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POLYATOMIC IONS Insoluble Reactants Soluble or Insoluble Product
Carbonate (CO3 ), Bicarbonate (HCO3 )
-2 -1
INDICATOR COLORS
Phosphate (PO4 ), Phosphite (PO3 )
-3 -3
Methyl Orange
Sulphate (SO4 ), Sulphite (SO3 )
-2 -2
Red in Acid (below pH 4)
Nitrate (NO3 ), Nitrite (NO2 )
-1 -1
Orange/Yellow in Alkali (above pH 4)
Ammonium (NH4 )
+1
Phenolpthalein
Hydroxide (OH )
-1
Pink in Alkali (Above pH 8)
+1
ACIDS (They produce H ions when dissolved in water) Colorless in Acid (Below pH 8)
Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) Universal Indicator
Nitric Acid (HNO3), Nitrous Acid (HNO2) Strong Acid (Red), Weak Acid (Orange)
Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4), Sulphurous Acid (H2SO3) Weak Alkali (Blue), Strong Alkali (Purple)
Phosphoric Acid (H3PO4), Phosphorous Acid Neutral (Green)
(H3PO3) REACTIVITY SERIES/EASE OF DISCHARGE
Carbonic Acid (H2CO3) (most reactive) K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al, (C), Zn, Fe, Sn, Pb, (H)
BASES/ALKALIS Cu, Ag, Au, Pt (least reactive)
NH3/NH4OH, Metal Oxides and Metal Hydroxides are all EASE OF DISCHARGE OF ANIONS
-1 -1 -1 -1 -2 -1
Bases. Bases that dissolve in water are alkalis All I , Br , OH , Cl , SO4 , NO3 etc (underlined ions get
+ discharged when present in concentrated amount)
Gp1/NH4 Hydroxides are soluble and those lower down in
GpII (Ba(OH)2, Sr(OH)2 & partially Ca(OH)2) EXTRACTION OF IRON
SOLUBILITY OF SALTS Iron Ore (Haematite) Fe2O3 is reduced with Coke
All nitrate/Gp1 and NH4 compounds are soluble
+ (Carbon) in blast furnace.
All sulphate salts are soluble except PbSO4, BaSO4 & Fe2O3 + C -> Fe + CO2
partially CaSO4 Fe2O3 + CO -> Fe + CO2
All carbonate and phosphate salts are insoluble except Calcium Carbonate is added to the blast furnace to get rid
+1
Group 1 and NH4 salts of sand SiO2
Group 1 and NH4 salts are all soluble
+1 CaCO3 -> CaO + CO2 (decomposes due to heat)
All chlorides/bromides/iodides are soluble except Ag ,
+1 CaO + SiO2 -> CaSiO3 (which forms slag)
+2
Pb salts. Heat is produced in blast furnace when Coke (Carbon)
o AgCl, PbCl2 are white ppt soluble in dilute combusts in hot air.
NH3(aq) EXTRACTION OF ALUMINIUM
o AgBr, PbBr2 are cream ppt soluble in
concentrated NH3(aq)
o AgI, PbI2 are yellow ppt insoluble in NH3(aq)
REACTIONS OF ACIDS/BASES
Acid + Base -> Salt + water
Acid + Metal carbonate -> Salt + Water + CO2
Acid + Metal -> Salt + H2
Acid + NH3 -> Ammonium Salt
Ammonium Salt + Base/Alkali -> Salt + Ammonia
Bauxite is Al2O3. Al2O3 is amphoteric and is dissolved in
+ Water
NaOH. Other metal oxides which are basic dont dissolve
Metal Carbonate Metal Oxide + CO2
and are filtered out.
Metal Nitrate Metal Oxide + NO2 + O2 (For
Cryolite Na3AlF6 is added to reduce melting point.
Metals other than Group1)
Graphite anode burns away (C+O2->CO2)
Metal Nitrate Metal Nitrite + O2 (For Group1 Cathode:
+3
4Al + 12e -> 4Al
Metals) Anode:
-2
6O -> 3O2 + 12e
PREPARATION OF SALTS
TITRATION: CONTACT PROCESS
Soluble Reactants soluble Products S + O2 -> SO2
PRECIPITATION 2SO2 + O2 2SO3
Soluble Reactants Insoluble Products Conditions for the reversible reaction above: V2O5
EXCESS METHOD 0
catalyst, 450 C, 1-2 atm pressure
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SO3 + H2SO4 H2S2O7 (oleum) o Polyamide (Nylon): (di)Carboxylic Acid +
Oleum diluted in water to get H2SO4 (di)Ammine Polyamide(e.g. Nylon) + H2O
H2S2O7 + H2O 2H2SO4 o Polyamide (Proteins): Amino Acid + Amino Acid
HABER PROCESS Polyamide + H2O
N2 + 3H2 <-> 2NH3 o Polyester: (di)Carboxylic Acid + (di)Alcohol
0
Conditions: 200 atm, 450 C, Iron Catalyst Polyester (e.g. Fats, Terylene) + H2O
DI-ATOMIC MOLECULES: H2, N2, O2, & Group VII (F2, Cl2, o Glucose + Glucose Starch + H2O
Br2, I2) COLOR OF COMPOUNDS
ACIDIC/BASIC/NEUTRAL GASES CuO (black), PbO (yellow), Group1, 2 and 3 are generally
Acidic: CO2, P2O5, NO2, SO2, SO3 white. Anhydrous CuSO4 is white. Hydrous CuSO4.xH2O is
Neutral: H2, O2, N2, CO, NO blue. CuSO4(aq) is blue solution. Fe2O3 is red. Cl2 is
Basic: NH3 greenish gas, Br2 is red brown liquid, I2 is blue black solid.
Amphoteric: ZnO, Al2O3, PbO AgCl/PbCl2 is white, AgBr/PbBr2 is cream, AgI/PbI2 is
OXIDATION STATES (OS) yellow. Hydrous CoCl2 is pink, Anhydrous CoCl2 is blue.
Free element is 0 e.g. Na, O2, I2 etc SOME NAMES OF COMPOUNDS
Elements present in compounds Lime Ca(OH)2, Limestone CaCO3
Group 1 is +1, Group 2 is +2, Group 3 is +3, TEST OF CATIONS
NH4 : Ammonia gas released with NaOH (aq)
+1
Transition Metals have Variable OS.
Fe : insoluble green ppt with both excess NaOH (aq)
+2
Oxygen is -2
Hydrogen is +1 and NH3(aq)
Fe : insoluble red/brown ppt with both excess NaOH
+3
Group 7 is -1 except when bonded to Oxygen
OXIDIZING/REDUCING AGENTS (aq) and NH3(aq)
Ca : white ppt with NaOH (aq) insoluble in excess.
+2
Strong Oxidizing Agents:
Potassium di Chromate K2Cr2O7 (orange). Turns green No or slight ppt with NH3 (aq)
Cu : Pale blue ppt with NaOH (aq) insoluble in
+2
when reduced.
Potassium Mangnate KMnO4 (purple). Turns colorless excess. Pale blue ppt with NH3 (aq) soluble in excess,
when reduced. giving a deep blue solution

+3
Strong Reducing Agents: Al : White ppt with both NaOH (aq) and NH3 (aq)
SO2 is a strong reducing agent, Gets oxidized to SO 3 but only soluble in excess NaOH (aq)
Zn : White ppt, soluble in excess with both NaOH
+2
(SO2 is a bleaching Agent, and a Food Preservative)
I iodide is a strong reducing agents. Gets oxidized to
-1
(aq) and NH3(aq).
I2 iodine. TEST FOR ANIONS
CO3 : CO2 gas produced (effervescence) with
-2
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Free Radical Substitution of Alkanes (UV light aqueous Acid
Cl : Acidify with dilute aqueous nitric acid and add
-1
required) CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl
+1 +2
Cracking of Alkanes (400 C, Al2O3)
o
with Ag or Pb . White ppt produced.
I : Acidify with dilute aqueous nitric acid and add
-1
Bromination of Alkenes (alkenes decolourize
+1 +2
bromine) CH2=CH2 + Br2 CH2BrCH2Br with Ag or Pb . Yellow ppt produced.
NO3 : Add Aluminium foil/powder + NaOH and heat.
-1
Hydration of Alkenes (H3PO4 catalyst, 300 C, 60 atm
0

pressure): Alcohol is formed Ammonia gas is given off

SO4 : Acidify with nitric acid and add Ba . White ppt
-2 +2
Hydrogenation of Alkenes (Nickel catalyst, 200 C)
0

(Vegetable Oil to Margarine) produced

Alcohols get oxidized to Carboxylic Acids
o Reagents: Reflux + Oxidizing Agent (K2Cr2O7
Orange to Green, or KMnO4 Purple to Colorless)
Alcohol + Carboxylic Acid Ester + H2O
o Reflux and Few drops of concentrated H2SO4
o Esters are Sweet smelling compounds
Addition Polymer (Monomers(Alkene) at high T C and
o
TEST FOR GASES
CO2: Turns lime water (Ca(OH)2) milky
NH3: Turns damp red litmus paper blue
H2: Pop sound produced when ignited
O2: Relights a glowing splint
Cl2: Bleaches damp litmus paper
SO2: Turns acidified potassium dichromate (VI) from

Pressure) e.g. Polyethene, Plastics orange to green

Condensation Polymer

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