energies

Article
The Performance of Polymer Flooding in
Heterogeneous Type II ReservoirsAn Experimental
and Field Investigation
Huiying Zhong 1, *, Weidong Zhang 1 , Jing Fu 2 , Jun Lu 3 and Hongjun Yin 1, *
1 Key Laboratory for Enhanced Oil & Gas Recovery of the Ministry of Education,
Northeast Petroleum University, Daqing 163318, China; zwdhenan@163.com
2 Department of Geological Sciences and Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology,
Rolla, MO 65401, USA; jfy69@mst.edu
3 McDougall School of Petroleum Engineering, University of Tulsa, Tulsa, OK 74104, USA; jun-lu@utulsa.edu
* Correspondence: zhhy987@126.com (H.Z.); yinhj7176@126.com (H.Y.); Tel.: +86-459-650-4066 (H.Z. & H.Y.)

Academic Editor: Mofazzal Hossain

Received: 12 January 2017; Accepted: 27 March 2017; Published: 1 April 2017

Abstract: The polymer flooding process has already been applied to the medium permeability type
II reservoirs of the Daqing Oilfield (China) to enhance oil recovery. However, this process faces
a number of challenges, such as the flooding efficiency, high injection pressure, formation blockage
and damage, unbalanced absorption ratio, and economical justification. In this study, single-phase
and two-phase flow experiments are performed to investigate polymer injection adaptability with
natural cores of type II reservoirs. The enhanced oil recovery (EOR) effects of the polymer are
studied by physical simulation experiments, and the results of application in an actual field are also
presented. The results indicate that the flow characteristics and injection capability are dominated by
the reservoir permeability in polymer flooding. Moreover, the adsorption of polymer molecules and
the injection pressure gradient, which reflect formation damage, are affected more significantly by
the concentration than by the molecular weight in type II reservoirs. Using the matching relationship,
the injection-production process is stable, and additional oil recoveries of 10%15% can be obtained
in heterogeneous type II reservoirs with a high water saturation. This work is significant in that it
further accelerates the application of polymer flooding EOR in medium permeability heterogeneous
oilfields with high water saturation.

Keywords: polymer flooding; injection performance; residual resistance coefficient; enhanced oil
recovery (EOR); Daqing Oilfield

1. Introduction
It is well known that crude oil plays an important role in providing energy supply to the world
among the various sources of energy. After primary and secondary recovery processes, typically,
an excess of 60% of the original oil in place (OOIP) remains within the formation [14]. Against this
background, enhanced oil recovery (EOR) has been revitalized globally in the past three decades.
At present, the fall in oil prices has contributed to the fact that many EOR projects are facing cancellation
or delay, but the tertiary techniques including CO2 -EOR for improving the production of partially
depleted reservoirs is still an attractive option. A survey in 2014 showed that miscible CO2 floods
yielded 292,735 bbls per day, which accounted for 38% of oil production for EOR processes in
the USA [510]. The EOR potential evaluation, which assessed more than 200 onshore oilfields
of 17 different worldwide oil reserved districts, indicates that China has great EOR potential [11].
The estimate of the incremental recoverable reserves that adopt chemical flooding (polymer flooding,

Energies 2017, 10, 454; doi:10.3390/en10040454 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2017, 10, 454 2 of 19

alkalipolymer flooding, and alkalisurfactantpolymer flooding) accounts for 76% of the covered
reserves out of all EOR methods used in China. The target of annual oil production of over 95 million
barrels (bbls) before 2016 by chemical flooding EOR has been accomplished, and the gradual increase
of crude oil production of China will be achieved [12,13].
As the most common chemical EOR process used to improve the oil recovery factor in oil fields,
polymer flooding can increase the viscosity of injection water by adding a water-soluble high molecular
weight polymer, which decreases the mobility ratio of the solution to oil and enhances the extent of
injection profile reversal, and, hence, improves the volumetric sweep efficiency [14]. This means the
viscosity increase can induce a viscous pressure gradient across layers with different permeabilities
and partially divert the flow of the injected polymer solution from the high permeability to the low
permeability layer and hence, can improve conformance. Moreover, because of the adsorption behavior
during a polymer flooding process, the absolute permeability of the porous media declines in a certain
range, and because of the viscoelastic properties of the solutions, the oil/water relative permeability
can also decline.
Since 1996, polymer flooding in the Daqing Oilfield (China) has realized industrialization and has
entered into the commercial application stage. More than 50 blocks of polymer flooding have been
applied in the oilfield thus far; the average incremental oil recovery factor was approximately 13%
(OOIP) greater than that when water flooding was performed, and the accumulated oil production by
polymer flooding has achieved 792 million bbls, where one ton of polymer powder can increase oil by
approximately 870 bbls [1517]. As seen, considerable economic benefits have been obtained.
Generally, the polymer flooding efficiency has significantly increased with the development of
polymer product properties and injection-production technologies, and the integrated techniques
concerning reservoir engineering, oil production engineering, surface engineering, and dynamic
monitoring in field tests of polymer flooding have been realized based on a series of successful field
experiences [12]. At present, the target reservoir type by polymer flooding has extended from high
permeability sandstone reservoirs to medium and low permeability sandstone reservoirs as well as
from sandstone reservoirs to conglomerate reservoirs and complex fault block reservoirs [16,18]. The oil
reservoir class standard of the Daqing Oilfield is established based on the sedimentary characteristics
and development status. High permeability sandstone reservoirs whose effective thickness is greater
than 4 m and has a permeability greater than 800 103 m2 ; this reservoir is classified as a type
I reservoir, which is the primary reservoir type in the field. Sandstone reservoirs whose effective
thickness is within 14 m with a permeability greater than 100 103 m2 are deemed as medium
permeability reservoirs and are classified as type II reservoirs. Low permeability sandstone reservoirs
whose effective thickness is less than 1 m with a permeability of less than 100 103 m2 are classified
as type III reservoirs. In the EOR practice of the Daqing Oilfield, a cost-effective process has been
investigated to further produce residual oil from major reservoirs entering the later development
period of polymer flooding; for medium permeability type II reservoirs, which have a relatively strong
heterogeneity, poor connectivity, thin oil layers, and a small growing sand body, polymer flooding
processes for EOR have already been applied and have become a necessity for stable production levels
of a maturing field base.
The practice of industrialized polymer flooding in the type II reservoir typical blocks of the
Daqing Oilfield has proven that an average EOR value of 12.3% (OOIP) can be obtained and has
played a significant role in the process of sustainable development of energy [18]. However, the
injection performance of viscous polymer solutions has been a concern for field application of polymer
flooding, where the permeability is critical to polymer injection because low-permeability formations
may prevent polymer molecules from flowing through pores or pore throats. Furthermore, polymer
adsorption in reservoirs is essentially irreversible, and the adsorbed polymers will permanently
damage the formation. Several experimental studies have investigated the resulting effect of polymer
adsorption during polymer flooding [1922]. The previous study carried out by Wang et al. [23]
identified the polymer injection ability on type I reservoirs with different water-wash degree, and
Energies 2017, 10, 454 3 of 19

the feasibility of reducing residual oil after water flooding in strong water-wash degree reservoirs
by polymer solutions with high molecular weight and high concentration was evaluated. However,
the residual resistance measurements were merely operated in single-phase flow and whether the
adsorption behavior could be alleviated with the existence of oil was not mentioned in their work,
and the results were not validated by the field data as well. Residual oil after polymer flooding is
more difficult to recover by other processes because the formation permeability has been reduced to
different degrees. This is the reason why fewer polymer flooding projects have been performed in
carbonate reservoirs.
To extend the laboratory results to field scale, a mathematical model that is capable of considering
important mechanisms that influence injectivity has been proposed, and systematic simulations of
injectivity, which declines during polymer flooding, were performed recently by Lotfollahi et al. [24].
Although the injectivity model can calculate the injection pressure in both the coreflood and field
tests, from which, an understanding of the contribution of different phenomena to the pressure
rise in polymer-injection wells can be obtained, the filtration model, which was coupled with a
polymerrheology model to simulate the permeability reduction, did not consider the impact of
flushing of polymer junk removal; the successful case used a sandstone reservoir, which also has
a high average porosity and high average permeability. Furthermore, the reduction of injectivity in
polymer flooding process can significantly affect the economic results of oilfield development. It is
crucial to evaluate the success of the EOR performance from both perspectives of technology and
economics. In terms of economic issues in EOR, Van and Chon [25,26] have investigated the efficiency
of chemical flooding in horizontal wells and heavy-oil reservoirs, they concluded that the chemical
injection plans should be employed consistently when considering the considerable fluctuations in oil
prices, and understanding the effects of well combination patterns to the EOR performance would be
beneficial to the success of EOR projects on economic and technical issues.
Therefore, polymer flooding processes in type II reservoirs still face the challenges of flooding
efficiency, high injection pressure, formation blockage and damage, unbalanced absorption ratio, and
economical justification; several key techniques of polymer flooding that involve polymer screening
and evaluation, viscosity loss control, separated layer injection, and eccentrically wearing prevention
constantly still require innovation. Moreover, the matching relationship between polymer injection
parameters and actual reservoirs is the most highlighted and specific problem.
In this work, we attempt to build a promising method to address the aforementioned challenges.
Laboratory experiments of polymer injection adaptability with natural cores were performed based
on coring interpretation data of type II reservoirs in the Daqing Oilfield. The adsorption behavior
was characterized and compared in polymer solution single-phase flow and polymeroil two-phase
flow. Cores of different levels of permeabilities and different polymers were used to cover a range of
conditions that might be encountered in a typical field application of type II reservoirs. The formation
damage during polymer injection was evaluated, and a matching relation schema was established
according to different polymer molecular weights and concentrations for the resistance coefficient,
residual resistance coefficient, and injection capability factor in a flooding environment, which related
to micro-pore structure characteristics. The EOR effects of the polymer in type II reservoirs were
obtained with the help of physical simulation experimental data of co-injection and separated-layer
production with three field-oriented parallel cores. Furthermore, the application of heterogeneous
type II reservoirs in the Daqing Oilfield is also presented, and the role of a matching relationship
between polymer injection parameters and reservoirs in EOR is discussed and explained.
Energies 2017, 10, 454 4 of 19

Energies 2017, 10, 454 4 of 19

2. Experimental Material and Setup

2. Experimental
2.1. Experimental Material and Setup
Materials

2.1.1.2.1. Experimental Materials

Cores
The
2.1.1.natural
Cores cores used for single-phase and two-phase flow characteristic measurements and
for polymer The adsorption-induced
natural cores used forpermeability reduction
single-phase and evaluation
two-phase were sampled
flow characteristic from the
measurements andtype II
reservoir
for polymer adsorption-induced permeability reduction evaluation were sampled from the type II with
of the Pu I horizon in the Daqing Oilfield. The cores were cut into cylindrical shapes
diameters of 25
reservoir of mm and
the Pu lengthsinofthe
I horizon approximately 60 The
Daqing Oilfield. mm.cores
Thewere
corescut
were
intoextracted forshapes
cylindrical approximately
with
72 h diameters
by a compound
of 25 mm solvent
and (benzene/alcohol = 3:1) and
lengths of approximately wereThe
60 mm. then dried
cores at aextracted
were temperature
for of
105 C.
approximately 72 h effective
Their measured by a compound solvent (benzene/alcohol
permeabilities = 3:1)
and porosities were and were then100
approximately 10at3a m2 ,
dried
103 m2 , of
300 temperature 105500
and 103measured
C.Their m2 andeffective permeabilities
23%, 25%, and porositiesFor
and 28%, respectively. were
theapproximately
polymer flooding
100 10 3 m2, 300 103 m2, and 500 103 m2 and 23%, 25%, and 28%, respectively. For the
experiments, epoxy resin cemented artificial cores with dimensions of 30 cm 4.5 cm 4.5 cm were
polymer flooding experiments, epoxy resin cemented artificial cores with dimensions of 30 cm 4.5
used, as shown in Figure 1, where co-injection and separated-layer production with three parallel
cm 4.5 cm were used, as shown in Figure 1, where co-injection and separated-layer production
cores was designed to simulate the heterogeneity of type II reservoirs, and the effective permeabilities
with three parallel cores was designed to simulate the heterogeneity of type II reservoirs, and the
100 10
were effective 3 m2 , 300 103 m2 and 500 103 m2 with porosities of 22.8%, 25.2%, and
permeabilities were 100 103, m2, 300 103 m2, and 500 103 m2 with porosities of
27.6%, respectively.
22.8%, 25.2%, and 27.6%, respectively.

Figure 1. Schematic of three parallel cores flooding pattern.

Figure 1. Schematic of three parallel cores flooding pattern.
2.1.2. Brine Solutions and Oil
2.1.2. Brine Solutions and Oil
A synthetic brine representative of a particular practical formation water was used in all of the
A synthetic presented,
experiments brine representative of a particular
where the formulation practical
is listed in Tableformation water was used
1. Ion concentrations in all of
satisfied
the experiments
(Na -Cl )/SO4 presented,
+ 2 > 1; hence,where theofformulation
this type is listed
formation water is of in
theTable
NaHCO1. 3Ion concentrations
type. satisfied
Clear water taken
(Na+ -Cl
from )/SO 2 > and
subsurface 1; used
hence, as the
this displacing
type of fluid
formation and a
watersolvent
is of were
the applied
NaHCO in the
type.experiments,
Clear water astaken
4 3
shown in Table 1, which contains 394.93 mg/L salinity and 35.86 mg/L total content
from subsurface and used as the displacing fluid and a solvent were applied in the experiments, as of Ca 2+ and Mg2+.

shownThein prepared brine contains

Table 1, which solutions394.93
were mg/L
all passed through
salinity a 0.22-m
and 35.86 mg/L filter and degassed,
total content of Ca2+which
and Mg2+ .
eliminates the probable effects of certain undissolved solids on the transport characteristics of the
The prepared brine solutions were all passed through a 0.22-m filter and degassed, which eliminates
prepared solution. Additionally, the oil used in this study was the simulated oil compounded by
the probable effects of certain undissolved solids on the transport characteristics of the prepared solution.
degassed crude oil of the Daqing Oilfield and aviation kerosene in a certain proportion (9.5 mPas at
Additionally,
45 C). the oil used in this study was the simulated oil compounded by degassed crude oil of the
Daqing Oilfield and aviation kerosene in a certain proportion (9.5 mPas at 45 C).
Table 1. Composition of brines.
Table 1. Composition of brines.
Concentration (mg/L)
Ion
Synthetic Brine Flooding Fluid
Na+ 2295.7Concentration (mg/L)
80.36
Ion
K+ 10.5 13.28
Synthetic Brine Flooding Fluid
Ca2+ 14.7 22.59
NaMg+
2+ 7.22295.7 13.27 80.36
+
KSO 42 46.8 10.5 56.86 13.28
Ca2+Cl 2231.114.7 52.11 22.59
2+ 2
MgCO 3 117.6 7.2 32.41 13.27
2
SOHCO
4 3 2054.446.8 124.05 56.86

ClTotal 2231.1
6778.0 394.93 52.11
CO3 2 117.6 32.41
HCO3 2054.4 124.05
Total 6778.0 394.93
Energies 2017, 10, 454 5 of 19

2.1.3. Chemicals
All experiments in this study were performed with hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (HPAM).
The polymers had relative molecular weights of 1.6 107 Da and 1.9 107 Da and a hydrolysis
degree of approximately 25% and were supplied by the Petrochina Daqing Refining & Petrochemical
Company (Daqing, China). The polymer solutions were prepared by dissolving the required amount
of polymer powder in clear water, which were filtered by a sand core funnel of G1 type with apertures
of 2030 m to remove any polymer agglomerates and particulates from the solutions. The power
law index was obtained by conventional rheological measurements, and the viscosity was tested at
a shearing rate of 7.34 s1 at 45 C, and the solutions were stored in a low-temperature environment
to help prevent degradation of the polymer before use. A series of experiments that covered a wide
range of polymer concentrations for different permeability cores are shown in Table 2. The chemicals
also include conventional reagents (AR) used to prepare the brine solutions.

Table 2. Experimental matrix. HPAM: hydrolyzed polyacrylamide; and EOR: enhanced oil recovery.

HPAM Polymer
Core Permeability
Experiments Relative Molecular Concentration Viscosity (103 m2 )
Weight (Da) (mg/L) (mPas)
1000 43.2
1.6 107 1200 59.6
1500 87.9
100
1000 49.0
1.9 107 1200 68.3
1500 102.7
1200 59.6
1.6 107 1500 87.9
Polymer injecting 2000 144.5
adaptability 300
1200 68.3
1.9 107 1500 102.7
2000 170.4
1500 87.9
1.6 107 2000 144.5
2500 208.1
500
1500 102.7
1.9 107 2000 170.4
2500 246.3
1000 43.2
1.6 107 1200 59.6
1500 87.9 100/300/500
EOR simulation (parallel)
1000 49.0
1.9 107 1200 68.3
1500 102.7

2.2. Experimental Setup

2.2.1. Resistance Coefficient and Residual Resistance Coefficient Measurements under Various
Polymer Injection Parameters
The temperature of the injection systems in the experiments was set at 45 C, which is the actual
reservoir condition. After the natural cores were fully saturated with the brine solution to determine
the pore volume, approximately 5 pore volume (PV) of clear water was injected to measure the initial
effective permeability. Then, one of the HPAM solutions was injected at a speed of 1.0 m/day until
the pressure was stable, where the injection volume was approximately 30 PV, and the resistance
coefficient (RF) was measured. Afterwards, continuous injection of the clear water over 30 PV was
once again done to flush and remove the polymer entrapment; then, the permeability reduction as
Energies 2017, 10, 454 6 of 19

a result of only polymer adsorption was obtained. Then, the residual resistance coefficient (RRF) was
calculated, and the polymer injection-induced formation damage was evaluated.

2.2.2. Single-Phase Flow Characteristics Measurements under Various Polymer Injection Parameters
Regarding flow characteristics measurements, the temperature of the systems in the experiments
was also set at 45 C, and the pore volume and initial effective permeability of the natural cores were
determined following the aforementioned methodology after cutting a core slice of 1.5 mm at the inlet
end of the cores. Then, one of the HPAM solutions was injected at various flow rates, and the stable
injection pressure of the polymer slug at each flow rate was successively recorded, where the total
injection volume was approximately 30 PV. The curve with the flow characteristics was established, and
the injection capability factor was obtained. Afterwards, continuous injection of clear water over 30 PV
was once again done to flush and remove the polymer entrapment, and the other core slice of 1.5 mm
was cut at the inlet end of the cores. Then, the pore features and mineral morphology of these core
slices were observed by a scanning electron microscope (SEM, JEOL Ltd., Tokyo, Japan). The matching
relation schema between polymer injection parameters and reservoirs could thus be established.

2.2.3. Two-Phase Flow Characteristics Measurements under Various Polymer Injection Parameters
The relative permeability was measured using the non-steady-state method to describe the
polymeroil two-phase flow characteristics [27,28]. The temperature of the experimental systems
was also set at 45 C. HPAM solutions of 1000 mg/L and 1500 mg/L with a molecular weight of
1.6 107 Da and 1500 mg/L with a molecular weight of 1.9 107 Da were used with power law
indices of 0.620, 0.552, and 0.536, respectively. The natural cores with permeabilities of 100 103 m2
and 500 103 m2 were extracted and were firstly fully saturated with the brine solution to determine
the pore volume and permeability; then, the oil was injected at a constant rate of 1.0 m/d to confirm
the irreducible water saturation, and the oil phase permeability was determined under an irreducible
water condition. Then, one of the HPAM solutions with a known power law index was injected at
the same constant velocity as the oil driving water, and during the process, the polymer injection
volume and pressure drop across the entire core were determined; the effluent fractions were collected,
and the amounts of water phase and oil phase were recorded every 0.5 h. Furthermore, to simulate
an actual porous flow process, the initial injection pressure differential of the HPAM solution can be
estimated from:
p
(P)pi = (P)o (1)
o
where (P)pi is the initial injection pressure differential of the HPAM solution, MPa; (P)o is the
pressure differential when oil drives water, Mpa; p is the viscosity of the HPAM solution, Pas; and
o is the viscosity of the oil, Pas.
Furthermore, when the cumulative injection volume of the polymer solution was greater than
30 PV and reached residual oil saturation, the cores were flushed with clear water at a constant rate
to further provide RRF data. Afterwards, the flow experiment was finished. Krp , Kro , and RRF could
then be calculated using these data; then, the relative permeability curves could be developed, the
polymer adsorption-induced permeability reduction and injection performance can be identified in
two-phase flow, and the availability of the matching relation schema obtained from single-phase flow
can further confirmed.

2.2.4. Oil Displacement Experiments under the Matching Relationship

The temperature of the systems was also set at 45 C in the oil displacement experiments. Firstly,
the air in cores was pumped out and fully saturated with the brine solution. Then, the oil was injected
to confirm the irreducible water saturation to set an initial experimental condition, and the original
oil saturation was obtained. Afterwards, the clear water was injected into the three parallel cores at
1.0 m/d, which is same as the speed of seepage flow in porous media, until the comprehensive water
Energies 2017, 10, 454 7 of 19

cut in the produced oil was >93%. Then, one of the HPAM solutions was injected at the same velocity
as water flooding, where the injection volume was 0.60 PV, and the diversion ratios of the produced
oil and water and the cumulative production were each recorded. After injection of the polymer slug
was finished, clear water was injected again until there was no oil at the outlet, and the final recovery
factor could then be determined.

3. Mechanism Description
Polymer retention in porous media, such as adsorption on a rock grain surface and mechanical
entrapment, could cause a mobility reduction and pressure increase in the absence of solid particles
in injection water [29]. Particularly in low-permeability layers of heterogeneous type II reservoirs,
retention can be critical to the polymer adsorption-induced permeability reduction or formation
blockage, which may further yield a negative effect on oil recovery. Previous studies have indicated a
selective action of the polymer, where a significant reduction in water permeability with respect to oil
permeability has been observed. Zitha et al. [30] investigated the influence of polymer concentration
and permeability on the retention of high molecular weight non-ionic polyacrylamide (PAAm) during
flow in granular porous media, and the results showed that the residual flow resistance increased with
polymer concentration. Chauveteau et al. [31] revealed that when a polymer solution is injected at low
shear rates, the adsorbed layer thickness is not dependent upon the injection rate. However, when the
polymer is injected at shear rates greater than the critical shear rates, the adsorbed layer thickness will
increase with injection rate and gradually increase to a maximum value. Although polymer adsorption
plays a significant role in the adjustment of the injection profile in heterogeneous reservoirs, polymer
adsorption will still result in a formation permeability reduction [32].
As mentioned above, type I reservoirs, as the main sandstone reservoirs in Daqing Oilfield,
have an effective thickness which is greater than 4 m and have a permeability which is greater than
800 103 m2 . However, the medium permeability reservoirs, which have an effective thickness
within 1~4 m and have a permeability which is greater than 100 103 m2 , are classified and called
as type II reservoirs in the field. In this sense, a relatively high residual flow resistance is expected
in polymer flooding of high permeability type I reservoirs, whereas for medium permeability type II
reservoirs, the injection capability should be given preferential consideration. The mobility changes
caused by a partially HPAM solution flowing in porous media can be described by a RF [33]. After the
HPAM solution flows through the porous media, a permanent permeability reduction has occurred
and can be described by the RRF [34].
The HPAM polymer solution has priority to enter the high permeability layers with high water
saturation in the reservoirs and is adsorbed on the sandstone formation with a negative electrostatic
charge, which relies on the functions of hydrogen bonds and electrostatic attraction [35,36]. Meanwhile,
the mechanical degradation in the flow dominates the macromolecular chains rupture of HPAM, but
because of the specific characteristics of the polymer molecular structure, an apparent flow thickening
behavior will be exhibited, and a viscoelastic effect will be present when the flow velocity distribution
is above a critical rate. As shown in Figure 2, for single-phase flow of polymer solutions in porous
media, we plot the change in flow rate (Q) as a function of pressure differential (P), where the flow
can exhibit two unusual characteristics. (1) The change in flow rate becomes slower as the pressure
differential increases (Figure 2A), which means the flow rate increases with a gradual slope at higher
pressures and indicates that the viscoelastic behaviors are generated by the stretching and relaxation
of HPAM molecules in the pores. The increased pressure caused by the viscoelastic effect is greater
than the decreased pressure caused by mechanical degradation; thus, the injection capability declines.
(2) The change in flow rate becomes faster as the pressure differential increases (Figure 2B), which
means that the flow rate increased with a steeper slope at higher pressures. The decreased pressure
caused by mechanical degradation is greater than the increased pressure caused by the viscoelastic
effect; thus, the injection capability enhances. The slope of the curve with the flow characteristic can be
defined as the injection capability factor:
Energies 2017, 10, 454 8 of 19

Energies 2017, 10, 454

the increased pressure caused by the viscoelastic effect; thus, the injection capability enhances.8 of
The19

slope of the curve with the flow characteristic can be defined as the injection capability factor:
Q
I I== Q (2)
(P)p (2)
P ( )p
3 m33 /dMpa; Q is the flow rate for a polymer slug,
where II is
where is the
the injection
injection capability
capability factor,
factor, 10
103 m /dMpa; Q is the flow rate for a polymer slug,
10 3 m3 3 /d; and (P) is the injection pressure differential of a polymer slug, Mpa.
103 m /d; and (P)p isp the injection pressure differential of a polymer slug, Mpa.

A
Q
Q

P
P
Figure 2. Illustration
Figure 2. Illustration of
of flow
flow characteristics (Q~P) of
characteristics (Q~P) of HPAM solution in
HPAM solution in porous
porous media.
media.

For polymeroil two-phase flow in porous media, the polymer injection capability, which is
For polymeroil two-phase flow in porous media, the polymer injection capability, which is
affected by the adsorption behavior and adsorption-induced permeability reduction, can be further
affected by the adsorption behavior and adsorption-induced permeability reduction, can be further
identified by relative permeabilities:
identified by relative permeabilities:
K ro = f o ( o app ) (3)
Kro = f o (o /app ) (3)
K rp = n 1 ( f p )n ( o app ) (4)
Krp = n1 ( f p )n (o /app ) (4)
where:
where:
KroK ro KKrprp 1
1
app app
= [= [ ++ (v f ) nn1]1 ] (5)
(5)
o o pp(v fpp )

vv(( ffoo ++f pf p) )

== 1 1 (6)
(6)
((o / pp))n n11

and K
and Krp is the relative permeability of the polymer solution in two-phase flow; K ro is
rp is the relative permeability of the polymer solution in two-phase flow; Kro
is the
the relative
relative
permeability of the oil phase in two-phase flow; is the viscosity of oil, Pa s;
permeability of the oil phase in two-phase flow; oo is the viscosity of oil, Pas;p p is the viscosity is the viscosity of the
of
polymer solution, Pa s; app is the apparent viscosity of the polymeroil phase
the polymer solution, Pas; app is the apparent viscosity of the polymeroil phase and a function of and a function of the
water saturation,
the water Pas;Pas;
saturation, f o and f p are
fo and fp the
arefractional flowsflows
the fractional of theofoilthe
phase and polymer
oil phase solution
and polymer phase,
solution
respectively, and are referred to as the diversion ratio of the displaced phase
phase, respectively, and are referred to as the diversion ratio of the displaced phase and displacing and displacing phase,
respectively; v is the vflow
phase, respectively; is thevelocity, m/s; and
flow velocity, n isand
m/s; thenpower law index
is the power lawof the polymer
index solution.
of the polymer solution.
Considering Equations (3)(6) and combining the theory
Considering Equations (3)(6) and combining the theory of BuckleyLeverettof BuckleyLeverett [37], the expanded
[37], the
formula
expanded Krpformula
and KroKcan be established. Then, the relative permeabilities can be readily determined by
rp and Kro can be established. Then, the relative permeabilities can be readily
processing experimental
determined by processing data obtained from
experimental datathe non-steady-state
obtained method.
from the non-steady-state method.
4. Results and Discussion
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Adsorption Behavior under Various Polymer Injection Parameters
4.1. Adsorption Behavior under Various Polymer Injection Parameters
The RF and RRF of polymer solution injections with different molecular weights and
The RF and
concentrations RRF the
through of polymer solution
natural cores injections
are shown with3.different
in Table It can bemolecular
found thatweights
the flowand
is
concentrations through the natural cores are shown in Table 3. It can be found that the flow
restricted to different degrees when the polymer retention reached its maximum level. This is because is
restricted to different degrees when the polymer retention reached its maximum level.
of the mechanical trapping and the adsorption behavior of polymer on the rock particles, which This is
because of the mechanical trapping and the adsorption behavior of polymer on the rock particles,
encompass hydrogen bonds, dispersion forces, and electrostatic attraction. The surfaces of the rock
Energies 2017, 10, 454 9 of 19

particles are constantly saturated with the polymer, and the polymer coats on the rock surface act as
a hydrophilic film. As water passes over the polymer, the film swells, which reduces the effective
permeability. In the experiments, the irreversible blockage due to polymer retention definitely occurs
in the 100 103 m2 cores with the polymer at a concentration of 1500 mg/L with a molecular weight
of 1.6 107 Da, where polymer junk accumulated at the core inlet. The accumulated polymer junk
can be observed intuitively by the unaided eye at the cores inlet after flow measurements were finished.

Table 3. Resistance coefficient (RF) and residual resistance coefficient (RRF) of polymer solutions in
type II reservoirs.

Permeability HPAM Polymer Single-Phase Flow Two-Phase Flow

(103 m2 ) Relative Molecular Weight (Da) Concentration (mg/L) RF RRF RRF
1000 81.67 23.9 20.5
1.6 107 1200 91.84 31.2 -
1500 98.77 40.6 35.1
100
1000 86.00 27.0 -
1.9 107 1200 103.6 38.9 -
1500 113.5 46.7 -
1200 48.00 13.9 -
1.6 107 1500 72.92 33.2 -
2000 119.5 43.4 -
300
1200 66.77 24.1 -
1.9 107 1500 79.17 42.8 -
2000 127.1 51.3 -
1500 62.35 25.2 21.6
1.6 107 2000 108.8 26.3 -
2500 111.6 30.8 -
500
1500 74.44 27.4 23.3
1.9 107 2000 122.2 29.1 -
2500 129.4 33.9 -

The result also indicates that an RRF of less than 30 accounts for 52.5% of all of the experimental
injection schemes, and the RRF increases as the molecular weights and concentrations of the polymer
increase. This suggests that a certain amount of polymer is retained, and hence, the benefits of the
permeability reduction can be achieved for a long period even after a period of subsequent water flush
after the polymer slug is injected. The RRF is believed to be a result of the effect of adsorbed polymer
molecules on the rock surface, which reduces the rock permeability. The RRF, by contrast, is affected
more significantly by concentration than by molecular weight in different permeability cores of type
II reservoirs. That is, the residual permeability is lower as the concentrations of polymer increases,
and the formation damage degree is subsequently more enhanced. This result reflects the necessity of
building a matching relationship between polymer injection parameters and type II reservoirs.
Furthermore, high polymer retention can reduce the amount of polymer in the flooding fluid,
and a higher concentration is required to obtain a favorable mobility ratio, which may not be feasible
economically when considering the variation of oil prices. The evaluation of the adsorption and
retention behavior, which are related to a successful polymer flooding project from both perspectives
of technical and economic feasibility, is essential. These results are in agreement with previous studies
regarding the effect of polymer adsorption on permeability reduction in EOR [23,3840].

4.2. Injection Performance Evaluation of Various Polymer Solutions

The single-phase flow behaviors of polymer solutions injection through natural cores are shown
in Figures 35. The experimental data show a gradual or steeper increase of pressure during injection,
which implies that polymer retention in type II reservoirs is a kinetically controlled process. However,
it may be found that the flow behaviors in most injection schemes are all between characteristic curve
A and characteristic curve B in Figure 2, which indicates that performing polymer injection is feasible
Energies 2017, 10, 454 10 of 19
Energies 2017, 10, 454 10 of 19

characteristic curve A and characteristic curve B in Figure 2, which indicates that performing
polymer
in injection isof feasible
the development in the development
type II reservoirs. Furthermore, of the
type
flowII characteristics
reservoirs. Furthermore, the flow
used for identifying
characteristics
the used for
polymer injection identifyingisthe
performance polymer
affected injection performance
by permeability, is affected
concentration, by permeability,
and molecular weight
concentration, and molecular weight of the polymer. As the permeability decreases,
of the polymer. As the permeability decreases, there is a significant decrease in the flow rate under there is a
significant
the decreasepressure,
same injection in the flow
andrate
theunder
slope the same injection
reduction of the curvespressure, and the slope
can indicate polymerreduction
blockage of
the curves
inside can indicate
the cores. polymer
The injection blockage inside
performance thewell
is fairly cores.in The
the 500 10performance
injection 3 m2 cores withis fairly well in
a polymer
the 500 103 m
concentration 2 cores with a polymer concentration of 1500 mg/L
of 1500 mg/L with a molecular weight of 1.6 107 Da with a molecular
or 1.9 107 Da.weight
However,of 1.6
the
10 Da or 1.9blockage
7
irreversible 10 Da.
7 However,
and formationthedamage
irreversible blockage
definitely occurs andin formation
the 100 10
damage
3 m definitely
2 occurs
cores (Figure 3),
in the 100 10 3 m2 cores (Figure 3), the considerable polymer junk was observed by the unaided
the considerable polymer junk was observed by the unaided eye at the cores inlet at the end of the
eye atmeasurements.
flow the cores inlet at the end of the flow measurements.

3.0

2.5
Flow rate (10 m /d)

2.0
3
-3

1.5
1.6107 - 100103m
1.6107 - 300103m
1.0 1.6107 - 500103m
1.9107 - 100103m
0.5 1.9107 - 300103m
1.9107 - 500103m
0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
Injection pressure differential (MPa)

Figure 3.
Figure 3. Influence
Influence of
of permeability
permeability on
on flow
flow behavior
behavior (polymer
(polymer of
of 1500
1500mg/L).
mg/L).

When the
When the polymer
polymer molecular
molecular weight weight decreased,
decreased, the the injection performance still
injection performance still improved
improved to to aa
certain extent even though the flow characteristic curves at the same
certain extent even though the flow characteristic curves at the same concentration were essentially concentration were essentially
coincident (Figure
coincident (Figure 4).4). This
This is is primarily
primarily attributed
attributed to to thethe fact
fact that
that aa higher molecular weight
higher molecular weight willwill
promote mechanical
promote mechanical trapping
trapping behavior
behavior of of polymer
polymer molecules
molecules on on the
the rock
rock surface,
surface, which
which increases
increases
the polymer retention in porous media. When the concentration of the polymer solution is reduced,
the polymer retention in porous media. When the concentration of the polymer solution is reduced,
the increased pressure caused by the viscoelasticity is significantly less
the increased pressure caused by the viscoelasticity is significantly less than the decreased pressure than the decreased pressure
caused by
caused bymechanical
mechanicaldegradation
degradationsuch such that
that mechanical
mechanical degradation
degradation gainsgains
the the dominant
dominant position,
position, and
and polymer injection shifts towards the smooth direction, which exhibits
polymer injection shifts towards the smooth direction, which exhibits better flow characteristics and better flow characteristics
and injection
injection capability,
capability, wherewhere a slope a slope
increaseincrease
of theof the curves
curves occursoccurs
(Figure (Figure
5a,b). As5a,b).
forAsthefor
coresthewith
coresa
with a permeability of 300
3 1023 m2, the injection performance remains good when the molecular
permeability of 300 10 m , the injection performance remains good when the molecular weight
weight increases
increases from 1.6 from
107 1.6
Da to 10
7 Da to 1.9 107 Da under the same concentration of 1200 mg/L
1.9 107 Da under the same concentration of 1200 mg/L (Figure 5a,b).
(Figure 5a,b). However, when
However, when it is under the same molecular it is under the weight
same molecular
of 1.9 10weight
7 Da, the of polymer
1.9 107injection
Da, the polymer
pressure
injection pressure increases remarkably as the concentration
increases remarkably as the concentration increases from 1200 mg/L to 1500 mg/L (Figure increases from 1200 mg/L to 1500 5b),mg/L
and
(Figure 5b), and the mismatches with the
the mismatches with the formation are naturally highlighted.formation are naturally highlighted.
Combining the
Combining theexperimental
experimental design
design matrix,
matrix, the polymer
the polymer rheology rheology
behaviorsbehaviors
in injectionin injection
schemes
schemes are comparable, which reveals that the adsorption behavior
are comparable, which reveals that the adsorption behavior of a polymer on the rock particles intensifies of a polymer on the rock
particles
as intensifies asincreases.
the concentration the concentration increases. This
This is agreement with isthe agreement with the existing
existing knowledge that the knowledge
increase
in the bottomhole pressure during the early stage of polymer injection can be attributed can
that the increase in the bottomhole pressure during the early stage of polymer injection be
to the
attributed to the shear-thickening rheology at high velocities experienced
shear-thickening rheology at high velocities experienced by viscoelastic HPAM around the wellbore by viscoelastic HPAM
around
and the the wellbore and
permeability the permeability
reduction caused byreduction
polymer causedadsorptionby polymer adsorptiontype
[24]. Regarding [24].I Regarding
reservoirs
type I reservoirs with a high permeability, we can conclude
with a high permeability, we can conclude from these single-phase flow behaviors that from these single-phase flowthebehaviors
injection
that the injection performance of polymers in type II reservoirs are
performance of polymers in type II reservoirs are all associated with permeability, the molecular all associated with permeability,
the molecular
weight weight ofand
of the polymer, the polymer,
the designed and polymer
the designed polymer concentration,
concentration, where the injectionwhere capability
the injection is
capability is remarkably affected by permeability, followed by
remarkably affected by permeability, followed by polymer concentration and polymer molecular polymer concentration and polymer
molecular
weight. Theweight.
result isThe
alsoresult is also inwith
in agreement agreement with the aforementioned
the aforementioned RRF measured RRF measured
results results
and indicates
and indicates that formation damage, primarily from polymer
that formation damage, primarily from polymer adsorption, cannot be ignored in polymer EOR of adsorption, cannot be ignored in
polymer EOR of type II reservoirs. The identification and partition of the blockage risk will help to
Energies 2017, 10, 454 11 of 19

Energies 2017, 10, 454 11 of 19

Energies 2017, 10, 454 11 of 19
type II reservoirs. The identification and partition of the blockage risk will help to select the best plan
select the best plan to obtain the highest oil recovery in a type II reservoir system, and this was not
to obtain
selectthe
involved thehighest oiltorecovery
bestsimilar
in the plan in highest
obtainwhich
work the a targeted
type II
oilreservoir
recovery system, and
in a typereported
type I reservoirs
this was
II reservoir not involved
by system,
Wang etand thisin
al. [23].
thenot
was similar
workinvolved
which targeted type work
in the similar I reservoirs reported
which targeted by IWang
type et al.reported
reservoirs [23]. by Wang et al. [23].
3.0
3.0

2.5
2.5

Flow rate (10 m /d) 2.0

Flow rate (10 m /d) 2.0 1000mg/L - 100103m
3

1000mg/L - 100103m
1500mg/L - 100103m
3
-3

7 1500mg/L - 100103m
1.610107 Da
Da
-3

3
1.5 1500mg/L - 30010 m
1.5 1.6 3
1500mg/L - 30010 m
1500mg/L - 500103m
1500mg/L - 500103m
3
2500mg/L - 50010 m
2500mg/L - 500103m
1.01.0 11
11 3
1500mg/L
1500mg/L - 100 1010
- 100 3
mm
3
7
1500mg/L
1500mg/L - 300 1010
- 300 3
mm
0.50.5 1.910107 Da
1.9 Da 1500mg/L
1500mg/L - 500
- 500 3 3m
1010 m
3 3m
1000mg/L
1000mg/L - 100 1010
- 100 m
3 3
2500mg/L
2500mg/L - 500 1010
- 500 mm
0.00.0
0.00.0 1.01.0 2.0
2.0 3.0
3.0 4.0 5.0
5.0 6.0
6.0 7.0
7.0 8.08.0 9.09.0
Injection pressure
Injection pressure differential
differential(MPa)
(MPa)

Figure
Figure
Figure 4.Influence
Influenceof
4.4.Influence ofpolymer
of polymer molecular
polymer molecular weight
molecular weighton
weight onflow
on behavior.
flow
flow behavior.
behavior.

3.0 3.0
3.0 3.0

2.5 2.5
2.5 2.5
Flow rate (10 m /d)

2.0 2.0
/d)/d)
Flow rate (10 m /d)

2.0 2.0
3

1000mg/L
-3 -33 3

1000mg/L
mm
3

-3

K w = 100 10-3 m 2 1000mg/L

1200mg/L K w = 100 10-3 m 2 1000mg/L
1200mg/L
(10(10
-3

1.5 K w = 100 10-3 m 2 1200mg/L

1500mg/L 1.5 K w = 100 10-3 m 2 1500mg/L
1200mg/L
raterate

1.5 1500mg/L
4
1.5 4
1500mg/L
1200mg/L 1200mg/L
Flow

4 4

1.0 K w = 300 10-3 m 2 1500mg/L

1200mg/L 1.0 -3
K w = 300 10 m 2
1500mg/L
1200mg/L
Flow

1.0 -3
K w = 300 10 m 2 2000mg/L
1500mg/L 1.0 K w = 300 10-3 m 22000mg/L
1500mg/L
8 8

2000mg/L 2000mg/L
0.5 1500mg/L
8
0.5 1500mg/L
8

K w = 500 10-3 m 2 2000mg/L

1500mg/L K w = 500 10-3 m 2 2000mg/L
0.5 0.5 1500mg/L
2500mg/L
K w = 500 10-3 m 2 2000mg/L K = 500 10-3 m 22500mg/L
w 2000mg/L
0.0 2500mg/L 0.0 2500mg/L
0.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 0.00.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 pressure
Injection 4.0 differential
5.0 (MPa)6.0 7.0 8.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 Injection
3.0 pressure
4.0 differential
5.0 (MPa)
6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
Injection pressure differential (MPa) Injection pressure differential (MPa)
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 5. Influence of polymer concentration on flow behavior: (a) polymer of 1.6 107 molecular
Figure 5. Influence
weight; of polymer
and (b) polymer of 1.9 concentration
107 molecular on flow behavior: (a) polymer of 1.6 107 molecular
weight. 7
Figure 5. Influence of polymer concentration on flow behavior: (a) polymer of 1.6 10 molecular
weight; and (b) polymer of 1.9 107 molecular weight.
weight; and (b) polymer of 1.9 107 molecular weight.
Relative permeability data are essential petrophysical data required for characterization of
multiphase
Relative flow and polymer
permeability dataadsorption
are essential in type II reservoirs.data
petrophysical Figure 6 showsfor
required thecharacterization
oil and polymer of
multiphase flow and polymer adsorption in type II reservoirs. Figure 6 shows thecharacterization
Relative
relative permeability
permeabilities data
plotted are
as essential
functions of petrophysical
water saturation, data
where required
the curves forall begin
oil and with the of
polymer
multiphase
lowest flow
water and polymer
saturation and adsorption
proceed to in
the type
right; II reservoirs.
the curve Figure
monotonically
relative permeabilities plotted as functions of water saturation, where the curves all begin with the 6 shows
increasesthe oil
or and polymer
decreases,
which
relative
lowest occurs
permeabilities
water in parallel
saturation withproceed
plotted
and thefunctions
as reduction
to theof ofright;
the saturation
water curveofmonotonically
saturation,
the thewhere
displacedthe phase.
curves
increasesThe
all injection
begin
or of the
with
decreases,
lowestthe polymer
whichwater
occurs appeared
saturation
in paralleland to have an
withproceed effect on both
to theofright;
the reduction the water and oil
the curveofmonotonically
the saturation relative permeability
the displaced phase. increases measured
or decreases,
The injection of
which subsequently.
the polymer
occurs inappeared Although
parallel to a
with parallelism
havetheanreduction in the
effect on of K
both rp curves was observed in the relative permeability
thethe water and
saturation ofoiltherelative
displaced permeability
phase. The measured
injection
comparisons, it is evident that the presence of the polymer in the water phase can lower the water
of subsequently.
the polymer appearedAlthoughto a have
parallelism
an effect in on
the both
Krp curves the waterwas andobserved in thepermeability
oil relative relative permeability
measured
relative permeability to different degrees over the entire measured water saturation range; the
comparisons,Although
subsequently. it is evident that the presence
a parallelism in theofKthe polymer
rp curves wasin observed
the water in phasethe can lowerpermeability
relative the water
measured polymer solution endpoint relative permeabilities were all lower than 0.1.
relative
comparisons, permeability
it is evident to different
that the flowdegrees
presence over
of the the entire
polymer measured
in the water water saturation range; the
In contrast to the oil-phase behavior, it can be concluded that thephase
entirecan lower
effect the water
of contact
measured
relative polymer solution endpoint relative permeabilities were all lower than 0.1.
andpermeability
adsorption of higherto different
polymer degrees over the
concentration was entire
to reduce measured water significantly,
water mobility saturation range;which the
measured In contrast
polymer to the
solutionoil-phase
endpointflow behavior,
relative it can
permeabilities be concluded
were
resulted in a much lower water relative permeability curve than that obtained from the lower allthat
lowerthe entire
than effect
0.1. of contact
andIn adsorption
concentration of
contrast topolymer higher polymer
the oil-phase
contact.flow concentration
behavior,
Additionally, these was
it can to reduce
be concluded
two-phase water mobility
that the entire
flow characteristics significantly,
effect
are more ofwhich
obvious contact
resulted in a
in the cores withmuch lower water
permeabilities relative permeability curve than that obtained from the lower
and adsorption of higher polymerofconcentration
100 10 m than
3 2
was in tocores
reducewithwater
permeabilities
mobilityofsignificantly,
500 10 m3 2.
which
concentration
This inindicates polymer
thatlowercontact.
the injection Additionally, these two-phase flow characteristics are more obvious
resulted a much water performance
relative 3 of the polymer
permeability curvesolution
than isthatstill obtained
strongly related
from to thethelower
in the cores with
matching permeabilities
relationship between ofthe
100polymer
10 m 2 than in cores with permeabilities of 500 103 m2.
concentration and permeability in two-phase flow of in
concentration polymer contact. Additionally, these two-phase flow characteristics are more obvious
This indicates
type that and
II reservoirs the injection
reveals theperformance
permeability
oflevelthe and
polymer
polymer solution is still
properties strongly
would related
produce to
evident the
the cores with permeabilities of 100 10 m than in cores with permeabilities of 500 10 3 m2 .
3 2
matching relationship
differences in two-phase between the polymer concentration and permeability in two-phase flow of
flow behavior.
This indicates that the injection performance of the polymer solution is still strongly related to the
type II reservoirs and reveals the permeability level and polymer properties would produce evident
matching relationship
differences between
in two-phase the polymer concentration and permeability in two-phase flow of
flow behavior.
type II reservoirs and reveals the permeability level and polymer properties would produce evident
differences in two-phase flow behavior.
Energies 2017, 10, 454 12 of 19
Energies 2017, 10, 454 12 of 19

100.0

Kro 1.6107- 1000mg/L

- Krw 1.6107 - 1000mg/L
100 10 m:
Kro 1.6107- 1500mg/L
Relative permeability (%) 10.0
Krw 1.6107 - 1500mg/L
Kro 1.6107- 1500mg/L

-
Krw 1.6107- 1500mg/L
500 10 m:
Kro 1.9107- 1500mg/L
Krw 1.9107- 1500mg/L
1.0

0.1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Water saturation (%)

Figure
Figure 6.
6. Polymeroil
Polymeroil relative permeability curves.
relative permeability curves.

As can be seen in Table 3, typical RRF results obtained from the cores, which underwent a
As can be seen in Table 3, typical RRF results obtained from the cores, which underwent a
procedure where the polymer consistently decreased the residual oil saturations, are similar to the
procedure where the polymer consistently decreased the residual oil saturations, are similar to the
adsorption test data of single-phase flow, where the relative deviations are not greater than 15%.
adsorption test data of single-phase flow, where the relative deviations are not greater than 15%.
Additionally, the results are in good agreement with a previous suggestion that wetting preference
Additionally, the results are in good agreement with a previous suggestion that wetting preference
and the correspondingly different microscopic distribution of the residual oil has only a slight effect
and the correspondingly different microscopic distribution of the residual oil has only a slight effect
on the residual resistance coefficient [41,42]. The matching relationship, which is obtained from the
on the residual resistance coefficient [41,42]. The matching relationship, which is obtained from the
adsorption behaviors and flow experiments in single-phase flow, can be used address actual
adsorption behaviors and flow experiments in single-phase flow, can be used address actual two-phase
two-phase flow problems in type II reservoirs with polymer EOR. Furthermore, it can be seen that
flow problems in type II reservoirs with polymer EOR. Furthermore, it can be seen that flushing
flushing the cores with a polymer consistently decreases the residual oil saturations; furthermore,
the cores with a polymer consistently decreases the residual oil saturations; furthermore, with the
with the enhanced core permeability and increased molecular weight and concentration, there is a
enhanced core permeability and increased molecular weight and concentration, there is a relatively low
relatively low initial point and a relatively high termination point of the relative permeability
initial point and a relatively high termination point of the relative permeability curves; this effect shifts
curves; this effect shifts the equal points of Krp and Kro toward higher water saturations. Because the
the equal points of Krp and Kro toward higher water saturations. Because the injection performance was
injection performance was affected, the final residual oil saturation is also related to the
affected, the final residual oil saturation is also related to the permeability, polymer molecular weight,
permeability, polymer molecular weight, and concentration, where the correlation is more strongly
and concentration, where the correlation is more strongly affected by permeability, concentration, and
affected by permeability, concentration, and molecular weight according to this order.
molecular weight according to this order.
4.3. Observation
4.3. Observation of
of Core Pore Structures
Core Pore Structures
To further
To further validate
validate the
the distinction
distinction among
among smooth
smooth injection,
injection, difficult
difficult injection,
injection, and and irreversible
irreversible
blockage emergence,
blockage emergence, core
core pore structures under
pore structures under typical
typical injection
injection schemes
schemes werewere observed,
observed, and and the
the
pore features and mineral morphology are compared before and after polymer
pore features and mineral morphology are compared before and after polymer retention after the retention after the
flow characteristics
flow characteristics were
were measured.
measured. There
There isis aa significant
significant interaction
interaction between
between polymer
polymer molecules
molecules
and sandstone
and sandstone grains,
grains, which
which intercepts
intercepts the
the flow
flow path
path to to inject
inject displacing
displacing fluid
fluid at
at aa constant
constant pressure.
pressure.
Due to mechanical trapping and adsorption after polymer injection,
Due to mechanical trapping and adsorption after polymer injection, the sharpness of the sharpness of the
the mineral
mineral
grains decreases, the mineral morphology becomes blurred, and the
grains decreases, the mineral morphology becomes blurred, and the pore-throat connection becomespore-throat connection
becomes
poor poor compared
compared with surface
with the pore the porebefore
surface before injection.
polymer polymer injection.
This will This will naturally
naturally increase theincrease
flow
the flow resistance of the polymer and subsequent water injection
resistance of the polymer and subsequent water injection and, hence, reduce the permeability. and, hence, reduce the
permeability.
As shown in Figure 7, for the core permeability of 100 103 m2 (Figure 7a) and 500 103 m2
As 7b),
(Figure shown in Figure
polymer 7, for the
molecules cancore
be permeability
captured at the of 100 103 msuch
pore-throat,
2 (Figure 7a) and 500 103 m2
that the adsorption range
(Figure 7b), polymer molecules can be captured at the pore-throat,
expands and the thickness enlarges, which increases retention, remarkably such thatdecreases
the adsorption range
the effective
expands
pore andand
radius, the irreversible
thickness enlarges,
blockagewhich
emergesincreases
in the retention, remarkably decreases
medium permeability the effective
type II reservoirs after
injecting a polymer slug with a molecular weight of 1.6 10 Da at a concentration of 1500 mg/Lafter
pore radius, and irreversible blockage emerges in the medium7 permeability type II reservoirs and
injecting a polymer slug with a7 molecular weight of 1.6 10 7 Da at a concentration of 1500 mg/L and
a molecular weight of 1.9 10 Da at a concentration of 2500 mg/L, respectively. The observations
a molecular
reveal that a weight
polymer ofwith
1.9 a 10 7 Da at a concentration of 2500 mg/L, respectively. The observations
high molecular weight and high concentration are attractive; however,
reveal that a polymer with a high molecular weight and high concentration are attractive; however,
the polymer either can damage the pore space or might not be able to flow through small pores.
Energies 2017, 10, 454 13 of 19

Energies 2017,
theEnergies
polymer 10, 454can damage the pore space or might not be able to flow through small
either 13 of 19pores.
2017, 10, 454 13 of 19
This is also in agreement with a high RRF and poor injection performance obtained from the above
This is also in agreement with a high RRF and poor injection performance obtained from the above
flow experiments.
This is also in agreement with a high RRF and poor injection performance obtained from the above
flow experiments.
flow experiments.

After injection polymer of After injection polymer of 2000 mg/L,

1000 mg/L, 1.6 107 molecular eight 1.6 107 molecular weight
After injection polymer of After injection polymer of 2000 mg/L,
1000 mg/L, 1.6 107 molecular eight 1.6 107 molecular weight

Before injection Before injection

Before injection Before injection

After injection polymer of 1500 mg/L, After injection polymer of 2500 mg/L,
1.6 107 molecular weight 1.9 107 molecular weight
After injection polymer of 1500 mg/L, After injection polymer of 2500 mg/L,
(a) (b)
1.6 107 molecular weight 7
1.9 10 molecular weight
Figure 7. The scanning
(a) pictures of core slices before and after polymer injection: (a) Kw = 100 103
Figure 7.2 The scanning pictures of core slices before and after polymer injection: (b)
(a) Kw = 100 103 m2 ;
m ; and (b) Kw = 500
3 10 2 m .
3 2
and (b) Kw
Figure 7. = 10 pictures
500scanning
The m . of core slices before and after polymer injection: (a) Kw = 100 103
4.4.m ; and (b) Kw of
= 500 10 m .
2 3 2
Establishment Matching Relation Schema
4.4. Establishment of Matching Relation Schema
As the single-phase
4.4. Establishment of MatchingandRelation
two-phase flow experiments have performed, the polymer solutions of
Schema
30 PV
As thewere injected into
single-phase and thetwo-phase
cores which ensured
flow the reliable
experiments assessment
have to polymer
performed, performance
the polymer in of
solutions
As the
were single-phase
30 PVheterogeneous
injected type
into theand two-phase
II cores which flow
reservoirs. experiments
Collected
ensured theRF, have
RRF,
reliable performed,
I obtainedtothe
assessment polymer
from
polymer solutions
polymer of in
theperformance
30 adsorption-induced
PV were injected
heterogeneous type II into the cores
permeability
reservoirs. which ensured
reduction
Collected theI reliable
RF,evaluation
RRF, assessment
and flow
obtained to polymer
characteristics
from the polymer performance
measurements, as in
adsorption-induced
heterogeneous
shown in Figure type II appears
8, there reservoirs.
to be Collected RF, RRF,
a positive correlation I obtained
between fromcoefficient
the resistance the polymer
and
permeability reduction evaluation and flow characteristics measurements, as shown in Figure 8, there
adsorption-induced permeability
residual resistance coefficient andreduction
a negativeevaluation
correlation and flowthe
between characteristics measurements,
injection capability factor and as
appears to be a positive correlation between the resistance coefficient and residual resistance coefficient
residual
shown resistance
in Figure coefficient
8, there appearswith
to the
be aadjustment of the polymer
positive correlation injection
between parameterscoefficient
the resistance for cores of
and
and atype
negative correlation between the injection capability factor and residual injection
resistance coefficient
residualIIresistance
reservoirs.coefficient
Then, RF,andRRFa and I obtained
negative from all
correlation of the the
between experimental
injection capability schemes
factor and
with would
the adjustment of the
be used ascoefficient
the polymer
statistical injection
analysis parameters for cores of type II reservoirs. Then, RF,
parameters.
residual resistance with the adjustment of the polymer injection parameters for cores of
RRF and I obtained from all of the experimental injection schemes would be used as the statistical
type II reservoirs. Then, RF, RRF and I obtained from all of the experimental injection schemes
analysis
wouldparameters.
be used as the statistical analysis parameters.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 8. The correlation statistics of polymer injection performance evaluation parameters: (a) Kw =
100 103 m2; (b) Kw = 300 103 m2; and (c) Kw = 500 103 m2. Blue line: RRF; red line: RF; and
(a) (b) (c)
black line: I.
Figure 8. The correlation statistics of polymer injection performance evaluation parameters: (a) Kw =
Figure 8. The correlation statistics of polymer injection performance evaluation parameters:
100The
10identification
3 m2; (b) Kw = limits
300 10of3 m
polymer smooth
2; and (c) Kw = 500injection,
103 mdifficult injection,
2. Blue line: RRF; red andline:irreversible
RF; and
(a) Kw = 100 103 m2 ; (b) Kw = 300 103 m2 ; and (c) Kw = 500 103 m2 . Blue line: RRF; red
blockage emergence
black line: I. in different permeability reservoirs are partitioned based on the correlation
line: RF; and black line: I.
statistics of injection performance evaluation parameters. In the 100 103 m2 permeability
reservoir, the identification
The identification limitslimits
of of the formation
polymer smooth blockage are RF
injection, 90, RRF
difficult 30 and and
injection, I 0.4, and the
irreversible
The
blockage identification
identification
emergence limitslimits
in of polymer
of different
difficult injectionsmooth injection,
are 80 <reservoirs
permeability RF < 90, 20difficult
< RRF
are injection, and
< 30, andbased
partitioned 0.4 < Iirreversible
< 0.5.
on theRegardingblockage
correlation
the 300 in
emergence
statistics 10different
of 3 m2 permeability reservoir, the identification limits of the formation
injection permeability reservoirs are
performance evaluation partitioned
parameters. based
In the 100on 103 blockage
the correlation are RF
m2 permeability
statistics
90, RRF
of reservoir,
injection the 35, and
performance I 0.7; the identification
evaluation limits
parameters. of difficult
In the 100 injection
10
are370 < 2
RF < 90, 25
m permeability < RRF < 35,
reservoir,
identification limits of the formation blockage are RF 90, RRF 30 and I 0.4, and the
and 0.7 < I <limits
theidentification
identification 1.0; andof the
limits of identification
difficult injectionlimits
the formation are of <smooth
80
blockage RF <areinjection
90, are
90, RF
20 <RRF
RF <RRF 70,
30, RRF
and 0.4and
30 <25,
I <and IRegarding
I0.5. 1.0.and
0.4, In the
the 300 10limits
identification 3 m2 permeability reservoir, the identification limits of the formation blockage are RF
of difficult injection are 80 < RF < 90, 20 < RRF < 30, and 0.4 < I < 0.5. Regarding the
90, RRF 3
35, 2
and I
300 10 m permeability 0.7; the reservoir,
identification limits of difficult
the identification injection
limits of the are 70 < RF blockage
formation < 90, 25 < are
RRFRF
< 35,
90,
and 0.7 < I < 1.0; and the identification limits of smooth injection are RF 70, RRF 25, and I 1.0. In
 Energies 2017, 10, 454 14 of 19

RRF 2017,
Energies 35,10,
and454I 0.7; the identification limits of difficult injection are 70 < RF < 90, 25 < RRF < 19
14 of 35,
and 0.7 < I < 1.0; and the identification limits of smooth injection are RF 70, RRF 25, and I 1.0.
In the
the 10
500 500 1023permeability
3 m m2 permeability reservoir,
reservoir, the identification
the identification limitslimits
are RFare RF RRF
125, 33, I
125,RRF 33, I110
< 0.9, < 0.9,
<
RF RF 28
110< <125, < 125, RRF
28 << 33,
< RRF 0.9<<33,
I <0.9 I < RF
1.0,<and 110,RF
1.0,and RRF 110,
28, IRRF respectively.
1.0, 28, I 1.0, respectively.
Then, a matching Then,
a matching
relation relation
schema schema is that
is established established
considersthatthe
considers the permeability,
permeability, polymer molecular
polymer molecular weight,
weight, polymer
polymer concentration,
concentration, and dilutionand dilution
water water for
for polymer polymer
system system preparation,
preparation, as shown inas shown
Figure 9; ainscientific
Figure 9;
a scientific design of a polymer flooding project for type II reservoirs can be
design of a polymer flooding project for type II reservoirs can be realized with the help of realized with the helptheof
the relation
relation schema,
schema, and formation
and formation damagedamage in polymer
in polymer injection
injection canavoided.
can be be avoided.
Polymer concentration of 1.6107 Da

Polymer concentration of 1.9107 Da

Permeability (10-3m2)

Figure
Figure9.9. The matching relation
The matching relationschema
schema(area
(area
I inI pink
in pink represents
represents Smooth
Smooth injection;
injection; area IIarea II in
in purple
purple represents
represents Difficult
Difficult injection;
injection; area IIIarea III inrepresents
in blue blue represents Risk
Risk of of blockage).
blockage).

4.5. Oil Displacement Effect under the Matching Relationship

4.5. Oil Displacement Effect under the Matching Relationship
Under the aforementioned matching relationship, two different molecular weights and three
Under the aforementioned matching relationship, two different molecular weights and three
different concentrations of polymer solutions are used to measure oil recovery by experiments of
different concentrations of polymer solutions are used to measure oil recovery by experiments of
co-injection and separated-layer production with three parallel cores. The results of these flood
co-injection and separated-layer production with three parallel cores. The results of these flood tests
tests are presented in Table 4 and Figure 10 and indicate that polymer injection increases the oil
are presented in Table 4 and Figure 10 and indicate that polymer injection increases the oil recovery
recovery of type II reservoirs after water flooding by improving the mobility ratio and adjusting the
of type II reservoirs after water flooding by improving the mobility ratio and adjusting the injection
injection profile; the change in RF is relatively stable, which also means that the increase of injection
profile; the change in RF is relatively stable, which also means that the increase of injection pressure is
pressure is acceptable. The RF data are also in agreement with the distribution of polymer injection
acceptable. The RF data are also in agreement with the distribution of polymer injection performance
performance evaluation parameters obtained from the single-phase flow characteristics
evaluation parameters obtained from the single-phase flow characteristics measurements, and it can be
measurements, and it can be further inferred that the polymer adsorption behavior and polymer
further inferred that the polymer adsorption behavior and polymer injection performance are affected
injection performance are affected more significantly by the concentration than by molecular weight
more significantly by the concentration than by molecular weight in type II reservoirs.
in type II reservoirs.
Table 4. Experiment results regarding polymer flooding EOR in type II reservoirs under the
Table 4. Experiment results regarding polymer flooding EOR in type II reservoirs under the
matching relationship.
matching relationship.
HPAM
HPAM Polymer
Polymer Water Flooding
Water Flooding Polymer Flooding
Polymer Flooding
Final Oil
Relative Molecular Concentration Oil Oil
Recovery Average Rate of Average Rate of Recovery
Final (%)
Oil
Relative Molecular Concentration Average RateRatio
of EOR (%) Average Rate of
Weight (mg/L) (%) Diversion Diversion Ratio
Recovery EOR (%) Recovery (%)
Weight (mg/L)
1000 43.05 Diversion Ratio
5.5:3.5:1.0 9.96 Diversion Ratio
5.0:3.5:1.5 53.01
(%)
1.6 107 1200 43.32 6.0:3.0:1.0 11.84 5.5:3.0:1.5 55.16
1000
1500
43.05
43.27
5.5:3.5:1.0
6.0:3.0:1.0
9.96
13.17
5.0:3.5:1.5
5.0:3.5:1.5
53.01
56.44
1.6 107 1200 43.32 6.0:3.0:1.0 11.84 5.5:3.0:1.5 55.16
1000 42.83 6.0:3.0:1.0 11.35 5.5:3.0:1.5 54.18
1500 43.27 6.0:3.0:1.0 13.17 5.0:3.5:1.5 56.44
1.9 107 1200 42.86 6.5:3.0:0.5 12.15 5.5:3.0:1.5 55.01
1000
1500 42.83
43.02 6.0:3.0:1.0
6.0:3.0:1.0 11.35
15.08 5.5:3.0:1.5
5.0:3.0:2.0 54.18
58.10
1.9 107 Average rate of1200
Note: diversion ratio42.86
is the ratio 6.5:3.0:0.5 12.15 ratio value
defined by the diversion 5.5:3.0:1.5
of 500 103 55.01
m2 :
300 103 m2 :100 1500
103 m2 . 43.02 6.0:3.0:1.0 15.08 5.0:3.0:2.0 58.10
Note: Average rate of diversion ratio is the ratio defined by the diversion ratio value of 500 103
m2:300 103 m2:100 103 m2.

Under equivalent original oil saturation for oil recovery by water flooding and polymer slug,
the EORs of polymer flooding are 9.96%, 11.84%, and 13.17% OOIP, respectively, for polymer
concentrations of 1000 mg/L, 1200 mg/L, and 1500 mg/L with a molecular weight of 1.6 107 Da, and
11.35%, 12.15%, 15.08% OOIP for polymer concentrations of 1000 mg/L, 1200 mg/L, and 1500 mg/L
with a molecular weight of 1.9 107 Da. The oil displacement effect reveals that the physical
adsorption may only affect the polymer front velocity and has only a slight impact on the flow
Energies 2017, 10, 454 15 of 19
concentration, which dominates the polymer viscoelasticity under the matching relationship.

60
1.6107-1000mg/L 1.6107-1200mg/L
7
1.6107-1500mg/L 1.910 -1000mg/L
50
1.9107-1200mg/L 1.9107-1500mg/L

40

RF
30

20

10

0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Injected pore volume (PV)

Figure 10. The RF of polymer slugs as function of injected pore volume in displacement experiments.

Furthermore, the control and adjustment of the injection profile by polymer injection is
Under equivalent original oil saturation for oil recovery by water flooding and polymer slug,
noticeable; a significant profile reversal behavior appeared in the cores with a low permeability of
the EORs of polymer flooding are 9.96%, 11.84%, and 13.17% OOIP, respectively, for polymer
100 103 m2. The diversion ratio increases from less than 10% in the water flooding stage to
concentrations of 1000 mg/L, 1200 mg/L, and 1500 mg/L with a molecular weight of 1.6 107 Da, and
1520%, and the average rate of the diversion ratio is adjusted to 5.0:3.0:2.0 from 6.0:3.0:1.0 in
11.35%, 12.15%, 15.08% OOIP for polymer concentrations of 1000 mg/L, 1200 mg/L, and 1500 mg/L
polymer flooding with a molecular weight of 1.9 107 Da at a 1500 mg/L concentration, which will
with a molecular weight of 1.9 107 Da. The oil displacement effect reveals that the physical adsorption
definitely improve the sweep efficiency, the formation of a favorable water content drop, and
may only affect the polymer front velocity and has only a slight impact on the flow concentration,
additional oil recovery. The result reveals that polymer flooding for EOR under the matching
which dominates the polymer viscoelasticity under the matching relationship.
relationship in heterogeneous type II reservoirs is worth pursuing. These results are in agreement
Furthermore, the control and adjustment of the injection profile by polymer injection is noticeable;
with the effect of polymer adsorption and mobility control on additional oil recovery that was
a significant profile reversal behavior appeared in the cores with a low permeability of 100 103 m2 .
investigated by Mishra et al. [43]. Additionally, the result is also supported by a previous study
The diversion ratio increases from less than 10% in the water flooding stage to 1520%, and the
published by Maitin [44], where the laboratory investigations, simulation studies, and a pilot test in
average rate of the diversion ratio is adjusted to 5.0:3.0:2.0 from 6.0:3.0:1.0 in polymer flooding with
the oilfields of a North German sediment basin produced an incremental recovery of 822% OOIP.
a molecular weight of 1.9 107 Da at a 1500 mg/L concentration, which will definitely improve
According to the oil displacement effect, without consideration for the one-time investment and the
the sweep efficiency, the formation of a favorable water content drop, and additional oil recovery.
consumption of electricity and heat in the production and operation, the cost of oil produced by the
The result reveals that polymer flooding for EOR under the matching relationship in heterogeneous
appropriate polymer shows a normal distribution with the average value of 5.2941 $/bbl.
type II reservoirs is worth pursuing. These results are in agreement with the effect of polymer
adsorption and mobility control on additional oil recovery that was investigated by Mishra et al. [43].
4.6. Injection-Production Status of Heterogeneous Type II Reservoirs in the Field
Additionally, the result is also supported by a previous study published by Maitin [44], where the
Polymer
laboratory injection wassimulation
investigations, performedstudies,
in the BeiSanxi typetest
and a pilot II reservoir of the Daqing
in the oilfields Oilfield.
of a North GermanThe
reservoir is sandstone with an average permeability of 408 10 3 m2 and an average porosity of
sediment basin produced an incremental recovery of 822% OOIP. According to the oil displacement
23.5%.without
effect, The reservoir thickness
consideration foristhe10.8 m, andinvestment
one-time the oil areaand is approximately
the consumption 4.59
of km 2. There are 143
electricity and heat
injection
in wells and
the production and 147 production
operation, wells,
the cost andproduced
of oil the injector-producer
by the appropriate distance is 125shows
polymer m. The initial
a normal
pressure is 1524
distribution withpsi
thewith an initial
average value in-situ
of 5.2941oil$/bbl.
viscosity of 9.5 mPas at a reservoir temperature of 45
C. Prior to industrial application of polymer flooding, a pilot area, which contains 18 production
4.6.
wellsInjection-Production
in the field, wasStatus of Heterogeneous
injected with the polymer Type II concentration
Reservoirs in theofField2000 mg/L with a molecular
weight of 1.6 injection
Polymer 10 Da was
7 afterperformed
water flooding.in theHowever, all ofIIthe
BeiSanxi type wells experienced
reservoir of the Daqing an injection
Oilfield.
pressure rise after a short period of polymer injection, where the
3
The reservoir is sandstone with an average permeability of 408 10 m and an average porosityaverage
2 injection pressure
increased
of 23.5%. Thewithreservoir
a steeperthickness
slope at the end m,
is 10.8 of polymer
and the oil injection;
area is this increase reached
approximately 4.59 km 45% when are
2 . There the
cumulative
143 injectioninjected
wells and pore
147volume
production waswells,
less than
and the0.1 injector-producer
PV. This pressuredistancecharacteristic
is 125 m. could be an
The initial
pressure is 1524 psi with an initial in-situ oil viscosity of 9.5 mPas at a reservoir temperature of 45 the
indication of the difficultly of injection at a high polymer concentration. Then, based on C.
established
Prior matching
to industrial relationship,
application the polymer
of polymer flooding, injection
a pilot parameters
area, which were adjusted
contains in time in
18 production the
wells
heterogeneous type II reservoir. The production wells were divided into
in the field, was injected with the polymer concentration of 2000 mg/L with a molecular weight oftwo groups based on the
1.6 107 Da after water flooding. However, all of the wells experienced an injection pressure rise after
a short period of polymer injection, where the average injection pressure increased with a steeper slope
at the end of polymer injection; this increase reached 45% when the cumulative injected pore volume
was less than 0.1 PV. This pressure characteristic could be an indication of the difficultly of injection
Energies 2017, 10, 454 16 of 19

Energies 2017, 10, 454 16 of 19

at a high polymer concentration. Then, based on the established matching relationship, the polymer
injection of
baseline parameters
the injectionwerepressure
adjustedininthe time in theflooding
water heterogeneous type group
stage. Well II reservoir. The production
1, which makes up 41.8% wells
were
of thedivided
wells, was intodesigned
two groups for based
a polymeron theconcentration
baseline of the of injection
1500 mg/L pressure
with a in the waterweight
molecular flooding of
stage.
1.9 10Well
7 Dagroup
and an 1, which makes
injection volumeup 41.8%
of 0.6ofPV,theand
wells,wellwas designed
group for amakes
2, which polymer upconcentration
58.2% of the
of 1500was
wells, mg/L with afor
designed molecular
a polymer weight of 1.9 10
concentration of7 1500
Da and mg/Lan injection volume of
with a molecular 0.6 PV,
weight of and
1.6 well
107
group
Da and2, anwhich makesvolume
injection up 58.2% ofof0.6
thePV.wells, was designed
Moreover, for a polymer
the production concentration
parameters of 1500
of these twomg/Lwell
with a molecular
groups were eachweight of 1.6
tracked, and 107 Da
the and an injection volume
injection-production status ofand 0.6polymer
PV. Moreover,
floodingthe effect
production
were
parametersinof
evaluated thethese
field.two well groups were each tracked, and the injection-production status and
polymer flooding
As shown in effect
Figurewere evaluatedthe
11, although in the field.wells suffered from an injectivity decline during
typical
As shown in Figure 11, although the
the early high-concentration polymer flooding, a stable typical wells injection-production
suffered from an injectivity
status wasdecline during
obtained in
the early high-concentration
industrial application, which polymer flooding,
employed the amatching
stable injection-production
parameters, wherestatus was obtained
the injection pressure in
the industrial
increased application,
gradually which
with time andemployed
injected pore the matching
volume. The parameters, whereofthe
pressure slope theinjection
two wellpressure
groups
increased
are gradually
essentially equal,with
andtime and injected
compared withpore
the volume.
baseline,The thepressure
maximum slopepressure
of the two well groups
increases are
of well
essentially
group 1 and equal,
welland compared
group 2 werewith 78.24%the baseline,
and 51.57%,the maximum
respectively. pressure increases
This result of well that
indicates group the1
and well rise
pressure group by2permeability
were 78.24% reduction
and 51.57%, respectively.
resulting This resultisindicates
from retention stabilizedthat thethe
with pressure
injection riseofby
a
permeability
polymer slugreduction resulting from
[24]. Furthermore, the retention
average is stabilized with
incremental the injection
recovery of wellofgroup
a polymer
1 was slug [24].
14.4%
Furthermore,
(OOIP) betterthethan
average
thatincremental
of water recovery
flooding,ofwhich
well group 1 was 14.4%
exceeded (OOIP) better
the expected effect,thanandthatthe
of
water flooding, which exceeded the expected effect, and the comprehensive
comprehensive water cut still remained within 88% after the polymer slug was injected. The staged water cut still remained
within 88% after
incremental the polymer
recovery of wellslug was 2injected.
group was 11.9% The staged
(OOIP),incremental
and the water recovery
cut of well
rise group
rate was2 also
was
11.9% (OOIP),
controlled and the water
effectively. This cut risedemonstrates
result rate was also controlled effectively.sweep
that the reservoir This result demonstrates
condition is relativelythat
the reservoir
stable sweep condition is relatively
in an injection-production process stable
with thein an injection-production
matching relationship, process
and thewith
EORthe matching
effects of a
relationship,
polymer and the EOR effects
in heterogeneous type IIof a polymer
reservoirs areinfavorable.
heterogeneous type II reservoirs are favorable.

Time (day)
0 200 400 600 800 1000
100 30 2500

25
80 2000
Injection pressure (psi)

20
Water cut (%)

60 1500
EOR (%)

15
Injection pressure Injection pressure
Well group # 1: EOR Well group # 2: EOR
40 Water cut Water cut 1000
10

20 500
5

0 0 0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Injected pore volume (PV)

Figure
Figure 11.
11. Injection-production
Injection-production status
status for
for different
different well
well groups
groups of
of type
type II
II reservoir in the
reservoir in the field.
field.

Better economic results could be achieved if the residual polymer in formation realizes the
Better economic results could be achieved if the residual polymer in formation realizes the
reutilization by the effective technology. Considering the polymer remains in the formation exist in
reutilization by the effective technology. Considering the polymer remains in the formation exist in the
the forms of solution, adsorption and entrapment, fixation or flocculation might have potential to
forms of solution, adsorption and entrapment, fixation or flocculation might have potential to reutilize
reutilize the residual polymer. The residual polymer will form weak gel or flocculate in the
the residual polymer. The residual polymer will form weak gel or flocculate in the formation when
formation when some available fixing agents or flocculating agents are injected with proper patterns
some available fixing agents or flocculating agents are injected with proper patterns and parameters.
and parameters. The high permeability formation of heterogeneous reservoirs would be plugged,
The high permeability formation of heterogeneous reservoirs would be plugged, the injection profile
the injection profile would be adjusted again, and the sweep efficiency would be improved
would be adjusted again, and the sweep efficiency would be improved spontaneously. Future work
spontaneously. Future work should focus on developing new polymer product which can
should focus on developing new polymer product which can overcome the obstacles encountered
overcome the obstacles encountered by polymer flooding EOR at high salinity and high
by polymer flooding EOR at high salinity and high temperatures, modeling polymer flow through
temperatures, modeling polymer flow through intricate porous media which considers adsorption
intricate porous media which considers adsorption and entrapment, developing residual polymer
and entrapment, developing residual polymer reutilization technologies, and addressing the
unstable running of surface facilities and the fluctuation of treated oil and water quality in polymer
flooding EOR.
Energies 2017, 10, 454 17 of 19

reutilization technologies, and addressing the unstable running of surface facilities and the fluctuation
of treated oil and water quality in polymer flooding EOR.

5. Conclusions
Based on the experimental measurement and production analysis of the polymer flooding in
type II reservoir, we can get conclusions from the study as follows. (1) The injection performance of
single-phase and two-phase flooding environments has a strong relationship with the polymer injection
parameters and permeability. The adsorption also increases as the polymer molecular weights and
concentrations increase. The polymer adsorption-induced permeability reduction and the measured
oil/water relative permeability relationships are affected more significantly by concentration than by
molecular weight; (2) Different distributions of the residual oil only have a slight effect on the polymer
flow and residual resistance. The identification limits of the polymer injection performance in type II
reservoirs with certain heterogeneity are partitioned, and a matching relation schema is established.
The method can be used to address actual two-phase flow problems in type II reservoirs with polymer
EOR; (3) Under this matching relationship, the injection profile can be effectively adjusted by polymer
flooding, and additional oil recoveries of 1015% can be obtained in heterogeneous type II reservoirs
with a high water saturation; (4) A stable injection-production status and noticeable EOR effect were
achieved in a typical field application, which used the matching parameters; the practice proves that it
is promising to stabilize production levels from a maturing field base by performing polymer flooding
for EOR in heterogeneous type II reservoirs.

Acknowledgments: This work was financially supported by the National Natural Science Funds for Young
Scholars of China (Grant No. 51604079) and the University Nursing Program for Young Scholars with Creative
Talents in Heilongjiang Province.
Author Contributions: Huiying Zhong performed all the experiments and prepared the manuscript.
Weidong Zhang and Jing Fu discussed the results. Jun Lu revised the manuscript. Hongjun Yin assisted
for experimental design. The whole work was supervised by both Huiying Zhong and Hongjun Yin.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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