BUSITEMA UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL SCIENCES

-ARAPAI CAMPUS
Bachelor of Animal Production and Management (BAPM)
APM 2206: Animal Toxicology

DATE: 15TH/5/2012 TIME: 9:00am - 12:00pm

Instructions: Answer ALL questions

1. Toxicological studies are of great importance in many fields of life an example being: Pre-clinical
studies before new drugs are put on the market. Discuss the following with respect to pre-clinical
studies of new drugs, giving detailed procedure and examples.

i) Acute toxicity (5 marks)

Determination of toxic dose e.g giving different doses to rats basing on weight and
determine the LD50. Using Probit analysis (2 marks)

Determination of the appropriate route of administration e.g. Use the route that will be
used when giving the drug to humans. (2 marks)

Observe animals for 1-3 days, observing all mortalities, clinical signs, time of onset,
duration, and reversibility of toxicity should be recorded (1 mark)

ii) Sub-acute toxicity (5 marks)

If description of acute toxicity is satisfactory (2.5 marks)

Similar to acute toxicity but the observation period range from 7-14 days (1-2 weeks)
(2.5 marks)

iii) Sub-chronic / chronic toxicity (5 marks)

Chronic toxicity studies are conducted to determine what side effects will arise
from repeated administration of a drug at lower dosages than those used in acute
toxicity studies and to determine safe dosages to be used in the initial human
clinical trials. (2 marks)

Basic parameters of chronic toxicity tests:

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 Species: Two species recommended; rodent and non-rodent (rat and dog) (0.5
marks). Age: Young adults (0.5 marks). Number of animal: 20 of each sex for
rodents, 4 of each sex for non-rodents per dose level (0.5 marks). Dosage: Three
repetitive dose levels recommended; include a toxic dose level and Nontoxic dose
level; exposures (0.5 marks). (Total marks 2 marks)

Observation period: 12-24 months (1 mark)

iv) Blood sample collection for toxicological evaluation (5 marks)

Note stress to the animals when collecting blood may have an impact on the
outcome of research data. It is therefore important to properly restrain animals
during blood sample collection (2 marks)

Blood sample collection from the laboratory mice

Blood collection not requiring anesthesia: Saphenous vein, dorsal pedal vein (1
mark)
Blood collection requiring anesthesia: Tail vein, Orbital sinus, Jugular vein (1
mark)
Terminal procedures: Cardiac puncture, Posterior vena cava, Axillary vessels,
Orbital sinus (1 mark)

2. a) During Leather Tanning several chemicals are used in the process. In order to protect the
workers, it is important to have precautions and procedures that help in managing the high risk of
intoxication that may occur. Discuss the procedures and precautions at the Leather tanning
industries that help protect workers from intoxication (10 marks).

The tanning industry has two types of hazard involving chemicals: (i) Particular
chemicals used in the various tanning processes and (ii) Chemical substances
produced as by-products by the chemical reactions occurring when a hide
undergoes the tanning process. (2 marks)

Divide the chemical materials into groups based either on the particular degree
of hazard they present, or on their chemical nature (e.g. acids, alkalis, etc.), then
lay down general guidelines covering safe handling and use of these chemicals
for the particular category they belong in, and more specialized information be
availed for individual chemicals. E.g. handling acids in appropriate and properly
stored plastic containers (1 mark)

Ensure a properly designed and maintained pipeline with regular maintenance

checks, particularly of valves, and the provision of safety deluge showers at
intervals along the pipeline (1 mark)
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 Protective clothing must be worn wherever contact with chemicals, particularly in
concentrated for. (1 mark)

Storage of chemicals should be in designated areas and retrieval from storage

(when the chemical is not piped) should only be carried out by personnel aware
of the hazards involved. (1 mark)

Basic first aid measure should taught to everyone who handles chemicals or
works in any part of the plant where contact with chemicals is. e.g. When
exposure occurs the skin must be rinsed immediately with copious quantities of
cold water. (1 mark)

The second hazard is hydrogen sulphide a major by-product of de-hairing hides

using sulphide chemicals and sulphiric acid.

Hydrogen sulphide : there are two alternatives,

i) Remove the hydrogen sulphide by efficient ventilation at the source of
production. (1 mark)
ii) Use a modified chemical process which produces either less or ideally
zero hydrogen sulphide, without detriment to the tanning process
itself.(1 mark)

Ammonia gas control: The production of ammonia is inevitable in deliming and

cannot be eliminated by chemical means as for hydrogen sulphide. Therefore the
only available control method is the provision of sufficient ventilation. (1 mark)

b) Uganda Wildlife Education Center (UWEC) is a wildlife conservation park. It therefore

receives numerous visitors on a daily basis. Because of these numerous visitors some procedures
have to be followed to protect the animals from the numerous forms of intoxication. Discuss the
procedures at UWEC that help in protecting the animals from intoxication and the possible forms
of intoxication that may occur at UWEC (10 marks)

Discussions should center on:

Food intoxication: Visitors are not allowed to feed the wild animals (5 marks)
Noise pollution: Visitors are not allowed to shout at wild animals (5 marks)

3. Write short notes about the following with respect to toxicology;

i) Toxic kinetics (4 marks)

Correct statements about: Toxic entry (1 mark), absorption (1 mark), circulation (1

mark), metabolism and excretion (1 mark)

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 ii) Toxic dynamics (4 marks)

Example of a toxin (2 marks), its correct mode of toxicity (2 marks)

iii) Circumstantial evidence (4 marks)

Discussion should center on; Physical evidence of intoxication in the surroundings or

actions that may predispose to intoxication (4 marks)

iv) Clinical evidence (4 marks)

Discussion should center on; common signs of intoxication e.g. vomiting, muscle tremors (4
marks)

v) Analytical evidence (4 marks)

Discussion should center on; laboratory analysis of intoxications e.g. how to collect samples for
toxicological analysis, common tests of intoxication e.g. using reducing sugars e.g. glucose to
test for copper poisoning (4 marks)

4. Discuss the following with respect to: Types of venoms, management and treatment of
envenomation
i) Bees (5 marks)

Bee venom composition: Proteins (Enzymes): Phospholipase A2, Phospholipase

B, Hyaluronidase, Phosphatase, Glucosidase Peptides: Melittin, Apamine,
MCD peptide, Secapine, Pamine, Minimine, Adolapine, Procamine A, B,Protease
inhibitor, Tertiapine, cardiopep, melittin F Phospholipids Biogenic amines:
Histamine, Dopamine, Noradrenalin Amino acids: Aminobutyric acid, -amino
acids 1 Sugars : Glucose, fructose Volatiles (pheromones) :Complex ethers
Minerals :P, Ca, Mg (0.5 marks for each correct composition) Total marks (2.5
marks)

Management: Remove the sting, a delay of a few seconds leads to more venom
being injected. Then apply Cold press. (1.5 marks)
Treatment: Bee anti- venom, Anti-Inflammatory drugs e.g. Diclofenac and
antibiotics (1mark)

ii) Toads (5 marks)

Toad venom composition: Bufotenin (also known as bufotenine and cebilcin) (2.5 marks)
Treatment: Atropine and Propranolol (2.5 marks)

iii) Viper snakes (5 marks)

Venom composition: Hemotoxic and Cytotoxic or neurotoxic (2 marks)

Management: basic procedures to avoid snakes e.g. clearing bushes (1 mark)

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 Treatment: specialized anti-venom, antibiotics, adrenaline, anti-inflammatory, hematinic drugs
(2 marks)

iv) Spiders (5 marks)

Spider venom composition: Peptides, sulphated nucleosides, and enzymes (2.5 marks)
Treatment: Anti-venom, Antibiotics and Anti-inflammatories (2.5 marks)

5. Discuss intoxication caused by organic compounds with respect to: Mode of toxicity, Clinical
signs, management and treatment. (20 marks)

Organochlorines. M.O.T: CNS stimulation, C/s: Nerveous signs (2.5 marks)

Management: Gastric lavage, methods of controlling further ingestion or absorption of the toxin
(1.mark)
Treatment: Anticonvulsants, anxiolytics, respiratory stimulants, parasympatholytics(1.5 marks)

Organophosphates, M.O.T: Inhibit acetylcholinesterase enzyme: C/s: Nerveous, increases GIT

movement (Cholinomimetic signs) (2.5 marks)
Management: Gastric lavage, methods of controlling further ingestion or absorption of the toxin,
Atropin, parasympatholytics (1 mark)
Treatment: Pralidoxime (Antidot)(1.5 marks)

Carbamates: M.O.T: Reversible inhibit acetylcholinesterase enzyme: C/s: mild Nerveous,

increases GIT movement ( Parasympathomimetic signs) ( 2.5marks)
Management: Gastric lavage, methods of controlling further ingestion or absorption of the toxin
(1mark)
Treatment: Atropin, parasympatholytics (1.5 marks)

Pyrethroids: M.O.T: opens Na+ ion channels C/s: Nerveous e.g muscle tremors, convulsions,
ataxia (2.5marks)
Management: Gastric lavage, methods of controlling further ingestion or absorption of the toxin
(1mark)
Treatment: anticonvulsants, symptomatic (1.5 marks)

6. Write short notes about the following with respect to: Mode of toxicity, Clinical signs,
management and treatment.
i) Copper poisoning (5 marks)

M.O.T: causing lipid peroxidation and intravascular hemolysis. (2 marks)

C/s: severe gastroenteritis, diarrhea, anorexia, dehydration, and shock. Hemolysis and
hemoglobinuria may develop after 3, depression, weakness, recumbency, rumen stasis,
anorexia, thirst, dyspnea, pale mucous membranes, hemoglobinuria, and jaundice.
During the hemolytic crisis, methemoglobinemia, hemoglobinemia, and decreases in
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PCV and blood glutathione are usually seen. (Total number of marks 2) any correct
four each is 0.5 marks

Management: molybdenum supplementation or restriction of copper intake. (0.5 marks)

Treatment: GI sedatives and symptomatic and treatment for shock may be useful in acute
toxicity (0.5 marks)

ii) Nitrate accumulator plants (5 marks)

Example: cereal grasses (especially oats, millet, and rye), corn (maize), sunflower, and
sorghums, pigweed. (1 mark) one correct accumulator plant

M.O.T: Methemoglobin formation, vasodilation, alter metabolic protein enzymes,

enteritis (1mark)

C/s: Tissue hypoxia and low blood pressure, Brown, cyanotic mucous membranes,
Dyspnea, tachypnea, enteritis signs, (1 mark) two correct each 0.5 marks

Management: Minimize feeding nitrate rich pastures (1 mark)

Treatment: Slow IV injection of 1% methylene blue at 4-22 mg/kg body wt. (1 mark)

iii) Aflatoxicosis (5 marks)

M.O.T: hepatic necrosis, intercalate into DNA and alkylate the bases through its epoxide
moiety leading to cancers. (2 marks)
C/s: Hemorrhage, edema, alteration in digestion, coma (2 marks) Correct 4 each 0.5
marks (Total marks 2)
Management: Prohibit feeding animals with molded feed (1 mark)

iv) Ergotism (5 marks)

M.O.T: Constricting of blood vessels (2 marks)

C/s: Gangrenous: Dry gangrene Convulsive signs: painful seizures and spasms, diarrhea
(2 marks) Correct 4 each 0.5 marks (Total marks 2)
Management: Prohibit feeding animals with molded feed of Claviceps parpurea (1 mark)

SUCCESS