Resistance-Temperature Detectors

Overview
A resistance-temperature detector (RTD) is a temperature sensor that is based on the principle of
metal resistance increasing with temperature. Metals used in these devices vary from platinum, which
is very repeatable, quite sensitive, and very expensive, to nickel, which is not quite as repeatable,
more sensitive, and less expensive.

Sensitivity
An estimate of RTD sensitivity can be noted from typical values of ao, the linear fractional change in
resistance with temperature. For platinum, this number is typically on the order of 0.004/C, and for
nickel a typical value is 0.005/C. Thus, with platinum, for example, a change of only 0.4 W would be
expected for a 100-W RTD if the temperature is changed by 1C. Usually, a specification will provide
calibration information either as a graph of resistance versus temperature or as a table of values from
which the sensitivity can be determined. For the same materials, however, this number is relatively
constant because it is a function of resistivity.

Response Time
In general, RTD has a response time of 0.5 to 5 seconds or more. The slowness of response is due
principally to the slowness of thermal conductivity in bringing the device into thermal equilibrium with
its environment. Generally, time constants are specified either for a "free air" condition (or its
equivalent) or an "oil bath" condition (or its equivalent). In the former case, there is poor thermal
contact and hence slow response, and in the latter, good thermal contact and fast response. These
numbers yield a range of response times depending on the application.

Construction
An RTD, of course, is simply a length of wire whose resistance is to be monitored as a function of
temperature. The construction is typically such that the wire is wound on a form (in a coil) to achieve
small size and improve thermal conductivity to decrease response time. In many cases, the coil is
protected from the environment by a sheath or protective tube that inevitably increases response time
but may be necessary in hostile environments. A loosely applied standard sets the resistance at
multiples of 100 W for a temperature of 0C.

Signal Conditioning
In view of the very small fractional changes of resistance with temperature (0.4%), the RTD is
generally used in a bridge circuit. Figure 4.4 illustrates the essential features of such a system. The
compensation line in the R3 leg of the bridge is required when the lead lengths are so long that
thermal gradients along the RTD leg may cause changes in line resistance. These changes show up
as false information, suggesting changes in RTD resistance By using the compensation line, the
same resistance changes also appear on the R3 side of the bridge and cause no net shift in the
bridge null.

FIGURE 4.4 Note the compensation lines in this typical RTD signal-conditioning circuit
Dissipation Constant
Because the RTD is a resistance, there is an I2R power dissipated by the device itself that causes a
slight heating effect, a self-heating This may also cause an erroneous reading or even upset the
environment in delicate measurement conditions. Thus, the current through the RTD must be kept
sufficiently low and constant to avoid self-heating. Typically, a dissipation constant is provided in RTD
specifications. This number relates the power required to raise the RTD temperature by one degree
of temperature. Thus, a 25-mW/C dissipation constant shows that if I2R power losses in the RTD
equal 25 mW, then the RTD will be heated by 1C.

The dissipation constant is usually specified under two conditions free air and a well-stirred oil bath.
This is because of the difference in capacity of the medium to carry heat away from the device. The
self-heating temperature rise can be found from the power dissipated by the RTD and the dissipation
constant from

where DT = temperature rise because of self-heating in C

P = power dissipated in the RTD from the circuit in W
PD = dissipation constant of the RTD in W/C

EXAMPLE 4.7
An RTD has a o = 0.005/C, R = 500 W, and a dissipation constant of PD = 30 mW/ C at 20C. The
RTD is used in a bridge circuit such as that in Figure 4.4 with R 1= R2 = 500W and R3 a variable
resistor used to null the bridge. If the supply is 10 volts and the RTD is placed in a bath at 0C, find
the value of R3 to null the bridge.

Solution
First we find the value of the RTD resistance at 0C without including the effects of dissipation. From
Equation (4.9) we get
R = 500[1 + 0.005(0 - 20)]W
R = 450 W

Except for the effects of self-heating, we would expect the bridge to null with R3 equal to 45 W also.
Let's see what self-heating does to this problem. First, we find the power dissipated in the RTD from
the circuit assuming the resistance is still 450 W. The power is
P = I2R

and the current I to three significant figures is found from

so that the power is

P = (0.011)2(450) = 0.054 W

We get the temperature rise from Equation (4.13)

Thus, the RTD is not actually at the bath temperature of 0C but at a temperature of 1.8C. We must
find the RTD resistance from Equation (4.9) as
R = 500[1 + 0.005(1.8 - 20)]W
R = 454.5 W

Thus, the bridge will null with R3 = 454.5 W.

Range

The effective range of RTDs depends principally on the type of wire used as the active element.
Thus, a typical platinum RTD may have a range of -100C to 650C, whereas an RTD constructed
from nickel might typically have a specified range of -180C to 300C.

Temperature Sensor Comparison

Signal Conditioning Required Accuracy Sensitivity Comparison
Thermocouple Amplification Good Good Self-powered
Filtering Inexpensive
Cold-Junction Rugged
Compensation Large Temperature
Range
RTD Amplification Best Better Very Accurate
Filtering Very Stable
Current Excitation
Thermistor Amplification Better Best High Resistance
Filtering Low Thermal Mass
Current Excitation

Temperature Sensor Overviews - How They Work:

Thermocouples - Thermocouples are the most commonly used temperature sensors. A
thermocouple is created when two dissimilar metals touch and the contact point produces a small
open-circuit voltage as a function of temperature. This thermoelectric voltage is known as Seebeck
voltage and can be used to calculate temperature.

RTD
Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) are made of coils or films of metals (usually platinum).
When heated, the resistance of the metal increases; when cooled, the resistance decreases. Passing
current through an RTD generates a voltage across the RTD. By measuring this voltage, you
determine its resistance and, thus, its temperature

Thermistor
A thermistor is a piece of semiconductor made from metal oxides; pressed into a small bead, disk,
wafer, or other shape; sintered at high temperatures; and finally coated with epoxy or glass. Like
RTDs, you can pass a current through a thermistor to read the voltage across the thermistor and
determine its temperature. However, unlike RTDs, thermistors have a higher resistance (anywhere
from 2,000 to 10,000 and a much higher sensitivity (~200 /C). But thermistors are generally
only used up to the 300 C temperature range

Temperature Measurement Basics

What Is Temperature?
Qualitatively, the temperature of an object determines the sensation of warmth or coldness felt by
touching it. More specifically, temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles
in a sample of matter, expressed in units of degrees on a standard scale.
For more information on temperature, read the
There are numerous technologies and sensors for measuring temperature, however, two of the most
common types of sensors are thermocouples and RTDs. See how to measure temperature with a
thermocouple and an RTD below.
Temperature Measurement with a Thermocouple
You cannot simply connect the thermocouple to a voltmeter or other measurement system to
measure a thermocouple Seebeck voltage. This is because connecting the thermocouple wires to the
measurement system creates additional thermoelectric circuits.

Consider the circuit illustrated in Figure 1. A J-type thermocouple is in a candle flame that has a
temperature you want to measure. The two thermocouple wires are connected to the copper leads of
a DAQ board. Notice that the circuit contains three dissimilar metal junctions -- J1, J2, and J3. J1, the
thermocouple junction, generates a Seebeck voltage proportional to the temperature of the candle
flame. J2 and J3 each have their own Seebeck coefficient and generate their own thermoelectric
voltage proportional to the temperature at the DAQ terminals. To determine the voltage contribution
from J1, you need to know the temperatures of junctions J2 and J3 as well as the voltage-to-
temperature relationships for these junctions. You can then subtract the contributions of the parasitic
junctions at J2 and J3 from the measured voltage at junction J1.
Thermocouples require some form of temperature reference to compensate for these unwanted
parasitic "cold" junctions. The most common method of cold junction compensation is to measure the
temperature at the reference junction with a direct-reading temperature sensor and subtract the
parasitic junction voltage contributions. This process is called cold-junction compensation. You can
simplify computing cold-junction compensation by taking advantage of some thermocouple
characteristics.

Temperature Measurement with an RTD or Thermistor

Because RTDs and thermistors are resistive devices, you must supply them with an excitation current
and then read the voltage across their terminals. If extra heat cannot be dissipated, I2R heating
caused by the excitation current can raise the temperature of the sensing element above that of the
ambient temperature. Self-heating will actually change the resistance of the RTD or thermistor,
causing error in the measurement. The effects of self-heating can be minimized by supplying lower
excitation current.
RTD and thermistor output signals are typically in the millivolt range, making them susceptible to
noise. Low-pass filters are commonly available in RTD and thermistor data acquisition systems, and
they can effectively eliminate high-frequency noise in RTD and thermistor measurements. For
instance, low-pass filters are useful for removing the 60 Hz power line noise that is prevalent in most
laboratory and plant settings.
You can also significantly improve the noise performance of your system by amplifying the low-level
RTD and thermistor voltages near the signal source. Because RTD and thermistor output voltage
levels are very low, you should choose a gain that optimizes the input limits of the analog-to-digital
converter (ADC).
The easiest way to connect an RTD or thermistor to a measurement device is with a 2-wire
connection.
With this method, the two wires that provide the RTD or thermistor with its excitation current are also
used to measure the voltage across the sensor. Because of the low nominal resistance of RTDs,
measurement accuracy can be drastically affected by lead wire resistance. For example, lead wires
with a resistance of 1 ? connected to a 100 ? platinum RTD cause a 1 percent measurement

RTD Overview
A platinum resistance temperature detector (RTD) is a device with a typical resistance of 100 W at
0C. It consists of a thin film of platinum on a plastic film. Its resistance varies with temperature and it
can typically measure temperatures up to 850 C. The relationship between resistance and
temperature is relatively linear as shown below for a sample 100 W RTD.

Figure 1. RTD Resistance Versus Temperature Relationship

This relationship appears relatively linear, but curve fitting is often the most accurate way to make an
accurate RTD measurement.
Measuring Temperature with RTDs

An RTD is a passive measurement device; therefore, you must supply it with an excitation current
and then read the voltage across its terminals. You can then easily transform this reading to
temperature with a simple algorithm. To avoid self-heating, which is caused by current flowing
through the RTD, minimize this excitation current as much as possible. The easiest way to take a
temperature reading with an RTD is using the 2-wire method.

Figure 2. Making a 2-Wire RTD Measurement

Using the 2-wire method, the two wires that provide the RTD with its excitation current and the two
wires across which the RTD voltage is measured are the same. The inaccuracy using this method is
that if the lead resistance in the wires is high, the voltage measured V O, is significantly higher than the
voltage that is present across the RTD itself. To get a more accurate measurement, use the 4-wire
method.
 Figure 3. Making a 4-Wire RTD Measurement

The 4-wire method has the advantage of not being affected by the lead resistances because they are
on a high impedance path going through the device that is performing the voltage measurement;
therefore, you get a much more accurate measurement of the voltage across the RTD.

[+] Enlarge Image

Figure 4. SCXI-1121 Module 2-,3-, and 4-Wire RTD Configuration

Thermistor Overview
Thermistors are similar to RTDs in that they are resistors whose resistivity changes with temperature.
The main difference thermistors and RTDs is that they are made of metal oxide semiconductor
material that is coated with glass or epoxy. They also come in two different types, negative
temperature coefficient (NTC) and positive temperature coefficient (PTC). NTC thermistors have a
resistivity that decreases with increasing temperature and the PTC thermistors have increased
resistivity with increasing temperature. Thermistors have a much higher sensitivity to temperature
than RTDs and a much higher nominal resistance. Thermistors are less sensitive to lead resistance
noise effects. With sensitivities on the order of 10 W/C to 10 kW/C, thermistors are well suited to
high accuracy temperature measurements. The major disadvantages of thermistors are they have a
small temperature range and a highly nonlinear output. Below is a typical thermistor temperature
curve compared to a typical 100 W RTD temperature curve.
 [+] Enlarge Image
Figure 5. Resistance Versus Temperature for a Typical Thermistor and RTD

Measuring Temperature with Thermistors

A thermistor, like an RTD, is a passive measurement device. You must supply it with a constant
voltage or current excitation, and then read the voltage across its terminals to get a temperature
reading.

RTD/Thermistor Measurement Systems

National Instruments offers several hardware platforms to measure RTDs and thermistors. The table
below shows NI temperature measurement hardware for a variety of needs. Click on an application
type to see system components, prices, and more information. For more temperature measurement
information see the
RTD vs.Thermocouple Comparison Chart
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) are sensors that measure temperature by correlating the
resistance of the RTD element with temperature. Most RTD elements consist of a length of fine coiled
wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass core. The element is typically relatively fragile, so it is
generally installed inside a sheath to protect it. The RTD element is constructed from a pure material,
the resistance of which, at various temperatures, has been documented by various international
standards institutes. The material has a predictable change in resistance as the temperature varies; it
is this change that is used to determine temperature.
RTDs are generally considered to be among the most accurate temperature sensors available. In
addition to offering very good accuracy, they provide excellent stability and repeatability. RTDs also
feature high immunity to electrical noise and are, therefore, well suited for applications in process and
industrial automation environments, especially around motors, generators and other high voltage
equipment.
Thermocouples
A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar metals, joined together at one end. When the junction of
the two metals is cooled or heated a voltage is produced that can be correlated back to the
temperature. Most thermocouple alloys are commonly available as wire.
Thermocouples are manufactured in different combinations of metals and/or calibrations. The
calibrations most regularly specified by Weed Instrument customers are J, K, T and E. High
temperature calibrations include R, S, C and GB. Each calibration has a different temperature range
 and environment, although the maximum temperature varies with the diameter of the wire used in the
thermocouple. While the thermocouple calibration defines the temperature range, the maximum
range will also be a factor the diameter of the thermocouple wire. Therefore, a very thin thermocouple
may not reach the full temperature range
Since thermocouples measure wide temperature ranges and are relatively rugged, they are very
often used industrial and process applications where accuracy may be a less important factor. In
selecting a thermocouple, the following criteria are key considerations:
Temperature range
Chemical resistance of the thermocouple or sheath material
Abrasion and vibration resistance
Installation requirements (may need to be compatible with existing equipment; existing holes
may determine probe diameter)

Time Response Characteristics

The response of an ARi Resistance Temperature Detector is defined by 2 noticable characteristics

when exposed to an instantaneous (step) change in enviroment temperature. These are:
A.) Time Constant (tau). The time to reach 63.2% of the complete step change in temperature.
B.) Response Time. Time to reach within 0.5% of the final temperature in a step change. This is
approximately equal to 5 times the time constant

The response of a temperature sensor to a step change in enviroment temperature tends to follow a
second order differential equation. However, this is approximate, since if the mass of the sensor is
small in relation to the mass of the fluid passing over it (such as in the case of a liquid), the response
may approach a first order differential equation. A typical response is as follows:

Time constant has application for more common experiences in process control, ie, ramp change or
sinusoidal changes in enviromental temperature. The response of a sensor under these conditions
are:

Time constant is related to the enviromental conditions by the following approximate relation (Ref
NASA TN 2599)
Resistance Temperature Detector Specifications

ARi ARiDET consists of a specially installed platinum resistance element completely encased in
compacted metallic oxide insulation of high thermoconductivity to insure minimum temperature
differential between the sensor surface and the element. Standard sensors have 3 constantan equi-
resistance lead wires in the lead portion with compacted MgO insulation. Sheath material is 316 L
ST/ST in fully annealed condition. Performance specifications are shown for the element portion and
the lead portion.
 Typical 3-wire measuring circuit for RTD'S
A 3-wire system may be used to eliminate the effect of lead wire resistance changes by introducing
RL (lead wire resistance) into each leg of the bridge. The third lead wire is added to the detector
circuit without effecting bridge balance. The resultant circuit is sensitive only to resistance element
temperature changes.

Thermocouple Maintainance

General Guidelines
o Do not allow excessive bending of the thermocouples. Cold working can lower the insulation
resistance at certain points causing short circuits or decreased accuracy.
o Use protection tubes for corrosive atmospheres
o Always inspect protection tubes when changing thermocouples. Things to look for include
cracks, pinholes, contamination, or discoloration.
o Do not locate the thermocouple too close to a heating element
o Record the life span and cause of failure for each thermocouple to help track down potential
problems.
o Never apply stress to platinum elements, the are fragile and will break easily at high
temperatures
Cold Junction Compensation
In the figure shown below we have one of the more common (type K) thermocouples, and it's
corresponding voltage at 42C as retrieved from the NIST website.
However, it is not possible to simply connect a voltmeter to the thermocouple to measure the voltage
produced. Since the leads on the voltmeter are most likely of a dissimilar metal (usually copper) from
the thermocouple wires we would introduce two undesired junctions, known as a parasitic
thermocouples. This is where the Law of Intermediate Metals comes into play. This law states that a
third metal inserted between two dissimilar metals of a thermocouple junction will have no effect, as
long as the junctions are isothermal (the same temperature). All standard tables compensate for this
inaccuracy by assuming that this second junction (the "cold" end) is kept at 0C (32F). In a
laboratory setting this can be easily achieved through the use of an ice bath as shown below.

This is generally the best method of measurement, as a properly maintained ice bath can usually
offer an accuracy of 32C 0.2C, not to mention the fact this is the most inexpensive of available
methods.

Real World Applications

For most real world applications, constantly maintaining an ice bath is either not possible or not
practical. As such, when presented with a non-standard cold section temperature, many technicians
may instead opt for temperature measuring devices which may be more costly and less suited for the
intended application. This mistake can be avoided with a little more knowledge of the thermocouple
and it's related circuitry.

For applications where knowing the exact temperature is extremely critical, cold junction temperature
can be measured through the use of a precision thermistor in contact with the terminal block, or the
input connectors of the measuring instrument. This reading is added to the EMF reading from the
thermocouple, and is used by the measuring instrument to find the absolute temperature at the hot
end of the thermocouple. The down side to this is that this method either requires sophisticated (and
usually expensive) measuring equipment, or requires the designer to program software to do the
addition of the two readings. The advantage of this method is that accuracies of 0.5C are possible.

For applications where this extremely high degree of accuracy is not required, off the shelf IC's are
readily available from many suppliers. One such example is the AD594/AD595 from Analog Devices,
which come with built in cold junction compensation. These IC's are often desirable because they
eliminate the need to record two temperatures, require little to no software, and are far simpler to
implement. With the IC's listed above accuracies of 1C/3C respectively are possible. The
required circuitry is usually provided in the accompanying literature at the time of purchase. One
example circuit is given below.
Again, "cold junction compensation" is only necessary if you need to know the absolute temperature
of the system you are monitoring. Thermocouples produce a voltage which is the proportional to the
difference between the hot and cold junctions. So if you simply need to monitor the change in
temperature of a process, "cold junction compensation" is unnecessary. But as you can see from
above, there are many methods available of finding absolute temperature depending on the degree
of accuracy required.

Choosing a Thermocouple

Types of Thermocouples
Noble Metals
Platinum 10% Expensive, chemically stable, good mechanical properties, must be
Rhodium protected in use, not suitable for low temperature applications
Expensive, chemically stable, good mechanical properties, may be used
Platinum 13%
in oxidizing atmospheres, must be protected in use, not suitable for low
Rhodium
temperature applications
Platinum 20% Very expensive, for use in temperature ranges beyond the capabilities of
Rhodium the above noble metals
Base Metals
Low cost, suitable for oxidizing or reducing atmospheres. Subject to
Iron-Constantan
chemical attack.
Copper-
Suited to ambient temperatures, similar to the model above.
Constantan
Higher temperature range (1000-2000F). Can be used in an oxidizing
Chromel-Alumel
atmosphere, is mechanically strong, and is resistant to chemical attack.
Chromel- Very stable, not to be used in reducing atmospheres, subject to chemical
Constantan attack.

Types of Thermocouple Junctions

There are three types of thermocouple exposures available depending on the atmosphere of the
intended application, intended life span of the thermocouple, process being measured, as well as a
variety of other factors.

1.) Exposed Junction

The thermocouple wires are welded together and the insulation is sealed against
penetration by liquid or gas. This type of thermocouple offers the least protection and is
best suited to ambient atmospheres.
 2.) Grounded Junction
The thermocouple wires are welded together with (grounded to) the sheath. This provides
more protection, and is used in cases where an exposed junction would not work due to
harsh atmospheric conditions, or when longer life is required.

3.) Ungrounded Junction

The thermocouple wires are welded together and are insulated from the sheath. This
provides the most protection for the thermocouple elements and is recommended for the
longest life. Different types of sheath materials (protection tubes) offer greater protection
depending on the conditions.

Factors to Consider
Choosing the correct thermocouple requires that you look at a number of factors. For example, a
thermocouple which is only used only periodically may be less expensive, but it may have a shorter
life span and require servicing more often. If the thermocouple is intended to be used for long periods
of time without service it may be necessary to use a thicker gauge of wire and it may be necessary to
use a design engineered for a greater degree of protection.

Below are some general guidelines to consider when choosing a thermocouple. If you need more
help making a decision our knowledgeable sales staff is available to recommend a design which will
best suit your application.
o What are the maximum and minimum temperatures the thermocouple will see?
o Are there any cost limits?
o What error tolerances are necessary for your application?
o What is the furnace atmosphere?
o What is the expected life of the thermocouple?
o What is the time response required?
o Will the thermocouple be used continuously or periodically?
o Will the thermocouple see bending or flexing during it's life?
o What is the immersion depth?
Background
Thermocouples are the most popular temperature sensors. They are cheap, interchangeable, have
standard connectors and can measure a wide range of temperatures. The main limitation is accuracy,
system errors of less than 1C can be difficult to achieve.
How They Work
In 1822, an Estonian physician named Thomas Seebeck discovered (accidentally) that the junction
between two metals generates a voltage which is a function of temperature. Thermocouples rely on
this Seebeck effect. Although almost any two types of metal can be used to make a thermocouple, a
number of standard types are used because they possess predictable output voltages and large
temperature gradients.
A K type thermocouple is the most popular and uses nickel-chromium and nickel-aluminium alloys to
generate voltage.Standard tables show the voltage produced by thermocouples at any given
temperature, so the K type thermocouple at 300C will produce 12.2mV. Unfortunately it is not
possible to simply connect up a voltmeter to the thermocouple to measure this voltage, because the
connection of the voltmeter leads will make a second, undesired thermocouple junction.
Cold Junction Compensation (CJC)
To make accurate measurements, this must be compensated for by using a technique known as cold
junction compensation (CJC). In case you are wondering why connecting a voltmeter to a
thermocouple does not make several additional thermocouple junctions (leads connecting to the
thermocouple, leads to the meter, inside the meter etc), the law of intermediate metals states that a
third metal, inserted between the two dissimilar metals of a thermocouple junction will have no effect
provided that the two junctions are at the same temperature. This law is also important in the
construction of thermocouple junctions. It is acceptable to make a thermocouple junction by soldering
the two metals together as the solder will not affect the reading. In practice, thermocouple junctions
are made by welding the two metals together (usually by capacitive discharge). This ensures that the
performance is not limited by the melting point of solder.
All standard thermocouple tables allow for this second thermocouple junction by assuming that it is
kept at exactly zero degrees centigrade. Traditionally this was done with a carefully constructed ice
bath (hence the term 'cold' junction compensation). Maintaining a ice bath is not practical for most
measurement applications, so instead the actual temperature at the point of connection of the
thermocouple wires to the measuring instrument is recorded.
Typically cold junction temperature is sensed by a precision thermistor in good thermal contact with
the input connectors of the measuring instrument. This second temperature reading, along with the
reading from the thermocouple itself is used by the measuring instrument to calculate the true
temperature at the thermocouple tip. For less critical applications, the CJC is performed by a
semiconductor temperature sensor. By combining the signal from this semiconductor with the signal
from the thermocouple, the correct reading can be obtained without the need or expense to record
two temperatures. Understanding of cold junction compensation is important; any error in the
measurement of cold junction temperature will lead to the same error in the measured temperature
from the thermocouple tip.
Linearisation
As well as dealing with CJC, the measuring instrument must also allow for the fact that the
thermocouple output is non linear. The relationship between temperature and output voltage is a
complex polynomial equation (5th to 9th order depending on thermocouple type). Analogue methods of
linearisation are used in low cost themocouple meters. High accuracy instruments store
thermocouple tables in computer memory to eliminate this source of error.
Thermocouple Selection
Thermocouples are available either as bare wire 'bead' thermocouples which offer low cost and fast
response times, or built into probes. A wide variety of probes are available, suitable for different
measuring applications (industrial, scientific, food temperature, medical research etc). One word of
warning: when selecting probes take care to ensure they have the correct type of connector. The two
common types of connector are 'standard' with round pins and 'miniature' with flat pins, this causes
some confusion as 'miniature' connectors are more popular than 'standard' types.
Types
When choosing a thermocouple consideration should be given to both the thermocouple type,
insulation and probe construction. All of these will have an effect on the measurable temperature
range, accuracy and reliability of the readings. Listed below is a subjective guide to thermocouple
types.
When selecting thermocouple types, ensure that your measuring equipment does not limit the range
of temperatures that can be measured. Note that thermocouples with low sensitivity (B, R and S)
have a correspondingly lower resolution. The table below summarises the useful operating limits for
the various thermocouple types which are described in more detail in the following paragraphs.
Table 1. Range of Temperatures for Each Thermocouple Type
Thermocouple Type Overall Range (C) 0.1C Resolution 0.025C Resolution
B 100..1800 1030..1800 -
E -270..790 -240..790 -140..790
J -210..1050 -210..1050 -120..1050
K -270..1370 -220..1370 -20..1150
N -260..1300 -210..1300 340..1260
R -50..1760 330..1760 -
S -50..1760 250..1760 -
T -270..400 -230..400 -20..400
Type K (Chromel / Alumel)
Type K is the 'general purpose' thermocouple. It is low cost and, owing to its popularity, it is available
in a wide variety of probes. Thermocouples are available in the -200C to +1200C range. Sensitivity
is approx 41uV/C. Use type K unless you have a good reason not to.
Type E (Chromel / Constantan)
Type E has a high output (68uV/C) which makes it well suited to low temperature (cryogenic) use.
Another property is that it is non-magnetic.
Type J (Iron / Constantan)
Limited range (-40 to +750C) makes type J less popular than type K. The main application is with old
equipment that cannot accept 'modern' thermocouples. J types should not be used above 760C as
an abrupt magnetic transformation will cause permanent decalibration.
Type N (Nicrosil / Nisil)
High stability and resistance to high temperature oxidation makes type N suitable for high
temperature measurements without the cost of platinum (B,R,S) types. Designed to be an 'improved'
type K, it is becoming more popular.
Thermocouple types B, R and S are all 'noble' metal thermocouples and exhibit similar
characteristics. They are the most stable of all thermocouples, but due to their low sensitivity (approx
10uV/0C) they are usually only used for high temperature measurement (>300C).
Type B (Platinum / Rhodium)
Suited for high temperature measurements up to 1800C. Unusually type B thermocouples (due to
the shape of their temperature / voltage curve) give the same output at 0C and 42C. This makes
them useless below 50C.
Type R (Platinum / Rhodium)
Suited for high temperature measurements up to 1600C. Low sensitivity (10uV/C) and high cost
makes them unsuitable for general purpose use.
Type S (Platinum / Rhodium)
Suited for high temperature measurements up to 1600C. Low sensitivity (10uV/vC) and high cost
makes them unsuitable for general purpose use. Due to its high stability type S is used as the
standard of calibration for the melting point of gold (1064.43C).
Precautions and Considerations for Using Thermocouples
Most measurement problems and errors with thermocouples are due to a lack of understanding of
how thermocouples work. Thermocouples can suffer from ageing and accuracy may vary
consequently especially after prolonged exposure to temperatures at the extremities of their useful
operating range. Listed below are some of the more common problems and pitfalls to be aware of.
Connection problems
Many measurement errors are caused by unintentional thermocouple junctions. Remember that any
junction of two different metals will cause a junction. If you need to increase the length of the leads
from your thermocouple, you must use the correct type of thermocouple extension wire (eg type K for
type K thermocouples). Using any other type of wire will introduce a thermocouple junction. Any
connectors used must be made of the correct thermocouple material and correct polarity must be
observed.
Lead Resistance
To minimise thermal shunting and improve response times, thermocouples are made of thin wire (in
the case of platinum types cost is also a consideration). This can cause the thermocouple to have a
high resistance which can make it sensitive to noise and can also cause errors due to the input
impedance of the measuring instrument. A typical exposed junction thermocouple with 32AWG wire
(0.25mm diameter) will have a resistance of about 15 ohms / meter. If thermocouples with thin leads
or long cables are needed, it is worth keeping the thermocouple leads short and then using
thermocouple extension wire (which is much thicker, so has a lower resistance) to run between the
thermocouple and measuring instrument. It is always a good precaution to measure the resistance of
your thermocouple before use.
Decalibration
Decalibration is the process of unintentionally altering the makeup of thermocouple wire. The usual
cause is the diffusion of atmospheric particles into the metal at the extremes of operating
temperature. Another cause is impurities and chemicals from the insulation diffusing into the
thermocouple wire. If operating at high temperatures, check the specifications of the probe insulation.
Noise
The output from a thermocouple is a small signal, so it is prone to electrical noise pick up. Most
measuring instruments reject any common mode noise (signals that are the same on both wires) so
noise can be minimised by twisting the cable together to help ensure both wires pick up the same
noise signal. Additionally, an integrating analog to digital converter can be used to helps average out
any remaining noise. If operating in an extremely noisy environment, (such as near a large motor) it is
worthwhile considering using a screened extension cable. If noise pickup is suspected first switch off
all suspect equipment and see if the reading changes.
Common Mode Voltage
Although thermocouple signal are very small, much larger voltages often exist at the input to the
measuring instrument. These voltages can be caused either by inductive pick up (a problem when
testing the temperature of motor windings and transformers) or by 'earthed' junctions. A typical
example of an 'earthed' junction would be measuring the temperature of a hot water pipe with a non
insulated thermocouple. If there are any poor earth connections a few volts may exist between the
pipe and the earth of the measuring instrument. These signals are again common mode (the same in
both thermocouple wires) so will not cause a problem with most instruments provided they are not too
large.
Thermal Shunting
All thermocouples have some mass. Heating this mass takes energy so will affect the temperature
you are trying to measure. Consider for example measuring the temperature of liquid in a test tube:
there are two potential problems. The first is that heat energy will travel up the thermocouple wire and
dissipate to the atmosphere so reducing the temperature of the liquid around the wires. A similar
problem can occur if the thermocouple is not sufficiently immersed in the liquid, due to the cooler
ambient air temperature on the wires, thermal conduction may cause the thermocouple junction to be
a different temperature to the liquid itself. In the above example a thermocouple with thinner wires
may help, as it will cause a steeper gradient of temperature along the thermocouple wire at the
junction between the liquid and ambient air. If thermocouples with thin wires are used, consideration
must be paid to lead resistance. The use of a thermocouple with thin wires connected to much thicker
thermocouple extension wire often offers the best compromise.
Selecting the Right Temperature Sensor

Imagine that you are an Instrumentation Engineer. You are looking at the prints for a new plant, and
see the many locations marked out for Temperature Transducers (TT).

But what has been specified to fill each space?

RTD's for their high accuracy and linearity?

Or Thermocouples because of their lower cost and familiarity?

Has anything been specified to fill those spaces?

Or has this been left to chance at the last minute?

The selection of what type of Temperature Transducer to be used affects many other aspects of the
design and installation of the equipment in the plant such as:

What type of wire needs to be run?

What type of instrument will be in the control room on the other end of that wire?

Will there be local junction boxes with terminal strips or transmitters, and if so, what type of
transmitters are required?

Do any special piping considerations need to be made to protect the sensor or provide the required
response time?

These are just some of the details, and we have not even touched on the actual selection and design
of the sensor itself. We have all read articles on this subject before, but as long as there are
questions out there, more information will be provided to help make wise and informed decisions
regarding each specific application.

Let's look at the big picture and try to narrow down the choices in a logical way.

First, we'll look at survival of the sensor. Only then can we discuss the finer points; such as meeting
the specified requirements.

TEMPERATURE RANGE

The International Temperature Scale (ITS-90) defines temperatures between 13.8003 K and 1234.93
K (961.78C) by use of Platinum Resistance Thermometers (PRT's) calibrated at specified sets of
fixed points. While this is fine in a laboratory, you are not likely to find an industrial grade RTD that will
cover this entire range adequately.

Please note that the standard says PRT's - plural; one PRT will not cover the entire range adequately
in a laboratory situation either: several are used,

ASTM defines the Platinum RTD for use over the range -200C to 650C. This is a good guideline to
follow, even though IEC extends the upper limit to 850C. Industrial grade Platinum RTD's can be
manufactured for use to 850C, but it is not an easy task that can be taken on by just anyone. Also,
you may find that standard warranties are not valid for this type of service. Fortunately, over 90% of
all contact temperature measurements made in industry are below 650C.

Thermocouples also have temperature limitations based on what type is specified, and what gage
wire it is constructed of. A typical 1/4" OD, single, mineral insulated Thermocouple has 16 AWG wire
within it.

ASTM E-608 recommends the following temperature limits for such base metal thermocouples;

Type T 370C, Type J 720C Type E 820C, Type K 1150C

Now just because ASTM says these thermocouples can be used at these temperatures doesn't mean
that they are going to last forever. The higher the application temperature, the sooner they will begin
to drift, and the shorter the life. ASTM does not publish any guidelines on drift or life expectancy, due
to the many variables involved which affect thermocouple performance.

Above these temperatures, we must step up to precious metal Thermocouples: either Platinum-
Rhodium Alloys, or Tungsten- Rhenium Alloys. These do tend to get expensive, but when you've got
to measure temperature above about 1000C, it really is the way to go. The life expectancy is much
longer, and they are not as prone to drift.

ASTM E-230 lists suggested upper temperature limits for Types R and S Platinum- Rhodium
Thermocouples as 1480C (2700F), and for Type B as 1700C (3100F). These values are for
protected 24 AWG construction.

ACCURACY

After temperature range, which essentially helps us choose whether or not we can even consider a
particular sensor for our application, we may evaluate the accuracy of various types. A standard,
ASTM Grade B RTD will provide true accuracy (as compared to the published R vs. T tables) of +/-
0.25C at 0C. Due to variations in Temperature Coefficient, this same Grade B thermometer may
only provide temperature readings within 3.0C at 650C. More accurate, Grade A RTD's are
available which will perform within 1.24C at 650C, at additional cost.

By comparison, the most common base metal thermocouples, Types J and K, will provide accu-racy
of 2.2C or 0.75% (whichever is greater) when supplied in standard accuracy. That could be as much
as +/-4.875C at 650C, considerably larger than even the Grade B RTD. This is true across the
range, up to the RTD's upper limit of 650C, for Grade B RTD's vs. standard tolerance
thermocouples, as well as Grade A RTD's vs. thermocouples selected to special tolerance limits.
Simply stated; if accuracy is important to you, and all other conditions permit it, select an RTD over a
thermocouple.

REPEATABILITY / STABILITY

This is not as easy to quantify for RTD's or Thermocouples due to the tremendous effect that the
application has on the results. For instance; ASTM E-230 Part 6, Table 1, Note 3 states: "Caution:
Users should be aware that certain characteristics of thermocouple materials, including the emf
versus temperature relationship may change with time in use; consequently, test results and
performance obtained at time of manufacture may not necessarily apply throughout an extended
period of use. Tolerances given in this table apply only to new wire as delivered to the user and do
not allow for changes in characteristics with use The magnitude of such changes will depend on such
factors as wire size, temperature, time of exposure, and environment."

For Platinum RTD'S, ASTM-1137 Part 9 requires the stability of the unit to remain within the specific
accuracy grade (ie: Grade B) for a four week test. IEC-751 goes a step further and requires that
Class B RTD's must withstand 250 hours at maximum temperature and 250 hours at minimum
temperature with a change in resistance of no more than 0.3C. The same requirement must be
maintained for 10 min/max cycles. That's a total of 5000 hours, or more than 208 days at the
extremes. Thermocouples are typically not expected to perform within stability/repeatability limits as
strict as these.

VIBRATION

This is one area where Thermocouples may have a slight advantage. Due to the sheer size of the
wires used in Thermocouple construction, they tend to stand up to high vibration better than most
RTD'S. Remember that the 1/4" OD Mineral Insulated Thermocouple previously mentioned had 16
AWG conductors within it, and these conductors are used to form the Thermocouple Junction. On the
other hand, a Wire-Wound RTD element mav have lead wires of approximately 26-30 AWG which are
attached to a very fine Platinum wire used to wind the sensor itself. The wire in these windings is
generally in the range of 15 to 35 microns (that's about 0.00059 - 0.00138 inches) in diameter, and is
consequently very fragile. High vibration has been known to cause problems in some wire-wound
resistance elements which are not of fully supported construction. Failures may be in the form of
open circuits, noisy signals, or intermittent high readings.
Fully supported wire-wound, as well as thin film RTD's tend to fare somewhat better than the semi-
supported types. But keep in mind that the element leads are still only 26-30 AWG and there-fore
relatively susceptible to breakage induced by continued high vibration. Also, special care must be
exerted by the RTD manufacturer to properly package these elements for the rugged environ-ment
that they will see.

RESPONSE TIME

This is another area where Thermocouples excel over RTD'S, and it's a simple matter of physics to
understand why. Contact temperature sensors do not indicate the temperature of the area around
them, they indicate their own temperature along their own sensitive area. In order for any contact
temperature sensor to indicate the temperature it is in contact with, the sensor must first come to
thermal equilibrium with that environment. Let's not discuss the theoretical aspect that the two never
actually attain the same temperature, but just the fact that after some time the two are approximately
at thermal equilibrium.

The most basic of Thermocouples is merely a junction of the two dissimilar metal wires. This could be
a beaded junction, or a butt-welded junction which turns out to be nearly the same diameter as the
Thermocouple wire itself. In order to indicate the surrounding temperature, the junction must be at
that temperature. That junction might only be .010" in diameter (for a 30 AWG wire thermocouple), or
smaller if finer wires are used. RTD's require either a length of fine Platinum wire wound around or
within a former, or a layer of platinum deposited upon a substrate. In all cases, there is an area of
Platinum (which is the sensitive portion of the RTD) in contact with this inert, insulating former, and
both are physically larger than a weld junction (generally speaking). Both the Platinum and the
insulator have thermal mass that must come to equilibrium with the surroundings before the sensor
can give an accurate reading. Since there is generally more thermal mass involved here than with the
thermocouple junction, the thermocouple will respond faster when put in a similar environment.

The aforementioned statement is true only when reaching for the extremely fast response times of
each type and working with bare resistance elements and exposed thermocouple junctions. If both
sensors are encapsulated within metal sheaths, and the thermocouple junction is isolated from the
sheath (as an RTD circuit always is), then response times will be quite similar.

SENSITIVITY

Here the RTD's are very simply; Superior. Take if you will, a Platinum 100 Ohm RTD with .00385
Temperature Coefficient. From 0C to +100C its resistance changes from 100.00 to 138.50 ohms, a
difference of 38.5 ohms. If we had been using 1 mA sensing current (which is quite typical to avoid
self- heating effects), Ohm's Law (V=iR) tells us that we would see a difference of 38.5 mV over this
range. By comparison, a Type E Thermocouple, which provides the highest sensitivity of all
recognized thermocouples, will show only a change of 6.317 mV. This is only about one sixth of the
sensitivity of the RTD. If your envi-ronment might provide electrical interference, the thermocouple
will be at least 6 times more sus-ceptible to it. And this is when using a type E, other types have
sensitivity as low as .33 micro-volts per degree Celsius.

If you want even higher sensitivity, you may opt for a Pt 500 Ohm RTD to provide 5 times the
sensitivity of the Pt 100, or a Pt 1000 Ohm to give you 385 ohms over that 100 degree range.

LIFE EXPECTANCY / REPLACEMENT COST

This again goes back to what we've said about application parameters in the areas of temperature
range and stability: it all depends on the details. A few generalizations can be made, however. It is
widely accepted that thermocouples are in a constant state of degradation and need to be checked
and replaced periodically, while Platinum RTD's may last indefinitely, if the environment does not
deteriorate them.
COST

As much as we hate to admit it, the final factor in most decisions is cost. For many years,
thermocouples have been the most widely used form of electrical temperature sensor mainly
because they are cheap. While this is still true, it must be pointed out that the cost for a Platinum
RTD has come down to a very competitive range, due to the increased usage of thin-film sensors.
Thin-film RTD sensors are certainly not new technology any more; they were developed in Germany
in the early 1970's. But they are being used in ever increasing numbers; in applications from -50 to
600C, for use in industrial environments, the food and beverage industry, as well as laboratory
equipment and some automotive uses.

Whether or not an RTD can actually be used in place of a thermocouple will depend on the specific
design and application as outlined above. But if it's feasible, the actual price difference from
thermocouple to RTD may be less than $10. if this is part of a large assembly, particularly one
involving a thermowell and transmitter, that will amount to a very small part of the total unit cost.

It should be pointed out that there will be hidden savings on the installation of the RTD since standard
instrument wire can be used, as no specially compensated cables are required.

IN SUMMATION

We cannot make any generalizations, each application must be judged on its own. But if you have a
new requirement for a temperature transducer, and you are not quite sure how to fill the space, run
down the requirements and apply the concepts listed above. Maybe a thermocouple will provide what
you need, or maybe you will find that an RTD is much better suited for the situation and really won't
cost you any more in the long run. Reprinted from