9,LetterofWarning.

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tioncreatedonescenarioworsethantheother,whilehemulledoverdifferentpossiblestrategies.IfhelostCorinth,hisenemieswouldhavecompletedtheir
encirclement,andEphesusatthecentrecouldnotlongsurvive.ThewholefutureoftheGentilechurchwasatstake.

TheconfrontationatCorinthwiththeleaderoftheJudaizerswasundoubtedlydramatic.12Thelinetakenbythelattermusthavebeenverysimilartotheonehetookin
Galatia.13Paul,heasserted,wasadishonestrepresentativeofthechurchwhichhadsenthimouttoproclaimthecommonfaith.Atraitortohiscommission,Paul
preachedhisownideas,notthecommongospel.Thedismissivetoneinwhichtheslanderswerepronouncedaddedinsulttoinjury.Paulleavesusinnodoubtthathe
hadbeendeeplyhumiliated,andhisauthoritychallengedinthemostradicalwaypossible.

TheNeutralityoftheCorinthians

YetwhatperturbedhimmostwastheattitudeoftheCorinthians.Theirfailuretocometohissupportcuthimtothequick.Fromtheperspectiveofanoutsiderthisis
notasdisconcertingasPaulfoundit.TheattitudeofthechurchofAntiochwasirrelevantasfarastheCorinthianswereconcerned.Theywereconfidentoftheirown
identity,andtheyhadabsorbedPaul'steachingontheautonomyofthelocalcommunity.Theideaofaclaimbasedonageneticconnectionwithanotherchurchwould
haveseemedratherunrealistictothem.ThesuccessofJerusaleminimposingitsethosonAntiochwasnoconcernoftheirs.ItmightmattertoPaul,butinthatcasehe
couldfightitoutwiththeintruderonapurelypersonallevel.14

NaturallyPauldidnotseetheepisodeinthislight.Notonlywastherethematterofhiswoundedvanitythosewhomhehadengenderedthroughthegospel(1Cor.
4:15)shouldhavepreferredhimaboveallothersbuttheneutralityoftheCorinthiansinducedthesuspicionthattheywerepreparedtolistentotheJudaizers.In
facttheCorinthiansmighthavereplied,whenPaulaskedthemtorejecttheintruder,thatnooneshouldbecondemnedwithoutafairhearing.This,ofcourse,was
preciselywhatPaulwantedtoavoid.ThereportfromGalatiahadrevealedtohimtheseductivecharacterofthemessageoftheJudaizers.Onemightreasonably
suspectthatthespiritpeoplewerebehindtherefusaltoletPaullorditovertheirfaith(2Cor.1:23)thewoundscausedbyhistreatmentofthemin1Corinthians
werestillopenandbleeding.

TheobstinacyoftheCorinthiansputPaulonthehornsofadilemma.Ontheonehand,hewantedtostayinCorinthtocountertheargumentsofthe
12
Barrett(1973),7.
13
SeeCh.8,DiscreditingPaul.
14
Thishypothesisnotonlyintegratesalargemassofdata,butithastheaddedadvantageofmakingunnecessaryalltheoriesofconspiracyordominationamongthevariousfactions
atCorinth.

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Judaizers,butontheotherhandhebelievedhimselftobenecessaryinMacedonia,wheretheywerealsoactive.HecouldnotstayindefinitelyinCorinth,andperhaps
herecognizedthathispresencewasonlyexacerbatingthesituation.Thebeneficialeffectsoneveryoneofabreathingspacemayhavebeenafactorinhisdecisionto
leave.Wheredidhego?

AJourneytoMacedonia

AnumberofcommentatorsassumethatPaulreturneddirectlytoEphesus,onthegroundsthat2Corinthians1:15plansavoyagewiththefollowingcomponents:to
visitCorinthfirst,fromtheretogotoMacedoniaandtoreturntoCorinth,whencehewouldleaveforJudaea.15Inwritingthus,however,Paulwasattemptingtojustify
notonebuttwochangesofplan.ThefirsthehadannouncedtotheCorinthiansin1Corinthians16:56hewouldcometoCorinthviaMacedonia.Infact,the
circumstancesdiscussedaboveforcedhimtogotoCorinthfirst.Itisthisrevisedplanthathetriestopresentinthemostattractivewaypossiblebyimplyingthathe
hadchangedhismindbecauseoftheuniqueimportanceofCorinthinhiseyesitwouldgettwovisitsinsteadofone(2Cor.1:15).Atthetimeofwritinghehadinfact
visitedCorinththesocalledintermediatevisitbutsubsequentlychangedthetravelplanshehadannouncedthere,namely,togotoMacedoniaandthenreturnto
Corinth(2Cor.2:1).HewentstraightfromMacedoniatoEphesus(2Cor.2:1213).16

Thisinterpretationisreinforcedbytheinherentprobabilitiesofthesituation.Ifanything,Paul'sreasonforgoingtoMacedonia(1Cor.16:56)hadbeenreinforcedby
hispainfulexperienceatCorinth.SincehehimselfhadfounditimpossibletocontroltheJudaizers,whatchancewouldthelessauthoritativeTimothyandErastushave
had?Evenwithout2Corinthians1:15,wewouldbeobligedtodeducethat,fromCorinth,PaulwenttoMacedoniainordertocheckonthesituationthere.

ItismostimprobablethatPaulsailednorthfromCorinth.Notonlywasthevoyagelonganddangerous,buttheEtesianwindsbegantoblowstronglyfromthe
northernquadrantinmidJuneandcontinuedforthreemonths,makingnorthwardnavigationdifficultifnotimpossible.17Theoverlandroutefrom
15
e.g.Furnish(1984),55,143.
16
SorightlyBarrett(1973),7Fee(1978),538Ldemann(1984),94R.P.Martin(1986),24.
17
TravelconditionswouldhavebeenidenticaltothoseontheothersideoftheAegeanSeaasreportedbyPlinytheYoungertoTrajan,IhavearrivedatEphesusandmyintention
nowistotravelontomyprovince[Bithynia]partlybycoastalboatandpartlybycarriage.TheintenseheatpreventsmytravellingentirelybyroadandtheprevailingEtesianwinds
makeitimpossibletogoallthewaybysea(Letters,10.15trans.Radice),andalittlelater,IfoundtheintenseheatverytryingwhenIwentontotravelbyroadanddevelopeda
touchoffeverwhichkeptmeatPergamum.ThenwhenIhadresumedmyjourneybycoastalboat,IwasfurtherdelayedbycontrarywindssothatIdidnotreachBithyniauntil17
September(Letters,10.17).

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18
CorinthtoThessalonicais580km.(363miles). Atanaverageof32km.(20miles)perdaythejourneywouldhavetakenroughlythreeweeks.WhetherPaulwould
havebeenabletomaintainthisaverageisanothermatter.HehadtocrossthegreatdoubleplainofThessaly,whichinsummerisoneofthehottestplacesinEurope.19
Themountainsthatringitstillcontainthebears,wolvesandwildboar,whicharementionedbyApuleius.20These,hefeared,wereawaitinghiminthepassestothe
north,andapprehensionmusthaveintensifiedtheexhaustionofthetrekacrossthesunsearedplain.

TherecanbelittledoubtthatPaul'sphysicalstatewasanaccuratereflectionofhisdispiritedframeofmindashewalkedslowlyintoThessalonicasometimearound
midJulyAD54.Thetroubleheanticipated,however,didnotmaterialize.ThereisnohintthathehadtoconfronttheJudaizerseitherthereorinPhilippi.Onthe
contrary,thecommitmentoftheMacedonianstohischerishedprojectofthecollectionforthepoorofJerusalemrevealsthemtohavebeenentirelyonhisside(2Cor.
8:14).TheshortshriftgiventotheJudaizersbytheMacedoniansexplainshowtheyreachedCorinthsoquickly.Thecontrastbetweentheirfidelityandthemocking
neutralityoftheCorinthiansintensifiedthebitternessthatPaulfelttowardsthelatter.

PerhapsundertheinfluenceofTimothy,whoislikelytohavestayedoninMacedonia,Paulhadthegoodsensetorealizethatitwouldbeunproductivetoreturnto
Corinthwithbileseethingwithinhim(2Cor.2:1).Itcouldonlyleadtoanotherexplosionandevengreaterdamage.Hence,hedecidedtochangehisplans,even
thoughthiswouldgivetheCorinthiansanotherstickwithwhichtobeathim.HefoundashipsailingfromNeapolistoTroas.Fromthereitwasa350km.(210mile)
walktoEphesus.HecouldhavebeenhomeinearlyAugust.

ThePainfulLetter

EventhoughhehaddecidednottoreturntoCorinth,PaulfeltthatheowedittohimselfandtotheCorinthianstoexplainhowhefeltaboutwhathadhappenedduring
hisvisit.Itwasnotaneasylettertowrite.Iwroteyououtofmuchdistressandanguishofheartandwithmanytears(2Cor.2:4).Theletterhasbeenlostandcannot
bereconstructedindetail.21

FromthewayPaulspeaksofthereceptionoftheletterin2Corinthians2and7,itisclearthattheletterwasinnowaysimilartotheonehehadwrittentothe
Galatians.HedidnotdealwiththeargumentsoftheJudaizers,butfocusedexclusivelyonhisownrelationswiththeCorinthians(2Cor.2:97:12).His
18
Rossiter(1981),229,499.
19
Ibid.415.
20
Metamorphoses4.137.22410.18.
21
SeeCh.11,2Corinthians.

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strategywastowintheirsympathybyrevealingtheirtreacherythroughthedescriptionofhishurt.Theletterwasdesignedtotugattheheartstrings,whileatthesame
timeadministeringasevereshock.ThemissivehadtobestrongenoughtoshaketheCorinthians,butnotsobrutalastoalienatethem.Effectivereproofhadtobe
blendedwiththeassuranceofhisaffection.Thedelicacyofthedecisionsmadethewritinganagonizingbusiness.Evenafterithadbeendispatched,Paulfrettedabout
theimpactoftheletter.Itmightdomoreharmthangood.Itmighthavestoodabetterchanceofachievinghisgoal,hadhesaidthisratherthanthat.Theuncertainty
weigheduponhimterribly.

TheletterwasentrustedtoTitus(2Cor.2:137:6).ItwouldnothavebeentactfultosendTimothy,whoattheleasthadbeentheoccasionoftheblowupbetween
PaulandtheCorinthians.Nomatterwhatotherassistantsmayhavebeenavailable,Titushadaspecialqualification.HehadbeenwithPaulattheJerusalem
Conference(Gal.2:13).Whatthismeant,iswellformulatedbyBarrett,

ThereisthusthestrongprobabilitythatTitusemergedfromtheJerusalemmeetingtheuncircumcisedGentilehehadalwaysbeen,andthathewouldretainfromthisgatheringa
keenawarenessoftheperiloflegalisticJudaismandoftheactivitiesoffalsebrothersalsohewouldbeawareofthequitedifferent(evenifnotwhollysatisfactory)attitudeofthe
mainJerusalemapostles.22

Titus,inotherwords,madeanadmirablefoiltothePainfulLetter,inwhichPaulhadpouredouthisanguisheddeception.Hewasinapositiontoreportauthoritatively
ontheagreementbetweenPaulandtheMotherChurchandtherebytorefuteanyclaims,orhighlightanydistortions,oftheJudaizers.23

DepartureforTroas.

In2Corinthians2:1314PaulgivestheimpressionthathisdeparturefromEphesuswasmotivatedbyhisaffectionfortheCorinthiansandhisdesiretohavenewsof
them.24InordertoencounterTitusassoonaspossiblehemovednorthtoTroasandthenabortedafruitfulministrythereinordertocrossovertoMacedonia.

Thefirstquestionraisedbythisscenariois:whydidPaulsettledowntoministerinTroas?IfhefailedtofindTitusthere,wouldhisconcernnothavedrivenhimtosail
toNeapolis,andthenbacktrackalongtheroutehehadtakenonlyamonthorsoearlier?
22
(1969),5.
23
SimilarlyWolff(1989),48.
24
ThisisthestandardinterpretationseeFurnish(1984),171R.P.Martin(1986),41.

 Page299

Thescenarioalsoraisesasecondquestion:howdidPaulknowwhichwayTituswouldreturntoEphesus?TheobviousansweristhatPaulhadinstructedhimto
returnthroughMacedonia.25Butthisonlygeneratesanotherquestion:whywouldhehavelimitedTitus'optionsinthisway?IfPaulwereasanxiousfornewsashe
makesitappear,itwouldhavebeenmoresensibletoletTitusmakethedecision.UnderbadconditionsaboatcouldmakethetransitfromCorinthtoEphesusintwo
weeks.Underoptimumconditionsthelandrouteof1,082km.(676miles)couldnotbedoneinlessthanfiveweekstheaveragetimewasprobablyacoupleof
weekslonger.ItshouldhavebeenleftuptoTitustodecidewhethertheriskofalatecrossingwasreasonable.Captainsdidnotrisktheirshipsandlivelihoodstupidly.
AndPaulwaswellawarethatsafetyontheroadscouldnotbetakenforgranted.26Eitherwaytherewasdanger,andonlythepersononthespotcouldweighthepros
andcons.

IfPaulorderedTitusnottocomebysea,itcanonlybebecausehesuspectedthathemightnotbeinEphesuswhenTitusarrived.Paul,inotherwords,wasawareof
somedangerandhadpreparedafallbackposition.27IfforcedtoleaveEphesus,hecouldbefoundatTroas,throughwhichTituswouldhavetocomeonthe
overlandroute.OnlywhenTitushadnotappeared,andthesailingseasonwasdrawingtoadefinitiveclosearoundmidSeptemberAD54,didPaultakeshipfor
Macedonia.Ifhemissedthelastboat,hewouldbeseparatedfromTitusforthewinter,andhewouldhavetowaitfornewsuntilspringopenedtheseastotravellers.

Paul'ssojourninEphesushadnotbeenwithoutitsproblems.Hewasopposedbycertainmembersofthecommunity(Phil.1:1517).Hehadbeenimprisonedwhile
underinvestigation,butwhetherthatiswhathemeantbythereferencetofightingwithwildbeasts(1Cor.15:32)isanopenquestion.Thephrasehastobetaken
metaphorically,28butthepreciseformoftheconfrontationcannotbediscerned.Allofthat,however,wasinthepastwhenhewrote1Corinthians,eventhoughhestill
hadenemiesinthecity(1Cor.16:9).

PresumablyitwastheselatterwhowereattherootoftheafflictionweexperiencedinAsia,atrialsogravethatwedespairedoflifeitselfindeedwefeltthatwe
hadreceivedthesentenceofdeath(2Cor.1:8b9).TheformulationsuggestslessajuridicalcondemnationthanPaul'sconvictionthathisdayswerenumbered.The
introductiontothisepisode,wedonotwantyoutobeignorant(2Cor.1:8a)indicatesthatithappenedfairlyrecentlyandthattheCorinthiansarebeingmadeaware
ofitforthefirsttime.29ItisdifficulttoavoidtheconclusionthatittookplaceafterPaul'sreturnfromtheintermediate
25
SorightlyFurnish(1984),172.
26
SeeCh.4,DangersontheRoad.
27
SorightlyFee(1987),821.
28
SeeOsborne(1966)Malherbe(1968).
29
Furnish(1984),122.

 Page300
30
visit. Thehintscoalesceintoacoherentpicture.AtthetimewhenTituswasdespatchedtoCorinth,oppositiontoPaulinEphesuswasgrowing.Asudden
intensificationofhostilityforcedPaultoleavethecity.HemovednorthtoTroas,wherehebegananewmission.

InActsaviolentepisodethedisturbanceinstigatedbyDemetrius,thesilversmith(Acts19:2340)isnarratedjustpriortoPaul'sdeparture(Acts20:1).Ifthis
narrative,whichisallfromthehandofLuke,31isassumedtobehistoricalandsubjectedtocloseanalysis,wefindourselvesconfrontedwithawholeseriesof
unansweredquestionsandinternalcontradictions.ThestorycanonlybeunderstoodasavehiclecreatedbyLuketopresent,inavividscene,therehabilitationofPaul
bytheauthoritiesofthecity,andthevictoryofChristianityoverpaganism.32Luke'scaretoanticipatePaul'sdeparturebynoting,intermswhichappeartobebased
onRomans15:236,thatitwasplannedbeforetheriot,lookslikeadeliberateattempttopersuadethereaderthatPaulwasnotdrivenoutofEphesus.33Immediately
onesuspectsthatthisisexactlywhathappened!

TwofactorsinfluencedPaul'schoiceofTroasastheareaofhisnewapostolate.ThefirstwaspersonalthecityhadtobeonTitus'returnroutefromCorinth.The
secondwasstrategic.ThemissionaryexpansionofthechurchofEphesushadpreviouslybeenlimitedtoplaceswithinaweek'swalkofthecity,thecapitalofAsia.34
NowPauldecidedtogofurtherafield,andthetwooccasionsonwhichhehadalreadypassedthroughTroashadshownhimthevalueofacommunitythere,which
couldserveasalinkbetweenthechurchesofAsiaandthoseofEurope.Moreover,itwouldprovidehimwiththelargeurbanenvironmentinwhichheworkedmost
effectively.

AtthetimeofPaul,Troaswasoneofthemostnotablecitiesoftheworld,aRomancolonyfoundedbyAugustusandencircledbyamassivewall8km.(5miles)
long.35ItresembledCorinthinitsstrategiclocationasatransitpointfortradebetweenAsiaandEurope,andwasveryprosperous.36Itspopulationhasbeen
estimatedatbetween30,000and40,000.37Paul'sministrytherecanhardlyhavelastedmorethanamonth,buthehintsthatitwassuccessfuldespitethe
opportunityItookleaveofthem(2Cor.2:1213)andaChristiancommunityatTroasispresumedbyActs20:712.
30
Ldemann(1984),133n.174.
31
SoBoismardandLamouille(1990),2.314153.243.
32
Haenchen(1971),5769.
33
Ibid.569.
34
SeeCh.7,MissionaryExpansion.
35
Strabo,Geography13.1.26.
36
Fordetails,seeHemer(1975)Yamauchi(1992).
37
Cook(1973),383.

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TheReportsofTitus

Theuseofthefirstpersonplural,whenwecameintoMacedoniaindicatesthatPaulwasnottravellingalone.CertainlyTimothywaswithhim(2Cor.1:1).Oncethe
ApostlereachedNeapolis,onesourceofanxietyevaporatedhewouldnotbecutofffromTitusforthewinter.But,asthedaysslowlypassed,thestressofthedelay
begantowearhimdown.Hementionsaperiodcharacterizedbyeverykindofaffliction,disputeswithoutandfearswithin(2Cor.7:5),whichwasbroughttoan
endonlybythearrivalofTitus.ThestrainoftheuncertaintyofhowtheCorinthianswouldreactwasexacerbatedbyhisfearsforthesafetyofTitus,nowseriously
overdue,andbysquabblesofvarioussorts.38Paulbynowwasinastateofextremetensionwhereeverythingwasanirritation.Hisemotionalstateinflatedquestions
intoaccusations,anddiscussionsintodisputes.

ItwouldhavebeenimpossibleforPaultohavepassedthroughPhilippiwithoutstoppingtovisitthebelievers.WereTitusnotthere,hisstaywouldhavebeenshort.It
isentirelypossiblethathehadwalkedthe150km.(90miles)toThessalonicabeforeTitusappeared.Thejoyfulreunioncouldhavetakenplaceanywhere.Nowthat
winterwassettingin,Paulandhiscompanionssettleddowninthenearestcommunityuntilgoodweatherreturnedinthespring.

AllwehaveofTitus'assessmentofthesituationatCorinthistheversionreportedbyPaultotheCorinthians(2Cor.7:716).Thepresentationiseuphoric.Titushad
beenreceivedinawaywhichjustifiedthehighreportwhichPaulhadgivenhimoftheCorinthians.Theletterhebore,whichhadbeenwrittenwithsuchanguish,had
achieveditspurposeperfectly.ThesincerityoftheCorinthians'deepcontritionforlettingPauldownwasunderlinedbytheactiontheytookagainsttheintruder.Now
theyweretotallyonhisside,andasfarasPaulisconcerned,Ihaveeveryconfidenceinyou(7:16).

Inviewoftheshockingexplosionwhichsubsequentlyoccasioned2Corinthians1013,itwouldbeeasytoaccuseTitusofseeingwhathewantedtosee,and/orto
indictPaulforanoverlyoptimisticinterpretationofwhatTitustoldhim.This,however,wouldbealittlenaveandfailstodojusticeeithertotheintelligenceofTitusor
tothesubtletyofPaul.In2Corinthians7:716,PaulsayspreciselywhattheCorinthiansexpectedtohear.Theyhadmadeaneffort,anditwasappropriateforPaul
torecognizeitinthemostglowinglanguagepossible,particularlysincehewasgoingtointroducethetopicofthecollectionforthepoorofJerusalem,withrespectto
whichtheCorinthians
38
ThesupportgivenbyFurnish(1984),394,tothesuggestionofWindischandGeorgithatPaulhadaconfrontationwithJudaizersismistaken.Thehypothesisisexcludedbythe
speedwithwhichPaulpassedthroughMacedoniaonhiswayfromCorinthtoEphesus,andbyhislavishpraiseofthebelieversthere(2Cor.8).

 Page302

hadnotbeenveryenergetic(2Cor.89).Therearemanyhintsearlierin2Corinthians19thatTitushadbeensharplyobservant,andappropriatelycriticalofwhat
wasgoingonatCorinth,39andthathereportedveryaccuratelytoPaul.Wemustnowattempttoreconstructthegistofwhathesaid.

JudaizersandSpiritPeople

OnceTitushadassuredPauloftheaffectionoftheCorinthians,heproducedevidenceoftheirchangeofheartbydetailingtheactiontheyhadtakenconcerningthe
individualwhohadinsultedPaul.Thenatureofthepunishmentisnotspecified,presumablybecausetherewasbutonepossibility,namely,completeostracization.The
believerssimplyrefusedtohaveanythingtodowithhim.Hewasthrownonthemerciesofasocietywhichdidnotcarewhetherhelivedordied.Paulhadsufficient
imaginationtofeeltheimpactofsuchisolation.Ifhecouldbethinskinnedandprickly,hecouldalsobegenerous,andhisimmediateconcernwasforthewellbeingof
theoffender.Thepenaltyshouldbeliftedandheshouldbetakenbackintothecommunity(2Cor.2:68).

Itseemslikely,however,thatPaul'sresponsewasnotentirelyaltruistic.Itcanbeseenasanolivebranchheldouttoagroupthatwasstillopposedtohim,andabout
whichTitushadbroughtdisquietinginformation.WesawabovethattheindividualwhoinsultedhimwasinallprobabilityanemissaryfromAntioch.Thisisconfirmed
bythenatureofPaul'sresponsein2Corinthians19toTitus'newstheintruderswereJewishChristians.40Onlyonechurchwouldsendlettersofrecommendationto
another(2Cor.3:1),andtheypresentedthemselvesasservantsofthenewcovenant(2Cor.3:6).Theychosethistitleinordertoharmonizetheirbeliefthatthe
eschatonhadbeeninauguratedinChristwiththeirconviction,inspiredbyJeremiah31:33,thattheLawenjoyedenduringvalidity.41Theirinsistenceontheroleofthe
Lawishighlightedbytheabruptintroductionofontabletsofstone(2Cor.3:3)inplaceoftheexpectedonparchments.

TheJudaizers,however,werenotaloneinoppositiontoPaul.Therearealsohintsthatpointtothespiritpeople.42TheaccusationthatPaul'sgospelwasveiled(2
Cor.4:3)canonlycomefromthosewhoconsideredPaultohaveanunimpressivepersonalityandlacklustrepresentation(2Cor.10:10),i.e.thosewhopreferred
themorespeculativeapproachinculcatedbyApollosonthebasisofPhilo.Thesophisticatedmultilayereduseoflifeanddeathin2Corinthians2:16isadequately
paralleledonlyinPhilo(e.g.Fuga,55),asisthelanguageof2Corinthians6:14to7:1.Theattitudetowardsthebodyin2Corinthians5:6bistypicallyPhilonic.
39
SorightlyFurnish(1984),396.
40
Fordetails,seemy(1986b)and(1987).
41
Seemy(1989).
42
Seemy(1988a)and(1988c).

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ThesimplestandmostnaturalexplanationofthemixtureofhintspointingtotwoverydifferentgroupsisthatTitusinhisreporthadlinkedthemasopponentstoPaul's
ministry.Themodeofreference,moreover,suggeststhattheydidnotfunctionasseparategroups,buthadformedanallianceagainsthim.Atfirstsightanalliance
betweenfreethinkingHellenisticpseudophilosophicbelievers,thespiritpeople,andLawobservantJewishChristiansseemsratherimprobable.History,however,
aboundsininstancesofminoritygroupswithradicallydifferentaimsunitinginordertooverthrowacommonenemy.WhentheJudaizersarrivedinCorinth,theirfirst
actwouldhavebeentoprobeforweaknessesinthecommunitywhichPaulhadbuiltup.Inordertoworkfromwithin,theyhadtobereceivedbysomeone,and
prudencewouldhaveindicatedthattheysearchoutagroupthatwasalreadyatoddswithPaul.Inprincipleitshouldbemorereceptivethanotherstoanalternative
formofChristianity.43

Thespiritpeoplehadbeenbrutallyandpubliclyhumiliatedby1Corinthians.Naturallytheirpridesoughtrevenge.HadApollosremainedinCorinth,theymighthave
formedanalternativechurch,buthehadleftthemtojoinPaulandapparentlywasnotparticularlyinterestedinreturning(1Cor.16:12).Suchbetrayal,forwhichthey
mighthaveblamedPaul,couldonlyhaveintensifiedtheirbitterness.Inthisframeofmind,theywouldhavebeenfairgameforanyoftheApostle'sopponents.The
alliance,inconsequence,wasoneinwhichbothpartiesgainedsomething.TheJudaizersfoundawelcomeamongtheliteoftheCorinthiancommunity,andthespirit
peopleweregiventhemeansofdamaging,ifnotdestroying,Paul'sachievement.

Inadditiontosuchnegativecommonground,bothgroupssharedaninterestinMoses.FortheJudaizershewasthegreatLawgiver,whosewordshadenduringvalue.
ForthespiritpeoplenourishedonaformofPhilonism,hewasmuchmore.PhiloregularlypresentsMosesasthetheperfectwiseman(Leg.All.1.395),who
epitomizedallHellenisticvirtuesaskingandlawgiverandhighpriestandprophet(VitaMosis2.3cf.Praem.536).Havingalienatedhimselffromthebody(Conf.
82),MosesenteredintothemysteriesofGodwhich,inconsequence,hewasabletorevealandteach(Gig.54).Inaword,Moseswaseverythingthatthespirit
peopleaspiredtobe.

ItiseasytoseehowtheJudaizerscouldhaveexploitedthisadvantageintheinterestsoftheirmission.PhiloinsistsonthehonourinwhichallnationsholdtheLawof
Moses(VitaMosis2.1724),andhighlightstheprovidentialcharacterofitsavailabilityinGreek(VitaMosis2.2544).TheLawhasauniversalappealbecauseits
statutesattaintotheharmonyoftheuniverseandareinagreementwiththeprinciplesofeternalnature(VitaMosis2.52),aperspectivethatisdevelopedinDe
DecalogoandDeSpecialibusLegibus.Moses
43
Thisobviouspointhasnotalwaysbeenrecognized,butithasbeenevokedinpassingbyEllis(1975),287,andbyForbes(1986),15.

 Page304

himselfwasthelivingembodimentoftheLaw(VitaMosis1.162)theLawgivercouldnotbutactinaccordancewiththerevelationhecommunicated.Otherscould
reachthesameheightsofreligiousspeculationbyacceptingthedemandsoftheLaw(Mig.8994).Itiseasytoseewhatattractionthisapproachwouldhavehadfor
thespiritpeople.AndoncetheywerecommittedtoMoses,theJudaizerswerehalfwayhome.

Inordertoenhancetheirappealtothespiritpeople,theJudaizershadtomakesomeconcessions.Theywouldhavebecomeawareveryquicklythatthebasisofthe
hostilitytoPaulamongthespiritpeoplewasrootedinhisfailuretomeettheirexpectationsconcerningreligiousleadership.Thustheintruderswereledtostresstheir
superiorqualifications.Theyproclaimedtheircredentials(2Cor.4:510:12)byadvertisingtheirvisionsandrevelations(2Cor.12:1),andtheirmiracles(2Cor.12:
12).Iftheydidnotknowthemalready,theywouldhaveadoptedconventionsofHellenisticrhetoric.Themesdevelopedatsomelengthandwithaspiceofmystery
wouldhaveflatteredthesensibilitiesofthespiritpeople.44

ThesituationinCorinth,therefore,wasanythingbuthappy.ThedangerwasmuchmoreinsidiousthanatGalatia.TheJudaizershadrealizedthattheirfrontalattackon
Paulhadbackfired.Theywerenowconsolidatingtheirbaseamongdisaffectedelementsinthecommunity.Oncethathadbeenachievedtheywouldmoveintoother
sectorsofthechurch,inwhichthegroundhadbeenpreparedtosomeextentbyPaul'sownattitudes.

TravelPlans

TitushadalsopickedupcriticismofPaul'sinabilitytokeephisword.Paul'svacillationregardinghistravelplanswasaneasyterrainonwhichanyonewithagrievance
couldscorepoints.Paulhadtoldthemonething(1Cor.16:56),andhedidnotdoit.Hethenpromisedthemsomethingelse(2Cor.1:1516),andfailedtodo
that.Whatfinallyheactuallydidhadnoresemblancetoeitherhemerelywrotethemaletter.TheimpactofsuchchangesontheCorinthianchurchwasminimal.Paul
wasnotessential,eitherintheoryorpractice,toanyaspectofitsfunctioning.Why,then,didthechangesbecomeanissue?

ThewayinwhichPaulrepliesDoImakemyplanslikeanopportunist,readytosayYes,yesandNo,no?(2Cor.1:17)clearlyindicatesthathewasbeing
chargedwiththeinconstancyoftheflatterer,whosecriterionofbehaviouristhemomentarypleasureofthelistener.Thisisperfectlyillustrated
44
TheCorinthianizationoftheintruderswasfirstrecognizedbyBarrett(1970b),251,andthisissufficientexplanationoftheHellenistictraitswhichhaveledsomecommentators
toidentifyPaul'sopponentsin2Cor.asHellenisticJewishmissionariese.g.Georgi(1986),315Furnish(1984),53.TheywereinfactofSyroPalestinianoriginsorightly
Windisch(1924),236,andBarrett(1973),2832.

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bytheselfdescriptionofaflattererinTerence'splay,TheEunuch,WhatevertheysayIpraiseifagaintheysaytheopposite,Ipraisethattoo.Ifonesaysno,Isay
noifonesaysyes,Isayyes(lines2513).45TherewerepeopleatCorinthsayingthatPaulwasentirelyuntrustworthyhiswordcouldnotbereliedupon.In
consequence,hecouldneitherbeatruefriendnor,inthiscontext,anauthenticleader.TheatmosphereinthecommunityatCorinthwasbeingdeliberatelypoisoned,
bycontinuoussnipingatPaul.Titusmusthavewarnedhimthathiseverywordandgesturewasliabletodeliberatemisconstruction(2Cor.1:1214).Onthebasisof
whatweknowalready,onlythespiritpeoplehadreasontojustifysuchmalice.

FinancialAssistance

ThesamesnideattitudesurfacesincriticismofPaul'sfinancialrelationswiththeCorinthians.Thishadalreadybeenanissueatthetimeofwritingof1Corinthians,and
thespiritpeople,whowerealsotheonesmostdirectlyinvolved,nowhadevengreaterincentivetouseitasaweaponagainstPaul.Itgavethemanopportunityto
highlightadifferentaspectofPaul'sinconstancy,andtoelevateahintofuntrustworthinessintoachargethatPauldidnotpractisewhathepreached.Hehadrefused,
andcontinuedtorefuse,agestureoflove.

ThesocialcementwhichboundtheinhabitantsoftheGraecoRomanworldtogetherwasthereciprocityofbenefactions.Senecainaworkdevotedtothetopic,De
Beneficiis,calleditthechiefbondofhumansociety(1.4.2).Merepossessionofwealthwasnothing.Itwastransmutedintostatusandpowerbybeing
distributed.46Agiftwasapublicgesturelayingclaimtosuperiority,andcallingforhonourfromothers.Fortherecipient,nodutyismoreimperativethanthatof
provingone'sgratitude.47Thegifthadtobereciprocated.Ifthereturnwassuperiorinvalue,theoriginalrecipienttooktheadvantage.Ifofequalvalue,both
remainedlevel.If,however,thereturnwasoflessvalue,therecipientbecameaclient,withanunrequitedobligationtothegiver.Refusalofagift,thoughtheoretically
possible,wasnotarealoption.

Fewwerepreparedtofacethepossibleorlikelyhostilitiesinherentinarefusal.Rather,itwaseasiertoacceptanunwantedfriendshipandlettherelationshiptakeitsunhappy
course.Theobligationtoreceive,then,wasgenerallyhonoured,eventhoughinmanyinstances,carelessly,foolishlyandbegrudgingly.48

45
SeeinparticularP.Marshall(1987),7090,319.
46
Thewealththatyouesteem,that,asyouthink,makesyourichandpowerful,isburiedunderaningloriousnamesolongasyoukeepit.Itisbuthouse,orslaveormoney.When
youhavegivenitaway,itisabenefit.(Seneca,DeBeneficiis6.3.4).
47
Cicero,DeOfficiis1.47(emphasisadded).
48
P.Marshall(1987),1718.

 Page306
49
AtCorinththosecapableofconferringbenefitsonPaulwerethelite,amongwhomhehadmadehisfirstconverts. Theirbidtoassisthimcouldbejustified,notonly
bytheconventionsoftheperiod,butalsobythefactthathehadbenefitedthem.InCorinththeywerehisoldestfriends.50TheterminologyusedbyPauldoesnot
permitustodecidewhethertheyofferedagiftorasalary.51Thedistinction,however,isasirrelevantasanydiscussionoftheirmotive,becausePaulrefused.Whydid
hetakeastepsomuchatvariancewithanhonouredcustomofhisage?52

PaultellsusonlythatweendureanythingratherthanputanobstacleinthewayofthegospelofChrist(1Cor.9:12b).Thisrathervaguejustificationcanbe
translatedintospecificreasonsonlyonthebasisofwhatwehaveseentobethegeneralprinciplesonwhichPauloperated.Hisconcernforexistentialwitness
guaranteedthathedidnotwanttobecomparedtothosephilosophersandreligiousteacherswhoexpectedareturnfortheirteaching.Hisrefusaltoconformtotheir
comportmentwasintendedtoreinforcethedifferenceinhismessage.Hispreoccupationwiththeunityofthecommunityexcludedanyactionwhoseresultwouldbeto
makehimaclientofonesegmentofthecommunity.

ThislatterpointbecomesclearerifPaul'srefusalofCorinthiansupportiscontrastedwiththewelcomeheaccordedsubsidiesfromPhilippi,bothinThessalonica(Phil.
4:16),andatCorinth(2Cor.11:9).Thevariationinpracticehasbeencommentedonatlength,buttheessentialpointhasnotbeenhighlighted.Whileonegiftcould
bepresumedtobecommunal,theotherwasnecessarilyindividual.Distancemadeacrucialdifference.

ThePhilippiangiftrepresentedacommunityeffort.Thechurchcreatedacommonfundtowhichallcouldcontribute.Thesumofmoneywasbroughtbyanofficial
delegation,andpresentedinthenameofthechurch.Theimplication,asfarasPaulwasconcerned,wasthatallmembersofthechurchhadparticipated,eventhough
somemayhavegivenmorethanothers.Theindividualityofeachcontributionwasassumedintoawhole,whichsymbolizedtheunityofthecommunity.Thusthe
subsidycouldbeacceptedbyPaulasanofferofabidingfriendship.Hisresponsewasdirectedtothewholechurch(Phil.4:1020).

AtCorinth,onthecontrary,becausePaullivedthere,allgiftswerehighlypersonal.Benefactionswerenecessarilyparticular.Notonlybecausetheywere
49
SeeCh.11,TheFirstConverts.
50
Anyonewhoshowsyousomegoodwill,orcultivatesyoursociety,orcallsuponyouregularly,istobecountedasafriend(Cicero,HandbookofElectioneering5.16)cf.P.
Marshall(1987),245.
51
Ibid.225.
52
ThevariousanswerswhichhavebeengiventothisquestionarediscussedbyP.Marshall(1987),23358,who,unfortunately,doesnottakeintoaccountthefactthatconsiderable
waterhadflowedunderthebridgebetweenthewritingof1Cor.9andof2Cor.1112.

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handedoverbyspecificindividuals,butbecausetheywereinkind.Lodgingmeantsomeone'shouse,amealsomeone'skitchen.HowwasPaultoreacttoamultitude
ofindividualgifts?Accordingtotheethosofsociety,hewouldhavehadtoportionouthistimeandenergyinsuchawaythatthatthosewhohadcontributedthe
greatestamountreceivedthemost.Theneedypoorwouldhavehadlittlechanceagainsttheresourcesofthelite.Evenwiththebestmotivesintheworld,thewealthy
wouldhavemonopolizedPaul'sattentiontothedetrimentoftherealneedsofthecommunity.BeforehearrivedinCorinthPaulmusthaveseenthattoacceptasingle
giftwouldputhiminanimpossiblesituation.Itishardlysurprisingthatherepudiatedall.

Sincethearrivalofadelegationfromasisterchurchcouldhardlybekeptsecret,therecanbelittledoubtthatPaulwasforcedtoexplaintotheCorinthianswhyhe
refusedtheirgiftswhileacceptingthatofthePhilippians.Inthelightof1Corinthians9:112aitwouldappearthatheprefacedhisexplanationwithanassertionofhis
authoritybydrawingattentiontohisrighttobesubsidized.Suchaparadoxicalapproachisunlikelytohaveenhancedtheclarityofhispresentation.Tothoseofgood
will,thedistinctionbetweenthemselvesandthePhilippianswouldhavemadeperfectsense.Theremayevenhavebeensomewhothoughtofcreatinganorganization
similartothatinplaceatPhilippi,wherebyPaulcouldbehelpedandtheidentityofthedonorsblurred.Othersamongthelite,however,consideredthemselves
slighted.Theirquestforeminenceinthecommunityhadbeenfrustrated.Itwaseasyforthemtoignoretheexplanation,andtohammeratthefacts.Paulrefusedthem
whiletakingfromothers.Thediscrepancythenbecameanopportunityforalternativeexplanations,noneofwhichwasfavourabletoPaul.

TitusmusthavebeenmadeawarethatcriticismofPaulhadbecomehabitual.HisreporttoPaul,therefore,musthavecontainedsomementionofthewaythelatter's
attitudetowardssupportwasbeingmoreandmoreseriouslymisrepresented.

TheCollectionforJerusalem

ThereasonwhyPauldidnottakeuptheissueofhispersonalfinancesin2Corinthians19wasthatthequestionofthecollectionforthepoorofJerusalemhadcome
upduringthevisitofTitustoCorinth.TheCorinthianshadneverbeeninformedofficiallyofthecollection.Theyheardofitbyaccident,presumablyfromChloe's
people(1Cor.1:11).Onlythisexplains(a)howPaulcouldcomplimentthemontakingtheinitiativeasregardsparticipationinthecollection(2Cor.8:10)and(b)
whytheyhadtorequestdetailedorganizationalinstructions,whichPaulprovidedin1Corinthians16:14.SincePaul'soneconcernatthetimeofwritingthePainful
LetterwashisrelationshipwiththeCorinthians,itismostunlikelythatheinstructedTitustocomplicatean

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53
alreadytensesituationbyraisingthequestionofthecollection,particularlysincePaul'sattitudetowardsmoneywasalreadyunderfire.

IndiscussionswiththeJudaizers,however,thecollectionwouldhavefurnishedaperfectadhominemargument.TheeffortthatPaulputintoitdemonstratedinthe
mostpracticalwaypossiblehisloveandconcernfortheMotherChurch,whichtheJudaizersclaimedtorepresent.TheycouldnotrefusethegiftofthePauline
churcheswithoutendangeringthesurvivaloftheircompatriotsinJerusalem,andwithoutputtingthemselvesinpreciselythepositionwhichtheCorinthiansfound
objectionableinPaul.OnceTituswasconvincedthattheCorinthianshadacceptedthereprimandofthePainfulLetter,itwouldhavebeennaturalforhimtoremind
themgentlyoftheircommitmenttothecollection,agesturewhichtheJudaizerscouldonlysecond(2Cor.8:6)!Inthatinstantatleast,Paul,theCorinthians,andthe
Judaizerswouldhavebeenatone,andanenthusiasticnoteinTitus'reportbecomesmoreunderstandable.

WinterinMacedonia

PaulwasfortunatethatwinterhadbegunbythetimeTitusreturnedfromCorinth.Sincetherewasnoquestionofthelattergoingbackthereimmediately,thepossibility
ofahastyreactiontothesituationatCorinth,similarto1Corinthians,wasexcluded.Paulhadtimetowriteandtearupmanydrafts,beforeamessengercouldget
throughtoCorinththefollowingspring.Attheearliest,theletterwassentinMarchorAprilAD55.Climaticconditions,therefore,forcedonPaulaperiodof
reflectiononthebeststrategytodealwithaverycomplexsituation.ThistimehehadtheadditionaladvantageofhavingathissideTimothy,whoprovedtobeamuch
bettercoauthorthanSostheneshadbeenfor1Corinthians.

Coauthorship

ThecontributionofSosthenesto1Corinthianswaslimitedto1:1831and2:616.Heappearstohavebeenoneofthoseindividualswhoarebrisklyinsightfulin
conversation,butwhoprovetobecomplicatedandoverlysubtleinformulatingatext.Paulgavehimtwochances,andtheninirritationabandonedhimappendedto
thecooperativesectionsisPaul'sownfrankformulationofwhathewastryingtogetacross(2:153:14).54TimothywasmuchclosertoPaul,andthushad
greaterinfluenceonhim.Manifestlyheplayedamuchmoresignificantroleinthecompositionof2Corinthians19.
53
AgainstBarrett(1969),10,whoisfollowedbyFurnish(1984),397.F.Watson(1984),335,isoneofthefewtodisassociatethecollectionfromthePainfulLetter.
54
Seemy(1993),56670.

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Whereas1Corinthiansisafirstpersonsingularletterinwhichitisnecessarytoexplaintheirruptionofthefirstpersonplural,2Corinthians19ispreciselythe
opposite74percentoftheletterisexpressedinthefirstpersonplural,andonly26percentinthefirstpersonsingular.Allthelatterpassagesdealwithsituationsin
whichTimothywasnotinvolved,namely,theconsequencesoftheintermediatevisit(2Cor.1:15171:23to2:137:312),andtheissueofthecollectionat
Corinth(2Cor.8:8159:115).Theprecisereferenceofthefirstpersonpluralcanvary,55butinnocaseisitnecessarytoexcludeTimothy.HeandPaulworked
consistentlyandwelltogether,notablyinthemajorsectionontheapostolate(2Cor.2:14to7:2),butthenatureofsomeofthematerialobligedPaultobehighly
personal.Suchinterventionstendedtorunonalittletoolong.Eachtime,however,TimothywasabletogetPaulbacktothecooperativetask,whicheventually
producedthemostextraordinaryletteroftheNewTestament.

WeaningtheSpiritPeoplefromtheJudaizers

Inoppositionto1Corinthians,wherePauljumpsstraightintothemostdifficultproblemafteraratherperfunctorythanksgiving(1:49),whichshowshistongueto
havebeenfirmlyinhischeek,562Corinthians19beginsverycautiouslyandwithasubtletywhichsetsthetoneoftheletter.Theextremelycarefulcraftsmanship
betraystherefinementthatistheproductoflongthoughtandnumerousdrafts.

Theintroductoryparagraphbeginswithablessing(1:3)andtheideaofthanksgivingappearsonlyattheveryendoftheparagraph(1:11).ThehintthatPaulhas
deliberatelydivergedfromhiscustomarypracticeisborneoutbyacloseanalysis,
Ordinarily,Paulisthesubjectoftheverbaction,hereitistheCorinthiansordinarily,theaddresseesarereferredtointheadverbialphrases,hereitisPaul(hyperhmntwice
eishmas)ordinarilytheprincipaleucharistclauseisfollowedbyafinalclause,hereeucharistoistheverbofthefinalclauseordinarily,theeucharistclauseformsthe
beginningoftheproemium,hereitformstheconclusionordinarily,theverbisusedintheactive,hereitisusedinthepassive.57

TheCorinthianscanhardlyhavebeenunawareofthesystematicwayinwhichPaulinvertedhisusualpattern.Manyinthecommunityflatteredthemselvesontheir
intelligence,andtheyhadoneifnottwoletterswith
55
ThemostdetailedanalysisisthatofCarrez(1980).
56
TheCorinthiansarecomplimentedonspeechandknowledge,whichdonotrateveryhighonPaul'sscaleofvalues(cf.1Cor.8:1and13:1to14:40).TheThessalonianshadbeen
praisedsincerelyfortheirfaith,hope,andcharity(1Thess.1:32Thess.1:3).
57
Schubert(1939),50.

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thanksgivingsintheirpossessionforcomparison,namely,thePreviousLetter(cf.1Cor.5:9)and1Corinthians.Itwouldhavebeendifficulttoavoidthe(correct)
inferencethatPaulwassendingthemasubtlemessage.First,thereisasuggestionthathecannotbeunequivocallygratefulforthestateoftheCorinthianchurch.A
breachhasbeenrepaired(2Cor.7:516),butdifficultiesremain,andPaul'ssubversionofthenormalthanksgivingpreparesforsimilarsleightofhandwithPhilonic
terminologyinthebodyoftheletter.Secondly,Paul'sunusualfocusonhisownexperienceprefiguresthemajortheologicalthemeoftheletter,namely,thatsuffering
andweakness,notpowerandeloquence,arethedistinctivesignsofthetrueapostle.

Paul'stwoprongedapproachwasdesigned,notonlytoreestablishhisauthority,buttodriveawedgebetweenthespiritpeopleandtheJudaizers.Ifhecouldrob
thelatteroftheirbaseatCorinth,theywouldberenderedimpotent.Thus,hehadtoweanthespiritpeopleawayfromtheirguests.Tothisendheoffersacritiqueof
theMosaicdispensationintermstowhichthespiritpeoplewouldbeparticularlysensitive,whileatthesametimepresentingtheChristiandispensationinalightwhich
theyshouldfindattractive.58

In2Corinthians3:718PaulfocusesonthefigureofMoses,whichwastheleverusedbytheJudaizerstoprytheirwayintothefavourofthespiritpeople.The
polemicedgeofhisexpositionofWhenMoseshadfinishedspeakingwiththemheputaveilonhisface(Exod.34:345)becomesexplicitinthecontrasthe
establishesbetweenhisownbehaviourandthatofMoses,weactwithconfidentboldness,notlikeMoseswhoputaveiloverhisface(3:1213).Theimplications
arewellbroughtoutinapassagefromPhilo,forwhomthethemehadspecialimportance:
Letmenwhodoinjuriousthingsbeputtoshame,andseekinghiddenplacesandrecessesintheearth,anddeepdarkness,hidethemselves,veilingtheirlawlessiniquityfrom
sightsothatnoonemaybeholdthem.Buttothosewhodosuchthingsasareforcommonadvantage,lettherebeconfidentopenness,andletthemgobydaythroughthrough
themiddleofthemarketplacewheretheywillmeetwiththemostnumerouscrowds,todisplaytheirownmanneroflifeinthepuresun.(Spec.Leg.1.321trans.Yongeadapted
emphasisadded)

Bypresentinghimselfsimplyashewas,withoutanypretensions,Paulimplicitlyclaimedawholerangeofotherqualities,whichMosesmusthavelackedbecausehe
dissimulatedbyveilinghimself.

HavingthussowntheseedsofdoubtinthemindsofthespiritpeopleconcerningthestatureofMoses,PaulgoesontoassociateMoses'achievementwithintellectual
blindness(3:1415).TheJudaizershadplayedintohishandsbyintroducingtheideaofanewcovenant,forthisenabledhimtostigmatizetheLawastheold
covenant,therebymakingitsupremelyunattractivetothose

58Forgreaterdetailseemy(1986b),505.

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whothoughtofthemselvesasintheforefrontofreligiousthought.ByusingMosesalonein3:15,insteadofthebookofMoses(Esd.23[Neh.13]:12Chr.35:
12),PaulcleverlyattachesthepejorativeconnotationofoldtothefigureofMoses.PaulthengoesontoreinforcethispointbyasubtleadaptationofExodus34:34,
whichisnothingmorethanasimpleandeffectiveadhominemargument.ThepresenceofJewsintheCorinthiancommunityshowedthattheyhadfoundsomething
lackingintheirpreviousmodeoflifebasedontheLaw.Theyhadbeenblindandnowtheysee.Whythen,Paulimplies,wouldthespiritpeoplewanttocommit
themselvestothedarknessofintellectualsclerosis,whentheycouldhavethelightofauthenticgloryinthegospel?

In3:17Paulshiftsfromindirectcriticismtoseductionbyappropriatingtwokeytermsinthelexiconofthespiritpeople,namely,spiritandfreedom.Ifin3:1415
PaulassociatedtheLawwithintellectualblindness,thevicethatthespiritpeoplemostdespised,hereheidentifiesthegospelwiththevaluestheymostesteemed.
SpiritevokedthePhilonicheavenlyman,andforPhilofreedomcarriedtheconnotationsofvirtue,perfection,andwisdom.59

ThisbriefsummaryonlyhintsattheintricacyofPaul'sargumentation.Butitisenoughtoillustratethechangefromthebrutaltacticsof1Corinthians.Paulwascapable
oflearningfromhismistakes.WiththeassistanceofTimothy,andpossiblyalsoofApollos,hethoughthiswayintothereligiousworldofthespiritpeople,and
chippedawaydelicatelyattheirconvictions.HissubtledenigrationofMosesdiminishedthecommongroundonwhichtheJudaizershadrelied.Hisreformulationof
thegospelwascarefullycalculatedbothtoharmonizewith,andgentlybutfirmlyrefashion,thePhilonicperspectivewhichthespiritpeoplehadreceivedfromApollos.
Theselatter,asPaulpresumablyrealized,wouldhavebeenconstitutionallyopposedtotherestrictionsimposedbytheLaw.Itneededbutlittletotipthebalance
againsttheJudaizers.Paul'sdiscreet,indirectapproachobviatedthedangerofaperversereactionsuchashadbeentheoutcomeof1Corinthians.

ManifestingtheLifeofJesus.

TheattitudeofthespiritpeopletothehistoricalJesusissummarizedbyPaulintheshockingphraseAnathemaJesus!(1Cor.12:3).60Theyfoundtheideaofa
crucifiedsaviourrepugnantandpreferredtothinkintermsoftheLordofGlory(1Cor.2:8),asuperhumansaviourfromabove.Paulcouldnotacceptthis
separationofJesusandChrist,because,asoneofPaul'soldestcommentatorsmostperceptivelyputit,JesusisthetruthofChrist(Eph.4:21).61Onlyabeingofflesh
andblood,anchoredinspaceandtime,candemonstratethereal
59
QuodomnisProbusLibersit,412,47,113,117,131.
60
SeeCh.11,TheInfluenceofApollos.
61
DelaPotterie(1963).

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possibilityoftherestoredhumanityproclaimedinthegospel.Unlesstheidealislived,itremainsapurelytheoreticalpossibility,beautifultocontemplate,butwithout
anyguaranteethatachievementisfeasible.Paul,therefore,hadtoinsistthatJesusexhibitedlove,asopposedtomerelytalkingaboutit.

EventhoughthegospelsnarratedhowChristdiedonthecross,thepreachingtraditionoftheearlychurchspokeonlyofthedeathofJesus.62ForPaul,thismadeits
realitytooeasytoignore,and,inconsequence,heconsistentlyinsistedthatJesusdiedinaparticularlyhorribleway,eventhoughherecognizedthatacrucifiedChrist
wasastumblingblocktoJewsandfollytoGentiles(1Cor.1:23).63Thespiritpeoplepreferredtoaverttheirthoughtsfromthisdimensionitcannotbeintegrated
intoanyphilosophicalapproachtoreligion.NodoubttheJudaizerscooperated.Theycouldassert,withperfectjustification,thatPaul'sstressonthemannerof
Christ'sdeathwasexceptional.Moreover,theiradaptationtowhatthespiritpeopleexpectedofreligiousleadersmeantalifestylemorecompatiblewiththatofthe
LordofGlorythanwiththatofatorturedcriminal.

TheseattitudesobligedPaultodefendbothhisministryandthehistoricityofJesus.Anintegratedapproachwasindispensable,andthequestforcedPaul'sthoughtinto
anewdimension.ItwasinreflectingontheconditionsofJesus'ministrythatPaulsawitsrelevancetohisownsituation.Intheprocesshegavenewdepthtothe
understandingofChrist'sministryreflectedinthegospeltradition.

ThemannerofChrist'sministrywasdeterminedbyGod,Foroursakehemadehimtobesinwhoknewnosin(2Cor.5:21).Inotherwords,GodwilledChristto
besubjecttotheconsequencesofsin.Jesuswassointegratedintohumanityneedingsalvationthatheenduredthepenaltiesinherentinitsfallenstate.Jesussaved
humanityfromwithinbyacceptingitsconditionandtransformingit.Hebecameasotherhumanbeingswereinordertorevealtothemwhattheyhadthepotentialto
become.Thushesufferedasotherssuffer,anddiedasothersdie,eventhoughheinnowaymeritedsuchaffliction.

If2Corinthians5:21highlightsthedivineplan,othertextsemphasizethefreedomofChrist'scooperation,hebecamepoorforyoursake(2Cor.8:9),andthe
reasonforhischoice,onediedforall(2Cor.5:14).Hislifeanddeathwereadeliberatesacrificeofselfinorderthatothersmightbenefit.Thefundamentallessonof
theselfoblationofChrististhatthosewholivemightlivenolongerforthemselves(2Cor.5:15).PriortoChristitwastakenforgrantedthattheprimarygoalsof
humanexistenceshouldbesurvival,comfort,and
62
ThetextscommonlycitedareRom.1:344:258:341Cor.15:27Gal.1:341Thess.1:10.
63
EventhoughthePhilippianhymnwasbasedonPaul'steaching,itspokeonlyofthedeathofJesus.Paulhadtoadddeathonacross(Phil.2:8).SimilarlyitwasPaulwhoadded
bythebloodofhiscrosstotheColossianhymn(Col.1:20).

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success.InthelightofChrist'sradicalaltruism,suchalifestylecanonlybeperceivedasthedeathofselfishness.Itistheantithesisofgenuinelife,whichistotally
concernedwithbenefitingtheother.

ThepresentationofChristastheimageofGod(2Cor.4:4)revealstheessenceofauthenticitytobeempowerment,theabilitytoreachouttoenableothers.64Inthe
chapterofGenesisinwhichthisformulaappears(Gen.1:267),GodispresentedexclusivelyastheCreator.Inconsequence,creativityremainstheprimaryreferent
indeterminingthemeaningofthephrase.HumansresembleGodinsofarastheyarecreative.Christis,likeAdambeforetheFall,theimageandgloryofGod(1
Cor.11:7)inthesensethathegivesglorytoGodpreciselybybeingwhattheCreatorintended.

ThecreativepowerwhichmadeChristtheNewAdam(cf.1Cor.15:45)wasexercisedinandthroughpovertyandignominy.Hiswholeexistencewasadying(2
Cor.4:10),buthebroughtintobeinganewcreation(2Cor.5:17).OncePaulhadbeenledtothisinsight,itwaseasyforhimtoseeitasthearchetypeofhisown
situation.Hewasconsciousofhisweakness(1Cor.9:22),yethedisposedofapower(2Cor.4:7),whichcreatednewcommunitiesoftransformedindividuals
(2Cor.3:23).ThebasisofPaul'sidentificationwithJesus,whichisthedistinctivefeatureofhisunderstandingofministryin2Corinthians,wastheirshared
experienceofsuffering.

HithertoPaulhadacceptedsufferingasintegraltothehumancondition.Hisexperienceswouldnothavesethimapartintheancientworld.Lifewasharshandsurvival
verymuchamatterofluck.NoneofPaul'sacquaintanceswouldhavedissentedfromHomer'sinsight,Thesorrowlessgodshavesospunthethreadthatwretched
mortalsliveinpain(Iliad24.525).NowPaulsawanopportunitytogivemeaningtosuffering.Eventhoughhethoughtintermsofhisownministry,hisinsightisvalid
forallbelievers.Sufferingcanberevelatorywhentheunchangeableisacceptedwithgrace.Iftheachievementisdisproportionatetothemeans,thepowerofGod
becomesvisible.

PaulperceivedhimselfasoneoftheprisonersofwardestinedforexecutionattheclimaxofaRomanvictoryparade(2Cor.2:14).65Hisfirstinsightistoseehis
sufferingasaprolongationofthesacrificeofChrist.HeisthearomaofChrist(2Cor.2:15).Assmokewaftingacrossthecityfromthealtarconveyedthefactof
sacrificetothosewhowerenotpresentinthetemple,soPaulinhiswanderingsproclaimedJesustotheworld,notmerelyinwords,butmorefundamentallyinhis
comportment.Hespeaksofhimselfasalwayscarryinginthebodythedying66ofJesus,sothatthelifeofJesusmaybemanifestinourbodies.Forwhilewelive,we
arealwaysbeinggivenuptodeathforJesus'sake,
64
Onthispoint,seeinparticularMacquarrie(1966),212(35).
65
Hafemann(1986),1239.
66
NecrsisisnotattestedpriortoPaul'susehere.IfinRom.4:19itmeansadeathlikestate,thecontexthereclearlyindicatesaprocesshenceitshouldbetranslateddyingrather
thandeath.

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sothatthelifeofJesusmaybemadevisibleinourmortalflesh(2Cor.4:1011).

Thisextraordinarystatementisthesummitof2Corinthians,andthemostprofoundinsighteverarticulatedastothemeaningofsufferingandthenatureofauthentic
ministry.DeathshadowedPaul'severystephecoulddieatanymoment.Asoneheadedtowardsafatewhichseemedinevitable,hesawhislifeasadying,whichhe
identifiedwiththatofJesus,whohadalsoforeseenhisdeath(e.g.Mark8:31).Paul'sacceptanceofhissufferingscreatedatransparency,inwhichtheauthentic
humanityofJesusbecamevisible.BygracePauliswhatJesuswas.

Paul,however,didnotputhimselfonthesamelevelasJesuswhatheachievedwouldnothavebeenpossiblewithoutJesus.Nonethelessherecognizedthat,were
JesustohavebeentheonlyonetodemonstratethetypeofhumanitydesiredbytheCreator,itsrevelationcouldhavebeendismissedasirrelevant,auniquecase
withoutmeaningfortherestofhumanity.Hence,hisacceptanceoftheresponsibilityofbeingJesusforhisconverts.Theexplicitnessofthispresentationoftheminister
asanalterChristusisuniqueintheNewTestament.ItwasforceduponPaulbythespiritpeople/Judaizers'denialoftherealityofJesus'terrestrialexistenceandtheir
disparagementofPaul'sministry.

PlansfortheCollection

TheinitialenthusiasmoftheCorinthiansforthecollectionforthepoorofJerusalemhadevaporatedintheheatedatmosphereofthefactionaldisputeswithinthe
community.Deeplyoffendedbythewaytheyhadbeenpilloriedin1Corinthians,thespiritpeople,whowerepotentiallythemajordonors,retaliatedbyrefusingto
takepartinaprojectsodeartoPaul'sheart.Titus,however,hadwontheconsentoftheirallies,theJudaizers,byacleveradhominemargument,andPauldecided
toexploittheopening.
2
Corinthians89revealsPaulathisbestintermsofreligiousleadership.Hisconsummateskillintheartofpersuasionunderlineshowmuchhehasmaturedinasingle
year.Eventhoughhehastostretchthetruthtodoso,hepraiseswhatcanbepraisedthewillingnessoftheCorinthians(althoughitwasnowayearold9:2)and
sedulouslyavoidsevenahintofcriticism.Heexplicitlystatesthatheisnotorderingthemtocontribute(8:8a),butmerelyexpressinghisopinion(8:10).Theexample
oftheMacedoniansisintroducedinsuchawayastopermittheCorinthians'selfrespecttofunctionasaninternalincentive.Inordertoassuageanypossibleanxiety
ontheirpartastothesumexpected,heisatpainstoemphasizethattheirattitudeismoreimportantthanthevalueofthegift(8:12).Neartheend,however,ahintof
theoldPaulsurfacesinthewayhehighlightsthepossibilitythatheandtheCorinthiansmightbehumiliatedby

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themuchpoorerMacedonianchurch(9:4).Fortunately,heimmediatelyexcludesthehintofmoralblackmail,bydenyingthathewantstoextortmoneyfromthem(9:
5).

Oncebefore,however,theCorinthianshadgiventheirassentandthendonenothing.ThistimePaulwasnotpreparedtorelyonwordsalone,anddecidedtosend
emissariestoCorinth,whosepresencewouldbeacontinuousreminderofhisinvitation.Evensuchdiscreetpressure,however,mightberesentedbytheCorinthians
asinterferenceintheinternalaffairsofalocalChurch.Paul'snervousnessispalpableinhispresentationofTitus.HeemphasizesthatheisnotreallysendingTitus,as8:
6mightimply.ThelatterhadvolunteeredtoreturntoCorinthinresponsetoPaul'sappeal(8:17)!ThislittlevignettetellsussomethingaboutPaul'streatmentofhis
associates.Hedoesnotorderasubordinate,butrequestsapartnerandcoworker(8:23).NaturallyTituswasthebeareroftheletterwhichrecommendedhimso
highly.

WithTituswillgoabrotherselectedbythechurchesofMacedoniatoactastheirdelegateintheactualassemblingofthemoneyforJerusalem(8:19).Itiscurious
that,whilehisqualificationsaregivenprominence,hisnameisnevermentioned.Manyexplanationshavebeensuggested,67but,inthelightofthecontactsbetweenthe
CorinthianandMacedonianchurches(1Thess.1:792Cor.11:9),thesimplesthypothesisisthathewasaCorinthianChristian,whohadgonetoaidthespreadof
thechurchinMacedonia,andwhotherehadestablishedhimselfasanexceptionalpreacherofthegospel.WhentheCorinthiansrecognizedhim,andheardPaul's
eulogy,theywouldhavebeenbothflatteredandrelieved.Theircontributiontoasisterchurchwaspubliclypraised,andPaul'semissarywasnotacriticalMacedonian
(9:4),butoneoftheirown.Hisspecificrolewastoguaranteetheintegrityofthecollection(8:201).

Thethirdmemberoftheparty(8:22)isalsounnamed.ThewayheisdescribedsuggeststhathewasalongtimeassociateofPaul,whohadsomerelationshiptothe
Corinthians.HemayhavebeenwithPaulontheintermediatevisit,orhemayhaveaccompaniedTituswhenthelattercarriedthePainfulLetter.ItwasPaul'spractice
totravelwithothers,anditismostunlikelythathepermittedTitustogotoCorinthalone.Atravellingcompanionwasindispensable,notmerelytopresentastronger
fronttorobbers,buttoguardwhateverpropertytheyhad,whiletheotherwenttothebathorelsewhere.
67
Seee.g.Furnish(1984),4356R.P.Martin(1986),275.

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OnceagainaMissionary

Accordingto2Corinthians9:4,PaulplannedtogotoCorinthinthenearfuture,i.e.duringthesummerofAD55,inordertofinalizethecollection,onwhichhehad
nowbeenworkingforfouryears.Itwouldhavebeencleartohim,however,thathecouldnotjustbreezein,makecontactwiththeCorinthiandelegation,andleave
forJerusalem.Despitehisoptimisticwordsin2Corinthians7:516,hewasfullyawarethatthereestablishmentofrelationswiththechurchleftanumberofserious
problemsunresolved.Anextendedstaywasimperative.Exactlyhowlongwoulddependoncircumstances,buthecouldnotriskspoilingtheprocessofreconciliation
byfixingaprematuredeparturedate.Themorehereflected,thecleareritbecamethathewouldhavetospendthewinterofAD5556inCorinth.

TheMacedonians,however,mightnotwanttodelay.Itwouldbenaturaltowanttoberidassoonaspossibleoftheheavyresponsibilityrepresentedbythemoney
collectedforthepoor.OnlyinsummercouldtheytraveltoJerusalem,andtheroundtriptookseveralmonths.Anydelaynowwouldmeanpostponingthetripfora
year.Hence,thenoteofhesitation,ifsomeoftheMacedonianscomewithme(2Cor.9:4)thematterhadnotbeendecidedwhen2Corinthians19wassent.

ThemorePaulthoughtabouthisplansforthefuture,however,themorereasonshefoundnottohastentoCorinth.2Corinthians19demandedtimeforthesubtlety
ofitsmessagetobeassimilatedadequately.ItcouldonlybetoPaul'sadvantagetohavehisargumentsdiscussedatlength.HecouldbesurethatTituswouldnudge
reflectionintherightdirection,andsuchdelicatemanipulationshouldnotbehurried.Paulwaspreparedtofindsuchreasonsconvincing,becauseforfouryearshe
personallyhaddonelittlerealmissionarywork.HisagentshadfoundedchurchesinAsia,andhehadbegunanewcommunityatTroas.Thislatterepisodewasbrief,
andforthemostparthisenergyhadbeenfocusedonmaintainingexistingcommunities.Crisisaftercrisisinonechurchoranotherhaddemandedhisattention.Nowall
weretranquil.Afreesummerwasagoldenopportunitytoagainseekvirginterritory,andtobewhathewasdivinelychosentobe,afounderofchurches,who
preachedChristwherehehadnotyetbeennamed(Rom.15:20).Theprospectmusthavebeenirresistible.InanycasePauldidnotrestrainhimself.Hewentto
Illyricum(Rom.15:19).68

WhiletheremightbeaslighttheoreticaldoubtastowhatpreciselyPaulmeantbythisterm,69thereislittlerealuncertaintyastowherehewas.
68
TheunjustifiedscepticismofFitzmyer(1990),43,isasmistakenaseffortstointerpretthisversepurelysymbolically,e.g.Geyser(1959),onwhich,seeKnox(1964),8n.10.
69
SeeAppian,RomanHistoryBook10,TheIllyrianWars.

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WhereverPaulandhisassociateshadpassedthewinterinMacedonia,PaulwouldcertainlyhaveaccompaniedTitusandhistwocompanionsasfarasThessalonica,
iftheyhadplannedtogosouthbyship,ortonearPella,iftheypreferredthelandroute.ToreachvirginterritoryallPaulhadtodowastocontinuealongtheVia
Egnatiatothewest,andintendaysorsohewouldhavebeeninIllyricum.70TheareaisdescribedbyStrabo,butintheoppositedirectiontothattravelledbyPaul
(seeFig.7):

OfthisAdriaticcoast,then,thefirstpartsarethoseaboutEpidamnusandApollonia.FromApolloniatoMacedoniaonetravelstheEgnatianRoad,towardstheeast.Ithas
beenmeasuredbyRomanmilesandmarkedbypillarsasfarasCypselaandtheHebrusRiveradistanceof535miles.Anditsohappensthattravellerssettingoutfrom
ApolloniaandEpidamnusmeetatanequaldistancefromthetwoplacesonthesameroad.NowalthoughtheroadasawholeiscalledtheEgnatianRoad,thefirstpartofitis
calledtheRoadtoCandaviaanIllyrianmountainandpassesthroughLychnidus,acity,andPylon,aplaceontheroadwhichmarkstheboundarybetweentheIllyriancountry
andMacedonia.FromPylontheroadrunstoBarnusthroughHeracleia,andthecountryoftheLyncestaeandthatoftheEordiintoEdessaandPellaandasfarasThessalonica.
Andthelengthofthisroad,accordingtoPolybius,is267miles.(Geography7.7.4trans.Jones)71

Onmodernroads,onlypartofwhichcoincideswiththeViaEgnatia,thedistancebetweenThessalonicaandwhatStraboconsideredthefringesofIllyrianterritoryis
approximately320km.(200miles).72IfPaulsetoffinmidApril,hewouldhavebeenamongtheIllyriansbytheendofthemonthandcouldlookforwardtoatleast
threemonthsofintensemissionaryworkbeforehavingtoheadsouthinAugustinordertoreachCorinthbeforetheonsetofwinter.

BadNewsfromCorinth

HowmuchPaulhadinvestedinhisplansforthesummerofAD55canbegaugedfromthedepthofhisfrustrationwhennewsfromCorinthforcedhimtochange
them.

2Corinthians19,itwillberemembered,hadtwoobjectives:todriveawedgebetweentheJudaizersandthespiritpeople,andtowinthelattertoPaul'sside.How
wellthislattergoalwasachievedisanopenquestion,butitappearsthathedidsucceedinisolatingtheJudaizers.Havinglostwhattheyhopedwouldbeafirmbaseat
Corinth,theJudaizerscouldonlyredoubletheir
70
SandayandHeadlam(1902),4078.
71
Themodernequivalentsoftheplacenamesare:Epidamnus=Dyrrachium=DurrsinAlbaniaCypsela=IpsalainTurkeyLychnidus=OchridainSerbiaHeracleia=Bitolain
SerbiaEdessaEdhessainGreece.AdetailedmapoftheroadisgiveninPapazoglou(1979),304.
72
Rossiter(1981),504,526,541.

 Page318

Fig.7
TheRomanProvinceofMacedoniaandtheViaEgnatia
(Source:F.Papazoglou,ANRWII,7/1(1980))

 Page319

attacksonPaul'spersonandauthority.IftherewasnowlittlechanceofconvertingthespiritpeopleintoLawobservantChristians,therewasalwaysthepossibility
thattheymightstillbereceptivetocriticismofPaul.

Titus,orsomeonesentbyhim,foundPaulinIllyricumandinformedhimthattheoldcriticismofhisunimpressivepresenceanduninspiredpreaching(2Cor.10:10)
hadbeenrevivedinamoreviciousform.TheJudaizershadmanagedtoconvinceanumberthattheirspiritualgiftsraisedthemfarabovePaul(2Cor.11:5).The
latter'sfailuretotakestrongactionduringtheintermediatevisit,theysuggested,perhapsindicatedthathedidnothavetheauthority.Certainlyhisflight,andfailureto
return,couldonlybeinterpretedascowardice.

TheimportancewhichPaulattachedtothecollectionforthepoorofJerusalemgavetheJudaizerstheopportunitytohighlighthissuspiciouslyambiguousattitude
towardsmoney.Heapparentlyrefusedmoneyforhimself,butsoliciteditforthepoor.WoulditallreallygotoJerusalem?AlltheJudaizershadtodo,when
questionedbytheCorinthiansaboutthepovertyoftheJerusalemchurch,wastoshrugtheirshoulders.Theydidnothavetodenytheneedforthecollection.Allthey
hadtodowastoinsinuatethatthequestionerswerealittlenaveintakingPaul'sstatementsatfacevalue.ByharpingonthefactthatPaulhadtakenmoneyfrom
Philippi(2Cor.11:9),theycouldmakeacasethatPauldidnotlovetheCorinthianswhosegenerosityhehadrefused.

SpeakingAsaFool

Paulcouldonlytakesuchcriticismsasamaliciousdistortionofhismotivesandactions.Hisbitterangerwasintensifiedbytheawarenessthat,ifhewasdiscredited,his
versionofthegospelwasatrisk.Anothergospelmighttakeitsplace.InamoodofdesperateanxietyforthefutureoftheCorinthiancommunity,hedashedoff2
Corinthians1013.Thereasonabletoneandsubtleargumentsof2Corinthians19arereplacedbyawildoutburst,inwhichPaulgiveshiscapacityforsarcasmand
ironyfreerein.

ThelanguageinwhichheexcoriatesthegullibilityoftheCorinthiansisaperfectillustrationofthecharacterof2Corinthians1013,Yougladlybearwithfools,being
wiseyourselves!Youputupwithitwhensomeonemakesslavesofyou,oreatsyououtofhouseandhome,orswindlesyou,orwalksalloveryou,orsmacksyour
face.Tomyshame,Imustsay,weweretooweakforthat!(2Cor.11:1921).ThewisdomoftheCorinthiansistobesolackinginselfrespectthattheyeagerly
accepttheirownexploitation!

Whatissaidinthistexthasbeeninterpretedliterally,metaphorically,andrhetorically.73Achoicebetweenthesedifferentoptionsislessimportantthananappreciation
ofthequalityofthewriting.
73
SorespectivelyAllo(1956b),290Windisch(1924),347andBetz(1972),11617.

 Page320
74
Thestylehasmanyimpressivefeatures,suchasenumeration,asfiveverbsarelistedinsuccession,andinaclimacticway,followingthelawofincreasingmembers witheach
verbaddingextraweighttoPaul'sexpos.Theemphasisofastringofverbs,withtwohapaxes,foundonlyhereintheNT,isenhancedbytheanaphoricalrepetitionof[ei]tisfive
times,theonewho,andepiphoricassonance(hencethesonorousoi,ei,ei,ai,ei).75

Thequalityofthewritingismatchedbytheauthorityofthestrategy.Hisopponentshaveforcedhimtocomparehimselfwiththem,andwhathedoesistodisplayhis
contemptfortheirpretensionsbyturningrhetoricalconventionupsidedown.Afternotinghisbreeding(2Cor.11:223),hegoesontoparodytheselfdisplayofthe
Judaizersbyhighlightingwhatshouldbehidden,andminimizingwhatshouldbeaccentuated(2Cor.11:2330).76Churchesandconvertsareonlyhintedatthe
spotlightisonsituationsinwhichhehasbeendegraded.Withgreatdramaticflairheconcludeshislistofaccomplishmentswithagraphicaccountofhishumiliating
escapefromDamascus,lowereddownthewalllikeahelplessbabyinabasket(2Cor.11:323)!Heistheantithesisofthewinnerofthewellknownwallcrown,77
which,accordingtoAulusGelius,isthatwhichisawardedbyacommandertothemanwhoisfirsttomountthewallandforcehiswayintoanenemytowntherefore
itisornamentedwithrepresentationsofthebattlementsofawall(AtticNights,5.6.16trans.Rolfe)

ParodyisnottheonlyweaponinPaul'srhetoricalarmoury.Hedeflateshisopponents'claimtovisionsandrevelationsbyspeakingofhisownexperienceinthethird
person(2Cor.12:24).Thetechniquedistanceshimfromtheepisode,andtherebyunderlinesitsirrelevanceforhisministry.78Itdidnotchangehiminanyway,and
didnotprovidehimwithanyinformationhecoulduse.Thecriticismofhisopponentsisallthemoreeffectiveforbeingunstated.Iftheirexperiencewasthesameas
Paul's,itcontributednothingtotheirministry.Ifitwassomethingaboutwhichtheycouldtalk,itwaslessineffablethanhis!
2
Corinthians1013isextraordinarilyrevelatoryofaPaulrarelyapparentelsewhere.Heretherigidcontrolhenormallyimposedonhispassionatenaturedissolvesin
theheatofhisanger.Hegivesfullreintohisemotions,andinsodoingbetraysthequalityofhiseducation,whichheusuallydenied(cf.1Cor.2:15).Thefluid
creativityofhisthoughtismatchedbythemasterfulfacilityandfreedomwithwhichheemploysanumberofthetechniquesofrhetoric.Theassuranceofhisadeptuse
ofrhetoricaldevicescanonlybethefruitoflong
74
Zmijewski(1978),207.
75
R.P.Martin(1986),364.
76
Forbes(1986).
77
Judge(1968),47.
78
Theprecisionofthedate,fourteenyearsago,betrayshowvividwasthememoryoftheexperience.ThedatewouldbeaboutAD41,aperiodofPaul'slifeaboutwhichweknow
nothing.

 Page321
79 80
studyandpractice. TherecanbelittledoubtthatPaulwasbroughtupinasociallyprivilegedclass,whichhewasformedtoadorn.

TheThornintheFlesh

Paulconcludeshisdefencewitharhetoricaltourdeforce,ahumbleadmissionwhichleadsintoaparadox,Andtokeepmefrombeingtooelatedbytheabundance
ofrevelations,athornwasgivenme,amessengerofSatan,tobuffetme,tokeepmefrombeingtooconceitedwhenIamweakthenIamstrong(2Cor.12:7
10).Thenatureofthethorninthefleshhasintriguedcommentatorsfromtheearlypatristicperiodtothepresentday,andthewidevarietyofinterpretationsbears
witnesstotheinexhaustiblecreativityofthehumanspirit.81

ThevastmajorityofscholarsconsiderthatPaulhadaphysicalailmentorapsychicproblem.Thesuggestionsandtheycannotbeconsideredanythingmore
regardingthelatterbetrayaveryrefinedimagination:arealdemon,whoaccompaniedPaulonhisheavenlyjourney,agonyattherefusaloftheJewstorespondtothe
gospel,sexualtemptations,hysteria,depression.Somaticillnessesappeartohaveabetterfoundation:epilepsy(Paulfelltothegroundduringhisconversion,Acts9:
4),pooreyesight(hedesiredtheeyesoftheGalatians,Gal.4:15),aspeechdefect(hemadeabadfirstimpression,Gal.4:13ff.,andspokebadly,2Cor.10:10
11:6),recurringmalarialfever,headacheorearache.Itwillbeobviousthatthemajorityoftheseproposalsdependongratuitousand/orforcedinterpretationsoftexts,
whichareinnowayrelatedtophysicalailments,betheythoseofPaulorofanyoneelse.Moreover,inordertohaveachievedallthathedid,Paulmusthavebeen
blessedwithrobusthealthandastrongconstitution.

TheonlyhypothesisforwhichaseriouscasecanbemadeisthatbythethorninhisfleshPaulmeantoppositiontohisministry.82HismentionofamessengerofSatan
impliesanexternal,personalsourceofaffliction,andpreviouslyhehadidentifiedasservantsofSatan(2Cor.11:1415)hisadversariesatCorinth.IntheOld
Testament,thornsareametaphorforIsrael'senemies,bothwithin(Num.33:35)andwithout(Ezek.28:24).Thislatterreference,
79
PaulalsogiveshisinstinctsfreereininRom.,andexpertsrecognizethequalityofhiseducation.Fitzmyer(1993),92,approvinglycitesthejudgementofSandayandHeadlam.
(1902),p.lv,therushofwordsisalwayswellundercontrol.Stillthereisarushofwords,risingrepeatedlytopassagesofsplendideloquencebuttheeloquenceisspontaneous,
theoutcomeofstronglymovedfeelingthereisnothingaboutitoflaboredoratory.Thelanguageisrapid,terse,incisivetheargumentisconductedbyaquickcutandthrustof
dialectic.Theunschooledcouldneverexhibitthiscombinationofqualities.
80
SeeinparticularForbes(1986),224,andP.Marshall(1987),400.
81
GoodsurveysareprovidedbyAllo(1956b),31323Furnish(1984),5479R.P.Martin(1986),41216.
82
Mullins(1957)Barr(1980).

 Page322

whencoupledwithPaul'suseoftobuffetin1Corinthians4:11,hasbeentakentomeanthatPaulhadpersecutioninmind.Idoubt,however,thatPaulwouldhave
prayedtobedeliveredfrompersecution.83HesawsuchsufferingsasthemeanswherebyhewasassimilatedtoJesus(2Cor.4:1011).

WhatwasacontinuoussourceofpaintoPaulwasthefactthatnoneofhischurchesmeasureduptohisexpectations.Therewasalwayssomeone,ineverycommunity
hefounded,whocausedhimgrieftheidlersatThessalonica,EuodiaandSyntycheatPhilippi,thoseparalysedbyprudenceinGalatia,theresentfulatEphesus,the
mysticsatColossae,thespiritpeopleatCorinth.Therewasnogroupingofhisconvertsonwhichhecouldlookwithcomplacentpride.Anytendencytoconceit,or
evensatisfaction,wasimmediatelycounteredbyevidenceofsomesortofdissent.Suchdivisions,however,wereopposedtotheplanofGod,forwhomthechurch
shouldexhibittheorganicunityofalivingbody.Hence,Paulcouldpraylegitimatelythattheywouldcometoanend.

Thewryhumourofhisselfassessmentcontinuesintothepresentationoftheresponsetohisprayerintheformofadivineoracle,Itsufficesforyoumygrace,forthis
powerinweaknessisperfected(2Cor.12:9a).84Theparadoxisasextremeasthemeaningisprofound.Thethornremindshimthathehasnoneofthequalities
whichtheworldconsideredessentialprerequisitesforthesuccessofhismission.YetheservesasachannelofdivinegraceexpressedinthepowerofChrist(2Cor.
12:9b),whoselifeheexhibits(2Cor.4:1011),andtheworldischanged.
83
SorightlyR.P.Martin(1986),415.
84
Seeesp.O'Collins(1971).

 Page323

13
LookingWestward
ThemessengerswhohadbroughtthebadnewsfromCorinthreturnedtherewith2Corinthians1013.InitPaulpromisedavisitinthenearfuture(2Cor.12:1413:
12).AnxietyfortheCorinthiansragedinhisheart,buthewasnotfreetoleaveIllyricumimmediately.Hisexperiencehadtaughthimthathecouldnotsimplyabandon
newconvertstothecareoftheHolySpirit.Godactedthroughhumanagents(1Cor.3:59),anditwasPaul'sresponsibilitytosettheinfantcommunityonasecure
foundation.Itiseasytoimaginetheredoubledfervourwithwhichheworked,attemptingtopackinasmuchaspossiblebeforetheonsetofwinterobligedhimtostart
thelongjourneytothesouth.Hisneedtocapitalizeontheshockeffectof2Corinthians1013makesitunthinkablethatheshouldhavepostponedhisvisittoCorinth
untilthefollowingspring.Itwouldhavebeenoutofcharacterforhimtoleaveoneofhiscoworkerstodirectthenascentchurch.CertainlyTimothytravelledwithhim
toCorinth(Rom.16:21).

OfPaul'sreceptionatCorinthweknownothing,butitwouldseemthat2Corinthians1013hadasalutaryeffect.IftheCorinthiansinfactcontributedtothe
collectionforthepoorofJerusalem(Rom.15:26),itisunlikelythatthecommunityasawhole,orevenamajority,wasalienatedfromPaul.Moreover,duringthe
winterofAD5556,hehadtheleisuretocomposehismostdevelopedtheologicalargument,whichwaspartofhispreparationsforthefuture.Afteraccompanying
thecollectiontoJerusalem,heplannedtogotoRome,first,andthentoSpain(Rom.15:24,28).Onehastheimpressionthathehadnointentionofreturningto
Corinth.Hehadgivenwhathecould,andthefutureofthebelieverstherewasintheirhandsandGod's.SincePaulnevertookaboatgoingwest,hisnaturalroute
fromPalestinetothecapitaloftheEmpireranthroughAsiaMinortoTroas,andthenalongtheViaEgnatia.Beforeheleftthenorthhemayevenhavepromisedthe
Illyriansthathewouldreturnassoonaspossible.

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TheTextualProblemsofRomans

OurknowledgeofthenextstepsinPaul'scareercomefromtheepistletotheRomansbut,beforeitcanbeusedasevidence,notemustbetakenofanumberof
textualproblems.ThemanuscripttraditionattestseightdifferentformsofRomans.Inessencethesearecreatedbythepresenceorabsenceofchs.15and16,andthe
positioningofthedoxology(Rom.16:257).1Inaddition,anumberofmanuscriptslacktheitalicizedwordsin1:7,ToallGod'sbelovedinRomewhoarecalledto
besaints,andin1:15,IameagertopreachthegospeltoyoualsowhoareinRome.Withoutthespecificaddress,andthehighlypersonallistofgreetingsinch.
16,therestoftheletterissogenericthatitcouldhavebeenaddressedtoanyandeverychurch.

ThereisnowvirtualunanimityamongscholarsthattheletterwhichPaulwrotecontained1:1to16:23.Thereissomedoubtabout16:24,2butnoneaboutthe
concludingdoxology(16:257).Considerationsofcontent,style,andepistolarypracticeconspiretomakeitunlikelythatPaulwastheauthor.3Hedoesnotendhis
lettersinthisway.TheabsenceofanymentionofChristintherevelationofthemysteryconcealedforlongages,butnowmademanifestthroughtheprophetic
scriptures(16:25b26a)betraysitsunPaulinecharacter,eventhoughthelanguageevokesColossians1:267.

Asregardsthevaryinglengthsoftheletterindifferentmanuscripts,itismostprobablethattheelementswhichrelatedthelettertoaspecificcommunitywere
deliberatelyeditedoutinordertogivethelettergreateruniversality.ItisknownthattheparticularityofthePaulineletterscreatedcertaindifficultiesinthesecond
century,4andtheeasiestsolutiontothistypeofproblemistoeliminatethecauses.ThusthewordsinRomewereexcisedfrom1:7and15.WereRomanstheonly
case,thishypothesiswouldlosemuchofitsappeal.ButEphesiansiscertainlyagenericletter,andDahlhasplausiblysuggestedthatthetwodifferentpositionsforthe
phrasewhichisinCorinth(1Cor.1:2)inthemanuscripttraditionisduetothephrasehavingbeenexcisedincertainmanuscriptstogeneralizetheletter,andthen
restoredbutinthewrongplace.5SimilarlycertainscribesconsideredthatthepersonaldetailsaboutPaulwhichch.15containedthreatenedtheuniversalityofthe
letter,whereasothersdidnot.Thehighlyspecificgreetingsofch.16wereamuchgravercauseforconcern.6Andtheyhaveremainedsoformoderncriticalscholars.
1
SeeGamble(1977),Aland(1979),284301,andFitzmyer(1993),4454.
2
ItisrejectedbyDunn(1988),901,andFitzmyer(1993),751,buttheargumentofGamble(1977),130,infavourofitsauthenticityisfarfromnegligible.
3
SeeinparticularElliott(1981)Dunn(1988),91316Fitzmyer(1993),753.
4
Dahl(1962).
5
Ibid.2667.
6
Gamble(1977),128.

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Doubtsthat16:123belongedtoaPaulineletteraddressedtoRomearoseintheeighteenthcentury,andeventuallyevolvedintothehypothesisthattheseverses
originallyconstitutedaseparateletterdestinedforEphesus.Sincethenthehypothesishasbothwoninfluentialsupportandencounteredvigourouscriticism.7The
publicationin1937ofP46,whichistheonlymanuscriptattestinga15chapterversionofRomans,wasgreetedwithdelightbythosewhohaddetachedch.16from
Romansonpurelyliterarygrounds.Itappearedtoprovideobjectiveverificationoftheirtheory.Itwasthefirstmanuscriptconfirmationofaliteraryanalysis.
RegretablyP46doesnotcontaintheoriginaltextofRomans.Inconsequence,itisnotsurprisingthatitspublicationfailedtoputanendtothecontroversy,which
continuesunabated.8

Inmyview16:123cannotbeanindependentletter,andmustbeanintegralpartofRomans.ThechapteropenswiththewordsnowIcommendtoyou.The
particledeindicatesthat16:1isnotabeginningbutacontinuation.Moreover,withoutch.16Romanswouldcontain0onlyoneofthethreeelementswithwhichPaul
regularlyconcludeshisletters,namely,thepeacewish(15:33).9Thegreeting,particularlythatexpressedbythekiss(16:16),andthefinalblessing(16:20b)would
belacking.Ifch.16hasthecharacteristicfeaturesofaconclusion,itcannothavebeenanindependentletter,andmustalwayshavebeenassociatedwithchs.115,
whichotherwisewouldbeincomplete.Theonlypossibleobjections,namely,thatPaularbitrarilydepartedfromhisconsistentpractice,orthatch.16wasthe
conclusiontoanothernowlostletter,areunworthyofseriousconsideration.

AdmittedlytherecommendationofPhoebe(16:12)isanunusualfeatureinaPaulineconclusion.TheonlycomparableelementintheconclusionstoPaul'sother
lettersisthepraiseofTychicusandOnesimusinColossians4:79.Theformaldifferencesinexpressiondiminishtheforceoftheparallel,buttheuniquenessof16:1
2shouldnotbeexaggerated.Cicerooccasionallyslippedanoteofcommendationintotheconclusionofhisletters,sometimesinreferencetothebearer,butnot
always.10Inconsequence,thiselementcannotbeusedtoprovethatch.16wasoriginallyindependent.11

TwoofthegroupsgreetedinRomans16werealmostcertainlydomiciledatRome.Thoseamongthe[slaves]ofAristobulus12workedforthegrandsonof
7
WithoutattemptingtobeexhaustiveKmmel(1975),31820lists21eminentscholarsinfavourandasimilarnumberagainst.
8
e.g.Refoul(1990).
9
Gamble(1977),89.Whilepointingoutminorflaws,Fitzmyer(1993),63,agreesthattheargumentisnotonlysound,butcrucial.
10
Fam.3.18.812.2416.21Att.1.19Q.Fr.2.14seeGamble(1977),856.
11
Lampe(1989),1315,hasarguedthatthelanguageofch.16isclosertothatofRom.115thantothatofanyotherPaulineletter.Initselfthisprovesthattheybothwerewritten
aboutthesametime,notthattheywerepartofthesameletter.Hisobservationsacquiresignificanceonlyfromtheprecedingarguments.
12
BDF162(5)cf.Phil.4:22.Paulisdefinitelynotspeakingofahousechurchwithinafamily(astheNRSVsuggests)inthatcasehisformulawouldbehkat'oikonekklsia(cf.
Rom.16:51

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13
HerodtheGreatwhodiedinRomeinthelatterpartofthe40sAD. Byhiswilltheywouldhavebeenincorporatedintoanothergreathouseholdwhileretainingtheir
distinctivename.Intheimperialhouseholdweknow,forexample,ofMaecenatianiandGermaniciani,whohadbeentheslavesofGaiusMaecenas(d.8BC)and
GermanicusJuliusCaesar(d.AD19),respectively.InthisperspectivePaul'sformulawouldtranslateAristobuliani.14Thisinterpretationismadevirtuallycertainby
thenameofthenextindividualsingledout.HerodionunambiguouslysuggestsaconnectionwiththefamilyofHerodsincefreedslavestookthenameoftheirpatron.

Inthelightoftheforegoing,thoseamongthe[slaves]ofNarcissus'canbeidentifiedplausiblyastheslavesoftheinfluentialfreedmanofClaudius,whowaskilled
shortlyafterhispatrondiedinAD54.15They,togetherwithhisvastwealth,passedintothehouseholdofNeroasNarcissiani,forwhichthereisinscriptional
evidence.16

Iftheseidentificationsarecorrectandtheyarewidelyaccepted17bothofthesegroupscanbesoughtonlyinRome.Onecannotconceivesuchlegaciesbeing
movedenblocoutsidetheEternalCity,letalonetoEphesus.

Paradoxicallytheextensivelistofpersonsgreetedin16:123provesthatPaulwaswritingtoacommunityinwhichhehadnotlivedandworked.ItwasPaul'snormal
practicenottonametherecipientsofgreetings,presumablybecauseitwouldhavebeeninvidioustosingleoutindividualsinagroupallofwhosememberswere
knowntohim.Romans16,therefore,isaradicaldeparturefromPaul'snormalpractice,andunambiguouslyindicatesthathewaswritingtoachurchinwhichhewas
notknownpersonally.ThisconclusionisconfirmedbyColossians,inwhichPaulsinglesoutNymphaandthechurchinherhouse(4:15).Paulwasnotthefounder
ofthechurchesintheLycusvalleyandhadnevervisitedthem.Individualsarealsonamedin2TimothywherePaulsalutesPriscaandAquila,andthehouseholdof
Onesiphorus(4:19),butthisisalettertoaprivateindividual,andthecouplewereamongPaul'soldestfriendsandclosestcollaborators.
Cor.16:19Col.4:15Philem.2).Hadhethewholehouseholdinmind,theformulationwouldbehoiAristoboulou.
13
Josephus,JW2.221AJ20.13.Lampe(1989),136,notesthatthenameAristobulusisextremelyrareinRome,andsuggeststhatChristianitybegantherebyAristobulusbringing
Christianslaveswithhimfromtheeast.LittleornothingisknownaboutthecareerofAristobulus,butthereisnoindicationthathespentanytimeinJudaea.Ifanythingitismore
likelythatonechannelofpenetrationwasthroughthosewhocarriedmessagesbetweenhimselfandhisbrothersintheeast,AgrippaIinJudaeaandHerodinChalcis.Itisequally
possible,however,thateitherorboththeselattersenthimslavesofJewishorigininordertomaintainthecharacterofhishousehold,butwhohappenedtobeChristians.
14
Lightfoot(1908),175.
15
Tacitus,Annals13.1DioCassius,History60.34Juvenal,Satires14.32931.
16
CIL3.39736.15640.
17
e.g.mostrecentlyDunn(1988),896.Fitzmyer(1993),7401,islesscertain.

 Page327

TheidentifyingnotesattachedtosomeindividualsalsomilitateagainsttheEphesianhypothesis.ThedescriptionofEpaenetusasthefirstconverttoChristinAsia
makesmoresenseifhewerenowoutsidetheprovince.18SurelythefactwouldbeaswellknowntothechurchofEphesus,asTimothy'sstatusasPaul'sco
worker(16:21).Theneedforsuchclarificationimpliesnonacquaintance.

Inthebodyoftheletter,PaulpraisestheRomansfortheirobediencetotheformofteachingtowhichyouwerecommitted(6:17).19In16:17heevokesthe
teachingwhichyoulearned.InbothcasesdidachconnotesthecommonbodyofChristianteaching.Theunusualverbformin6:17suggeststhatPauldidnot
knowwhohadinstructedtheRomans.Thesameistruein16:17.HadPaultaughttherecipients,astheEphesianhypothesisdemands,hewouldhaveusedthefirst
personsingular(e.g.1Cor.15:1Gal.1:8).

Finallywereturntothemanuscripttraditionassociatingch.16withchs.115.ThissimplefactisaseriousobjectiontotheEphesianhypothesis,buttheingenuityof
Mansonhasbeenequaltothechallenge.20AfterPaulhadcompletedRomans115,hesuggests,andwaspreparingtosendthelettertoRome,herealizedthe
contentswouldalsobeofinteresttotheEphesians.Whileinresidencethere,asweknowfromGalatians,hehadbeguntodealwiththerelationshipbetweenJudaism
andChristianity,andnowthoughtitappropriatethattheyshouldhavehismaturereflections.ThushehadacopymadeforEphesus,andattachedtoitgreetingsto
friends,andarecommendationforPhoebe,whowaspresumablythebearer.

Cleverasthishypothesismaybe,itfailstoanswertheobviousquestion:ifthe16chapterversionistheEphesianversion,whyisthatchurchnotmentionedinthe
addressratherthanRome?Theonlywayoutofthisdifficultyistomaintainthattheassociationofch.16andchs.115isentirelyaccidental,andcameaboutwhenthe
collectionofPaul'sletterswasbeingassembledatEphesus.Forreasonsofpietyandlocalpride,wearetold,theEphesianswantedtoincludetheirletter,namely,ch.
16,butitlookedsounimpressivebesidetheotherlettersthattheyfeareditmightgetlostorbeneglected.TopreserveittheydecidedtotackitontoRomans.21This
hypothesisisattractiveinitsnaveromanticism,butitembodiessomanyhighlyspeculativecomponentsthatnodiscussionispossible.Itsufficestonotethatnowhere
elseinthePaulinecorpusareletterstodifferentchurchescombined.
18
1Cor.16:15isnotanobjection.IfPaultherenotesthatthehouseholdofStephanaswerethefirstconvertsinAchaiainalettertoCorinth,itisinordertounderlinetheirlength
ofservicetothecommunity.
19
TheviewofBultmann(1967),2834,thatthisverseisaninterpolationisrenderedunnecessarybybetterexegesisseeBorse(1968).
20
(1962),22541.
21
So,amongmany,Goodspeed(1937),856.

 Page328
22
Althoughcertitudeisnotpossible,itisfarmoreprobablethatch.16wastheoriginalconclusiontoPaul'slettertotheRomans.

PlanningfortheFuture

Inch.16Paulgreets26individuals,24ofwhomarenamed.Inadditionmentionismadeofthreehousechurches(vv.5,14,15),andtwogroupingsof(ex)slaves
(vv.10,11),whichmayalsohavebeenhousechurches.23Someofthesehecertainlyknewpersonally.PriscaandAquilawerewithhimatCorinth,andlaterat
Ephesus(1Cor.16:19).ThequalificationofEpaenetus,Ampilatus,andStachysasmydearfriend(NJB)cannotbeanemptyformula.IfthemotherofRufushad
alsomotheredPaul,24hemusthaveknownbothherandherson.AnelementofdoubtcloudsthecaseofAndronicusandJuniabecausemyfellowprisonerscould
meanonlythattheyhadsufferedimprisonmentasPaulhaddone.InColossians4:10andPhilemon23thecontextindicatesthatAristarchusandEpaphraswere
imprisonedwithPaul,butsuchisnotthecasehere.ThereisnothingintheleastsurprisingthatPaul,duringhisministryinGreeceandAsiaMinorshouldhaveknowna
minimumofsevenandamaximumofnineChristianswhohadendedupinRome.25

WhatissignificantisthatPaulknewwheretheseindividualswereandhadlearnedthenamesandpraiseworthyachievementsofmanyothersintheRomanchurch.26
TheconclusionthathehadcontactswithRomepriortowritingtheletterisinescapable.Weretheseaccidentalorintentional?ThepresenceofPriscaandAquilain
Romearguesforcarefuladvanceplanning.Thiscouple,aswehaveseen,hadprovidedPaulwithabaseinCorinth,27andhadpreparedthegroundforhisministryin
Ephesus.28IftheynowappearinRome,theobviousinferenceisthattheyhadbeensentbyPaulinanticipationofhisarrivalthere.29
22
SorightlyDunn(1988),884Fitzmyer(1993),5764,againstGeorgi(1992),11012.
23
Gerlemann(1989),8695,treatsthenamesinRom.16asahiddencodewhichwhendecipheredrevealsthefollowinglistofthosewhoarereallygreeted:PhoebusApollo,Legions
andSenate,Aeneas,Ulysses,Andromache,Plato,Livy,Vergil,Ovid,Aristotle,Herodotos,Pericles,Sybaris,Xenophon,Sallust,Cato,Cicero,Caesar,Augustus,Claudius,andNero!
24
TheviewofBaslezthatshewasactuallyPaul'smotherhasbeendiscussedabove,Ch.2,Paul'sRelatives.
25
Fitzmyer(1993),734,alsoincludesApelles,Urbanus,andPersis,butoninadequategrounds.
26
Ontheministerialimplicationsoflabouring,seevonHarnack(1928).
27
Ch.11,TheFirstConverts.
28
Ch.7,TheFoundingoftheChurch.
29
SoF.Watson(1986),105Lampe(1991),220.TheobjectionofDunn(1988),892,isbasedontheunfoundedassumptionthattheyreturnedtoRometoassumecontrolofthe
businesswhichtheyhadconfidedtotrustedslaveswhentheywereexpelledbyClaudius.

 Page329

AMissiontoSpain.

Rome,however,wasnotthesortofvirginmissionaryterritoryinwhichanadvanceguardhadproveditsvalue.Ithadawellestablishedchurch,manyofwhose
membershadbeenformedintheculturalethosoftheeasternMediterranean.Forsuchpeople,hospitalitytotravellerswassecondnature.30Theydidnotneedtobe
placatedorwarned.Paulcouldrelyconfidentlyontheirgenerosity.Whythendidhepreparethegroundsocarefullybysendingclosecollaborators,andassiduously
collectinginformationonmembersoftheRomanchurch?Hemusthavehadinmindsomethingmuchmoreimportantthanafriendlyvisit.

WhatPaulwasthinkingofemerges,ifcloseattentionispaidtohisexactwording,IhopetoseeyouasIpassthrough[Rome]andtobehelpedonmywaythere
[Spain]byyou(Rom.15:24),Romeisnothisgoalitismerelyastagingpoint(Rom.15:28)enroutetoSpain,whichwasonlyfourdaysawaybysea.31Buthe
wantssomethingfromtheRomanbelievers.ThewaytheverbpropempisusedintheNewTestament32makesitalmostatechnicaltermfortheprovisionmadeby
achurchformissionarysupport.33Commentatorsgenerallythinkexclusivelyintermsofofamaterialcontribution,andthisaspectcannotbeexcluded,asweshallsee.
Itisunlikely,however,tohavebeentheonlyconsideration.IfallPaulneededwasfinancialsupport,itwouldhavebeenmuchmoreprudenttohavecollectedfunds
fromthecommunitieshehadfoundedinAsiaMinorandGreece.34ThesechurcheswouldhavebeenonhisroutewestfromJerusalemandtheyowedhimeverything.
Philippiatleasthadhelpedhimbefore.WhyshouldPaulwaituntilthelaststageofhisjourney,andriskeverythingontheproblematicgenerosityofacommunity,
whichdidnotknowhim?

EventhoughM.Priormakesitclearthatheisthinkinginlogisticalterms,heformulatesPaul'sdesireinawaywhichpermitsabroaderandmorecomplete
interpretation,PaulhopedthattheRomancommunitywouldownthemissiontoSpain,inthewaytheAntiochcommunitydidhisearlierones.35Antioch,however,
hadcommissionedPaul(Acts13:13),andthiswasthereasonwhyitsupportedhim.AftertheincidentwithPeter(Gal.2:1114),Paulfeltthathecouldnolonger
representachurchwhichtooksuchanerroneous
30
SeeinparticularKoenig(1985).
31
Speakingofflaxfromwhichsailsweremade,Plinysays,whatismoremarvellousthanthefactthatthereisaplantthatbringsCadizwithinsevendayssailfromtheStraitsof
GibraltartoOstia,andHitherSpainwithinfourdays(NH19.4).
32
Acts15:320:3821:51Cor.16:6,112Cor.1:16Titus3:133John6.
33
Dunn(1988),872.
34
OncethecollectionforthepoorhadbeendepositedinJerusalem,hewouldbefreetoappealforfundsforhisownsupport.
35
(1989),135.

 Page330

stancewithrespecttoitsGentilemembers.Eversince,hehadbeenwithoutalegitimizinghomebase,apointonwhichhisopponentsatCorinthandGalatiahad
capitalized.Paul,theyhadinsisted,wasanunrepresentativemaverick.Hisretortwastodrawouttheimplicationsofhisconversion,andtoinsistthathehadbeen
commissionedbyGodthroughChrist(Gal.1:1).Whiletheologicallyvalid,thisclaimcouldbeverifiedonlyindirectlyandwithhindsight(1Cor.9:122Cor.3:2).
Hehadnocredentialstoproduce.SimilardifficultiesinthefuturecouldbeavoidedifheweresenttoSpainbythechurchofRome.Onceagainhewouldbe
integratedintotheChristianmovement.

WhydidPaulchooseSpain?Whilenodefiniteanswercanbegiven,ithasbeensuggestedthathewasinspiredbytheeschatologicalvisionofIsaiah,Iamcomingto
gatherallnationsandtongues,andtheyshallcomeandseemyglory,andIwillsetasignamongthem.FromthemIwillsendsurvivorstothenations,toTarshish,Put,
andLudwhichdrawthebowtoTubalandJavan,tothecoastlandsfarawaythathavenotheardofmyfameorseenmyglory(66:1819).36Althoughnocertain
locationisevergivenforTarshish,thehintsoftheOldTestamentpointtothewesternendoftheMediterranean(Jonah1:34:2).37Itwouldbeperfectlyinkeeping
withPaul'sMessianicunderstandingofhisvocationtounderstandthisprophecyasoutlininghisresponsibilitytoextendthekingdomofGodtothelimitsoftheknown
world.38InGalatians1:15PaulmakesitclearthatheconsideredhimselftobeprefiguredintheServantSong(Isa.49:1),whichcontainsthewords,Iwillmakeyou
alightofthenationstobearmysalvationtotheendoftheearth(Isa.49:6).39ForPaul'scontemporaries,CapeStVincentonthewestcoastofSpainwastheendof
theworld.40

Somesuchpowerfultheologicalmotivemustbepostulated,becauseinpracticaltermsSpainhadlittletorecommendit.IntheeasternMediterraneanPaulmovedina
worldwhoselanguagehespoke,andwhichhadanetworkofJewishinstitutionsofwhichhecouldavailhimself.InSpainboththeseadvantageswerelacking,andan
entirelynewmissionarystrategywouldhavetobedeveloped.41TheJewishDiasporadidnotextendwestwardbeyondItaly.42Hence,therewerenoGodfearers
whosemindshadbeenpreparedforthegospelbythereadingoftheScriptures.NorweretheremanywhospokeGreek.ThelanguagesurvivedinthefewoldGreek
coloniesalongtheeastcoast,but
36
FirstsuggestedbySpicq(1969),132,thishypothesishasbeenfullyworkedoutbyAus(1979b),butinadetailthatisnotawaysconvincing,seePrior(1989),129.
37
Baker(1992),332.
38
Seemy(1964),10614.
39
NotethatIsa.49:8iscitedin2Cor.6:2.
40
LetmedescribeIberiaindetail,beginningwiththeSacredCape[=CapeStVincent]whichisthemostwesterlypoint,notonlyofEurope,butofthewholeinhabitedworld(Strabo,
Geography3.1.4).
41
Jewett(1988).
42
SeeBowers(1975),withthemapinPrichard(1987),1701.

 Page331

thehinterlandwasdominatedbyabewilderingnumberofIberiandialects.LatinwasthelanguageoftheRomanadministration,butnotofanysignificantportionofthe
population.43TowhatextentPaulwasawareofthesedifficultiesisimpossibletosaywithanyprecision,buthemusthaveknownthatthewesternendofthe
Mediterraneanwouldbedissimilartowhathehadpreviouslyexperienced.Paulrealizedthatheneededtheexpertiseofthoseclosertothatstrangeland.

AWinterinGreece

WhendidPauldeterminetogotoSpain?ItmayhavebeenwhenheanticipatedbeingforcedoutofEphesusinthelatesummerofAD54.Hehadpreparedafallback
ministryinTroasandmighthaveadvisedPriscaandAquilatoreturntoRome,withaviewtolinkingupwiththemlater.Atthatparticulartime,however,his
relationshipwithCorinthwassotensethatitisunlikelythathelookedveryfarintothefuture.Onequestionmonopolizedhisattention:howwouldtheCorinthians
respondtothePainfulLetter?

ThesummerofAD55isamorerealisticcandidateforthedecisiontogotoSpain.AsfarasPaulwasconcerned,hehadmadehispeacewiththeCorinthiansin2
Corinthians19,andatlastwasfreetoundertakeanewmission.WhenhereachedIllyricum,Romewasjustoverthehorizon.Thepullofanambitionlongfrustrated
(Rom.1:1315:22)musthavebeenverystrong.TruehehadtogotoCorinthtopickupthecollectionandthentoJerusalem,butthatwasaformality.Thenhecould
lookforwardtoavoyagetotheotherendoftheMediterranean.ItisinthisbriefmomentofeuphoriathattheformulationoftheplantosendPriscaandAquilato
Romeismostplausible.

Thencamethebombshell.Farfromimproving,thesituationatCorinthhaddeteriorated.BearersofbadnewsshatteredPaul'sIllyrianidyll.Infrustrationhisresolve
hardened.HewouldspendthewinterinCorinthasplanned,butafterthatwoulddevotenomoretimetothechildishness(1Cor.3:114:20)ofwhatshouldhave
beenthemostbrilliantofhischurches.Itwastimetodevotehisenergiestosomethingmoreprofitable.Rome,asaspringboardtoSpain,wasnolongeravaguefuture
hopeitbecamethenextitemonPaul'sagenda.ThevisittoRomewasfirmlyfixedforthefollowingsummer(AD56).Hewouldheadwestassoonashehad
depositedthecollectioninJerusalem.ThismadeitallthemoreurgentthatPriscaandAquilashouldgotoRomeimmediately.Itmayhavebeenatthismomentthat
Paul,oroneofhisentourage,conceivedtheideaofwritingalettertotheRomans.

ObviouslyPriscaandAquilacouldspeakofhim,anddetailhisqualities,butwouldnotapersonalletterinwhichherevealedsomethingofhimselfbeso
43
Seeesp.thelinguisticmapinGarciayBellido(1972),4767.

 Page332

mucheffectiveasanintroduction?Paul,ofcourse,hadneverwrittensuchaletter.Allhispreviouswritingshadbeeninresponsetoparticularproblemsincommunities
whosemembersheknew.Whatwouldhesaytomembersofastrangechurchinthecapitaloftheempire?Moreover,rightnowhehadmuchmoreurgentmatterson
hismind.IllyricumandCorinthdemandedallhisattention.Therewasnotimetocomposesuchaletter.Hence,itcouldnotbesentbeforethefollowingspring.The
realizationthathehadthewinterinCorinthtoworkoutwhattosaymayhavebeenafactorinPaul'sacceptanceoftheidea.Thebreathingspacealsomeantthathe
hadtimetoacquiresomeinformationaboutthemembershipoftheRomanchurch.ThesensiblecoursewastoaskPriscaandAquilatosendhimareportassoonas
possible,44certainlynolaterthanthespringofAD56,whenhehadtoleaveCorinthforJerusalemwiththecollectionforthepoor.

TheWritingoftheLettertotheRomans

TheassumptionthatRomanshadasinglepurposehasgivenrisetoalongandinconclusivedebate.45Recentcommentatorshavedrawnthecorrectinferencefromthe
conflictingobservationstheletterwaswrittentoachieveanumberofdifferentgoals.46Paul'sbasicproblemwastofindatopicwhichwouldbeofinteresttothe
Romans,andatthesametimeserveasanintroductiontohispersonandhisgospel.Thushehadtoknowsomethingofthecompositionofthecommunity.The
minimumheneededtoknowinordertowriteRomans112wasthatthemembersofthecommunitywerepredominantlyGodfearers.47Thishecouldhavelearnt
fromPriscaandAquilapriortotheirdeparturefortheEternalCity.Theirrecollectionsofthechurchtheyhadleftsomefifteenyearsearliermayhavebeenbroughtup
todatebytravellerspassingthroughCorinthorEphesus.PaulcouldalsohaveextrapolatedfromhisownexperienceofotherEuropeanchurches.Thewritingof
Romans1316,however,demandeddetailedknowledgeofthecontemporaryRomanecclesiasticalscene.HenceIsuspectthatPaulworkedonthematerialin
Romans112duringthewinterofAD5556,andaddedtherestoftheletterwheninformationarrivedfromPriscaandAquilainthespringofAD56.
44
Dunn(1988),909,speculatesthatTertius(Rom.16:22)mayhavespentsometimeinRome.Whilenotimpossible,itislessprobable.
45
Schmithals(1975),1094,remainsthemostdetailedsurveyofthehistoryofresearch.
46
Dunn(1988),p.lvFitzmyer(1993),79.
47
ThepopularityofthishypothesisisrecordedbySchmithals(1975),5863,andmostrecentlyithasbeenadoptedbyLampe(1989),54Dunn(1988),p.xlviiiandFitzmyer(1993),64.

 Page333

JewsandGentilesinRome

TheoriginsofthechurchinRome,likethoseofDamascus,areshroudedinobscurity.DespitethelackofanyevidenceputtingRomeinaspecialrelationshipwith
Jerusalem,48itwouldseemnonethelessthatRomehadbeenevangelizedbyChristiansofJewishorigin.Theearliestmentionofmissionaryactivityistheremarkof
Suetonius,HeexpelledfromRometheJewsconstantlymakingdisturbancesattheinstigationofChrestus(Claudius25.4).Thisimperialactionhasbecomethekey
elementinareconstructionofRomanChristianitywhichhasprofoundlyinfluencedtheinterpretationoftheletterinrecentyears.49

TheessenceofthescenarioisthatChristianityinRomegrewoutofthesynagogue.MissionariesconvertedanumberofJewsandagreaternumberofGodfearers,
whohadattachedthemselvestothesynagogue.AlreadyattractedbytheethosofJudaism,theselatterwouldhavehadlittledifficultyinadoptingJewishpractices,
circumcisionexcepted.PreClaudianChristianity,therefore,wasverymuchaJudaizingversionofthefaith,andonewhichprovedincreasinglyintolerabletothe
variousRomansynagoguesinwhichitsoughttofindahome.Oppositionbecameprogressivelymoreviolent,andtheRomanauthoritieshadtostepin.Thelackofany
centralizedJewishleadershipleftClaudiusnooptionbuttoexpelallJews.BelieversofGentileorigins,inconsequence,endedupasthesolerepresentativesof
ChristianityinRome.InevitablytheybecamegraduallylessJewish,particularlyastheyattractednewconverts.Theirinstitutionalfocuswasnolongerthesynagogue
butthehousechurch.WiththeaccessionofNero,thebanwaslifted.JewsandChristiansofJewishoriginswerepermittedtoreturntothecity,butnottoassemble.
ThelatterdiscoveredaversionofChristianitywhichtheyhardlyrecognized.Distributedamongthevarioushousechurches,inevitablytheyresentedtheirminority
positionandtheirsecondclassstatus.

AsIarguedabove,however,thereislittlechancethatthisscenariocorrespondstoreality.50InallprobabilitytheactionofClaudiusaffectedonlyonesynagogue,
whichiswhytheexpulsionorderisnotnotedinanyJewishsourceasadisasterfortheJewsofRome.Onlyatinyproportionofthe20,00051or40,000to50,00052
Jewishinhabitantsofthecitywereinvolved.TheJewishvacuum,whichisessentialtothetheorythatthecontentofRomanswasdeterminedbyauniquefeatureof
ChristianityintheEternalCity,isamyth.
48
AgainstBrownandMeier(1983),1034Brown(1990),107Fitzmyer(1993),33.
49
FirstproposedbyMarxen(1968),92109,thehypothesishasbeenespousedbyDunn(1988),p.liiiFitzmyer(1993),778.
50
Ch.1,TheEdictofClaudius.
51
ThefiguregivenbyPenna(1982),328repeatedinhis(1992),1075.
52
ThefiguregivenbyLeon(1960),1356,whichisacceptedbyBrownandMeier(1983),94,andDunn(1988),p.xlvi.

 Page334

Paul'sfocusontherelationshipbetweenJudaismandChristianityismorelikelytohavebeendirectlyinspiredbytheproblemsheencounteredwiththeJudaizers
duringthewinterinCorinth,andbyhisconcernastohowthecollectionwouldbeacceptedinJerusalem(Rom.15:301).53TheJewishandChristianissuewas
forceduponhimbycircumstances.WhyshouldhesacrificetimetothedevelopmentofanothersubjectinhisintroductorylettertoRome,whenacentralproblemfor
thefutureofChristianityclaimedhisattention?

AsalientfeatureofthestyleofRomans111confirmsthatPaulhadonlyagenericunderstandingofthechurchinRome.Headdressesaninterlocutor,57dealswith
objectionsandfalseconclusions,55andexpresseshimselfinadialogicalexchangecompletewithanexample.56Thiscombinationofcensureandpersuasionistypicalof
thediatribe,ateachingtechniquewhosesettingistheclassroomofaphilosophicalschool.ThechoiceofthetechniquerevealsanotherfacetofthequalityofPaul's
education,andthesophisticatedfashioninwhichheexploitsitbetraysthegiveandtakeofmanydiscussions.57Afurtherinferenceisthatthequestionsandobjections
donotarticulatethespecificproblemsofthosetowhomheiswriting,butsynthesizetheexperiencesofmanynewconverts.PaulhadhadtodealwithmanyJewsand
Gentiles,astheystruggledtounderstandtheirpastandpresent.Paulwouldnothavehadtouseimaginary,typical,interlocutorsifhewereawareofwhatwasactually
beingsaidanddoneinRome.Theabsenceofthediatribetechniqueinotherlettersisduetohisdetailedknowledgeofthelocalscene.58Theway,forexample,in
whichPaulhandlestheconcreteandhighlyspecificslogansoftheCorinthianshasnothingincommonwiththestylizedobjectionsinRomans.

Sin,Law,andDeath

ThefundamentalthrustofRomansisthatGodnotonlydesiresthesalvationofall,buthasputaplanintoeffectwherebygracecanreacheachandeveryindividual
(3:29).Thegeneralpropositio,whichcommandsthewholedevelopmentoftheletteris:ThegospelisthepowerofGodforsalvationtoeveryonewhohasfaith,to
theJewfirstbutalsotheGentile(1:16).ThisinsighthadbeentheguidingprincipleofPaul'slifesincethemomentofhisconversion,andinthissenseRomans
crystallizeshisgospel.Howthepowerofthegospelproduceditseffect,however,wasmuchmoreadequatelypresentedinhisearlierletters.Theirinsightsmustbe
keptintheforefrontofthemind,ifthefullscope
53
ThisdoesnotmeanthatIbelievethatRom.isaversionofaspeechwhichPaulplannedtogiveinJerusalem,paceJervell(1991).
54
Rom.2:15,17249:192111:1724.
55
Rom.3:19,316:1,157:7,139:14,1911:1,11,19.
56
Rom.3:27to4:25.
57
SeeinparticularStowers(1981),andSchmeller(1987).
58
Aune(1987),201.

 Page335

ofthePaulinegospelashintedatinRomansistobeproperlyunderstood.WhattheearlierlettersdidnotspelloutadequatelywasPaul'sperceptionofhumanity's
needforsalvation.TheoriginalityofRomansisnotitsteachingonthehowofsalvation(saveinitsinsightintotheultimatesalvationoftheJews),butitsexplanationof
thewhyofsalvation.

OneofthemostdistinctivefeaturesofRomansisitsuseofhamartiainanunusualsense.ItfirstappearsinRomans3:9,all,bothJewsandGentiles,areundersin.
ClearlyPaulisnotthinkingintermsofthepersonalsinsofindividuals,andinordertounderlinethedifferenceSinshouldbecapitalized.Thesameusageisfoundina
wholeseriesoftexts,whichcanbeclassifiedunderthreeheads:

Sin

Sincameintotheworldthroughoneman(5:12a).

ThatwemightnolongerbeenslavedtoSin(6:6).

DonotpresentyourmemberstoSin(6:13).

YouwereslavesofSin(6:16,17,20).

HavingbeensetfreefromSin(6:18).

SoldunderSin(7:14).

Sindwellswithinme(7:20).

SinandLaw

Sinwillhavenodominionoveryou,sinceyouarenotunderLaw,butundergrace(6:14).

ApartfromtheLawSinliesdead(7:8).

IamcaptivetotheLawofSin(7:23,25).

HassetmefreefromtheLawofSinandDeath(8:2).

SinandDeath

Death(cameintotheworld)throughSin(5:12b).

SinreignedinDeath(5:21).

ThewagesofSinisDeath(6:23).

ManifestlySinfunctionsasamythorsymbol.Whatisthemeaningofthemyth?Whatishiddenbehindthesymbol?WhentakenoutofcontextSincouldeasilyappear
tobebutanothernameforSatan,ofwhomPaulsometimesspeaks.59Notonlyhasthishypothesisnothingtorecommendit,butitispositivelyexcludedbytheway
Paulusesthetwonames.Satanisinvariablymentionedinconnectionwiththosewhoarealreadybelievers,whereasSinisexclusivelyassociatedwithunbelievers.

PaulfirstusedtheterminGalatians3:22(TheScriptureshutupallunderSin).InRomans3:918heclarifiesthisenigmaticstatementbycitingacatenaofOld
Testamentpassages,60inwhichhumanityappearsasunrighteous,
59
Rom.16:201Cor.5:57:52Cor.2:1111:1412:71Thess.2:182Thess.2:9.
60
Eccles.7:20Ps.13:235:139:49:28Isa.59:78Ps.35:2.

 Page336

ignorantofGod,evilworking,deceitful,murderous(cf.Rom.1:2931).InoppositiontohisJewishforebears,however,Paulrefusestoseethissituationasonein
whichhumanresponsibilityisengaged.Thefailureofindividualsisnottheirpersonalresponsibility.ItisascribedtothepowerofSin.Thehumanraceistwistedand
distortedbyapowergreaterthananyofitsmembers.61ThebasisofthisinsightwasPaulsownexperience.Asatravellerhefoundhimselfforcedtobeotherthanhe
wishedtobe.HiscommitmentwastobeanotherChrist,totallydedicatedtotheserviceofothers.Butifhewastosurviveontheroad,hehadtolookafterhisown
interestsfirst.Theconditionsunderwhichhelivedobligedhimtobeselfish,tomistrustothersinsteadoflovingthem.62

PaulchosethewordSintocrystalizehisvisionofsocietyasthevictimofamassivedisorientation,becauseitsoriginsweretobetracedbacktothesinofoneperson
(5:12acf.5:19).ThepointofGenesis3isthat,atsomepointinthehistoryofhumanity,afalsedecisionwasmade.Fromthenon,accordingtoGenesis411,evil
developedexponentially(Gen6:5).Wickednessbecameendemic,assinnersinteractedwitheachother.Allthosebornintoawarpedsocietyinherititsdefects.They
havenochoicebuttointernalizeitsvalues,andtopassthemonreinforcedtothenextgeneration.TheyareenslavedtoSin,whichdwellswithinthem.Sin,forPaul,
wasnotanextraterrestrialforce,butarealitywithinhumanity,theaccumulatedpoweroflivedassenttoafalsevaluesystem.Godhasimprisonedallhumanbeingsin
theirowndisobedience(Rom.11:32).63

AsfarasPaulwasconcerned,oneofthefalsevalueswhichJewsinheritedwasaparticularattitudetowardstheLaw,whichdistorteditstruepurpose(Rom.7:10).64
ThefundamentalcomponentofthetheologicalsystemofallJewsofPaul'stimewasbeliefintheirelectionbyagratuitousdivineact.God'sgivingoftheLaw
establishedthecovenant.Membershipinthecovenantwasnecessaryforsalvation,andinvolvedobediencetoitsregulationsasexpressedinthepreceptsoftheLaw.
ThetrickypointforJewishtheologianswasthepreciserelationshipofdivineinitiativeandhumanresponse.Howwereunmotivatedmercyandthedemandsofthe
Lawreconciled?ThesolutionproposedbyE.P.SandersObediencetothecommandmentswasnotthoughtofasearningsalvation,whichcameratherbyGod's
grace,butwasneverthelessrequiredasaconditionofremaininginthecovenantandnotobeyingthecommandmentswoulddamn65iscertainlyjustifiedby
documentscontemporarywithPaul,
61
SeeinparticularDunn(1988),148.
62
SeeCh.4,DangersontheRoad.
63
Seeesp.Dunn(1988),696.
64
ThedefinitionofLawimplicitinwhatfollowsinthissectionhasbeenwellformulatedbyWesterholm(1988),220,CrucialtoanappreciationofPaul'sunderstandingofthelawisthe
realizationthathenormallymeansbynomosthedivinecommandmentsimpartedtoIsraelonMountSinaiwiththeiraccompanyingsanctions.Theworksofthelawareconcrete
deedswhichthislegislationmanifestlyrequires.
65
(1977),320hisitalics.

 Page337

butitssubtletyhighlightsthepracticalproblem.Thehumanmindinstinctivelysimplifies.IfdisobediencetothecommandsoftheLawcauseddamnation,thenitseemed
logicalthatobediencetosuchpreceptswonsalvation.Thus,whilelipservicewaspaidtothefundamentalconceptofgratuitousgraceinelection,inpracticeall
attentionwasconcentratedonobservanceofthecommandments.Areligionofgracewhichexpressesitselfincovenantformquicklybecomesareligionofmeritorious
achievement,certainlyinthepopularmind,ifnotinthedissertationsoftheologians.WhatconcernedPaul,however,waslesstheobjectionableideaofbuying
salvation,thantheinversionofvaluesconsequentontheimportanceattachedtoobediencetotheLaw.

Thisdistinctionbetweenwhatistrueinprincipleandwhatisrealinfactisnowheremoregraphicallyillustratedthaninthetheextraordinaryinversionofthepositionsof
GodandtheLawintherabbinicwritings.Accordingtotherabbis,TherearetwelvehoursinthedayduringthefirstthreetheHolyOne,blessedbeHe,occupies
HimselfwiththeTorah.66AsastudentitisnotsurprisingthatGodshouldtakehisplacewithotherscholars,NowtheyweredisputingintheHeavenlyAcademy
theHolyOne,blessedbeHe,ruled,HeiscleanwhilsttheentireHeavenlyAcademymaintained,Heisunclean.Whoshalldecideit?saidthey.Rabbahb.
Nahmaniforhesaid,Iampreeminentinthelawsofleprosyandtents.67Divineauthoritygiveswaybeforerabbinicexpertise.ElsewherewhenquestionedGodcan
onlyreply,MysonAbiatharsaysSoandso,andmysonJonathansaysSoandso.SaidR.Abiathar:CantherebeuncertaintyinthemindoftheHeavenly
One?68GodtakesapositionontheproblemoftheRedHeiferbycitingarulingofR.Eliezer.69

Onanotheroccasion,R.Eliezerissupportedbydirectdivineintervention,
AHeavenlyVoicecriedout:WhydoyoudisputewithR.Eliezer,seeingthatinallmattersthehalachahagreeswithhim!ButR.Joshuaaroseandexclaimed:Itisnotinheaven
(Deut.30:12).Whatdidhemeanbythis?SaidR.Jeremiah:ThattheTorahhadalreadybeengivenatMountSinai:wepaynoattentiontoaHeavenlyVoice,becauseThou
hastlongsincewrittenintheTorahatMountSinaiAfterthemajoritymustoneincline(Exod.23:2).R.Nathanmet[theprophet]Elijahandaskedhim:WhatdidtheHolyOne,
blessedbeHe,dointhathour?Helaughed[withjoy],hereplied,saying,MysonshavedefeatedMe,MysonshavedefeatedMe.70

Agoodloser,Godrecognizesthathehasbeensidelined.Hehadfailedtorealizethat,oncehehadgiventheLawtotheJewishpeople,itwasoutofhishands.
66
b.AbodaZara3btrans.Epstein(1935),4.9.Similarly,theJerusalemTargumonDeut.32:4,trans.LeDeaut(1980),2645,ForthreehoursdoesHeoccupyHimselfwiththe
Torah.
67
b.BabaMezia86atrans.Epstein(1935),1.495.
68
b.Gittin6btrans.Epstein(1936),4.21
69
Urbach(1979),307.
70
b.BabaMezia59btrans.Epstein(1935),1.353.

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Nowonlythevoiceoftherabbiscounted.Godhimselfisboundbytheirdecisions!

Whatevertheirdate,andevenwhengiventheirmostbenigninterpretationasassertionsofthefreedomofhumanreason,thesequotationsunambiguouslyillustrate
whathappenswhenintangiblegraceisconfrontedwiththeconcretespecificityoftheLaw.JewsdebatedpointsofLaw,notthemysteryofgracemanipulationofthe
controllablesupplantedcontemplationoftheineffable.GratitudeforelectioncouldnotbeexpressedmerelyinpsalmsofpraiseperformanceoftheworksoftheLaw
wasnecessary.

DunndeniesthatPaulcriticizedtheconceptofearningsalvationthroughobedience,andinsteadassertsthatPaul'snegativethrustagainstthelawisagainstthelaw
takenovertoocompletelybyIsrael,thelawmisunderstoodbyamisplacedemphasisonboundarymarkingritual,thelawbecomeatoolofsininitstooclose
identificationwithmattersoftheflesh,thelawsidetrackedintoafocusfornationalisticzeal.71Werethiscorrect,72Paulwouldhavethesameobjection.Howeverit
wasconceived,beitasameansofguaranteeingsalvationorasanationalisticimperative,theLawabsorbedeverybodyandeverythinginitsorbit.Itleftnorealspace
forGodorgraceorfaith.Ithadroomonlyforobedience.

InordertoensurethatthegraciousgiftofGodinJesusChristwouldretainitsprimacyinpracticePaulhadtoinsistthattheLawwascompletelyirrelevantforall
believers,bothJewsandGentiles.HisfundamentalobjectiontotheLawwasthat,onceadmittedintoacommunity,itinevitablycreatedanattitudewhichmonopolized
thereligiousperspective.TofocusontheLawwasnecessarilytoignoreChrist.Therecouldnotbetwowaysofsalvation.73TheauthenticresponsetoGod'sgraceis
revealedintheselfsacrificeofChrist,whichwasinnowayanticipatedintheLaw.Ifanything,ChrististheNewLaw(Gal.6:2).Understandably,therefore,Paul
insiststhatChristhadwrittenfinistotheLawasfarashumanityisconcerned(Rom.10:4).74Oncethegoal(theprobablesenseofteloshere)oftheLawhadbeen
achieveddefinitivelyinandthroughChrist,themeansthereto(theLaw)nolongerhadanyraisond'etre.

TheconditionofGentiles,distortedbytheegocentricvaluesofthesociety
71
(1988),p.lxxii.
72
ThemostseriousobjectionistheconclusionwhichflowsfromDunn'shypothesis.He(1988),p.lxxi,tellsusthatPaul'spurposeincriticizingtheLawwastofreebothpromiseand
lawforawiderrangeofrecipients.Inotherwords,Paul'sconcernwastoincreasethesphereofgracetoincludeGentiles,whothenwouldmaintaintheirplaceinthenewcovenantby
doingthoseworksoftheLawthatwerenotJewishidentitymarkers.This,however,cannotbewhatPaulmeans.ToadoptcovenantalnomismasthepatternofChristianitywouldbe
torecreatetheconditionswhichproducedtheabsorptionofJewsintheLaw.SeeHooker(1982),andmy(1989).
73
ThispointisrightlyemphasizedbySanders(1977),482,497,506.
74InterpretationsofthiscrucialtextareregularlycolouredbytheconsciousorunconsciousdesireofcommentatorstofindinPaullegitimationofthemoralcodeoftheOld
Testament.SeeinparticularBadenas(1986).

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intowhichtheywereborn,andthatoftheJews,madecaptivetotheLawofSin(7:23),issummedupbyPaulinoneandthesameword,Death.Thisvisionofthe
humanconditionisderivedfromPaul'sconvictionalreadyhintedatinGalatiansthatthecriterionofauthentichumanityistheselfsacrificingloverevealedinJesus
whodidnotpleasehimself(Rom.15:3)butsufferedonbehalfofallhumanbeings(8:17),tothepointofdyingforthegodless(5:6).75Lackingthiscreative
outreach,alifeturnedinwardonitselfbysocietyortheLawcanonlybeimagedastheexistenceofacorpse.Theunlovingarethewalkingdead.

ThisbriefsynthesisofwhatPaulmeantbySin,Law,andDeathrevealhowdeeplyhehadreflectedonthecircumstancesofhisministry.Ananalysisofthehuman
conditionwasessential,ifhewastogiveaprecisefocustohispreaching.HisrecognitionthathishearershadtobefreedfromSinbeforetheycouldrespondtothe
gospel,andthusberaisedfromDeathtoLife,floweredintoacommitmenttobeforotherstheChristwhowasthepowerofGodandthewisdomofGod(1Cor.1:
242Cor.4:1011).

TheSalvationoftheJews

AlthoughthetentaclesofSinreachedoutintoeverysectionofhumanity,Paulconsideredhisownpeopletobeitsgreatestvictim.He,andothers,hadfreedmultitudes
ofGentilesfromthepowerofSin,butnothinglikeasmanyJews(althoughthereweresome)hadacceptedChristastheMessiah.Whythosewhohadbeenthemost
privilegedbyGodintermsofpreparationfortheadventoftheMessiahshouldhavebeenthemostadamantintheirrefusalofJesuswasamysterywithwhichPaul
struggledduringallhisapostoliclife.Whatwasgoingtohappenultimately?Theurgencyofthisquestionwasenhancedbyhisapprehensionregardinghisreceptionin
Jerusalem(Rom.15:31),76withitsimplicitrecognitionoftheincreasinghostilityofJewstotheJesusmovement.ItseemedmostimprobablethatChristianmissionaries
toJewswouldbemoresuccessfulinthefuture.ThewinterinCorinthgavehimtheleisuretobringtogetherthepartialinsightswhichhadoccurredtohimoverthe
years,andtoformulateacomprehensiveanswer.

TheintricateargumentationofRomans911isimpressiveevidenceofthedepthofPaul'sknowledgeoftheJewishscriptures.Thesophisticationofhisinterpretation
onceagainbetraysthestrengthofhisintellectualformation.Thequalityofthewritingisalsoremarkable,andthehymn,inwhichhesingsouthisadorationwith
extraordinaryeloquence(Rom.11:336),isarguablyhisgreatestliteraryachievement.77
75
SeeCh.8,TheLivingChrist.
76
SeeCh.14,ASenseofForeboding
77
Dunn(1988),698,drawsattentiontothenumberofechoesoflanguagewhichwasevidentlymuchinPaul'smindindealingwiththechurchatCorinth.

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TheoutpouringofgratitudeisafittingconclusiontothesummationoftheargumentinRomans11:2532,inwhichPaulrevealshissolutiontotheproblemofthe
salvationofIsrael.HehadneverwaveredinhisconvictionthatGodcouldnotdenyhimself,andabandonthosewhomhehadchosenandgifted(Rom.11:12).Paul
recognizedthetruthofthisinhisownministry.ThebookofIsaiahhadalwaysplayedakeyroleinhisunderstandingofhisapostolatetotheGentiles.Hesawhimself
aspartofthefaithfulremnant,whichproclaimedsalvationtothenations,therebyfulfillingtheeschatologicalobligationlaiduponIsrael.78Notsurprisingly,itwasin
readingIsaiahthatherealizedthemeanswherebytheJewswouldbesaved.InRomans11:26inordertosupporthisthesisthatallIsraelwillbesaved,hequotes
FromSionwillcometheRedeemer,hewillbanishungodlinessfromJacob,andthiswillbemycovenantwiththem(Isa.59:201)whenItakeawaytheir
sins(Isa.27:9).TheallusionistotheParousiaofChrist.79TheJews,inotherwords,willbesavedinexactlythesamewayasPaulwas.80Hiscommitmenttothe
LawhadnotonlyblindedhimtothetrueroleofChrist,butithadengenderedbitterhostility.Thatattitudewaschangedbyacompletelyunexpectedencounteronthe
roadtoDamascus,whereChristtooktheinitiative.SowillitbeforallIsrael,attheParousiawhenChristappearsinglory.ThentheJewswillnomorebecapableof
rejectinghimthanPaulhadbeen.
78
Niebuhr(1992),170.
79
SandayandHeadlam(1902),336Dunn(1988),682.
80
Hofius(1986),320.

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14
TheLastYears
ThedepthofPaul'sconcernabouthisreceptioninJerusalemcanbegaugedfromthefactthathementionsitinhislettertotheRomans,agroupwhosesupporthe
neededifhewastopreachinSpain.Onemightassumethathewasthinkingprimarilyofthosemembersofthechurchwhomheknewpersonally,buttoevenhintat
difficultieswiththemotherchurchcouldonlyhavedamagedhisimageintheeyesofthosehehopedwouldbeallies.Theslipbetraystheintensityofhisanxiety.1

AnUncertainFuture

PaulaskedtheRomanstoprayforthreethings(1)thatImaybepreservedfromthedisobedientinJudaea,(2)andthatmyserviceforJerusalemmaybeacceptable
tothesaints,(3)inorderthatImaycometoyouwithjoybyGod'swill(Rom.15:312).

ThedisobedientinJudaeaisanunusualformulation,butwhatPaulmeansisclearfromRomans11:302heisthinkingofJewswhohavenotacceptedChrist.The
verbheusesconnotesavividsenseofdanger.WhenspeakingofhistwopreviousvisitstoJerusalemPaulneversuggeststhathefeltphysicallythreatened(Gal.1:18
192:110).ThereisnobasisfortheviewthathedelayedthreeyearsinDamascusbecausehefeltthatavisittoJerusalemwouldbetoomuchofarisk.2Itis
possibletodetectanelementofsecrecyinPaul'sfirstvisitasaChristianhesawnoonebutPeterandJamesbutthatmayhavebeenduetoembarassmenthedid
notwanttoconfrontthosewhomhehadpersecutednotmanyyearsearlier.Nothingsimilarisinevidenceduringhissecondvisit.Theseriesofmeetingsmusthave
beenknowntothewholecommunity,butotherJewsapparentlyexhibitednointerest.Weretheyawareofthe
1
Brown&Meier(1983),110andFitzmyer(1993),726,suggestthatPaulexpectedtheRomanchurchtointercedeonhisbehalfwithJerusalem.NothinginRom.15:301supports
thisinterpretation,andwitheminentcommonsenseBruce(1991)192,haspointedoutthattherewasnowaythatemissariesfromRomecouldhavereachedJerusalembeforePaul.
2
PaceLongenecker(1990),38.

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decisionnottocircumcizeGentilebelievers,onemightassumethattheywelcomedtherefusalofChristianstomakepagansnominallyJews.

WhyshouldPaulnowtakeitforgrantedthatPalestinianJewswouldbehostiletohim?Onemightspeculatethathesomehowlearntthathisnamewasonadeathlist
circulatinginPalestine.Tomakethisextremescenarioplausibledemandsacomplexseriesofassumptions,e.g.aDiasporasynagoguenotedPaul'sradically
antinomianstanceand,takingadvantageofthesendingoftheTempletaxtoJerusalem,informedtheauthoritiesthere,whointurndecidedthatitwasequivalentto
apostasyandthusworthyofdeath.Suchpyramidingofpossibilitiesdoesnotenhancetheirprobability.Moreover,suchinterestonthepartoftheTempleauthoritiesin
theopinionsofasingleDiasporaJewseemsratherimplausible,especiallygiventhenumberofJewsinthedispersion(severalmillion)andtheproblemsinJerusalem.

AlternativelyonemightassumethatPaul'sfearwasentirelysubjective.InthisminimalistscenarioweshouldenvisagePaulthePhariseeassessingandfindingguiltyPaul
theantinomian.ReflectiononthewayhehadonceactedtowardsfollowersofChrist,whosedeviationsfromJudaismwereminor,andonthewayhewouldhave
wantedtoactagainstthosewhorepudiatedtheLawasirrelevant,stimulatedPaul'simaginationtothepointwherethethreatfromobservantJewsbecameveryreal.
Hepostulatedwhathefeared.

WhilethereisuncertaintyregardingtheattitudetoPaulofPalestinianJewsingeneral,thereisnoneregardingthatoftheJerusalemchurch.EmissariesfromAntioch,as
wehaveseen,hadbeenonPaul'sheelsforfouryears,challenginghisattitudetowardstheLaw.InGalatiatheyhadtheopportunitytoreadPaul'slettertothe
churchesthere,anditisfarfromimpossiblethattheysentacopytoAntioch.Inanycase,itisunlikelythattheystayedawayforseveralyearswithoutreportingback
totheirhomebase.AtleastanoralreportofPaul'sradicalantinomianismreachedAntioch.RegularcontactsbetweenAntiochandJerusalemcanbesafelyassumed.
ThepracticeattestedintheActsoftheApostleswouldhavebecomeevenmorenecessaryasantiSemiticpressuresintensifiedintheeasternMediterranean.Paul
couldbequitesure,therefore,thatJamesandhiscohortsknewperfectlywellthatPaul'spositionhadhardenedintoastancewhichwastheantithesisoftheirs.Itwas
perfectlyreasonable,inconsequence,forPaultowonderifJameswouldacceptagiftwithwhichhewassointimatelyassociated

InprincipleJewshadnocompunctionaboutacceptinggiftsfromGentiles.NotonlyhadtheTemplebeengracedbythedonationsofforeigners,3buttheimplicationof
Leviticus22:25thatGentilescouldoffersacrificesintheTempleiswelldocumentedbyJosephus.ItmaybejustalegendthatAlexander
3
JW2.412.TheonlycoinageacceptedintheTemplewasthatofpaganTyre(m.Bekorot8.7).AllthemoneyspokenofintheTorahisTyrianmoney(t.Ketubot13.3)

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4 5
theGreatofferedsacrificethere, butthereseemstobenodoubtthatPtolemyIIIofEgypt ,AntiochusVIIofSyria(duringatrucewhenhewasbeseigingJerusalem!)
6andtheRomansMarcusAgrippa,7andLuciusVitelliussentofferingstoJerusalem.8AsrelationswithRomedeteriorated,however,suchpaganparticipationinthe

Jewishcultbecameprogressivelylessacceptabletothemoreextremeelements.TheclimaxcameinAD66.Eleazar,thesonofAnaniasthehighpriest,averybold
youth,whoatthattimewasgovernoroftheTemplepersuadedthosewhoofficiatedinthedivineservicetoreceivenogiftorsacrificeforanyforeigner.Thiswasthe
truebeginningofourwarwiththeRomans(JW2.409trans.WhistonandMargoliouth).

ItisonlyinthispoliticalcontextthatPaul'sapprehensionregardingthereceptionofthecollectionbecomesunderstandable.HehadexperiencedJames'nationalistic
attitudebothpositively(Gal.2:3)andnegatively(Gal.2:12),9andwaswellawarethatagesturewhichcouldbeunderstoodasforgingabondwithGentilesmight
meetwitharebuff.Paulcouldnotbesure,however,becausehedidnotknowhowmuchtheJerusalemcommunityneededthemoney.

PaulcouldhavedecidednottoreturntoJerusalem.Hisparticipationinthedelegationwasnotimperative.Thedelegatesofthecontributingchurcheswerewithhim,10
andhecouldhavegivenbackthemoneyandoptedout.Ortheycouldhavegoneaheadwithouthim.Theonlyinjurywouldhavebeentohispride.Hisdecisionto
persevere,despitemortaldangerandthepossiblefutilityofthegesture,underlineshowdeeplyhefeltabouttherelationshipbetweentheJewishandGentilechurches.
NoonewasmoreconsciousoftheprofundityofthewideninggapbetweenthoseforwhomChristwascentralandthoseforwhomhewasnot.Yetitwasdesperately
importanttoflingacrosstheabyssafragilebridgeofcharity.Hewouldriskallintheattempt.

AFarewellCircuitoftheAegeanSea

LukeprovidesalongaccountofPaul'sjourneytoJerusalemwiththecollection(Acts20:3to21:17).Heisawareofsomanydetailsbecausehederivesvirtuallyhis
wholenarrativefromtheTravelJournal,oneoftheoldestsourcesofActs,whichwastheworkofaneyewitness.11WiththeexceptionofashortdiscourseatMiletus,
itissimplyalistoftimesandplaces,whichcorrespondveryclosely
4
AJ11.32930.
5
AgainstApion2.48.
6
AJ13.2423.
7
AJ16.14.
8
AJ18.122
9
SeeCh.6,WhydidJamesAgreewithPaulonCircumcision?
10
Thisisnotabsolutelycertainfromtheletters(1Cor.16:32Cor.8:199:4),butitisthecommoninterpretationofthelistinActs20:4seeHaenchen(1971),581Georgi(1992),122
Hemer(1989),l88.
11
BoismardandLamouille(1990),2.2217.

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12
withthetheoryandpracticeofcoastalnavigationinantiquity. StartingfromPhilippi,moreaccuratelyfromNeapolis,eachdaytheboatmadewhatdistancethewind
permitted,asitworkedsouthalongthecoastofAsiaMinor,andsoughtaharbourforthenight.OnlyinMyradidtheyfindaboatsailingdirectlyforTyre.

Theplausibilityofthisscenariocannotdispenseusfromraisingcertainquestionsregardingthesubstanceofthestory.NothinginthereconstructionoftheTravel
JournalhintsthatPaulandhiscompanionswereburdenedbytheresponsibilityofconveyingaconsiderablesumofmoneytoJerusalem.Moreover,thedeparture
pointisnottheexpectedoneofCenchreae(cf.Acts18:18),theeasternportofCorinth,butPhilippiinfarawayMacedonia.DoestheTravelJournalreallydescribe
thejourneytoJerusalemwhichtookplaceafterthelettertoRomehadbeendispatched?Ordoesitnarrateadifferentjourney,whichLukeadaptedtohispurpose
becauseithappenedtoendinJerusalem?

TwofeaturesoftheTravelJournalsuggestthatthefirstofthesetwooptionsistobepreferred.ThediscourseofPaultotheeldersofEphesusatMiletuslooksbackto
hisfirststayinEphesus(Acts20:18).HencethevoyagemustbedatedafterAD54.BetweenAD54and56,however,Paul'stravelswerelimitedtoasweepoutto
thewestandsouth.FromEphesushereachedCorinthviaTroas,Macedonia,andIllyricum.Unlessoneispreparedtoconsiderthevoyageastakingplacesometime
laterthanthecollectionvoyage,oneisforcedtoidentifyitwiththelatter.Further,thenoteofapprehensioninAndnow,asacaptivetotheSpirit,Iamonmywayto
Jerusalem,notknowingwhatwillhappentomethere(Acts20:22)echoesthefeelingofRomans15:31.

HowthenisPaul'sappearanceinMacedoniatobeexplained?AccordingtoBoismardandLamouille'sreconstructionoftheTravelJournal,Hewasabouttosailfor
SyriawhenaplotwasmadeagainsthimbytheJews,andsohedecidedtoreturnthroughMacedonia(Acts20:3).Thisverse,however,couldequallywellbea
Lukanredactionalinsertion.LukeknewthatthenaturalcoursewouldhavebeenforPaultotakeashipgoingeastfromCenchreae(Acts18:18),buthissourcegave
Philippiasthedeparturepoint.Hence,hehadtopostulateascenariotoexplainwhyPauldidnotdothenormalthing,andsoLukeoptedforhisstandarddeviceofa
JewishplotinordertomovePaultoMacedonia.13HehaddonethissortofthingearliertoexplainPaul'sdeparturefromDamascus(Acts9:24),whereweknowthat
therealreasonwasquitedifferent(2Cor.11:323).
12
Casson(1971).
13
Takingthestatementatfacevalue,Georgi(1992),124,suggeststhattheplotwastobeexecutedonthehighsea.This,inturn,tellsusthattheremusthavebeenaconsiderable
numberofJewsontheshipthatistosay,itmusthavebeenashiploadofpilgrims!ThisinterpretationgoesbacktoRamsayseeHaenchen(1971),581n.3.

 Page345

TransportingtheCollection.

IftheJewishpiracyhypothesisisnotacceptable,whatreasoncouldPaulhaveforgoingtoMacedoniaatthispoint?Thepossibilitythathehadtogonorthfrom
CorinthinordertopickupthecontributionstothecollectionfromThessalonicaandPhilippiisexcludedbyRomans15:26(cf.2Cor.9:4),whichgivesthe
impressionthatthecashwasalreadyinhand.Asapreliminarytoanexplorationofthisissue,itisimportanttohaveasclearanideaaspossibleofwhatwasinvolved
inthetransportationofthecollection.

ThemodelthatwouldhavespontaneouslyoccurredtopeopleoftheApostle'sbackgroundwastheprocedurefortransmittingtheannualhalfshekelTempletaxfrom
theDiasporatoJerusalem.Themoneycollectedfromthevariouscommunitieswasreducedtothesmallestvolumebybeingexchangedformetalofthehighestvalue,
namely,gold.14In59BCLuciusValeriusFlaccus,sometimegovernorofAsia,wasbroughttocourtfor(amongothercharges)refusingtopermitJewstoexport100
poundsofgoldfromApamea,20poundsfromLaodicea,100poundsfromAdramyttium,andalesseramountfromPergamum.15TheprecautionstakenbytheJews
toprotecttheirsacredfundsintransitisperhapsexaggeratedbyJosephus,16butsecuritywasnodoubtamajorpreoccupation.

ExactlyhowmuchmoneyPaulcollectedcanneverbeknown.Itiscertain,however,thatitwasconsiderable.Thesymbolicvalueofthegesturewouldhavebeen
negatedwerethesumderisory(1Cor.16:2)itwouldhavebeenseenbytheJerusalemitesasanexpressionofcontempt.17Unlessanimpressiveamountofcashhad
beenassembled,itismostprobablethatPaulwouldhaveconsideredtheexerciseafailure,andwouldhavereturnedthecontributionstothecommunities,
accompanied,nodoubt,byabittercommentontheirlackofgenerosity.

Giventheconditionsoftravelinthefirstcentury,18Paul'smajorpreoccupationhadtobethesecurityofthefundsentrustedtohim.Hewashardlyinapositiontohire
armedguards.Hencewecanexcludetheuseofpackanimalstotransportcoffersofspecieorsacksfullofclinkingcoins.Imaginetheeffectonthebystanders,when
thecontainerswereunloadedatthefirstinn,andhowquicklywordwouldspreadamongthelocalunderworldtypes!Paul'sbest
14
Shekelsmaybechangedintodaricsbecauseof[lightening]ajourney'sload(m.Shekalim2.1).AdaricwasaPersiangoldcoinworthaboutsixteenshekels(Danby(1967),153
n.9),andwasoneoftheveryfewinternationallyacceptedcurrencies(Casson(1979),75).
15
Cicero,ProFlacco669.TherightofJewsofAsiatosendmoneytoJerusalemwasreaffirmedbyanedictofAugustusinAD23(Josephus,AJ16.163)seeSaulnier(1981),1858.
16
FromBabylon,hesays,manymyriadsaccompaniedthetransferoftheTempletaxtoJerusalem(AJ18.31213).
17
OnthecostoflivinginJerusalem,seeJeremias(1969),1203.
18
SeeCh,4,DangersontheRoad.

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protectionwasabsolutesecrecy.Eachmemberofthepartycarriedtheirpersonalfundsforthejourneyintheusualmoneybeltorlittlebagsuspendedfromacord
aroundtheneck,19butinadditioneachhadanumberofgoldcoinssewnintohisorhergarmentsinsuchawaythattheywouldnotchink.Sincegoldisheavyforits
volume,thedangerofdistortingtheshapeofthegarmentwouldhavelimitedthenumberofcoinsthatanyoneindividualcouldcarry.Inconsequence,thenumberof
Paul'scompanionswasconditionedbytheamountofmoneythathadtobetransported.

Evenwithsuchprecautions,Paulandhiscompanionsweremoreatriskonlandthanatsea.Thecrewandpassengersonashipwereafixedandknownquantity
whosemovementscouldbemonitored.Athiefhadachanceofescapingonlyifthetheftwentundiscovereduntiltheshiparrivedinport.Casualacquaintancesonthe
road,orfellowguestsataninn,wereconstantlychanging.Paulcouldneverknowwhattheyhadnoticed,orwhatplanswerebeingmadetoattackhisgroup.Onthe
road,therefore,theanxietylevelwasconsistentlyhigh,whereasatseatherewerelongperiodsofrelaxation.

ASenseofForeboding

Paul'sdecisiontogotoMacedoniacommittedhimtothelandroute,becausetosailnorthagainsttheEtesianwindswouldhavemeantinterminabledelays.20Inorder
tojustifythegreaterriskoflosingthefundsforJerusalem,theremusthavebeenaproportionatelyseriousreason.Theneedtopickupfurthercontributionstothe
collectionhavingalreadybeenexcluded,onlyoneseriouspossibilityremains.DespitePaul'soptimisticplansforthefutureasrevealedinRomans1516,the
pessimisticsideofhisnaturesubsequentlygainedtheupperhand,andhebecameconvincedthathewouldneverreturnfromJerusalem.Hetooktheriskofgoing
northtoMacedoniatosayfarewelltothecommunitieshehadfoundedthere.ThishypothesisisconfirmedbywhattheTravelJournaltellsofPaul'sconductinAsia.
DespitehishastetoreachJerusalem,hedevotedtimetohistwofoundations.

PaulstayedinTroas,eventhoughashipsailingasfarasAssoswasreadytoweighanchor.Hetoldhiscompanionstotakeit,afterarrangingtojointhemthereby
cuttingacrossthebaseofthegreatheadlandonfoot(Acts20:13).Speculationonthereasonforthisdecisionhasgivenrisetotheratherfarfetchedsuggestionsthat
hewantedtobealonewithGod,orthathefearedaroughseavoyage.21ItispreferabletoassumethathewasretainedbyunfinishedbusinessinTroas.The
communitytherewasonetowhichPaulhadnot
19
Casson(1979),176.
20
SeeCh.12,AJourneytoMacedonia.
21
Haenchen(1971),587.

 Page347
22
beenabletodevotemuchtime(2Cor.2:1213). Presumably,whenhecrossedtoMacedoniatomeetTitus,hehadpromisedtoreturn.Nowwhenhedid,hetold
themthatitwasunlikelythathewouldeverseethemagain.Notunnaturallytheyclungtohimuntilthelastpossiblemoment.

OnlyinthisperspectivedoesitbecomepossibletoexplainwhyPauldecidedtoavoidavisittoEphesus,andinsteadsummonedtheElderstoMiletus.Hedidnot
wanttorepeatthesamewrenchingexperienceofthefarewellsatTroas.ThereasongivenbytheTravelJournalthatPaulwasinahurrytogettoJerusalem(Acts
20:16)doesnotresistexamination.23InantiquitybeforethesiltingupoftheGulfofLatmusMiletuswas80km.(50miles)fromEphesus.24Thejourney
involvedgoingroundtheheadoftheGulfofLatmus,crossingtheriverMeanderandtwomountainranges.Amessengerwouldhavethoughtintermsofathreeday
journey,andonecanbesurethattheElderswouldhavestrolledalongatapaceappropriatetotheirdignity.Drivenbyasenseofurgency,Paulcouldhavemadethe
journeyintwodays,providedheincreasedhisusualdailyaverageby8km.(5miles).Inotherwords,ifPaul'srealconcernwastosavetime,itwouldhavebeen
muchquickertogotoEphesushimself.

ForthemajorityofexegetesPaul'sdiscourseatMiletuswasinsertedbyLukeintotheTravelJournal.BoismardandLamouille,however,haveshownthatLuke
merelyamplifiedabriefdiscoursewhichalreadyformedpartoftheTravelJournal.25InthatdiscoursePauldoesnotexplicitlybidfarewelltotheElders,butthe
terminalcharacterofthevisitisclearlysignalledbyhisapprehensionastowhatwillhappeninJerusalem(Acts20:22),andbyhisprovisionforthefuturebyalerting
theElderstothefactthathenceforwardtheywouldhavesoleresponsibilityforthechurchofEphesus(Acts20:28).

Paul'sReceptioninJerusalem

ThissectionoftheTravelJournalculminateswithPaul'sarrivalinJerusalem(Acts21:17)itcontinueswithhisdepartureforRome(Acts27:1).Forallthathappened
inbetweenweareentirelydependentonLuke,andhisothersources.

ItisrareforLukemerelytoreportaneventtohisreadershepermitsthemtoseeithappening.Hecreateseachepisodeoutofbroadstrokesofbrightcolour,laidon
atapacewhichleaveshisreaderswithavividimpressionofthecentralpointbutnoclearmemoryofthedetails.Butifthosedetailsaregivenanyimportanceas
historicallyreliableinformation,thenarrativefallsapart,
22
SeeCh.12,DepartureforTroas.
23
TheauthoroftheTravelDocument,itwillberecalled,wasnotawitnessoftheheartrendingfarewellsatTroas(Acts20:13).
24
McDonagh(1989),297.
25
(1990),3.24751.Theoriginaldiscourseisreconstructedintheir(1990),2.222.

 Page348
26
becausethenthepersonsactverystrangelyinanimprobableandincomprehensiblemanner ThereisagrowingconsensusthatLukehadonlyaveryrudimentary
ideaofwhatactuallyhappenedtoPaulonhislastvisittoJerusalem.

Thisbasicframeworkprobablycomprisednomorethanthefollowingelements:RomaninterventionsavedPaulfromaJewishmob.ThetribuneinJerusalem,Claudius
Lysias,transferredtheresponsibilitytohissuperiorinCaesarea,Felix,whohadnotdisposedofthecasewhenhewasreplacedbyFestus.EventuallyPaulclaimedhis
rightasaRomancitizentobetriedbytheemperorandwassenttoRome.Withmarvellousliteraryskill,Lukeputfleshonthisskeleton.Hisconcern,however,was
nottodocumentthedetailsofwhatreallyhappenedonthebasisofreliablesources,buttoelaborateandmanipulatethoseeventswithaviewtogettingacrosshisown
convictionsregardingPaul'sroleintheplanofsalvation.ItisalogicalfallacytoinferfromtheprecisionofLuke'slegalknowledgethateventsinfacttookplaceexactly
ashedescribesthem.27

RatherthantryingtoestablishwhatmightbehistoricalinLuke'spresentation,whichwouldmeanwritingacommentaryontheActsoftheApostles,itispreferableto
takeupfromhisperspectivethetwoissueswhichpreoccupiedPaulinRomans15:312,namely,hisapprehensionregardingthereceptionofthecollection,andhis
fearofassassination.Werehisfearsjustified?

OnlyoneverseinActscanpossiblybeconstruedasanallusiontothecollection,namely,AftermanyyearsIhavecomeherewithalmsformypeopleand
offerings(24:17),butnoneofLuke'sreaderswouldhaveunderstooditinthissense.28DidLukeintendasubtlereferencetothecollection,whichfollowersofPaul
mightrecognize?Notnecessarily.ItwascustomaryfordevoutpilgrimstobringalmsfordistributionintheHolyCity,aswellasmoneytopayforsacrifices.29The
pointofthereferenceistoshowthatPaulbelievedeverythingthatiswrittenintheLawandtheprophets(24:14).Inotherwords,Acts24:17ispreciselywhat
Lukewouldhavepostulated,evenifhehadnoknowledgeofwhatPaulhadactuallydone.30

ButisitreallypossiblethatLukewasignorantofthecollection?IfhewasacompanionofPaul,assomehavesuggested,31orifheknewthePaulineletters,asothers
havemaintained,32hemusthavebeenawareoftheimportancewhichtheApostleattachedtothegesture.Inthecasethatneitherofthesepossibilities
26
Haenchen(1971),639.
27
AgainstTajra(1989).Manyentirelyimaginativedetectivestoriesaresetinaframeworkofmeticulouslyexactpoliceprocedures.
28
SorightlyHaenchen(1971),655,againstHemer(1989),189,andLgasse(1991),202.
29
Jeremias(1969),12930.
30
Lukedoesnotnecessarilyrelyonasourcehere,paceLdemann(1984),24
31
Trocm(1957),138,forwhomLukewastheauthoroftheTravelDocument.
32
BoismardandLamouille(1990),1.39.

 Page349

isadmitted,wecannotsaywhatLukemightormightnothaveknown.ItismoreprofitabletoaskwhatJamesandothersinthechurchofJerusalemknewEvenif
CephasandJohnwerenolongerintheHolyCityJamesmustcertainlyhaverememberedthatitwashewhohadrequestedfinancialaidforhischurchfromPaul.Not
onlywasthatrequestnomorethanfiveyearsold,butPaul'sresponsemusthavebecomeasubjectofcontinualdiscussion.

AtthetimeoftheJerusalemConferenceintheautumnofAD51,afinancialcontributionfromGentilebelieversseemedlikeareasonablequidproquoforJerusalem's
concessiononcircumcision,andnodoubtwouldhavebeenproclaimedassuchtothechurchbythethreePillars.ButasPaul'sradicallyantinomianstancebecame
knowninanevermorenationalisticJerusalemchurch,theremusthavebeenthosewhoinsistedthattheywouldacceptnothingfromhandssosoiled.Thechargethat
PaultaughtalltheJewswholiveamongtheGentilestoforsakeMoses,tellingthemthattheyshouldneithercircumcisetheirchildrennorliveaccordingtothe
customs(Acts21:21)wasfullyjustified.33Others,morepragmatically,wouldhaveassertedthatmoneyhasnosmell,thatitwasnecessary,andthatitcouldbeused
togoodendswithoutacceptingPaul'sinterpretationthatitconstitutedabondbetweentheJewishandGentilechurches.ThefinaldecisionwasuptoJames,butwhy
shouldheendangerhisauthoritybytakingsidesonapurelyhypotheticalproblem?Ifandwhenthemoneyarrived,whichwasnotatallguaranteed,wouldbetime
enoughtomakeuphismind.

WhathappenedwhenPaulfinallyputinanappearance?Thenumberofpossibilitiesislimited:(1)thecollectionwasaccepted34(2)thecollectionwasrefused35(3)
someJerusalemitesacceptedthecollectionovertheobjectionsofothers36(4)thehandingoverofthecollectionwasimpeded.37Inallcases,theoneargument
invokedisthesilenceofLuke!(i)Lukesimplydidnotknowofthishappyending.(2)Lukedidnotmentiontherefusalinordertopreservetheimageofaunified
church.(3)ThegrudgingunofficialacceptancewasomittedbyLukeasinsultingtothePaulinechurches.(4)Sincenothinghappened,Lukehadnoneedtomention
it.

WhatdifferentiatesthefourthpossibilityfromtheotherthreeisthatittakesintoaccountwhatLukedoessay.Inordertomaintainfaithwithaprojectwhichhehad
initiated,James'firstreactionwouldhavebeentolookforawaywhichwouldmakeitpossibleforhimtoacceptthecollection.Hisbasicconcern,then,wouldhave
beentosatisfyhimselfandhisrightwingconstituencythatPaulremainedapractisingJew,andthathisantinomianreputationwas
33
SeeCh.8,FaithandLawandCh.13,Sin,Law,andDeath.
34
Koester(1982),2.144.
35
Ldemann(1989)61Lgasse(1991),203.
36
Georgi(1992),1256.
37
MortonSmithinalettercitedbyLdemann(1989),250n.115Becker(1989),485.

 Page350

unjustified.Aprofessionoffaithalonewouldnothavesufficed.PaulhadtomakeapublicgesturedemonstratinghisJewishness.

Thesimplestact,andtheminimumwhichJamescouldhaveaccepted,wouldhavebeenthepurificationrequiredofallJewscomingfrompaganterritory,andwho
wishedtoentertheTemple.Itwasassumedthattheyhadincurredcorpseuncleanness,andthisleviticalimpurityhadtoberemovedbyhavingapriestsprinklethem
withthewaterofatonementonthethirdandseventhdays.38OnlybygoingthroughthisritualwouldPaulbeinapositiontorelatetothestrictlyobservantmembersof
theJerusalemcommunity,who,inaddition,wouldhavebeengratifiedbytheimplicitcondemnationofGentiles.

EvenifwedidnothavethewitnessofLuke,thisbasiccommitmentonthepartofPaulwouldhavetobepostulatedinordertodojusticetowhatisknownofJames,
andoftheincreasingpressuresunderwhichhiscommunitylived.Luke'slackofclarity,however,inconfusingthepurificationwhichPaulhadtoundergo,andthe
ceremonycelebratingtheterminationoftheNaziritevow,suggeststhathewasdrawingonasource.39Theintrinsicprobabilityofoneelementinthissource(Paul's
purification)enhancesthecredibilityoftheother(Paul'sinvolvementwiththeNazirites).

ItwasnotcheaptoacquitoneselfofaNaziritevow.Theobligatoryofferingconsistedof,anunblemishedmaleyearlinglambasaburntoffering,anunblemished
yearlingewelambasasacrificeforsin,anunblemishedramasapeaceoffering,andabasketofunleavenedloavesmadeoffineflourmixedwithoil,andof
unleavenedwafersspreadwithoil,withthecerealofferingsandlibationsappropriatetothem(Num.6:1415).Forapoorpersonthefinancialburdenwas
considerable,anditmighttakeanexcessivelylongtimetoassemblethemoney.Hence,itwasconsideredmeritoriousoftheJewishcommunitytohelpout.40Given
whatweknowofPaul'spersonalfinancialsituationfromhisletters,41itismostimprobablethathehadthewherewithaltopayforfourNazarites.42Itwouldhavebeen
necessarytodrawonthecollectionmoney.ThegesturewasonewhichtheJerusalemchurchcouldhardlyrefusefromavisitorwhohadbeenrituallypurified.
Moreover,itrelievedthechurchofafinancialburden.Acceptance,however,meantthatthechurchhadalreadyprofitedbythecollection!Refusal,ontheotherhand,
wouldmeanrecognizingPaulbyreimbursinghim.
38
Num.19:1116Acts21:27seeBillerbeck(19228),2.759.
39
Haenchen(1971)612Ldemann(1989),567
40
ThisistheimplicationofGenesisRabbah,91,whereShimonbenSchatachfoundfundsfor150NazaritesandpetitionedAlexanderJannaeusforsupportfor150more(Billerbeck
(19228),2.755),andofJosephus,AJ19.294,whereAgrippaI,onassumingthethrone,paidforthesacrificesofmanyNazarites.
41
SeeCh.12,FinancialAssistance.
42
LittlehistoricalvaluecanbeaccordedtoLuke'sstatementsthatFelixassumedthatPaulwascapableofpayingalargebribe(Acts24:26),andthatPaulrentedanapartmentinRome
fortwoyearsathisownexpense(Acts28:30)seeHemer(1989),192.

 Page351

LukegivesthecreditforthisstrategytotheleadersoftheJerusalemcommunity(Acts21:24).Whathissourcesaidwehavenowayofknowing,butitisfarfrom
impossiblethatPaulhimselfwasresponsible.TheanxietyexhibitedinRomans15:312ensuredthathismindcontinuedtoworryattheproblemofhisreceptionin
Jerusalem.HehadplentyoftimeonthelongjourneyfromGreecetoworkoutaplanthatwouldbothplacatetheJerusalembelievers,andconfrontthemwithafait
accompli.

Tragically,theplanwasinitiatedbutneverterminated.Beforethesevendaysofhispurificationwerecompleted(Acts21:27),andthusbeforehecoulddoanything
fortheNazarites,theseconddangerthatPaulanticipatedbecameareality.NonChristianJewsattemptedtolynchhim.ThegarrisonintheAntoniaintervenedtosave
him.ThereafterhewasinRomancustody.Whathiscompanionsdidwiththecollectionwillneverbeknown.OnceitwasoutofPaul'shands,Luke(likebiographers
ofPaul!)losesinterest.

ARomanPrisoner

AfeatureofLuke'snarrativesubsequenttoPaul'sarrestisthenumberofdiscoursesattributedtotheApostle.InJerusalemheaddressesthepopulace(Acts22:1
21),andtheSanhedrin(Acts23:110).InCaesareatheRomangovernorsFelix(Acts24:121),andFestusandtheJewishkingAgrippaII(Acts26:123),hear
himspeak.Paul'smessagereacheseverysectionofthepopulationofPalestine,fromthecitymobtotheroyalcourt,fromthereligiousleadershiptothesecular
authority.Theimprobabilityofaprisonerunderinvestigationbeingofferedtheopportunitytodisseminatetheheresy/treasonofwhichheisaccusedneedsno
emphasis.ThevoicemaybethatofPaul,butthewordsarethoseofLuke.Sincemuchoftheinterveningnarrativesectionsaredesignedtosetthestageforthe
discourses,theirhistoricalvalueisalsoseverelycompromised.

AHazardousJourneytoRome

ProblemsmultiplywhenwecometothenarrativeofthejourneytoRome(Acts27:1to28:14).NotonlydotheWesternandAlexandriantextsoffersignificantly
differentversions,43butbothmanifesttracesofsourcesandeditorialcontributions.Therecanbenoquestionhereofanexhaustiveanalysisafewexamplesofthelack
ofliteraryunitywithintheWesterntextmustsuffice.

1.Acts27:810cannotbelongtothesamenarrativeas27:1112.TheformerconcernsadangerousvoyageontheopenseastartingfromFairHavens
43
AsynopticpresentationinGreekistobefoundinBoismardandLamouille(1984),1.21924,andinFrenchintheir(1990),1.16874.

 Page352

inCrete,whereasthelatterdealswithasimilarvoyage,whosesuccessisnotatallassured,andwhosegoalisPhoenixinCrete.Whenthesetwoincompatibletexts
arejuxtaposed,theresultisaroutinecoastalvoyageofsome100km.alongthesouthcoastofCrete.44

2.Acts27:1317recountsastormypassagetotheIsleofClaudawheretheshiptakesshelter,butin27:18theshipisstillatsea.45

3.TheunusualHomericphraseepekilantnnaun,meaningtolandaboatonanopenbeach(whichhasnothingtodowithshipwreck),appearsinboth27:29and
27:41.SuchadoubletbetraystheredactionaltechniqueoftheWiederaufnahme.46

OnlyBoismardandLamouillehavemadeaseriousefforttoofferadetailedreconstructionofthesourcesemployedbyLuke.47
TravelJournal
(27:1)WhenitwasdecidedthatweweretosailforItaly,(3)wecametoSidon.
(7b)Puttingouttoseafromthere,wesailedundertheleeofCrete,(8)andcame
toFairHavensnearacity.(9)Sincewehadlostmuchtime,andsailingwasnow
dangerousbecauseeventheFasthadalreadypassed,Pauladvisedthem(10)
saying,Men,Icanseethatthevoyagewillbewithdangerandmuchheavyloss,
notonlyofthecargoandtheship,butalsoofourlives.(12TA)Butthemajority
wasinfavourofputtingtosea.(13)Whenamoderatesouthwindbegantoblow
wesailedalongthecoastofCrete.(14)Astormstruckfromthesoutheast.(18)
Thenextday,sincetheboatwasbeingpoundedsoviolently,(19)wejettisoned
thecargo.(20)Whenthestormhadragedformanydays,whenneithersunnor
starsappeared,we
ActI
(27:ib)ThefollowingdayhavingcalledacenturioncalledJulius,hedeliveredto
himPaulandsomeotherprisoners.(6)ThecenturionfoundashipofAlexandria
sailingforItalyandput(them)onboard.(1112a)Thecaptainandtheowner
decidedtoputtoseaonthechancethatsomehowtheycouldreachPhoenix,a
harborofCrete.(13)Supposingthattheyhadobtainedtheirpurposethey
weighedanchorandsailed(to)Crete.(14)Butsoonatempeststruck.(15)
Whentheshipwascaughtandcouldnotfacethewind,theytookmeasuresto
undergirdtheship.ThenfearingtheyshouldrunontheSyrtis,theyloweredthe
gear,andsoweredriven.(18b)Theybegannextdaytothrowthecargo
overboard.(19)Andthethirddaytheycastoutwiththeirownhandsthetackle
oftheship(38)andtheshipwaslightened.(27)Whenthe

44
Ibid.3.300.
45
BoismardandLamouille(1990),3.306.ThenameoftheislandintheWesterntextisKlauda,butintheAlexandriantextKauda.BoismardandLamouille(1990),3.307,suggestthat
thereferenceshouldbetoGaudos,themodernGozonearMalta(Strabo,Geography6.2.11).
46
BoismardandLamouille(1990),3.31011.
47
Ibid.2.2256,260


finallylostallhopeofsurviving.(37)Wewereabout70people.(21)Thefood
havingcompletelyrunout,Paulstoodupandsaid,Men,youshouldhave
listenedtomeandnotsetsailfromCreteandtherebyavoidedthisdangerand
loss.(22a)Iurgeyounowtokeepupyourcourage,fortherewillbenolossof
lifeamongus.(26)Wemuststrikeanisland.(15)Theshipwaspushedbythe
wind,andwearrivedatanislandcalled[Gaudos].(17b)Therewerested.(28:
2)Thenativeswelcomedus(10a)andshowedusunusualhonours.(II)We
sailedonanAlexandrianshipwhichhadwinteredattheisland.(14b)Andsowe
cametoRome.(15a)Thebelievers,whentheyheard,cametomeetus.
Page353
fourteenthnighthadcome,aboutmidnight,thesailorssuspectedthattheywere
nearingland.(41)Theyranthevesselaground.(28:I)Havinglanded,they
recognizedtheregionwhichwascalledMalta.(2a)Thenativesshowedthem
unusualkindness,(10b)puttingonboardwhateverweneeded.(16)Whenwe
cametoRome,Paulwaspermittedtostaybyhimselfwiththesoldierwho
guardedhim.

Thesimilaritybetweenthetwonarrativesismanifest.FromtheeasternlittoraloftheMediterraneanashipsailedtoCreteasautumnwasedgingintowinter.Therisk
wasjustifiedbyatroublefreevoyage.OnthenextstagetoItaly,thetravellerswerenotsofortunate.Caughtinastorm,thecrewwereforcedtojettisonthecargo.
Theysurvivedtofindrefugeonanisland,wheretheywerehospitablyreceivedbythenatives,andeventuallysentforwardontheirwaytoRome.Somanypointsin
commonunambiguouslyindicatesthatweareconfrontedbytwoversionsofthesameevent.48Inaddition,thetwovoyagesmustbedatedatapproximatelythesame
time.ThejourneydescribedintheTravelJournalmustbedatedafterPaul'scollectionvisittoJerusalem,becausetheimmediatelyprecedingjourneytoJerusalemin
theTravelJournalisthatevokedbyRomans15:25.AccordingtoActI,theprocessleadingtothevoyagebeganwithPaul'sarrestinJerusalem.

Thereis,however,amajordifferencebetweenthetwotexts,namely,thestatusofPaul.AccordingtoActI,heisaprisoner,butintheTravelJournalheisfree,ashe
isintheothersectionsofthatdocument.DoesthismeanthatwehavetodismissthesimilaritiesasmerecoincidenceandtopostulatethatPaulmadetwojourneysto
Rome,oneofhisownvolitionandtheotherundercoercion?Tostatetheprobleminthiswayistoforgetthat,accordingtoActI,thedecisiontogotoRomewas
madebyPaul(Acts25:1112).Festuscouldnot
48
ForBoismardandLamouille(1990),1.23,ActIdependsontheTravelDocument.

 Page354
49
haverefusedhisappealtotheemperor. Itwasperfectlyfeasible,therefore,totellthestoryofthejourneyinawaywhichignoredthefactthatPaulwastechnicallya
prisoner.

Moreover,therearehintsintheTravelJournalversionwhichsuggestthatPaulwasnotmasterofhisowndestiny.Fromhislettersweknowthatitwashisnormal
practicewhentravellingwesttogooverlandthroughAsiaMinor.Whyshouldhenowchangehiscustom,particularlyattheseasonwhensailingbecameparticularly
dangerous?Secondly,whydidPaulnotheedhisownwarningthatitwastooriskytocontinue(Acts27:11),andleavetheshipatFairHavens?Onemightanswerto
boththesequestionsthatPaulwasinagreathurrytogettoRome.ButthereisnohintofhasteinthissectionoftheTravelJournal,andspeedismentionedexplicitly
whenitwasafactoratanearlierstage(Acts20:16).InthelightofActI,thecorrectanswertobothquestionsisthatPaulhadnochoice.Thedecisionsweremade
bythecenturion,inwhosecustodyhetravelled.

IncarcerationintheEternalCity

TheconditionsofPaul'simprisonmentinRomearedescribedbyLuke.Helivedinprivatelodgingsunderthesupervisionofasinglesoldier(Acts28:16,30).Thereis
nothingintrinsicallyimplausibleinthisformofdetention.50Thealternativewastobeheldinjail.51Inaprison,however,itwouldbedifficulttoreceivethevisitorsand
makethespeechthatLukeattributestoPaul.TheimplausiblitybothoftheaddresstotheJews,andtheirreactiontoit,revealstheagendaofLuke,52andonceagain
compromiseshiscredibilityasahistorian.Ifthenarrativeishiscreation,mighthenothavealsocreatedthesetting,whichpermitsPaultocarryonhismissionary
activityquiteopenlyandunhindered(Acts28:31)?Alargequestionmark,therefore,hangsoverthetypeofdetentiontowhichPaulwassubjectinRome.Hemay
wellhavebeenextremelyuncomfortable.53

ItisunlikelythatPaulwasdownhearted,atleastatthebeginning.Hehadbeeninmanyprisons(2Cor.II:23),54buthadalwaysbeenreleased.Hehad
49
SeeinparticularTajra(1989),14451.
50
Mommsen(1955),317n.5Humbert(1899b).
51
Juvenalregretsthegoodolddaysofkingsandtribunes,whenRomemadedowithoneprisononly(Satires3.31214trans.Green).HeisthinkingoftheTullianum,todayknown
astheMamertineprisonwheretheotherswerelocatedisunknown,perhapsinmilitarybarracks(Juvenal,Satires6.561Tacitus,Annals1.21).
52
Haenchen(1971),727.
53
Intheprison,whenyouhavegoneupalittlewaytowardstheleft,thereisaplacecalledtheTullianum,abouttwelvefeetbelowthesurfaceoftheground.Itisenclosedonallsides
bywalls,andaboveitisachamberwithavaultedroofofstone.Neglect,darkness,andstenchmakeithideousandfearsometobehold(Sallust,WaragainstJugurtha55.34trans.
Rolfe).
54
AccordingtoClementofRome,Paulwasimprisonedseventimes(1Clement5.6).Theperfectnumberexcitessuspicion,buthistoryisnotimmunetocoincidence.

 Page355

beeninvestigatedonseveraloccasions,butnothinghadbeenfoundagainsthim.Hisexperienceprovidednobasisforpessimismregardingtheoutcomeofthepresent
enquiry.ThisfacthasledsomeexegetestointerpretLuke'shighlyambiguousendingofActspositively.Paul,weareinvitedtoinfer,wasliberated.Anefforthasbeen
madetosustainthisinterpretationbyassertingthatthefunctionofLuke'smentionofthedurationofPaul'sdetention(twoyearsActs28:30)wastodrawattentionto
aruleofRomanlawwherebydefendantswerereleasediftheiraccusersfailedtoappearwithinafixedtime.55Ithasbeenshown,however,thatthisisamisreadingof
theevidence,whichinfactassignspenaltiesforplaintiffswhofailedtoappear,butissilentregardingtheliberationofthedefendant.56Therewasnodischargeby
defaultinfirstcenturyRome.

Againstthisbackground,HaenchenhasarguedthatLukehasprovidedclearhintsthattheoutcomeofPaul'strialwasnotahappyone.Theevangelistmakesthe
ApostlesayallyouamongwhomIhavegoneaboutpreachingthekingdomwillseemyfacenomore(Acts20:25cf.20:30),andconsistentlyemphasizesthatPaul
deservedneitherimprisonmentnordeath(Acts28:18).Luke,Haenchentellsus,knewthatPaulhaddiedunderNero,butdecidedtoremainsilentinordernotto
exacerbatetherelationshipofChristianitywiththeempire.InLuke'sview,Rome,ifhandledcarefully,couldrepudiatetheunfortunatedecisionofasingleemperor.
TheapparatusofstateisdiscreetlyinvitedtoseeNero'sactasanunfortunateaberration.ImperialofficialsatPhilippi,Corinth,andCaesarea,hadheldadifferent
opinion.57

TheweaknessofthisingenioushypothesisisthatitrestsontheimprobableassumptionthatLukereallybelievedthathighlyplacedRomanswoulddevotesufficient
attentiontohisstoryofPeterandPaultonoteallitssubtleimplications.IfLuke'sstrategywasasHaenchenclaims,theevangelistwouldhavemadecertainthatitwas
understood,bygivingPaulabrilliantspeechfromthedockaftersentencehadbeenpassed.ItisentirelypossiblethatLukedidnotknowwhathadhappenedto
PaulortoPeterandsimplyterminatedhisaccountwhenhisdataranout.

FromtheperspectiveofaRomanofficial,Paulwasnotaparticularlyimportantprisonerand,asSherwinWhitehaspointedout,hemayhavebenefitedfromapurely
casualrelease,if,forexample,ashowofclemencywerethoughtdesirableatsomemoment,orsimplytoshortenthecourtlistbydroppingthearrears.58
55
Cadbury(1933).
56
SherwinWhite(1963),113Tajra(1989),1926.
57
Haenchen(1971),7312.
58
(1963),119.

 Page356

ThePastoralLetters

If,inthelastanalysis,nothingcanbededucedfromActsregardingsubsequentdevelopmentsinPaul'scareer,isthereanyothersourcefromwhichinformationcanbe
drawn?AnimmediateaffirmativeanswercomesfromthosewhomaintaintheauthenticityofthethreePastoralLetters(1&2Timothy,Titus).Recognizingthatthe
eventsmentionedin,orsupposedby,thesethreeletterscannotbefittedintotheframeworkofPaul'slifeasrevealedbyhisacknowledgedlettersandtheActsofthe
Apostles,theyassignthePastoralstotheperiodbetweentheRomanimprisonmentmentionedbyActs,andthetraditionaldateofthedeathofPaulinAD67.59

TheProblemofAuthenticity

JusttoreadthroughthePastorals,however,makesitclearthattheyarenotidenticalwiththeotherlettersofthePaulinecorpus.Thosewhoattempttoquantify
impressionsdrawattentiontodifferencesin(I)language,(2)literarystyle,(3)theologicalperspective,(4)churchorganization,and(5)thenatureoftheoppositionthe
churchhastoface.Thedominantviewamongcriticalscholars,inconsequence,isthatthebulkatleastofthesethreeletterswasnotwrittenbyPaul.60Inthis
hypothesisthewriterwasconcernedtoinvoketheauthorityofPaulinanattempttodealwiththeproblemsofthechurchaboutAD100.Thushecreatedthree
fictitiousletters.Howdidtheywinacceptance?ThewordwascirculatedthattheyhadremainedoutsidethedevelopingPaulinecorpusbecauseoftheirprivate
character.Now,however,theneedsofthechurchdemandedthattheybemadepublic.

Thishypothesisisperfectlypossibleinitself.MostscholarswilladmitthatEphesianswasnotcomposedbyPaulhimself,andtowhatextentheexplicitlycoveredit
withhisauthorityisdubious.Thereare,inaddition,anumberofpseudepigraphicletters,e.g.theextantLettertotheLaodiceans,and3Corinthians(bothattributed
toPaul),andtheLetterofTitus,inadditiontothesupposedlettersofPaultotheMacedoniansandtotheAlexandrians,whichareknownonlythroughvagueand
lateallusions.61Comparedtotheapocryphalgospels,however,theletterformwasnotapopulargenre.62Itcannotbeclaimed,therefore,thattherewasaclimateof
acceptance,whichwouldmakeiteasyfortheforgedPastoralstoenterthemainstreamofchurchlife.Moreover,
59
Spicq(1969),12146Kelly(1963),346.AnexceptionisdeLestapis(1976),whodatesthemduringPaul'slastjourneytoJerusalem.
60
ItisarticulatedinmostdetailbyBrox(1969),2260.
61
HenneckeandSchneemelcher(1965),2.901.
62
Ibid.2.90

 Page357

thePastorals,addressedtoindividualsandrepletewithpersonaldetails,arenotatallliketheextantpseudepigraphicletters,whichareaddressedtochurchesand
containlittleornopersonalnews.

Equally,itshouldnotbeassumedthatChristiansofthefirsttwocenturieswerecharacterizedbycredulityandnaivety.PaulhimselfwarnedtheThessaloniansofthe
possibilityofforgedletterspurportingtocomefromhim(2Thess.2:2),andinsistedontheircheckingtheauthenticityofhissignature(2Thess.3:17).Theauthorof
Revelationmenacesthosewhomightbetemptedtocapitalizeonhisauthority,Iwarneveryonewhohearsthewordsoftheprophecyofthisbookifanyoneaddsto
themGodwilladdtohimtheplaguesdescribedinthisbook(22:18).TheMuratorianCanonqualifiestheforgedLettertotheLaodiceansandtheLettertothe
AlexandriansasgallcomparedtothehoneyofthegenuinePaulineletters.Hence,ifthePastorallettersdidinfactwinacceptance,63theremusthavebeenaverysolid
linkwithPaulinecircles.

TheAuthenticityofSecondTimothy

Realistically,theonlyscenariocapableofexplainingtheacceptanceofthePastorals,istheauthenticityofoneofthethreeletters.Wereonetohavebeenlongknown
andrecognized,thenthedelayeddiscoveryoftwootherswiththesamegeneralpatterncouldbeexplainedinavarietyofconvincingways.Anapproachalongthese
lineshasbeenpioneeredbyM.Prior.64

EventhoughcommentatorshaveinsistedthatthethreePastoralsformatotallyhomogeneousblock,65theyhavealwaysrecognizedthespecialaffinityof1Timothyand
Titus.66Oncethegeneralizationsofvocabulary,style,anddoctrinearereducedtospecificdetails,however,itappearsimpossiblethat2Timothyshouldbethe
productoftheauthorwhocomposed1TimothyandTitus.Ifonereadscloselywhatthethreelettershavetosayregardingthestatusofthesender,therecipient,
Christology,ministry,thegospel,theattitudetowardswomen,andfalseteaching,itispossibletotabulate30pointswheresomethingin2Timothyismissinginboth1
TimothyandTitus,orwheresomethingsharedbythetwolatterepistlesislackingin2Timothy.67

Prior,therefore,isentirelyjustifiedinhisinsistencethattheauthenticityof2Timothyshouldbejudgedwithoutanyreferenceto1TimothyandTitus.68Theclosestone
cangettoadirectproofoftheauthenticityofanyliteraryworkisastatementoftheauthorbackedupbytheevidenceofwitnesseswhosawhim
63
Barrett(1963b),4,notesthatNooneinantiquityappearstohavedoubtedthePaulineoriginoftheletters.Theyappeartohavebeenacceptedbyall,whetherorthodoxor
heretical,whoknewthem.
64
(1989),6190.
65
Spicq(1969),31Kelly(1963),28,38Koester(1982),2.297Kmmel(1975),367.
66
Spicq(1969),139Kmmel(1975),367.
67
Seemy(1991a).
68
(1989),67.

 Page358

penthedocument.Buteventhenhemightmerelybeputtingonpaperwhathehadmemorizedfromtheworkofanotherwriter!Inpracticeoneisforcedtotrustthe
claimimplicitinthesuperscription.Inotherwords,theremustbeapresumptionofauthenticity,whichstandsunlessitisoverturnedbyconvincingargumentsthatthe
authorclaimingresponsibilitycouldnotpossiblyhavewrittenthedocumentinquestion.

Onehasonlytoreadadetailedtreatmentoftheproblemtorealizethattheoverwhelmingnumberoftheargumentsagainsttheauthenticityof2Timothyaredrawn,not
fromtheletteritselfascommonsensedemands,butfrom1TimothyandTitus.69Inotherwords,whatistruefor1Timothyand/orTitusisassumedtobetrueof2
Timothy,despitethelackofevidence.Incredibleinitsmethodologicalassumption,thisapproachiscondemnedbyitspractitioners'recognitionthat2Timothyis
differentfrom1TimothyandTitus,andthat,inconsequence,thethreelettersarenotthehomogeneousblocktheyareclaimedtobe.Iftheauthenticityof2Timothyis
maintained,suchdifferenceswouldbetheclearestproofoftheinauthenticityof1TimothyandTitus.

Eventhough2TimothydiffersfromtheotherPaulinelettersinthatitdoesnothaveacoauthorandisaddressed,nottoachurch,buttoanindividual,70arecent
sophisticatedstylometricstudyconcludedthat2Timothy,oneofthecommonlyrejectedPastoralEpistles,isasnearthecentreofthe[Pauline]constellationas2
Corinthians,whichbelongstothegroupmostwidelyacceptedasauthentic.71Theextenttowhich2TimothyisathomeinthePaulinecorpusisgraphicallyillustrated
bythegreatnumberofparallelswiththeauthenticletters.72Totreattheseparallelsasmeaninglesscoincidences,73orasbetrayingliteraryindebtednessonthepartofa
postPaulineeditor,74ismethodologicallyunjustified.EquallyunacceptableasacriterionistheabsenceofsuchcommonPaulinetermsasbody(ofChrist),cross,
freedom,covenant.75NocommentatorcandictatewhatPaulshouldorshouldnotsay.

Previousattemptstodrawbiographicalmaterialfrom2Timothyhavebeenmadewithinaframeworkcreatedby1TimothyandTitus,andbytheCaptivityEpistles
(Phil.,Col.,Philem.).J.N.D.Kellyisfarfromatypicalinwriting,[Paul]wantsTimothy,whoisprobablystillatEphesustocometohim,pickingupMarkonthe
way.WemightbetemptedtoinferthatthisistheRomancaptivityofActsxxviii,wereitnotthatTimothyandMarkweretheninRome
69
e.g.Brox(1969),2260.
70
Prior(1989),3759,hasinsistedonthesepointsinordertoexcludestylisticcomparisonswiththerestofthePaulinecorpus.
71
Kenny(1986),100.See,however,Neumann(1990),213,whichmustbereadinthelightofhiswarningonp.218.
72
ThesearewelllaidoutinHarrison(1921),16775seealsoBarnett(1941),26271,2756.
73
TheopinionofLock(1936),p.xxiv.
74
ThethesisofBarnett(1941),25177.
75
SoWild(1990),6.

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76
withtheApostle(Col.i.1iv.10Phm.24). Wehavealreadyseen,however,thattheCaptivityEpistlesaremuchmorelikelytohavebeenwrittenduringPaul's
sojourninEphesusthanduringhisdetentioninRome,andsoreflecttheApostle'ssituationinAD5254.77Inconsequence,thepersonalnotestheycontaincannotbe
usedtointerpret2Timothy.Theinfluenceof1TimothyandTitushasbeennolesspernicious.Thesuggestionof2Timothy4:12(cf.1:18)thatTimothyisnotin
Ephesusisneverfollowedup,becauseoftheexplicitstatementof1Timothy1:3thathewasleftinchargeofthechurchofEphesus.Thepersonaldatafurnishedby2
Timothyneedstobestudiedinandforitself.

RomeandSpain.

Whenhewrote2Timothy,Paulwaschained(2Tim.1:8,16)asanevildoer(2Tim.2:9).Amonghiscontemporaries,thetermwasusedofhardenedcriminals,e.g.
thetwothieveswhodiedoncrosseswithJesus(Luke23:32).ThepreciseforcePaulattachedtoitisdifficulttodeterminebecauseheusesitnowhereelse.Hemay
meansimplythathewaschainedasifhewereacriminalorhemayintendtoindicatethatthisimprisonmentwassomehowmoreseverethanthosewhichhehad
experiencedpreviously.Thislatterpossibility,however,whichhasledsometothinkintermsofthepersecutionofChristiansunderNero,78isexcludedbythefactthat
Paulenjoysthesamefacilitiestoreceivevisitorsandsendlettersasinhispreviousperiodsofdetention.

ThevisitorinquestionwasOnesiphorus,whooftenrefreshedme.Hewasnotashamedofmychains,butwhenhearrivedinRomehediligentlysearchedandfound
me(1:1617).79Thesesimplewordscarryaweightofinformation,ofwhichthemostimportantistheplaceoftheApostle'simprisonment.Paul'sdelightatthe
courageofOnesiphorusismatchedbyhisappreciationofthetenacitydisplayedbyhisvisitorinthelatter'squestforhim.Romehadoveramillioninhabitants,butno
streetnames,andnohousenumbers.Onesiphorusinfacthadtwoproblems.HehadtofindoutwherePaulwas,andthenworkouthowtogetthere,bothtasksmade
horrendouslydifficultifhedidnotknowhiswayaroundthecity,andsocouldnotfollowdirections.Afainthintofhisdifficultiesmaybegaugedfromapassageof
Terence(195159BC)describingthesameproblemforsomeonewhoknewmuchsmallerAthens:
Demea:Tellmetheplacethen.Syrus:Doyouknowthecolonnadebythemeatmarketdownthatway?Demea:OfcourseIdo.Syrus:Gothatway

76
(1963),7.
77
SeeCh.7,Imprisonment.
78
SoKelly(1963),177.
79
Harrison(1921),129,appositelyevokesthecommendationofanotherprisonvisitor,Epaphroditus(Phil.2:2530).

 Page360

straightupthestreet.WhenyougettheretheSlopeisrightdowninfrontofyou:downityougo.Attheendthereisachapelonthisside.Justbythesideofitthere'sanalley.
Demea:Which?Syrus:Thatwherethegreatwildfigtreeis.Demea:Iknowit.Syrus:Takethatway.Demea:That'sablindalley.Syrus:Soitis,byJove.Tut,tut,youmustthink
meafool.Imadeamistake.Comebacktothecolonnade:yes,yes,there'samuchnearerway,andmuchlesschanceofmissingit.DoyouknowCratinus'shouse,themillionaire
manthere?Demea:Yes.Syrus:Whenyouarepastitturntoyourleft,gostraightalongthestreetandwhenyoucometothetempleofDianaturntotheright.Beforeyoucometo
thetowngate,closebythepoolthere'sabaker'sshopandoppositeitisaworkshop.That'swhereheis.(TheBrothers57185trans.Sargeaunt)

ThehintthatOnesiphoruswashisonlyvisitor,andhadlittlehelpinfindinghim,isconfirmedbyPaul'sfeelingofisolation(2Tim.4:11).Evidentlytherewaslittle
warmthinwhatevercontactPaulhadwiththeRomanchurch.Intheconclusionof2Timothy,PaultransmitsgreetingsfromPrudens,Linus,Claudia,andallthe
believers(4:21).AlltheseareLatinnames,andLinusisidentifiedasPeter'ssuccessorasheadofthechurchofRome.80Therecanbenoseriousdoubtthattheywere
membersofthelocalchurch.Itisequallyclear,however,thattheydistancedthemselvesfromtheApostleatmyfirstdefensenoonetookmypartalldeserted
me(2Tim.4:16).WhenbalancedagainstPaul'smanifestdesiretohaveloyalfriendsaroundhim(2Tim.4:11),itwouldappearthatPaul'sreasonformentioninga
fewnameswastogiveTimothytheimpressionthathisrelationswiththeRomanchurchwerebetterthantheyreallywere.

ThissituationisdifficulttoreconcilewiththeconditionsofPaul'sfirstimprisonmentinRome,howevermuchitmighthavebeenprolonged.81Atthatstage,asweknow
fromRomans16,henotonlyhadoldfriendsinthechurchthere(e.g.themotherofRufus),buttwoofhismosttrustedcollaborators,PriscaandAquila,were
responsibleforoneofthehousechurches.When2Timothywaswritten,theselatterarenolongerinRome(2Tim.4:19).WhileitispossiblethatPriscaandAquila
mighthavemovedbecauseofthedelayoccasionedbyPaul'sdetentioninCaesarea,itseemsmorelikelythattheirloyaltytohimwouldleadthemtocarryouthis
directivesuntiltoldtocease.HenceweareforcedtoenvisageasecondRomanimprisonmentsometimeafterthefirst.82

This,ofcourse,meansthatPaulwasfreedafterhisfirstimprisonment,andwemustassumethathecontinuedtoengageinmissionaryactivity.Wheredid
80
Eusebius,HistoryoftheChurch3.2.Where,onemightask,wasPeter?
81
AgainstdeLestapis(1976),83Prior(1989),89.
82
SoSpicq(1969),1401Kelly(1963),36.AccordingtoEusebius,Thereisevidencethat,havingbeenbroughttotrial,theapostleagainsetoutontheministryofpreaching,and
havingappearedasecondtimeinthesamecityfoundfulfilmentinhismartyrdom.InthecourseofthisimprisonmenthecomposedthesecondEpistletoTimothy(Historyofthe
Church2.22trans.Williamson).

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83
hepreach?HisplanwastogotoSpain(Rom.15:24),andClementofRome,writingaboutAD95,assertsthatthisispreciselywhathedid:

Paulbecauseofjealousyandcontentionhasbecometheverytypeofendurancerewarded.Hewasinbondsseventimes,hewasexiled,hewasstoned.HepreachedintheEast
andintheWestwinninganoblereputationforhisfaith.Hetaughtrighteousnesstoalltheworldandafterreachingtheboundaryofthesetting[ofthesun],andbearinghis
testimonybeforekingsandrulers,hepassedoutofthisworldandwasreceivedintotheholyplaces.

(5.57trans.Staniforthadapted)

ForthosewhodenyanyhistoricitytothePastorals,thisisnothingbutaprojectionbasedonRomans15:25.Clement,itisclaimed,thoughtitwouldenhancePaul's
reputationtosaythathisplanshadcometofruition.Thegratuityofthisassumptionhighlightstheuncriticalbiasofsuchanapproach.WerethePaulineletters
Clement'ssolesourceofinformation,itisimprobablethathewouldhavementionedanexileofwhichPaulneverspeaks,84andthathewouldnothaveusedPaul's
termSpainforthelandoftheApostle'sambition.FromtheperspectiveofsomeonewritingfromRome,theboundaryofthesetting(ofthesun)canonlymean
Spain.85Butwhyshouldanauthor,whoseexclusiveconcernwastohaveaprophecyfulfilled,useatermwhich,absolutelyspeaking,wassusceptibleofother
interpretationsdependingonthegeographicallocationofhisreaders?FromRometheWestwasSpain,buttosomeoneinPalestineitwouldmorenaturallybeGreece
orRome.

TraveltoSpaindidnotinvolveexceptionalexertion.Underoptimumconditions,theIberianpeninsulawasonlyasevendaysailfromOstia,theportofRome.86There
isnotashredofevidenceastowherePaulwentinSpain.87Howlonghespentthereissomewhateasiertoanswer,becausehewasexecutedunderNero,whodied
inAD68,andotheractivitieshavetobefittedintothatperiodinadditiontotheSpanishmission,asweshallseebelow.
83
SodoestheMuratorianfragment,Paul'sdeparturefromtheCity,settingoutforSpain(lines389),butthisdocumentisatleast100yearslaterandpossiblymoreseeGamble
(1985),32.
84
InevitablyithasbeensuggestedthatPaulwasexiledtoSpainseePherigo(1951),278Bruce(1977),445.
85
InthethirdbookofhisGeographyEratosthenes,inestablishingthemapoftheinhabitedworld,dividesitintotwopartsbyalinedrawnfromwesttoeast,paralleltotheequatorial
lineandastheendsofthislinehetakes,onthewest,thePillarsofHercules,andontheeast,thecapesandmostremotepeaksofthemountainchainthatformsthenorthern
boundaryofIndia(Strabo,Geography2.1.1trans.Jones).[CapeStVincent]isthemostwesterlypoint,notonlyofEurope,butofthewholeinhabitedworld(Strabo,Geography3.
1.4).NowinregardtothePillars,whichtheysayHerculesfixedinthegroundaslimitsoftheearth.TheextremesofEuropeandLibyaborderastrait60stadiawidethroughwhich
theoceanisadmittedintotheinnersea(Philostratus,LifeofApolloniusofTyana5.1trans.Conybeare).
86
Thereisaplant[flaxfromwhichlinensailsweremade]whichbringsCadizwithinsevendayssailfromtheStraitsofGibraltartoOstia,andHitherSpainwithinfourdays(Pliny,NH
19.1.4trans.Rackham)cf.Plutarch,Galba7.
87
SeeMeinardus(1978).

 Page362

WhendiscussingPaul'sprojectofamissioninSpain,IarguedthatPaulhopedthattheRomanchurchwouldappointhimitsdelegate,asthechurchofAntiochhad
doneatthebeginningofhismissionarycareer.88ThemiserablerelationsbetweentheimprisonedPaulandtheChristiansinRomeareperhapsbestexplainedbythe
hypothesisthatsuchsponsorshiphadnotbeenforthcoming.Thecommunitymighthavebeenpreparedtogivehimitsblessing,butheneededmuchmore.Spainwasa
newworldinwhichhewouldbethecompletealien.Heneeded,notonlyfinancialaid,butabovealllinguisticassistance,ifthemissionwastohaveanychanceof
success.AsPaul'severmoredesperateappealsforvolunteersfellondeafears,hisrelationswiththecommunitydeteriorated.Histotalcommitmentstigmatizedtheir
detachment,andguiltbredresentment.

GivenwhatweknowofPaul'simpetuouscharacter,itiseasytovisualizehimdecidingtoattemptthemissiontoSpainaidedonlybythosewithwhomhehadworked
intheEast.Thismayhavetransformedtheresentfulpassivityofthelocalchurchintoactivehostility.TheIberianpeninsulawasthemostromanizedofalltheterritories
underRomancontrol.Writingofthesouthernpart,Strabocouldsay,TheTurdetanians,however,andparticularlythosethatliveabouttheBaetis[=theGuadalquivir
river]havecompletelychangedovertotheRomanwayoflife,notevenrememberingtheirownlanguageanymore.AndmostofthemhavebecomeLatins,andthey
havereceivedRomansascolonists,sothattheyarenotfarfrombeingallRomans(Geography3.2.15trans.Jones).JustasRomanswenttoSpain,soSpaniards
flockedtoRome,and,whilemanyremainedonthelevelofthegypsydancers,89othersachievedpositionsofeminence,e.g.PomponiusMela,Seneca,Lucan,Martial,
Quintilian,Columella,90andprobablyJuvenal.91

Intheperspectiveofthiscloserelationship,itisnotimprobablethatRomanbelieversconsideredSpaintobelongtotheirsphereofinfluenceandarguedthatitwas
theirresponsibilitytocarrythegospelthere.Theywerecertainlythebestequipped,anditwasuptothemtochoosethemostopportunemoment.Intheireyesit
wouldhavebeenmostpresumptuousofPaultogoaheadwithouttheirapproval.Notonlywouldhebefloutingthedignityofthechurchofthecapitaloftheempire,
buthisinevitablefailuremightmakeitdifficultforthemtomounttheirownmissionaryexpeditionsatalaterdate.

Thespeculativenatureofthishypothesisneedsnoemphasis,butifundertheseconditions,PaulattemptedtheconversionofSpainandfailed,thehostilityofthe
Romanchurchbecomesexplicable,asdoesPaul'ssilence.92Itwould
88
SeeCh.13,AMissiontoSpain.
89
Juvenal,Satires11.162.
90
Spicq(1969),133n.2.
91
GreeninhistranslationofJuvenal,TheSixteenSatires(London:Penguin,1984),21.
92
Thediscretionoftheapocryphalliterature,sonotoriousforitsimaginativedetails,ishighlysignificant.TheActsofPetertwicespeaksofPaul'sdepartureforSpain(1.12.6),but
offersnoinformationastowherehewentorwhathedid.

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93
havebeenasignominiousanepisodeashisabortiveattempttoconverttheNabataeans(Gal.1:17). Intermsofchronologyitshouldnotbeassignedmorethana
singlesummer.WhilethereareotherpossibilitieswitnessPaul'sfailuresinArabia(Gal.1:17)andinAthens(Gal.3:1)thefactthatGreekwasnotwidelyspoken
remainsthemostprobableexplanationofthefailureoftheSpanishmission.Suchbeingthecase,thesouthernlittoralofGaulandnorthernItalywouldnothavebeen
morefertilesoil.WherewasPaultogo?

OnceMoretheAegean

ReturningdefeatedfromSpain,itwouldbeunlikePaultoflaunthisfailurebeforetheRomanchurch.AstopinRomeonhiswaybacktotheEastismostimprobable.
UnlesstheshipdockedataporttothesouthofOstia,oneshouldratherimaginehimswingingaroundthesouthofthecitytopickuptheAppianWay,whichcut
acrosstheshinofItalytotheportofBrindisiontheAdriaticSea.AdetaileddescriptionofconditionsonthatfamousroadisgivenbyHorace,whotravelleditinthe
suiteofMaecenasinthespringof37BC.94Ataleisurelypace,the544km.(340miles)journeytookjustundertwoweeks.95Providedthatitwasnottoolateinthe
year,itwouldhavebeeneasytofindaboatcrossingtoDyrrachium,theeasternterminaloftheViaEgnatia,andthedoorwaytoIllyricum(seeFig.7).

ItshouldnotbeforgottenthatIllyricumwastheonlyregionintheEastinwhichPaulhadunfinishedbusiness.Hismissiontherehadbeenhastilyterminatedbythecrisis
inCorinth,whichprovoked2Corinthians1013.96Fromlongexperience,Paulknewthathisfoundationsneededtobenurtured,butwhathadhappenedtohim
subsequentlyimprisonmentinCaesareaandRome,thevisittoSpainhadmadeitdifficult,ifnotimpossible,forIllyrianbelieverstohavehadanycontactwithhim.
Heowedthemthefollowupvisitwhichhehadgrantedallhisothercommunities.ItisinthisconcernthatwefindthemotivationforPaul'sreturntotheEast.

IfhefollowedhiscustomarypracticeinMacedonia,PaulspentatleastayearlabouringamongtheIllyrians.Oncesatisfiedthatthechurchwassolidlyestablished,he
knewthathiscontinuedpresencewouldbeanimpedimenttothenormaldevelopmentofthecommunity.Aslongasheremained,hewouldautomaticallybethe
authorityfigureinallaspectsofitslife.Onlywhenfreedoftheweightofhisprestigecouldthecharismaofothermembersdevelopnaturally.WheredidPaulthengo?
93
SeeCh.4,TheSituationwhenPaulArrived.
94
Satires1.5.
95
SeeStrabo,Geography6.3.7.Catoissupposedtohavedoneitinfivedays(Plutarch,CatoMajor14),andHeliusCaesarianusreachedGreeceinsevendays(DioCassius,History
63.19).
96
SeeCh.12,OnceAgainaMissionary.

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2Timothyprovidesaseriesofgeographicalreferences,butonlyfivearerelevanttoPaul'sitinerary.TwoalludetowhatTimothyalreadyknowstheotherthreeare
newinformation.Thephrasesyouareaware(1:15)andyouwellknow(1:18)brackettwotypesofbehaviourwhichshouldhaveaneducationalvaluefor
Timothy.PaulcontraststhecomportmentofthoseinAsiawhoturnedawayfrommewiththededicationofOnesiphorusasexpressedinthecontributionshemade
atEphesus.ItisclearthatTimothyhasdirectknowledgeofthesetwoepisodes,andthelatterwouldplacehimatEphesuswithPaulatthetimeoftheiroccurrence.
IndirectconfirmationthatthecapitalofAsiawasTimothy'sbaseisfurnishedbythefactthathewasignorantofwhathadhappenedintwoportcities,onenorthof
Ephesus,theothertothesouth.Whenyoucome,bringthecloakthatIleftwithCarpusatTroas,andthebooks,andabovealltheparchmentnotebooks(2Tim.4:
13)TrophimusIleftillatMiletus(2Tim.4:20).Thefifthreferencestandsinsharpcontrasttothelastmentioned,ErastusremainedinCorinth(4:20).

ThislatterallusionpermitsachoicebetweentheoptionsopentoPaulafterleavingIllyricum.ItexcludesajourneysouthtoCorinth,becausethenhewouldhavebeen
abletotellTimothyofErastus'decisionwhentheysubsequentlymetinEphesus.Hence,PaulcontinuedeastalongtheViaEgnatiaandpresumablyvisited
ThessalonicaandPhilippibeforecrossingovertoTroas.ThesimplestexplanationofwhyPaullefthiscloak,books,andnotebookstherewastheywouldhavebeen
animpossibleburdentocarryashetrampedthe350km.(210miles)toEphesusintheheatofsummer.97HowlonghespentinthecapitalofAsia,andwhetherhe
visitedthechurchesoftheLycusvalley,wedonotknow.EventuallyhemovedtoMiletus,whencehetookashiptoCorinth.Thepurposeofthispastoralcircuitofthe
Aegeancanonlyhavebeentheedification,encouragementandconsolation(1Cor.14:3)ofthechurcheshehadfounded.

TheProblemofTimothy

WherewasTimothywhenPaulwrote2Timothy?ForthosewhoaccepttheauthenticityofthePastorals,thequestionisansweredbyTychicusIhavesentto
Ephesus(4:12).98Alittlereflection,however,showsthatthisinfactimpliesthatTimothymusthavebeenelsewhere.IfTychicushadbeendispatchedbeforetheletter
wassent,whydoesPaultellTimothyinEphesussomethinghemusthaveknownalready?IfTychicuswasthebeareroftheletter,whyshould
97
PlinywrotetotheemperorTrajanattheveryendofAugustorthebeginningofSeptember,IkeptinexcellenthealththroughoutmyvoyagetoEphesus,butIfoundtheintense
heatverytryingwhenIwentontotravelbyroadanddevelopedatouchoffeverwhichkeptmeatPergamum(Letters10.17trans.Radice).
98
SoKelly(1963),214.

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Paulstresstheobvious?NothingintheformulationsuggestsemphasisonthefactthatitwasPaul,andnoother,whohadsentTychicustoEphesus.

IfTimothyhadbeeninEphesuswithPaul(1:1518),butwastherenolonger,andPaulnonethelessknewwheretosendtheletter,itseemsclearthatPaulhadsent
himtoanothercommunity.SinceTimothywasignorantofwhathadhappenednorthandsouthofEphesus(4:13,20),andwasinapositiontopassthroughTroason
hiswaytoRome,thenhisnewmissioncanonlyhavebeentotheeast,amongthechurchesoftheLycusvalleyorthoseinGalatia.

Thereareclearhintsin2TimothythatPaulwasnotpleasedwithhisdisciple'sperformance.Therepeatedinjunction,Takeyourshareofsuffering(1:82:3),when
readintheperspectiveofrekindlethegiftofGodthatiswithinyouforGoddidnotgiveusaspiritoftimiditybutaspiritofpowerandloveandselfcontrol(1:6),
revealsacertainlackofcommitmentonTimothy'spart.Tosomeextentatleast,hewasnotdoingtheworkofanevangelisthewasnotfulfillinghisministry(4:5).99
ThemostobvioussourceofPaul'sknowledgeofsuchfailureishisfirsthandexperienceofhowTimothyconductedhimselfinEphesus.Paul'sinitialattempttoremedy
thesituationwastodeviseamissionthatwouldtakeTimothyoutofthecity.WithPaulhimselftakingchargeinEphesus,themovecouldbemadetolooklikean
extensionofTimothy'sresponsibilities.WhetherTimothywasdeceivedwasanothermatterhistearsarementionedin2Timothy1:4.

Paul'ssojourninEphesusdidnotimprovethesituation.Infact,allinAsiaturnedawayfromme(2Tim.1:15)suggeststhatheexacerbatedwhatevertensions
wrackedthecommunity.TherehadalwaysbeenoppositiontoPaulinEphesus(Phil.1:1418),100anditisverylikelythatthechurchhaddevelopedinwaysaliento
thePaulinepatternduringthesevenormoreyears(fromAD54)whenPaulhadbeenoutoftouch.ThefalseteachingwhichPaulexhortsTimothytoavoidprobably
reflectshispersonalexperienceatEphesusonhislastvisit.InoppositiontothespecificallyJewishteaching,whichiscombattedin1TimothyandTitus,theprincipal
preoccupationof2Timothyisfutiledebate,fightingwithwords(2:14),profaneandemptytalk(2:16),foolishandinexpertresearch(2:23).Suchmeaningless
discussions,Paulinsists,leadonlytothedemoralizationofthehearers(2:14),togreaterungodliness(2:16),andtoquarrels(2:23).Anexampleofsuchdebate
istheargumentthattheresurrectionhasalreadytakenplace(2:18),whichcouldbepresentedasaperfectlyreasonableinterpretationofPaul'sownpreaching,you
alsowereraisedwithhim(Col.2:12cf.3:1).ToallappearancestherewasagroupatEphesus,
99
Lemonnyer'scommenton2:4isquotedbySpicq(1969),742,ItseemsthatTimothy,modellinghimselfonhisMaster,butprobablyalsooutoftimidity,dedicatedhimselfto
earninghisownlivinginordernottoburdenthecommunity.IfwearetojudgebythecontextinwhichPaulplacestheseexhortations,perhapsTimothywasnotunhappyto
findaplausiblereasontoescapetheheavydutiesofhischarge.
100
SeeCh.9,OppositionatEphesus.

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101
whoseintellectualaspirationsparalleledthoseofthespiritpeopleinCorinth. Paul'smentalitywassuchthathesimplycouldnotunderstandorappreciateeitherone
ortheother.

Paul'smovetoMiletus(2Tim.4:20)mayhavebeenpromptedbytherealizationthathewasincapableofdealingwiththeproblemsofthecommunityatEphesus.It
demandedqualitieswhichhelacked(2Tim.2:245).Toabandonthebelieverscompletely,however,wasimpossible,andhemadeagreatsacrificeinanattemptto
guaranteethestabilityofthecommunity.Heturnedoverresponsibilitytothefoundersofthechurch,PriscaandAquila.ThehintthattheywereatEphesuscomesfrom
theirassociationwiththehouseholdofOnesiphorus(2Tim.4:19cf.1:18).Inaddition,thecitywouldhavebeenonTimothy'sroutefromtheLycusvalleytoRome.
Inthisperspective,thesendingofTychicus,whomLukeidentifiesasanAsian(Acts20:4),wouldhavebeendesignedtoreinforcethePaulinepartywithinthe
Ephesianchurch.

Onreflection,PaulrealizedthatitwasnotwisetopermitTimothytoremainintheregion.Hehadneithertheskillnortheauthoritytocombatthetheologicalverbalism
whichhadinvadedEphesus,andwhichcouldveryeasilyspreadtothehinterland.EvidentlyTimothywasoneofthosepeoplewhomakewonderfulassistantsbutpoor
leaders.Hence,PaulsummonshimtoRomeonthepretextthatitwasforPaul'sbenefit(1:44:9,21).Thelatter'saffectionwasinnowaydiminishedbythefailureof
hisdiscipletoliveuptohisexpectations.

WhatDidtheFutureHold?

Doyourbesttocometomebeforewinter(2Tim.4:21).Thislaconicdirectiveyieldstwoimportantitemsofinformation.ThelettermusthavebeensentfromRome
sometimeinthelatespringorearlysummer,andPaulfullyexpectedtobeinRometoreceiveTimothyatleastfourmonthslater.102Moreover,healsoexpectedto
haveauseforhiswintercloak(2Tim.4:13).

ThefurthercommandtoTimothytobringMarkwithhimisjustifiedbyaphrase(2Tim.4:11),whichcanbereadintwodifferentways,dependingonthesensegiven
todiakonia.Forheisveryusefulinservingme(RSV)orforheisusefulinmyministry(NRSV).InonecasePaulwantsMarkasapersonalservant,whileinthe
otherheisconcernedtorecruitamemberforanewmissionaryteam.Althoughitispreferredbysomescholars,103thefirstoptionappearshighlyimprobable.Intwo
otherlettersMarkisidentifiedasaco
101
SeeCh.11,TheInfluenceofApollos.
102
ThelandroutefromRometoEphesus,usingtheViaAppiaandtheViaEgnatia,was1,944km.(1,200miles).
103
Kelly(1963),214.

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workerforthekingdomofGod(Col.4:1011Philem.24),anditisinconceivablethatheshouldbedemotedtothestatusofavalet.Paulcertainlyhadaministerial
functioninview.104Ineithercase,itisclearthatPaulislookingforwardtoanactivefuture.

Eventhoughnoonesupportedhimduringhisfirsthearing(2Tim.4:16),thedecisionhadnotgoneagainsthim,despitethefactthathedidnothidewhohewasor
whathedid,TheLordstoodbymeandgavemestrengthtoproclaimthewordfully,thatalltheGentilesmighthearit.SoIwasrescuedfromthelion'smouth(2
Tim.4:17).Hecannotenvisagewhatnewevidencemightbeproducedagainsthim,andsolooksconfidentlytoafavourableoutcome,TheLordwillrescuemefrom
everyevil(2Tim.4:18).

Thisoptimisticperspectiveposesseriousproblemsfortheunderstandingof2Timothy4:68.105ThenormaltranslationoftheseversesIamalreadyonthepointof
beingsacrificedthetimeofmydeparturehascome.Ihavefoughtthegoodfight,Ihavefinishedtherace,Ihavekeptthefaith.Henceforththereislaidupformea
crownofrighteousness,whichtheLord,therighteousjudge,willawardtomeonthatDay(RSV)conveysanoteoffinality,whichisgenerallyinterpretedas
meaningPaul'sconsciousnessthathisownmartyrdomcannotbelongdelayed.106Inordertointegratethisinterpretationwiththesucceedingverses,thosewho
accepttheunityandauthenticityof2Timothyhavetomaketwoassumptions:(1)thesecondexaminationwillgoagainstPaul,and(2)subsequentlyhisexecutionwill
bedeferredforseveralmonths.Neithercanbeconsideredplausible.Paulwassurelyabetterjudgeofhissituationthananymoderncommentator,andoncesentence
waspassed,itwasnotintheinterestoftheauthoritiestodelayincarryingitout.

Theonlyseriouseffortofthereconcile2Timothy4:68with2Timothy4:921isthatofM.Prior,whooffersanewinterpretationofeggarspendomaikaiho
kairostsanalysesephestken(4:6).Hedeniesthatspendreferstothespillingofblood,andthatanalysismeansdeath.Onthecontrary,hemaintains,spend
reflectsPaul'ssenseofhisowntotaldedicationtohistask,whiletheconnotationofanalysisisrelease.107Hence,Priortranslates,FormypartIamalreadyspent,
andthetimeformyreleaseisathand.108Paul'sneedforTimothyandMarkisrootedintheconvictionthathewillsoongetoutofprisonandwillbefreetoundertake
missionarywork.

WhilePrior'scritiqueofthecurrentconsensusregardingthemeaningof4:
104
Prior(1989),1469.
105
SorightlyPrior(1989),1047,whohaslittledifficultyinmanifestingtheuttersubjectivity(a)ofthosewhoattribute4:68and4:921tofragmentsofdifferentletters,and(b)of
thosewhodenyauthenticityandseethepersonalreferencesaswindowdressingsomeaninglessthatinconsistencieswereirrelevant.
106
Kelly(1963),205.
107
(1989),111.
108
Ibid.108.

 Page368

68isbothappositeandconvincing,hissuggestionastohowtheseversesshouldbeconstruedisnotquiteassatisfying.Paulneverusestheraretermanalysis
anywhereelse,buthedoesemploythecognateverbanalyinanotherletteralsowrittenwhenhewasaprisoner,mydesireistodepartandbewithChrist(Phil.1:
17).Theallusionhereistohisdeath.EventhoughinthistexttheambiguityoftodepartisremovedbytobewithChrist,thepointisthatPaul,notonlycould,but
didthinkofhisdeathintermsofadeparture.InthesameletterPaulalsousesspendomai,evenifIamtobepouredoutasalibationonthesacrificialofferingof
yourfaith(Phil.2:17).TheconditionalmodeexcludestheinterpretationoftheverbasareferencetoPaul'sapostolicactivitytheallusionistoafutureeventoutside
hiscontrol.

PerhapsthemostseriousflawintheexegesisofbothPriorandhisopponentsistheirneglectofthetensesoftheverbsin2Timothy4:67.Allareintheperfecttense
withtheexceptionofspend,whichisbroughtintolinebytheadditionofalready.Paul,inotherwords,isnotlookingforward,butbackward!Thesenseof
completioncouldnotbemoreemphatic.However,itisnottheanxiousfinalityexperiencedbyaprisonerondeathrow,butthecomplacentrecognitionofalifewell
spent.Paul,whobynowwascloseto70,realizedthathisbestyearswerebehindhim.Intermsofthenormallifespanhewaslivingonborrowedtime,particularlyfor
onewhoforsomanyyearshadborneinhisbodythedyingofJesus(2Cor.4:10).Eachdaywasagrace,andheintendedtomakethebestpossibleuseofevery
moment.Hemightnotlivelongafterhisreleasefromprison,butthatdidnotexempthimfromtheobligationsofhisministry.Hecouldplanforthefutureand,ifhewas
taken,thenTimothyandMarkcouldcarryon.

Martyrdom

Eventhoughnoprecisecalculationispossible,itseemscertainthatPaul'sabortivevisittoSpainandhispastoralcircleoftheAegeanseaabsorbedenoughtimeto
ensurethathisreturntoRomemusthaveoccurredafterthegreatfirewhichragedinRomefor9days(1928July)inAD64,anddestroyed10ofthe14quartersof
thecity.DespiteNero'sconcernforthehomeless,hisreplanningofthecityinordertoensurethatthetragedywouldnotberepeated,andhispropitiationofeverygod
whomighthavefeltslighted,theideacirculatedthattheemperorhadresortedtoaratherdrastictypeofurbanrenewal.

Butneitherhumanresources,notimperialmunificence,norappeasementofthegods,eliminatedsinistersuspicionsthatthefirehadbeeninstigated.Tosuppressthisrumour,
Nerofabricatedscapegoats,andpunishedwitheveryrefinementthenotoriouslydepravedChristians(astheywerepopularlycalled).Theirdeathsweremadefarcical.Dressedin
wildanimals'skins,theywere

 Page369

torntopiecesbydogs,orcrucified,ormadeintotorchestobeignitedafterdarkassubstitutesfordaylight.NeroprovidedhisGardensforthespectacle,andexhibiteddisplaysin
theCircus,atwhichhemingledwiththecrowd,orstoodinachariot,dressedasacharioteer.

(Tacitus,Annals15.44trans.Grant)

TheimpliedsequenceofeventssuggeststhatthepersecutionofChristianswasnotanimmediateconsequenceofthefire.Sometimehadtoelapseforthefailureofthe
imperialpropiatorygesturestobecomemanifest,andfortherumourstobuildtoaclimax.Eventhoughtheydifferbyayear,theArmenianversionandJerome's
translationoftheChronicleofEusebiusassignafouryearintervalbetweenthefireandthepersecution.109Thereliabilityofthisassessmentisopentodoubt.A
spontaneouswhisperingcampaigncouldnothavelastedthatlong,particularlyiftherebuildingofthedestroyedquartersrevealedasignificantimprovementinurban
life.Nomorethanayearshouldbeallowed.Thepersecution,therefore,shouldprobablybedatedtothespringofAD65.110Itisdoubtfulthatitlastedlongerthan
wasnecessarytogivethepopulationsomethingelsetothinkabout.Toprolongthehuntexcessivelyriskeddirectingattentiontothemotivationoftheemperor.
Moreover,thatsamespringNerohadtodealwiththePisonianconspiracytoassassinatehim.Theunfortunatelongtermconsequenceoftheepisodewasthecreation
ofasinisterprecedentthattheguiltofChristianscouldbepresumed.

ThosewhoaccepttherealityofasecondRomanimprisonmentforPaultendtoassumethatitparallelledthefirstimprisonment,namely,thatPaulwasarrestedinthe
EastandwasbroughttoRomeinchains.111Whilethishypothesisiscertainlynotimpossible,itsbasisisextremelyfragile,andanalternativepossibilitydeserves
consideration,eventhoughitisequallyincapableofproof.

ThenewsofNero'sbestialferocityspreadlikewildfirethroughtheempire.AtleastbytheautumnofAD65,ithadreachedthePaulinechurchesinGreeceandAsia.
Thebelieverswereaghastatthethoughtofthehorribledeathstheirfellowbelievershadsuffered.Seeingtheimpactsuchfrightfulnessmadeonhisownconverts,Paul
hadlittledifficultyinestimatingtheconsequencesforthefewChristiansinRome,whobychancehadescapedtheemperor'sdragnet.Brutalrealitychallengedtheir
idealisticacceptanceofmartyrdomasaremotefuturepossibility.Thevisionofanextremelypainful,prolongeddeathwasunlikelytohavehadafavourableeffecton
morale.IftheRomanchurchwastosurvive,othercommunitieshadtocometoitsaid.HerewehaveamotivewhichadequatelyexplainsbothPaul'sreturntoRome,
andthedecisionofErastustoremainatCorinth(2Tim.4:20).Thelatterthoughttherisktoogreat.Paul
109
Schoene(1875),2.1547.
110
Lgasse(1991),244.
111
Spicq(1969),141,814Kelly(1963),215Baslez(1991),2824.

 Page370

knewhewastakinghislifeintohishands,buttheneedwasimperative.Didherecallwhathehadoncewritten?TheloveofChristconstrainsus,becauseweare
convincedthatonehasdiedforallthereforeallhavedied.Andhediedthatthosewholivemightlivenolongerforthemselves,butforhimwhofortheirsakediedand
wasraised(2Cor.5:1415).

IfPaulreturnedtoRomeundersuchcircumstances,itisimprobablethatheslippedsecretlyintothecity,andthereafterslidcautiouslyfromonerefugetoanother.
Unobtrusivenesswasafirststeptowardsapostasy.Therestorationofthecommunitydemandedahighprofilepresence.Inordertocommunicatecourageandhope,
hehadtoassumeanovertleadershipstance.Witnesshadtobepublic.Howlongwasheabletomaintainthisrole?

TheupperlimitisthesuicideofNeroon9June68.Thehintof1Clement6:1thatPeterandPaulweremartyredintheNeronianpersecutionismadeexplicitby
Eusebius:

ItisrecordedthatinNero'sreignPaulwasbeheadedinRomeitself,andthatPeterlikewisewascrucifiedandtherecordisconfirmedbythefactthethecemeteriestherearestill
calledbythenamesofPeterandPaul.ThattheywerebothmartyredatthesametimeBishopDionysiusofCorinth[c.AD170]informsusinaletterwrittentotheRomans:In
thiswaybyyourimpressiveadmonitionyouhaveboundtogetherallthathasgrownfromtheseedwhichPeterandPaulsowedinRomansandCorinthiansalike.Forbothofthem
sowedinourCorinth,andtaughtusjointlyinItalytootheytaughtjointlyinthesamecity,andweremartyredatthesametime.

(HistoryoftheChurch2.25cf.3.1trans.Williamson)

Thistranslationadmirablyrespectsthevaguenessoftheformulaatthesametime,whichdoesnotnecessarilymeanonthesameday.Paulcertainlyneverworked
withPeterinCorinth,anditisunlikelythathedidsoinRome.ThemartyrdomsofthetwoapostlesarepresentedinsuchawayinthethesecondcenturyActsof
PeterandActsofPaulthatthenaturalinferenceisthattheydiedatdifferenttimes.ThelatefourthcenturyPeristephanon(12.5)ofPrudentiusAureliusClemens
claimsthattheydiedonthesameday,butayearapart!

TheyearofPaul'sdeath,whichislackingintheChurchHistoryofEusebius,issuppliedbythelatter'sChronicle.Unfortunatelythetheversionsdonotagree.
AccordingtotheArmenianversion,thepersecutionunleashedbyNerotookthelivesofPeterandPaulintheemperor'sthirteenthyear(13Oct.6612Oct.67),
whereasJerome'stranslationdatesittothefourteenthyear(13Oct.679June68).112Elsewherethelatterwaversbetweenthetwodates.InhisnoteonPaulin
FamousMen,Jeromesayshewasbeheadedinthe14thyearofNeroonthesamedayasPeterdied,whereastheentryonSenecainthesameworksays,Seneca
wasexecutedbyNerotwoyearsbeforethemartyrdomofPeter
112
Schoene(1875),2.1567.

 Page371

andPaul.SinceSenecadiedinAprilAD65,theeleventhyearofNero,thiswoulddatethedeathoftheapostlestothe13thyearofNero.Thediscrepancymaybe
insignificant,becausethoseaccustomedtocountinginyearsbeginninginJanuaryashadbeenthecasefortheRomanssince153BC113couldeasilybeconfused
regardingthestatusofthelastquarteroftheyear.IntheoryitwasthebeginningofthefourteenthyearoftheEmperor'sreign,butitwastheconclusionofacalendar
yearmostofwhichbelongedtothethirteenthyearofNero'srule.

TheerrorofEusebiusconcerningthebeginningofthepersecutionofChristiansbecomesexplicableifweassumethathissourcescontainedonlytwoitemsof
information:(1)apersecutionofChristiansinstigatedbyNeroafterthefireofAD64(2)thedeathofPeterandPaulattheveryendofthereignofNero.In
combiningthetwo,theformerwasinevitablyattractedintothetimeframeofthelatter.AsregardsthepersonalinvolvementofNero,itshouldberemembered,thathe
wasabsentinGreecefromautumn66totheendof67orthebeginningof68.114

ThemannerofPaul'sdeath,beheading,isunderstoodtoimplythathewascondemnedbyaregularlyconstitutedcourt.Wheretheexecutiontookplace,andwherehe
wasburiedareunknown.NopublicliturgicalcultofthemartyrsinRomeisattestedbeforethemiddleofthethirdcentury.Hencenoreliablelocaltraditioncanbe
assumed.IthasbeenpersuasivelyarguedthatthevenerationofPeterandPaulatAdCatacumbasontheViaAppiaoriginatedinaprivaterevelationofsuspect
origins,andthattheRomanchurchdealtwiththesituationveryastutelybyclaimingthatthebodieshadbeensecretlytransferredtootherlocations,thatofPetertothe
Vaticanhill,andthatofPaultotheViaOstiense.115
113
OCCL109.JanuarywasexplicitlyretainedbyNero,againstthewishesofthesenatewhichdecreedthattheyearshouldbegininDecember,themonthofhisbirth(Tacitus,
Annals13.10).
114
Spicq(1969),146n.3.
115
Chadwick(1957).

 Page372

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 Page396

IndexofPassagesCited

I.OldTestament.

Genesis

1:267313

1:27242

1:2862

2:212290

411336

12:12206

12:3135,196

12:777

13:15206

15:1206

15:5196

15:18206

17:7196

17:78206

17:10196,206

17:1014138

17:23196,207

22:17196

38:81062

Exodus

34:34311

34:345310

Leviticus

22:25342

27:273

Numbers

6:1415350

11:34126

19:1116350

33:35321

Deuteronomy

25:1368

25:51062

32:4337

Joshua

15:837

2Kings

9:22125

2Chronicles

35:12311

Ezra

23:1311

Nehemiah

13:1311

Tobit

14:67135

Esther

8:17151

Judith

10:5150

12:5150

1Maccabees

1:15138,229

1:56747

1:623150

2:46138

15:2166

2Maccabees

4:30833

5:85

Job

14:1204

15:24204

25:4204

Psalms

5:10335

9:28335

13:23335

35:2335

69:17243

90:103

1203453

139:4335

Proverbs

8:22242

22:8156

Ecclesiastes

7:20335

Wisdom

7:226242

8:6242

9:9242

Sirach

16:7244

38:2439:1186

38:2786

44:21197

Isaiah

2:24135

27:9340

49:180,330

49:680,135,330

49:8330

52:1125

56:67135

59:78335

59:201340

60:47135

66:1819330

Jeremiah

1:580

3:2125

3:9125

4:2135

16:162

31:33207,302

Ezekiel

28:24321

Hosea

6:10125

 Page397

Amos

7:17125

Jonah

1:3330

4:2330

Zechariah

2:11135

8:203135

II.NewTestament

Matthew

5:1819134

5:2176

5:2776

5:3376

5:3876

5:4376

10:32376

11:11204

12:495045

15:256

28:91072,73,78

28:162072

28:1773

Mark

1:20268

1:21868

1:405134

2:1356

2:1656

2:23876

3:1668,76

3:656

3:756

3:33445

5:4220

6:171882

6:172961

6:5356

7:156

7:356

8:1156

8:1356

8:31314

10:256

12:1356

15:2145

Luke

1:538

1:3646

1:5846

1:6146

2:215

2:4446

3:182

3:1213218

5:7268

5:10268

5:11268

6:61176

6:2268

8:29220

1092

12:8976

13:101768

13:3157,61

14:1246

14:2146

14:31282

21:1646

23:538

23:81261

23:32359

24:134272

24:1572,78

24:2172

24:3073

24:3173

24:3679

24:3778

24:3978

24:4073

24:4173

John1:

401268

1:44268

3:22172

3:26173

6:141561

9:14076

9:2268

12:202268

12:4268

16:268

18:2646

19:12179

19:20372

19:2745

20:112972

20:1372

20:142978

20:1672,73

20:1872

20:1972,73,78

20:2073

20:2572

20:2672,78

20:2773

20:2873

21:177

ActsoftheApostles

1:378

1:832,275

1:1253

2:4173

2:427143

2:4585,145

2:4668

4:13268

4:2742

4:345145

4:345:1185

4:36148

4:36713

5:3456

6:136

6:236

6:933,68

7:277

7:346

7:1446

7:584,42,65,66

8:142,53,65

8:342,53,65,66

8:2553

8:2853

9:1242,53,65,66,78

9:11971

9:442,321

9:578

9:1132

9:1466

9:1742

9:2085

9:2385

9:2355,104

9:24344

9:24569

9:26894

9:3032

10:14150

 Page398

ActsoftheApostles(cont.)

10:2446

10:28125,261

10:45207

11:2207

11:1826130

11:19147

11:192132

11:1926147

11:20147

11:2532

11:2675,147

11:293094

12:119179

12:2594

131495,96,231

13:135

13:1396,132,158,329

13:842

13:942

13:1353

13:1314:28159

13:1495

13:2137,42

14:195

14:895

14:12161

1524,131

15:1294,133

15:2322

15:3329

15:1194

15:12141

15:2168

15:3028

15:364195,132

15:37853

15:39132

15:4126

15:3026

161824,131

16:126

16:3137

16:624,26,162

16:612164

16:7162

16:8162

16:11159,183,211

16:1226,211,212,214

16:13213,214

16:1340214

16:14214,234

16:18214

16:1935179

16:201215

16:23175

16:301214

16:3735

16:40214

17:126

17:110117

17:2102

17:57272

17:515102

17:14104

17:1526,104,107

17:1634258

18358

18:126,108

18:129,14,15

18:13172

18:118259,264

18:122109

18:23117,171,261

18:386,88,261

18:4261

18:5107,261,262

18:7262,268,270

18:8264

18:1110,22,26,130,264

18:129,10,14,15,130

18:121721

18:17264

18:18344

18:182221,165

18:19171

18:2222,28,53,94,131

18:2329,162,164

18:24173,275

18:248171,274

18:2419:7172

18:25275

18:27171,276

18:28276

19:129,184,275

19:17274

19:5275

19:57173

19:8929

19:81022,26,231

19:9179

19:10173

19:22269,279

19:2340300

19:26173

19:31165

19:35167

20:1300

20:36,344

20:321:17343

20:4272,343,366

20:6183

20:621:3165

20:13163,347

20:1316183

20:16354

20:18344

20:196

20:22344,347

20:25355

20:28347

20:3122,29

20:38329,355

21:194

21:5329

21:51794

21:1253

21:1553

21:17347

21:21349

21:24351

21:27350,351

21:3331

21:3323:22179

21:3932,35,41

22:121351

22:332,33,46,53

22:4565

22:41671

22:742

22:878

22:1342

22:1753

22:2065

22:22294

22:27835,40

23:110351

23:641,57,58

23:6876

23:876

23:1635,45

23:2326:32175,179

23:2422

23:2735

23:306

24:121351

24:1153

24:1268

24:14348

24:17348

24:22179

24:26350

24:2722

24:2725:25131

25:122

25:1131

25:111239,353

26:123351

 Page399

26:433,53

26:91871

26:1065

26:1168

26:1266

26:1442

26:1578

26:1677

26:3239

27:1347

27:128:14351

27:810351

27:11354

27:1112351

27:1317352

28:16175,179,220,354

28:18355

28:1939

28:20220

28:24539

28:3031,350,354,355

28:31354

Romans

111334

112332

1:180

1:392

1:34226,241,312

1:7125,324

1:1392,331

1:15324

1:16334

1:1931288

1:2931336

2:15334

2:1724334

2:18156

3:19334

3:5202

3:9126,208,287,335

3:918335

3:22204

3:25241

3:274:25334

3:29334

3:31334

4:173

4:16204

4:19313

4:24241

4:25226,312

5:9241

5:12335,336

5:19336

5:21335

6:1334

6:6335

6:12126

6:13335

6:14335

6:15334

6:16335

6:17126,327,335

6:18335

6:20335

6:2192

6:23335

7:4592

7:6208

7:7126,334

7:8335

7:10336

7:1367,334

7:14335

7:20335

7:23335,339

7:25335

8:2335

8:27202

8:34226,241,312

8:38244

911339

9:346,73

9:4592

9:14334

9:19334

9:1921334

10:2471

10:4338

10:89241

11:132,334

11:12340

11:11334

11:172492,334

11:19334

11:2532340

11:26340

11:302341

11:32336

11:336339

12:371

12:5287

12:8128

12:20145

12:2467

1316332

13:3288

13:810157

14:9226,241

1516346

15:12341

15:1571

15:1930,316

15:20239,265,316

15:22331

15:2332,104

15:236300

15:24164,178,323,329,361

15:2594,353,361

15:25630

15:26144,323,345

15:2892,323,329

15:301334

15:3154,339,344

15:312348,351

15:33325

16:12224,325

16:123325,326

16:246,117,270

16:3267

16:34131,223

16:4265

16:5149,171,267,325,328

16:746

16:1028

16:1146,328

16:1345

16:14328

16:15328

16:16325

16:17327

16:2046,325,335

16:21272,323,327

16:22272,332

16:23117,149,191,267,268,269,272

16:24324

16:257324

1Corinthians

14275,280,282,285

1:180,282

1:2125,191,324

1:471

1:49309

1:10107,216

1:11253,272,307

1:12184,223,277

1:13286

1:14264,267

1:1416264

1:16265,329

1:1750,211,285

1:1831308

1:1920121

1:16265,329

 Page400

1Corinthians(cont.)

1:23229,312

1:24247,287,339

1:2673,271,278

1:269173

2:15276,284,308,320

2:2448,50,51,92

2:45124

2:551

2:691,280,283

2:69246

2:616283,308

2:8281,311

2:12280,283

2:14283

2:15280,282

2:16281

3:1281,283,331

3:14277,308

3:2290

3:3202

3:34283

3:59285,323

3:6173,184,274

3:6992

3:9285

3:1071

3:1617226

3:23277,281

4:3282

4:7283

4:8280,283

4:10280,281

4:11322

4:1240,67,85,261

4:1421292

4:15236,295

4:17256,279,284

4:20284

56285

5:12290

5:15127

5:18279,281

5:2285

5:35285

5:5335

5:9184,251,252,255,276,310

5:1011288

5:11293

6:111273,285

6:7289

6:910288

6:1011273

6:12281

6:1220273,281

6:15205,286

6:18281

6:19226

6:1920277

7:1252,273,280

7:5155

7:6155

7:7335

7:862,63

7:101191,154

7:14125

7:15154

7:17155

7:1723249

7:1728289

7:19157

7:21271

7:23277

7:27155

7:35155

7:39155

810273,281

8:1309

8:113221

8:4269

8:6281

8:7273

8:9289

8:12286

8:13156,296

992,306

9:171,78

9:12330

9:112307

9:118268

9:2124

9:562,95

9:695,152

9:8202

9:12306

9:1491,155

9:151825,155

9:161771

9:1825

9:1940,85

9:1923154

9:21156

9:22313

10:6126

10:16241,281

10:17287

10:1873

10:23281

11:1101,154,284

11:216279,290

11:7313

11:89290

11:1112290

11:1734169,279,286

11:20286

11:22278

11:2392

11:25207,241

11:27241,287

11:29286,289

11:34155

1214226,281

12:2273

12:368,281,311

12:47288

12:12205,286

12:13289

12:3167

1314309

13:2153,157,205,288

13:11281

14:3364

14:35289

14:14282

14:20290,331

14:23149,172,267,282

14:235285

14:26226

14:45226

15:1327

15:27226,241,312

15:3492

15:3577,281

15:871,72,77

15:944,67

15:12281

15:24244

15:32176,202,299

15:364492

15:45241,313

15:51373

16:129,155,159,164,165,199

16:1430,218,256,272,307

16:2345

16:3343

16:5105,130,182,222,256,279,294

16:5629,296,304

16:57291

16:59178

16:622,182

16:829,165,172,173,222,280

16:9299

16:10279

 Page401

16:1011256,292

16:12173,184,223,274,282,283,303

16:15171,263,265,267,292,327

16:157273,280

16:1518217

16:17253,267,272

16:19131,149,169,172,173,191,261,267,326,328

2Corinthians

17254

19106,254,255,256,302,307,308,309,316,317,331

1:1191,301

1:2125

1:311309

1:6222

1:867,299

1:89299

1:1214305

1:13295

1:15296

1:1516304

1:1517309

1:16178,256

1:17304

1:1995,108,109,131,256,262

1:232:125

1:232:13309

2:1293,296,297

2:14256

2:111293

2:3293

2:4252,293,297

2:5293

2:6293

2:67293

2:68302

2:9297

2:10293

2:11335

2:1113300

2:1213107,163,262,347

2:1330,178,298

2:1314298

2:14313

2:147:2309

2:15313

2:16302

3:1302

3:2109,124,276,330

3:23313

3:3302

3:6207,302

3:718310

3:8102

3:1213310

3:1415310,311

3:1671

3:17310

4:3302

4:4313

4:5304

4:671,78

4:7125,313

4:81067

4:967

4:10239,313,368

4:1011121,314,322,339

4:1767

5:6302

5:1429,312

5:15312

5:1661,71,73,79

5:17313

5:21312

6:2330

6:585,86

6:10144

6:13255

6:147:1255,302

7:2255

7:312309

7:530,301

7:516310,316

7:6298

7:616293,301

7:9293

7:911202

7:11293

7:12293,297

89254,255,256,302,314

8:1217

8:14102,297

8:2117

8:3144

8:6308,315

8:7155

8:8155,314

8:815309

8:9144,312

8:10307,314

8:17315

8:18315

8:19343

8:201315

8:22315

8:23315

9:115309

9:222,30,314

9:430,315,316,343,345

9:61092

9:7155

101330,106,121,180,181,199,254,255,294,301,319,320,323,363

10:1050,302,319,321

10:12304

1112306

11:112:1351

11:232

11:491,180,222

11:5319

11:650,257,321

11:740,85

11:79268

11:71025

11:71154,200

11:8925

11:988,183,216,306,315,319

11:1032

11:13229

11:14335

11:1415321

11:1921319

11:2237,66

11:223320

11:2385,174,176,354

11:235214

11:2330320

11:2439,67

11:2539

11:25767

11:2696

11:2785,86

11:29101

11:3269

11:3235,6,32,81,84,85,104,344

11:3369

12:1304

12:24320

12:7335

12:710321

12:9270

12:1067

12:12304

12:1430,178,255,291,292,323

12:19322

12:201288

12:21125

 Page402

2Corinthians(cont.)

13:1178,291,292

13:1225,30,323

13:2291

13:10105

13:11105,219

Galatians

1229

12252

1:1158,202,330

1:227,159,200

1:34226,241,312

1:4226

1:6107,180,181,193,216

1:7182,193,200

1:8327

1:9193

1:10208

1:11202

1:111279,80,137

1:1271

1:1367,202

1:132571

1:1453,56,60,63,64,66,86

1:15330

1:151679,80

1:1671,78,136,142

1:16177

1:1780,96,363

1:17185

1:1719202

1:187,22,53,84,85,90,93,94,131

1:1819341

1:19141

1:217,824,32,54,95,147,202

1:228,54,202

1:2367

2:17,8,21,22,53,94,95,131,202

2:13296

2:11029,94,132,152,197,201,341

2:294,132,136

2:3137,343

2:4133,137

2:45133

2:5137,164,180

2:6138

2:795

2:78934,131,134

2:79207

2:8152

2:971,95,132,136,141,142,239

2:1029,144,145,218

2:111296

2:111426,29,127,131,132,133,141,145,197,277,329

2:112195,194

2:12133,151,152,343

2:1213149

2:13132,151,152

2:14150

2:1421153

2:15153

2:16153,204,229

2:18153,154

2:20153,204,205,226,239,288

2:21153

2:2224

2:23208

34229

3:1159,200,219,363

3:15193,206

3:23178

3:6206

3:69197

3:7197

3:78197

3:11206

3:14207

3:15202

3:16206

3:1618207

3:17207

3:19196,207

3:21207

3:22204,335

3:26204

3:269206

3:278205,286

3:28208,245,287,288,289

3:29197,198

4:1208

4:2142

4:29178

4:3197,208

4:492,204,227,243

4:8192,200,208

4:9144,197,208

4:10197

4:11199

4:12154,229

4:1324,26,27,29,159,161,162,164,178,192,321

4:1314192

4:14161

4:15321

4:17193,197

4:18207

4:20201

4:22197

4:225207

4:24208

4:2581,208

4:26207

4:2967

4:31207

56229

5:1208,209

5:4205

5:6204

5:7181,199

5:10182,193,200

5:1167

5:13208,209

5:14157,205

5:16197

5:17209

5:19125

5:1920245,288

5:1921197,209

5:21197,198

5:2292

5:223209

5:24209

6:2153,156,157,196,197,205,338

6:7992

6:1118255

6:1267

6:13193,197

6:17105,229

Ephesians

3:11371

3:271

3:771

4:2191,311

4:24202

Philippians

1:1125,217,277

1:13:1178,183,220

1:14:9219

1:5215,216,217,236

1:7217,219,220

1:12220

1:13178,183,219,220,222

 Page403

1:1314239

1:1415222

1:1418365

1:1517299

1:17368

1:18224

1:205221

1:2292

1:24221

1:25223

1:26178,250

1:27219

1:28219,223

1:30178

2:24219

2:3219,224

2:611225,241,242,243

2:8245,312

2:1213226

2:1416102,224,285

2:16215

2:17368

2:19181,221,294

2:1924279

2:21223

2:23223

2:234222

2:24178,179,181,222,250

2:25174,221,236

2:2530216,359

2:26178,183,216

2:30216

3:1219

3:2219,228,229

3:24:1220,228,294

3:41271

3:532,35,37,47,54,59,66

3:653,67

3:886

3:811219

3:9204,229

3:10229

3:1016229

3:1278

3:1418229

3:17217,229

3:18229

3:19219,229

3:2040

3:201221

4:2219,224,250,289

4:23214

4:29178,183,220

4:342,64,215,217,224

4:9105,224

4:1020178,183,216,306

4:1525,211,213,262

4:151688,215

4:16102,117,183,216,262,306

4:1792,216

4:18178,183,216

4:22178,325

Colossians

1:1176,35

1:5246

1:6238

1:68174

1:7174,238

1:78237

1:15162423

1:1520240,241

1:16244

1:1718245

1:18286

1:20125,244,245,312

1:21244

1:22243,247

1:23238,246

1:23971

1:24239

1:2571,239

1:26246

1:267324

1:27246,247

2:1165,174,234,237,251

2:2245,246

2:23246

2:4243,246

2:5177

2:691,243,246

2:8193,208,246

2:9243,244

2:10244,246

2:12247,365

2:13244,246

2:14245

2:16247

2:1623247

2:17248

2:18244,246

2:19246,286

2:20208

3:1247,365

3:14:6247

3:3247

3:4246,247

3:5288

3:6247

3:7244

3:8288

3:11245,249,289

3:13244,245

3:14153,245

3:15245

3:1516247

3:16226,240,243

3:184:1248

3:225249

4:3246

4:56250

4:7174

4:78176

4:79325

4:718237

4:8174

4:9176,249

4:10175,176,221,359

4:1011367

4:1O18176

4:11176

4:12174,176,231,234

4:1213175

4:13174,235

4:14176,272

4:15191,236,267,326

4:16200

4:17176,236,237

4:18175

1Thessalonians

1:1191

1:210105

1:5124,238

1:56123

1:6120,124

1:68102,123,224,285

1:7124

1:78110

1:79315

1:8110,238

1:9104,110,121,208

1:910122,123

1:10123,128,226,241,312

1:111212

2:112110,12

2:225,214

2:7120

2:940,85,88,102,117,120,161

2:11120

2:1112106,126

2:13105,124,238

2:134:2102

 Page404

1Thessalonians(cont.)

2:1314105

2:1316106

2:14104,106

2:144:2105,106

2:16112

2:17106

2:18112,335

3:125,104,107

3:13104

3:16279

3:110262

3:2285

3:23106

3:3119

3:4119

3:625,106,110,121

3:9106

3:11105

3:114:2105

3:1113112

3:12128

3:1213105

3:13128,247

4:1107,124

4:12106

4:2124

4:3125

4:37124,125,126

4:38107

4:312106,110

4:6124

4:7125

4:8123,126

4:9120,153,157,246

4:910128

4:1012127

4:11123,124,127,128

4:12123,124,154,250,285

4:13123

4:1315112

4:1318123

4:135:11110

4:15123

4:1617221

4:17123,247

5:1128

5:2112,123,128

5:23124

5:6112

5:910112

5:1113127

5:12128,217

5:1222110

5:13128

5:1314107

5:1322127

5:14112,127

5:19123

5:21127

5:23123,128

5:238105

5:27112

2Thessalonians

1:1191

1:4124

1:11124

2:112129

2:2112,113,123,181,357

2:312123

2:5124

2:15112

3:1105

3:4127

3:6112,127

3:612123

3:7120,127

3:7940,85,117

3:8261

3:988,120

3:10117,124,127,128

3:1012127

3:12117,127

3:14127,154,285

3:15127

3:17112,357

1Timothy

1:3359

2:1114290

6:1342

2Timothy

1:4365,366

1:6365

1:8359,365

1:15364,365

1:1518365

1:16359

1:18354,359,366

2:3365

2:9359

2:14365

2:16365

218365

2:23365

2:245366

3:1195,159,161

3:1547

4:5365

4:6367

4:67368

4:68367

4:9366

4:921367

4:11272,360,366

4:12251,359,364

4:13364,365,366

4:16360,367

4:17176,367

4:18367

4:19326,360,366

4:20268,364,365,366,369

4:21360,366

Titus

3:13329

Philemon

1176,236

2149,176,191,236,267,326

67236

89156

91,176

10177,235,236

1012176

1142

14156

1617249

17236

18177

19235,236

22,105,178,179,236,250,251

23174,175,176,221

23437,38

24176,272,359,367

Hebrews

6:6241

12:2241

3John

6329

Revelation

2:13:22175

22:18357

 Page405

III.JewishWritings

AbothofRabbiNathan

6/121352

Aristeas,letterof

181150

BabylonianTalmud

AbodaZara

3b337

BabaMezia

59b337

86a337

Gittin

6b337

Kiddushin

33a85

Yebam

63b62

2Baruch

56.1113244

1Enoch

6.18244

15.112244

49.23244

69.316244

86.188.3244

106.1314244

GenesisRabbah

91350

Josephus

AgainstApion

1.6047

2.48343

2.17511,68

2.17847

2.201290

2.20447

AntiquitiesoftheJews

2.21147

9.18274

11.7036

11.32930343

12.6374

12.119146

12.12641

12.1475333,232

12.241138,229

13.2423343

13.27956

13.387927

14.295

14.1176

14.13741

14.2413232

15.405140

16.14343

16.276041

16.148146

16.163345

16.27135582

16.282582

16.2945

16.34781

17.4156

18.1364

18.2365

18.63474

18.6584139

18.90584

18.10981

18.10915139

18.11082

18.11382

18.11582,84

18.1161961

18.11882

18.120684

18.122343

18.203220

18.261309139

18.31213345

19.281513

19.2879113

19.29013

19.294350

19.614140

20.13326

20.3848139

20.10517140

20.11824140

20.137822

20.18223

20.19723

20.2007,75

20.20164

20.20374

20.26762

20.19920074

JewishWar

1.991027

1.12581

1.1275

1.1578177,180

1.15981

1.18182

1.193441

1.26781

1.3648582

1.425146

2.685,82

2.16364,76

2.16576

2.1847139

2.192203139

2.200320

2.221326

2.22331140

2.24723

2.30839

2.409343

2.412342

2.454151

2.463150

2.56189

3.37476

4.45481

5.1596081

6.300923

7.45150

7.110147

7.17281

7.36889

Life

562

1254

41462

41562

42762

Jubilees

1.17244

12.196

15.12196

15.2434138

15.334138

21.2197

22.16125

23.153

Mishnah

Aboth

1.131659

1.1760

1.1855

 Page406

Aboth(cont.)

2.286

2.560

2.659

5.214,47

Berokot

8.7342

Gittin

9.3155

Hagigah

1.859

Makkot

3.101468

Niddah

5.647

6.1147

Sabbath

7.276

Shekalim

2.1345

Sotah

9.1556

Yadaim

4.648

Yoma

8.447

PhiloDeAbrahamo

1736

2736

798077

25136

DeConfusioneLinguarum

6836

82303

12936

DeCongressuEruditionisgratia

3736

InFlaccum

26165

DeGigantibus

54303

DeJosepho

2236

2836

LegatioadGaium

13268

14183

15668

15671213

188139

198348139

21047

28133

2812142

LegumAllegoriarum

1.395303

3.6974281

DeMigrationeAbrahami

8994303

8992138

DeMutationeNominum

11736

DeOpificoMundi

10352

DePosteritateCaini

138281

DePraemiisetPoenis

536303

QuaestionesinGenesin

1.27290

QuaestionesinExodum

2.2138

QuisrerumdivinarumHeressit

2645282

QuodomisProbusLibersit

412311

47311

113311

117311

131311

DeSobrietate

911281

557282

DeSomnis

1.5836

2.25138

DeSpeciablibusLegibus

1.305138

2.2293049

DeVirtute

1024120

194156

DeVitaMosis

1.162156,304

2.3303

2.1724303

2.2544303

2.3236

2.52303

2.21611,68

PsalmsofSolomon

1718203

QumranDamascusDocument(CD)

6.569

6.1969

8.2169

10:674

10:7103

19.3469

20.1269

14.1216217

Hymns(1QH)

13:14204

MessianicRules(1QSa)

1.6164

RuleoftheCommunity(1QS)

11:21204

SifreDeut

35156

TestamentsoftheXIIPatriarchs

Test.Issachar

3.563

Test.Levi

11.163

12.563

Test.Zebulon

1.17244

Tosepta

Ketubot

13.3342

Sanhedrin

2.657

 Page407

IV.ChristianWritings

ActsofJohn

61299

ActsofPaul

3.144

ActsofPeter

1.1362

2.6362

AscensionofJames

frag.63

ClementofAlexandria

Stromata

3.6.5264

ClementofRome

EpistletotheCorinthians

5.57361

5.6354

Epiphanius

Panarion

30.16.963

EpistleofPetertoJames

2:35134

EpistulaApostolorum

3353

Eusebius

HistoryoftheChurch

2.15233

2.22360

3.2360

3.30.164

3.369233

MuratortianFragment

389361

Jerome

Comm.inEp.adGalatas

2.3189

Comm.inEp.adPhilemon

vv.23437,38

Epistola108

13.538

DeVirisIllustribus

537,38

PseudoClement

Recognitions

1.42.1135

17.19.479

V.ClassicalAuthors

AeliusAristidesDiscourses

46.24109

4822

AeliusGelliusAtticNights

1.8.34109

1.8.4258

AppianCivilWars

4.1056212

4.106211

History

5.1.734

10316

ApuleiusMetamorphoses

1.798

1.2499

2.1898,100

3.3100

3.2899,100

3.2998

4.399

4.41899

4.1099

4.1299

4.1398,297

7.199

7.797,100

7.1112100

7.224297

7.2399

7.2498

8.498

8.1598

8.152399

8.1698

8.1799

9.35100

10.18297

ArrianusDeissertationes

2.5.247245

2.9.20138

2.10.34245

AthenaeusDeipnosophistae

4.151e152b186

4.154b186

6.246b187

13.603a187

BordeauxPilgrimItinerarium99,103

CiceroAdAttium

1.19325

3.14.2114

5.1113279

5.15233

ContraVerrem

2.5.3087

2.5.8087

2.5.13939

2.5.1495139

AdFamiliares

3.1325

3.5233

8.8325

12.24325

16.21325

DeOfficiis

1.47305

150140,89

DeOratore

1.11.4751

ProFlacco

669345

68232

 Page408

AdQuintumFratrem

2.14325

DiodorusSiculusLibraryofHistory

5.2831188

DioCassiusHistory

41.18.45115

41.43.14115

41.44.1420

41.46.2420

47.26.233

47.30.133

47.31.1433

51.4.6115,212

51.20.6167

53.26.3159

57.14.518

57.18.511,139

58.26.1484

60.6.610,140

60.11.220

60.11.618

60.17.319

60.34336

63.19363

68.14.581

60.24.439

DioChrysostomDiscourses

6.6256

8.610259

8.988

8.15259

15.31271

31.113189

31.158189

31.16334

33.1733

33.4234

33.4834,35

33.5734

34.834

34.2187

34.2387

34.2534

DiogenesLaertiusHistoryofPhilosophy

1.99258

DionysiusofHalicarnassusAntiquitatesRomanae

4.22.44.23.741

FrontinusAqueducts

1.1316

GreekAnthology

6.6389

6.6589

9.58169

9.428115

HerodotusHistories

1.4211

1.323

5.100166

7.30232

HomerIliad

2.570109,217

24.525313

Odyssey

3.286258

4.514258

9.80258

19.186258

HoraceEpistles

1.17.36109,258

1.17.52398

2.2.7786108

Odes

1.3.9257

1.3.23257

Satires

1.5363

2.8.6270

2.8.427270

JustinianDigestofRomanLaw

1.16.67212

48.6.739

JuvenalSatires

3.6178171

3.19020365

3.31214354

6.153487

6.18499213

6.47980272

6.561354

6.5615179

14.1822272

14.32931336

LivyHistoryofRome

38.15162,191

38.16185

38.17188,190

38.1727186

38.18190

38.1819189

38.2727

44.10.12114

44.10.32114

45.29.9212

45.30115

LucianAlexander

2163

MartialEpigrams

7.35138,229

7.82138,229

Orosius

History

7.6.15169,140

PausaniusDescriptionofGreece

1.20.4108

1.36.344.10257

1.44.6257

1.44.8257

2.1.3257

2.1.72.2258

7.2.4166

10.19.11189

10.36.1189

PetroniusSatyricon

15.48270

PhilostratusLifeofApollonius

1.735,49

1.1362

5.1361

 Page409

6.3433

7.22179

PlinyNaturalHistory

2.12220

2.27662

4.911258

4.36115

5.7481

5.105232

5.115166

5.147159

11.13145

11.27564

19.4329

19.2287

19.23487

29.33191

31.6219

31.84191

PlinytheYoungerLetters

2.14213

6.2597

9.21177

9.24177

10.15296

10.17296,364

10.9668,269

PlutarchAnthony

25834

36.281

CatoMajor

14363

Quaestionesconviviales

5.3.13(675D677B)259

QuintilianInstitutioOratoria

2.13.17254

4.2.41202

4.2.83494,132

4.2.101202

RhetoricaadHerrenium

3.16254

SallustWaragainstJugurtha

55.34354

SenecaDeBeneficiis

1.4.2305

6.3.4305

Epistulaemorales

6.5121

104.119

StraboGeography

2.1.1361

2.5.3281

3.1.4330,361

3.2.15362

4.1.13159,185

4.4.2190

4.4.5190

6.2.11352

6.3.7363

7frag.10104

7frag.21114,115

7frag.24114

7.7.14102

8.6.20109,217,258

8.6.23271

9.1.116257

9.1.4257

9.1.1516108

10.3.12192

12.5.1186

12.5.3189,192

12.5.4189

12.6.1190,191

12.7.2191

12.8.8163

13.1.26300

13.4.14232

14.1.20166

14.1.223167

14.1.24166

14.2.5167

14.2.16167

14.2.29165,231

14.5.1149

14.5.1335,52,108

14.5.131449

14.5.1435,51

16.1.5167

16.2.2081

16.4.2181

16.4.2681

17.1.2181

17.1.33167

SuetoniusAugustus

32.197

4882

Caesar

39.487

Claudius

1520

1820

25140,147

25.49,11

28218

4221

Nero

16147

Tiberius

897,233

36.1139

37.197

TacitusAnnals

1.21354

1.76.4115

1.80.1115

2.577

2.85.5139

6.31784

12.5423

13.1326

13.10371

14.27.1233

14.44.2147

15.44369

16.23166

TerenceTheBrothers

57185360

TheEunuch

2513305

VegetiusEpitomareimilitaris

4.3920

VitruviusDeArchitectura

1.2.7246

8.3.10232

XenophonAnabasis

1.2.6232

1.2.2333

 Page410

GeneralIndex

Abraham:

Christ227

faithof206

missiontoGentiles1968

promiseto135

stimulustoPaul210

acclamation,imperial1617

ActsoftheApostles:

criticaltextvi

historicalvaluevi

sourcecriticism9,15,39,43,71,147,214,259,274,300,343,347,348,351,352,353

Adam,andChrist227

AdamicChristology227

Agdistis192

AgrippaI165

angels:

fall244

worship248

antinomianism,ofPaul342,349

AntiochinPisidia,distancefromDerbe161

AntiochontheOrontes:

arrivalofBarnabas148

baseofPaulandBarnabas95

Christiansnamed1478

claimonPaulinechurches194,200,230,248,294

defectionofBarnabas152

delegationfromJames151

disputewithPeter,dateof132

eatingcompromise150

Jewishpopulation146

mandatedPaul131,133,145,201

mixedcommunity149

rejectedbyPaul158,194,329

spiesfromJerusalem133

unworthymotivesof134

antiSemitism139

Aphrodesiasinscription143

Apollos:

baptismofJohn173

contentofteaching281

cooptedintothePaulinemission274

formationinAlexandria275

inEphesus184,274

influenceofPhilo275,276,281,302

returnedtoEphesus276

rhetoricalqualifications276

successasateacher276

appearanceorvision77

Arabia:

locationof81

reasonforPaul'svisit80

whyPaulfailed824

Archippus,defectingleader236

archisynagogos267

AretasIV834

Aristobulus326

Artemis,templeof1679

Asclepius246

Asia,provinceof167

AsiaMinor,mapof160

Athens:

roadtoCorinth256

unsatisfactorybase108

waitingforTimothy107

Augustus83,167

authenticity:

of2Thessalonians111

of2Timothy357

ofPastoralLetters356

Axylon190

Barnabas:

delegateofAntioch132

leaderinfirstjourney95

recruitsPaul148

senttoAntioch148

sideswithJames152

benefactions:

attitudeofPaul306

roleinsociety305

wealthybelievers267

body:

arenaofcommitment285

ofChrist2456,2869

Cabiruscult118

canal,Corinthian258

CapeMalea258

 Page411

celibacy:

Essenes62

Jews62

Paul63

Celts:

characteristicsof1867,188

Galatians185

originsof185

Cephas:

inAntioch152

inCorinth277

charismaticcompositions226

charisms288

Chloe272,278

Christ:

bodyof205,2869

community210

faith/fidelityof204

imageofGod313

nameforcommunity205,287

newAdam227

newlaw205

subjectofhymns225,240

Christians,nameof148

church:

autonomous285

differentmeanings191

fundamentalministry288

house149

unityorganic205,245,288,322

whole149,172

CilicianGates158

circumcision:

absolutelynecessary133,134,138

nameofpeople207

painful198

ridiculedbypagans209,229

citizenship,Roman3941

Claudius:

administrator201

attitudetowardsJews13

edictof9,333

lettertoAlexandria1314

lettertoDelphi16

regnalyears9,16,22

coauthorship264,308

collection:

accusationsofmisuse254,319

agreementbetweenchurches145

Corinthiansinformed307

difficultiesforPaul218

embarassedJudaizers308

giftmisinterpreted216,218

journeytoJerusalem3434

loveofmotherchurch308

Luke'sknowledge348

Paul'spersonalcommitment145

practicaldetails314

problemforJerusalem349

prudentmanagement218

transportingmoney3457

Colossae:

churchfoundedfromEphesus174

earthquake233

gavenametocolour234

heresy248

inferiortoneighbours233

Jewishdeportees232

Jewishobservances247

plannedvisitofPaul178,250

returningnativeapostle235

Colossians:

authenticity2379

Christology240

eschatology247

exceptiontoPaul'srule175

householdcode248

hymn240

writtenatEphesus178

Colossinus(colour)234

commonhighway165,231

community:

mixed,problemsof143,149

namedasChrist287

problemsofsize169

spiritualtemple226

unityorganic205,245,288

conversion:

knowledgetransmuted78

recallingexperience119

recognitionappearance72

references71

Corinth:

advantagesasbase109

compositionofcommunity271

definitivedeparture323

delegationfrom280

eucharistat286

firstconverts2658

formationoffactions277

foundationaccordingtoActs25965

infantilementality277,289,331

intermediatevisit2912

Judaizers293

neutrality295

NorthMarket263

Paulinsulted2935

problemscausedbyspiritpeople280

proverbs258

receptionofJudaizers294

roadtoAthens256

routetoMacedonia296

 Page412

Corinth(cont.)

sizeofcommunity278

slaves271

slogans277

spiritpeople282

1Corinthians:

integrity2534

occasion280

2Corinthians:

carefulcraftsmanship309

integrity2546

occasionofchs.19308

occasionofchs.1013319

3Corinthians356

covenant:

new207,302

separatedfromLaw207

covenantalnomism336

Crispus267

criterioninmoraljudgment221

crucifixion312

Cybele,shrineatPessinus192

D.

Damascus:

Gentilepopulation90

Paul'sdeparturefrom47

Qumran69

reasonforPaul'svisit68

death:

sin335

unionwithChrist221

Delphi:

cityof18

inscription15

letterofClaudius16

descriptionofPaul44

Diaspora:

AramaicandGreek32

Pharisees57

diatribe334

dietarylaws150,229

diolkos258

divineindwelling243

divorce1545

education:

Jerusalem32

Paul501

primary478

rhetorical49

Epaphras174,175,231,234

Ephesians,authenticity356

Ephesus:

admirablebase166,278

believersbaptizedbyJesus172

buildingsofAugustus167

chronologyofPaul'syears1824

collectionvisit347

communications278

compositionofchurch173

foundingofchurch171,223

futiledebate365

harbours166

houses169

imprisonmentofPaul1759,1823,220

lastvisit364

lettersfrom178,221

missionaryexpansion173,231

Paul'sdeparture298

population169

riotofsilversmiths300

Romans16,letterto325

tensionsinthechurch220,222

theatre167

theologicalverbalism366

Timothy'sleadership365

Erastus:

missiontoMacedonia279

officialposition269

eschatology123,247

Etesianwinds165

eucharist286

Europe211

excommunication285

faith:

fidelity,ofChrist204

law206

responsetotransforminggrace284

familyofPaul35

Felix223,351

Festus23,351

financialaid,seebenefactions

fool'sspeech319

forgedletters357

freedom:

Galatians208

rootedincommunity209,285

fullness243

Gaius/Caligula:

antiSemitisminAlexandria139

JupiterinJerusalemTemple139

GaiusofCorinth267

Galatia:

administrativeregions189

climateandgeography190

identityoftheintruders193

journeysthrough164

location15962

products191

tacticsoftheintruders194

 Page413

Galatians:

dateof1802

paralleledbyPhilippiansLetterC229

relationto2Corinthians1013181

relationtoRomans180

slavelanguage208

Galatians:

Celts185,190

describedbycontemporaries1868

frightenedbyfreedom198

gracedbySpirit206

judgedbyGreeks189

languages189

Galilee,Phariseesin56,58

Gallio1821

GamalielI556,57

Gaul,andGalatia185

Gaul,Dying188

Gischala37

Glossolalia281

God,boundbyrabbinicdecisions3378

Godfearer214

graceasvisiblepower284

Hebrew36,37

HerodAntipas82

HerodtheGreat82,83

Hierapolis174,232

housechurch149,169,172,267

householdcode248

humanity,withoutChrist227

hymns:

charismaticcompositions226

editorialadditions225,240

structure225,240

illness,Paul's161,162

Illyricum316,323,363

imageofGod313

imitation:

Christ156

Paul156

imprisonment:

investigative220

notpunitive179

inns99

inscriptions:

Aphrodesias143

Delphi15

Ephesus166

intermediatestate221

Isthmiangames258

James:

agreementwithPaul138

interferenceatAntioch151

Jerusalem:

accidents65

Paul'sagreementwithPeter93,131

Paul'slastvisit348

Paul'sresidencein53,201

Paul'svisittoCephas90

problemswithcollection349

purificationofPaul350

socialconditions1445

Jerusalemconference:

interpretationsofagreement1423

needfor133,136

solution137

Jesus:

encounteredbyPaul?61

incarnatedauthenticity312

lifemanifested311

otherChrists314

parables82

Paul'sknowledgeof91

Sabbathobservance76

Jews:

associationwithGentiles150

dietaryrequirements150

expelledfromRome9,139,140

identity141

legalprivileges139

salvation33940

JohntheBaptist172

Josephus,andJesus734

journeytoRome351

Judaizers:

alliancewithspiritpeopleatCorinth302

criticismofPaulinGalatia1956

failureinMacedonia228,294

justificationforinterference194

visionofChristianity1968

Laodicea174,232

Law:

faith206

identifiedwithChrist156

legalism153,154,337

nolongerwillofGod156

obedienceisdisobedience153

rivaltoChrist152

roomforobediencealone209,338

separatedfromcovenant207

Sin335

studiedbyGod337

LawofChrist156,205

letter:

ending325

Painful255,297

postscript254

 Page414

letter(cont.)

Previous252,276,279

recipientsnamed326

LettertotheAlexandrians357

LettertotheLaodiceans356,357

LetterofTitus356

love120,153,157,205,288

Luke:

greetsRomans272

hiterarytechnique300,347

manipulatesPaulinejoureys131

referencestosecularevents9,15

useofsources25965

useofTraelJoural34354

Lycusvalley:

evangelizedbyPaul'sagent165,174

Jewishinhibitnats232

seismicactivity233

woolproduction233

LydiaofThyatira234

Macedonia:

borderwithIllyricum317

borderwithThessaly104

dangerfromJudaizers296

qualityofchurches102

maintenance,needfor164

Meander,river231

Messiah203

Miletus,Paul'sdiscourseat347

missionaries,basisofselection234

moraldirectives154,286

moraljudgement,criterion221,286,289

Moses303,310

motherofPaul45

MuratorianCanon357

Mysia162,163

N.

Naziritevow350

Neapolis211

Nero:

fireofRome368

persecutionofChristians369

regnalyears371

newcovenant207

NicolausofDamascus83

NorthGalatiahypothesis159

Onesimus1767,235

Onesiphorus359

organicunity288

PainfulLetter255,297

Pamukkale232

parentsofPaul379

parody320

PastoralLetters:

authenticityrefused356

notaliteraryunity357

2Timothyauthentic358

Paul:

abusive228,254

administrativedecisions155

agreementwithPeter93

anticipationofreleasefromprison367

antinomian1536,342,349

apostletoGentiles79,89

beginningsofhisChristology203

biasagainstspeculation282

changestravelplans296,297,304

citieshymns225,240

claimsdivinemandate202

client306

confrontsdeath221

consistentinthought302

coreteching79,203

criticisesrhetoric243,284

education201,206,245,319,320,334,339

emphasizescrucifixion312

experiencedoppression100,209,336

flatterer304

generosity302

illnessinGalatia161,162

illtreatsspiritpeople282

intellectuallylethargic205

invective228

knowledgeofhistoricalJesus91

knowledgeofScriptures47,339

learnsfromcommunities226

learnsfrommistakes311

manifestsJesus205,239,31114

manuallabourer86,261

married64

martyrdom368

maverick158

missionarystrategy164

moraldirectives1248,1547

passionate320

pessimistic346

propheticvocation80

recruitmentpolicy:

middleclass268

natives235

returnstoRomefreely369

Saul42

selfabsorbed230

subsidizedstudent86

treatmentofassociates315

unchristiantactics2823

valueofhissufferings238

viewofhisapostolicoffice239

 Page415

viewofslavery249

visittoSpain3613

visitstoJerusalem94,130

wilfultantrum2234

workshop117,263,267

Pergamum175

persecutionofchurch:

Luke'sversion65

Paul'sversion67

Pessinus162,164,186,189,191,192

Pharisees:

intheDiaspora57

inGalilee56,58

knowledgeofJesus73

originsandethos546,150

studies59

Philadelphia175

Philemon,locationofhousechurch176

Philemon,writtenatEphesus178

Philinus,GnaeusBabbius270

Philippi:

benefactions217

deities213

description21112

foundingofchurch213

judicialprocess21415

placeofprayer213

threatofJudaizers228

visitsofPaul178,222,364

womenleaders224

Philippians:

integrity21520

writtenatEphesus178

Philo,influenceonApollos275,282

Phoebe270,325

Phrygia:

judgedbyGreeks189

supremedeity192

territory162

physiognomy44

politeuma222

postscript254

praitorion220,222

precepts:

destroyfreedom1556

Jesus154

PreviousLetter252,276,279

PriscaandAquila:

convertedinRome263

employedPaulinCorinth234,261

foundedchurchinEphesus1712

placedinEphesus131,171

senttoRome329,331

proverbsaboutCorinth258

relativesofPaul456

rhetoricaltechniques320

returnees,advantagesasmissionaries235

robbers97

Roman:

citizenship3941

law,illustratedbyActs179

name413

Romans:

diatribe334

occasion332

originality335

textualproblems324

Rome:

compositionofchurch333

expulsionofJews333

fireof368

journeyfromJerusalem351

relationswithSpain362

Paul'sfirstimprisonment354,360

Paul'ssecondimprisonment359

plantovisit323

reasonforPaul'sreturn369

refusedtocommissionPaul362

visitor'sproblem359

runawayslaves177

sailing,contrarywinds145,165,183,256,296,346

salvationofJews33940

Sangarios,river162,189,190,192

Sardis175

Saul42

Sceironianrocks257

Seneca19,21,362

sevenages1

sevenwondersoftheworld167

sin100,3359

slavery249,271

slogansatCorinth277

Smyrna175

societalpressure100,208,210,227,336,338

society,characteristicsof288

Sosthenes,coauthor264,308

SouthGalatiahypothesis159

Spain:

linguisticproblems362

missiontobesponsoredbyRome32930

Paul'sabortivevisit3613

reasonsforchoice330

spiritpeople:

alliancewithJudaizers294,302,309

humiliatedby1Cornthians282,294,295,302,304

influencedbyPhilo2802

spiritual:

gifts288

 Page416

spiritual(cont.)

songs226

temple226

Statue,DyingGaul188

statusinconsistency26871

Stephanas267

stoicheiatoukosmou208

suffering,meaningof313

tablefellowship149

Tarsus335

tartan188

temple,giftsfrompagans3423

tentmaker:

reasonsforPaul'schoice86

professionalassociation87

tools88

typeofwork87,259

Tertius268,272

TestimoniumFlavianum74

Theseus257

1Thessaalonians:

integrity105

misinterpretationpossible112

twoletters106,110

2Thessalonians:

authenticity110

integrity105

Thessalonica:

Cabirusworship118

deities116

eschatology122

persecution119

relationswithRome115

socialclassofconverts117

suspicionofsubversion118

workshopministry117

thornintheflesh321

Thyatira175

Tiberius:

fifteenthyear82

policyreeasternfrontier83

Timothy:

coauthor308

missiontoCorinth279,292

missiontoMacedonia294

missiontoThessalonica106,262,279

problemsatEphesus365

Titus:

bearerofPainfulLetter298

circumcisionrefused137

collectiondelegate315

reportfromCorinth301

trade,socialstigma89

transformationbygrace284

travel:

companionsnecessary315

dangers97,257

inns99

journal343,344,346,347,3524

notinwinter20,299

robbers97

wildanimals98

treelessland190

Troas162,163,300

ViaAppia363

ViaEgnatia102,103,104,163,211,317,323,363

wallcrown320

wealthyCorinth217

women,ministryof215,224,270,28990

workshop117,263,267

world,characteristicsof227,288