Soil Tests Descriptions and its ASTM Designations
The plasticity index is the difference between the
1. Moisture content test using the conventional oven
method (ASTM D2216) moisture content of soil
(also referred to as water content) is an indicator of the
amount of water present in soil. Moisture content is the
ratio of the mass of water in a sample to the mass of
solids in the sample, expressed as a percentage
2. Specific gravity Test (ASTM D854) specific
gravity is defined as the ratio of the mass of a given
volume of material to the mass of an equal volume of
water. It tells how much the material is heavier (or
lighter) than water
3. Grain-size analysis of soil Mechanical and
hydrometer method (ASTM D422) grain size
analysis is widely used in engineering classification of
soils. Grain-size analysis is also utilized in part of the
specifications of soil for airfields, roads, earth dams,
and other soil embankment construction. The standard
grain-size analysis test determines the relative
proportions of different grain-sizes as they are
distributed among certain size ranges. Grain-size
analysis of soil containing relatively large particles is
accomplished using sieves through which grains
smaller than the size of the opening will pass, while
larger grains are retained. Soils with small grain sizes
cannot generally be analyzed using sieves because of
the very small size of sieve opening that would be
required and the difficulty of getting such small
particles to pass through. Grain-size analysis for these
soils is done, therefore, by another method
hydrometer analysis. The hydrometer method is based
on Stokes law, which states that the larger the grain-
size, the greater its settling velocity in a fluid. If a soil
sample contains both large and small particles, which
is often the case, its grain-size analysis can be
performed using a combination of the two methods
described.
4. Atterberg Limits and Indices
a.) Liquid limit test (ASTM D4318) the liquid
limit is the dividing line between the liquid and
plastic states. It is quantified for a given soil as
specific water content; from a physical standpoint,
it is the water content at which the shear strength
of the soil becomes so small that the soil flows
to close a standard groove cut in a sample of soil
when it is jarred in a standard manner. The liquid
limit is identified in the laboratory as that water
content at which the groove is closed at a distance
of inches when the soil sample is jarred in the
standard manner by exactly 25 drops (or blows)
from a height of 1 cm. in a standardized liquid
limit device.
b.) Plastic Limit and Plasticity Index Test The
plastic limit is the dividing line between the
plastic and the semi-solid states. It is quantified
for a given soil as specific water content, and from
a physical standpoint, it is the water content at
which the soil will begin to crumble when rolled
into small threads. It is identified in the laboratory
as the lowest water content at which the soil can
be rolled into threads 1/8 inch (3.2 mm) in
diameter without the threads breaking into pieces.
liquid and plastic limits. Along with the other
Atterberg limits, the plastic limit and plasticity
index are valuable in identifying and classifying
soils.
c.) Shrinkage Limit Test (ASTM D427) the
shrinkage limit is the dividing line between the
semi-solid and solid states. It is quantified for a
given soil as specific water content, and from a
physical standpoint, it is the water content that is
just sufficient to fill the voids when the soil is at
the minimum volume it will attain on drying. In
other words, the smallest water content at which
the soil can be completely saturated is the
shrinkage limit. Below the shrinkage limit, any
water content change will not result in volume
change; above the shrinkage limit, any water
content change will result in accompanying
volume change. Another soil parameter that is
often determined in conjunction with the
shrinkage limit is the shrinkage ratio, which is an
indicator of how much volume change may occur
as changes in water content above the shrinkage
limit take place. The shrinkage ratio is defined as
the ratio of given volume change, expressed as a
percentage of the dry volume, to the
corresponding change in water content above the
shrinkage limit, expressed as a percentage of the
mass of oven-dried soil.
5. Moisture Unit Weight Relationships of Soil by
Compaction Test (ASTM D698) compaction means
to press soil particles tightly together by expelling air
from void spaces between the particles. Compaction is
normally doe deliberately often by heavy compaction
rollers, and proceeds rapidly during construction.
Compaction increases soil unit weight, thereby
producing three important effects; (1) an increase in
shear strength, (2) a decrease in future settlement, and
(3) a decrease in permeability. These three changes in
soil characteristics are beneficial to some types of earth
construction, such as highways, airfields, and earth
dams; as a general rule, the greater the compaction, the
greater the benefits will be. The amount of compaction
is quantified in terms of the dry unit weight of the soil.
Usually, dry soils can be compacted best (and thus a
greater unit weight achieved) if for each soil, a certain
amount of water is added. In effect, water acts as a
lubricant, allowing soil particles to be packed together
better. However, if too much water is added, a lower
unit weight will result. Thus, for a given compactive
effort, there is particular moisture content at which dry
unit weight is greatest and compaction is best. This
moisture content is known as optimum moisture
content, and the associated dry unit weight is called the
maximum dry unit weight.
6. Density and Unit Weight of Soil in Place by Sand-
Cone Method (ASTM D1556) in certain cases, it is
necessary to determine the density and/ or unit weight
of a soil either as it exists naturally in the ground or as
it may be compacted in a fill. In the former case, the
density of soil in place may be used to evaluate the
 comparative strength of the soil; in the latter, the unit
weight may be used to document results of field
compaction to meet contract specifications. The
principal use of the in-place soil unit weight test is in
documentation of field compaction. In practice,
representative samples of the soil to be used for fill
material are subjected to the laboratory compaction
test to determine the optimum moisture content and
maximum dry unit weight. The maximum dry unit
weight is used by designers in specifying design shear
strength, resistance to future settlement, and
permeability characteristics. The fill soil is then
compacted mechanically in the field-by-field
compaction methods to achieve the laboratory
maximum dry unit weight (or a percentage of it). In
order to determine whether the laboratory maximum
dry unit weight (or an acceptable percentage thereof)
has been achieved, in-place soil unit weight tests must
be performed in the field on compacted soil.
7. Permeability Test
a.) Permeability Test for Granular Soils by
Constant Head Method (ASTM D2434)
Permeability refers to the propensity of a material
to allow fluid to move through its pores or
interstices. In the context of sol, permeability
generally relates to propensity of a soil to allow
water to move through its void spaces. According
to Darcys Law, the flow rate of water q through a
soil of cross-sectional area A is directly
proportional to the imposed gradient (Slope) i or
q/A. If a constant of proportionality k is
introduced, we obtain equation q = kiA. The
constant k is known as the coefficient of
permeability or just permeability. It indicates the
ease with which water will flow through a given
soil. The greater the value of permeability, the
greater the flow will be for a given area and
gradient. Permeability is important soil parameter
for any project where flow of water through soil is
a matter of concern for example, seepage
through or under a dam and drainage from
subgrades or backfills. There are several factors
that influence the permeability of a soil: the
viscosity of its water (which is a function of
temperature), size and shape of the soil particles,
degree of saturation and void ratio. The void ratio
has a significant influence on permeability. For a
given soil, permeability is inversely proportional
to soil density. The denser a soil, the more tightly
its particles are packed, the smaller will be the
void space and void ratio, and the lower will be
the tendency for the soil to allow water to move
through it. Hence, permeability is directly
proportional to void ratio.
b.) Permeability Test for Fine-Grained and
Granular Soils by Falling Head Method the
falling-head method may be used to determine the
permeability of both fine-grained soils (Such as
silts and clays) and coarse-grained or granular
soils. A permeability of 10-4 cm/sec might be used
for a dam shell or previous backfill.
8. Direct Shear Test (ASTM D3080) the direct shear
test can be performed on both cohesive and
cohesionless soils, and it evaluates both cohesion c and
angle of internal friction . These parameters are used
to evaluate a soils shear strength. As in the triaxial
test, there are three basic types of direct shear test
procedures, determined by sample drainage conditions.
In an unconsolidated undrained (UU) test, shear is
started before the soil sample is consolidated under the
applied normal load. This test is analogous to the UU
triaxial test. For a consolidated undrained (CU) test,
shear is not started (i.e., the shearing force is not
applied) until after settlement resulting from the
applied normal load stops. This test is somewhere
between the CD and CU triaxial test. For a
consolidated drained (CD) test, shear is not started
until after settlement resulting from the applied so
slowly that no pores pressures develop in the sample.
This test is analogous to the CD triaxial test.
9. Unconfined Compressive Strength Test of Cohesive
Soil (ASTM D2166) the unconfined compressive
strength of cohesive soil, qu, is defined as the load per
unit area at which an unconfined prismatic or
cylindrical specimen of soil will fail in a simple
compression test. It is taken to be the maximum load
attained per unit area or the load per unit area at 15%
axial strain, whichever is secured first during the
performance of a test. The unconfined compression
test is perhaps the simplest, easiest and least expensive
test for investigating the approximate shear strength of
cohesive soils in terms of total stress. (The reason the
test is usually limited to cohesive soil is that there is no
lateral support, and the soil sample must be able to
stand alone. A cohesionless soil such as sand cannot
generally stand alone in this manner without lateral
support). The soil parameter cohesion c is taken to be
the unconfined compressive strength (i.e., c = q u/2).
10. Consolidation Test (ASTM D2435) - when
structures are built on saturated soil, the load is
presumed to be carried initially by incompressible
water within the soil. Because of additional load on the
soil, water will tend to be extruded from voids in the
soil, causing a reduction in void volume and settlement
of a structure. In soils of high permeability (coarse-
grained soils), this process requires a short time
interval for completion, with the result that almost all
of the settlement has occurred by the time construction
is complete. However, in soils of low permeability
(fine-grained soils, particularly clayey soils), the
process requires a long time interval for completion,
with the result that strain occurs very slowly. Thus,
settlement takes place slowly and continues over a
long period of time. The phenomenon of compression
due to very slow extrusion of water from the voids in a
fine-grained soils as a result of increased loading (such
as the weight of a structure on a soil) is known as
consolidation. Associated settlement is referred to as
consolidation settlement. It is important to be able to
predict both the rate and magnitude of the
consolidation settlement of structures.
11. California Bearing Ratio Test (ASTM D1883) the
California Bearing ratio (CBR) test is relatively simple
 test that is commonly used to obtain an indication of
the strength of a subgrade soil, subbase, and base
course material for use in road and airfield pavements.
The test is used primarily to determine empirically
required thicknesses of flexible pavement for highways
and airfield pavements. CBR tests are normally
performed on remolded (compacted) specimens,
although they may be conducted on undisturbed soils
or on soil in situ. Remolded specimen may be
compacted to their maximum unit weight at their
optimum moisture content (ASTM Methods D698 and
D1557) if the CBR is desired at 100% maximum dry
unit weight and optimum moisture content. CBR tests
may be performed, however, over the ranges of unit
weight and moisture contents that are expected during
construction. Soil specimen may be tested unsoaked or
soaked the latter by immersing them in water for a
certain period of time in order to simulate very poor
soil conditions. The CBR for a soil is the ratio
(expressed as percentage) obtained by dividing the
penetration stress required to cause a 3 sq. in area
(hence, a 1.95 in. diameter) piston to penetrate 0.10 in.
into the soil by a standard penetration stress of 1,000
psi. This standard penetration stress is roughly what is
required to cause the same piston to penetrate 0.10 in.
into a mass of crushed rock. The CBR may be thought
of, therefore, as an indication of the strength of the soil
relative to that of crushed rock.
12. Triaxial Compression Test (ASTM D2850) the
triaxial compression test is carried out in a manner
somewhat similar to the unconfined compression test
in that a cylindrical soil specimen is subjected to a
vertical (axial) load. The major difference is that,
unlike unconfined compression tests, where there is no
confining lateral pressure; triaxial tests are performed
on cylindrical soil specimens encased in rubber
membranes with confining lateral pressure present.
The magnitude of the lateral pressure can be chosen
and is made possible by placing specimen within a
pressure chamber, into which water or air is then
pumped. The soil specimen in the chamber under a
chosen lateral pressure is subjected to an increasing
axial load until the specimen fails. The procedure is
then repeated on additional specimens at other
confining pressures.
The lateral pressure, or chamber pressure, which is
applied to the ends of the specimen as well as its sides,
is called the minor principal stress. The externally
applied axial load divided by the cross-sectional area
of the test specimen is the unit axial load. The minor
principal stress plus the unit axial load is called the
major principal stress.
Triaxial compression test results are analyzed by
plotting Mohr circles for the stress conditions of each
specimen when failure occurs. By evaluating the
plotted Mohr circles, the soils shear strength
parameters (cohesion c and angle of internal friction
) can be determined. These parameters are used to
evaluate the shear strength of the soil.
The unconfined compression test is a special case of
the triaxial compression test in which the confining
pressure is zero. Note that triaxial tests can be applied
to both cohesive and cohesionless soils, whereas
unconfined compression tests are limited more or less
to cohesive soils.
There are three basic types of triaxial compression test
procedures as determined by sample drainage
conditions: unconsolidated undrained, consolidated
undrained, and consolidated drained. These can be
defined as follows:
a.) Unconsolidated Undrained (UU) tests carried
out by placing a specimen in the chamber and
introducing lateral pressure without allowing the
specimen to consolidate (drain) under the
confining pressure> Axial load is then applied
fairly rapidly without permitting drainage of the
specimen. The UU test can be run rather quickly
because the specimen is not required to
consolidate under the confining pressure or drain
during application of the axial load. Because of
the short time required to run this test, it is often
referred to as the quick, or Q test.
b.) Consolidated Undrained (CU) tests performed
by placing a specimen in the chamber and
introducing lateral pressure. The specimen is then
allowed to consolidate under the all-around
confining pressure by leaving the drain lines open.
The drain lines are then closed, and axial stress is
induced without allowing further drainage.
c.) Consolidated Drained (CD) tests similar to CU
tests, except that the specimen is allowed to drain
as axial load is applied, so that high excess pore
pressures do not develop. Because the
permeability of clayey soils is low, axial load must
be added very slowly during CD tests so that pore
pressure can be dissipated. CD tests may take a
considerable period of time to run because of the
time required for both consolidation under the
confining pressure and drainage during application
of axial load. In as much as the time requirement
is long for low-permeability soils, this test is often
referred to as the slow or S, test.