Complementary Research

Methods

Qualitative and Quantitative

Methodologies
http://www.gla.ac.uk/t4/education/files/scre/research.pdf
 Research Methodologies
A continuum rather than either/or

Qualitative Quantitative
Goal: To Understand, Goal: To Predict and
Predict Control
Descriptive accounts
Measure and Evaluate
Similarities and
Contrasts Generalize to population,
reproduction
Applied and
Theoretical Basic and Theoretical
Research Questions Hypothesis testing
Field study Lab study
Natural conditions Controlled, contrived
Validity and Reliability
Both Quantitative and Qualitative research
designs seek reliable and valid results. For
example:
Quantitative Reliability: Data that are consistent or
stable as indicated by the researcher's ability to
replicate the findings.
Qualitative: Validity of findings are paramount so
that data are representative of a true and full
picture of constructs under investigation.
Part Versus Whole
Whole is often greater than Parts
It is a non-trivial matter to infer the behavior of the
whole from the behavior of its parts
Quantitative research designs strive to identify and

isolate specific variables within the context

(seeking correlation, relationships, causality) of
the study.
Qualitative design focuses on a holistic view of

what is being studied (via documents, case

histories, observations and interviews).
Data Collection
Quantitative
Emphasis on numerical data, measurable variables
Data is collected under controlled conditions in
order to rule out the possibility that variables
other than the one under study can account for
the relationships identified
Qualitative
Emphasis on observation and interpretation.
Data are collected within the context of their
natural occurrence.
Static and Dynamic
Quantitative
The accumulation of facts and causes of behavior
through careful isolation, measurement and
evaluation of variables.
Predictability and Control over time.
Qualitative
Concerned with the changing and dynamic nature
of reality.
Understanding a Point in time
 Triangulation

Combines independent yet complementary

research methods.
Simultaneous triangulation:
Use of both qualitative and quantitative methods at the same
time
e.g., Survey methods and Case study
Sequential triangulation:
Results of one method are essential for planning the next
method
e.g., Exploratory Pilot study precedes Experimental design
Also known as mixed methods
 Benefits of Triangulation
Advantages of each complement the other
resulting in a stronger research design, and
more valid and reliable findings.
Inadequacies of individual methods are minimized
threats to Internal Validity are realized and addressed
Example
Quantitative design strives to control for bias so that facts,
instances, phenomena can be understood in an objective
way.
Qualitative approach strives to understand the perspective of
participants or a situation by looking at firsthand experience
to provide meaningful data.
Additional Benefits
Triangulation offers a balance between logic and
stories.
Qualititative research, which emphasizes exploration,
understanding, contextualizing, introspection, and
theory construction, provides a strong base for wider
quantitative measures, scaling, and generalization.
Quantitative research, which emphasizes large
samples, can provide an overview of an area that can
reveal patterns, inconsistencies, and so forth, that
can be further investigated with qualitative methods.
Effectiveness of Triangulation
In order for Triangulation to be used effectively, four
principles must be adhered to:

1. research question(s) must be clearly focused;

2. strengths and weaknesses of each chosen method must
complement each other;
3. data collection methods should be selected according to
their relevance to the nature of the phenomenon being
studied;
4. a continual evaluation of the approach should be under-
taken during the study.

Corner (1990)
Range of Research Methods
Experimental design
Ethnography
Case study
Survey
Experimental Design
Hypothesis testing
Independent and Dependent Variables
For example - Predictor: method of instruction, Resulting
differences: math performance

Sampling of Population
Experimental and Controlled Conditions
Random assignment
Experimental Research
The researcher does something to the
subjects or objects or research, and then
attempts to determine the effects of these
actions
Reporting
Careful description of sampling procedure
Inferential statistics, effect size, and so on.
Ethnography
Defined: a picture of the way of life of some
identifiable group of people
Anthropology - doing fieldwork, going native
Preoccupied with culture, and how people interact
with each other
Qualitative Methodology - Both a research process
and a product
Outcome: an ethnographic account
Ethnographic Process
The ethnographer is the primary research
instrument
One year or more in the field setting
long enough to see a full cycle of activity

For example, a full school year

Tension and balance between involvement and

detachment
Outsiders broad and analytical perspective on group
studied
Insider view, familiarity, empathy, identification with
group
 Field Research Techniques
An Inquiry Process of multiple methods:
Participant observation

privileged, active participant

passive observer
Interviewing
key informants, structured, unstructured
groups, surveys and questionnaires
Making and using records
historical documents, archives, written records
Validity and Reliability of the
Ethnographic Account

The satisfactoriness of the explanation is

what counts, not the power of the method
for deriving it.
Significance is derived socially, not
statistically
 Case Study
Understanding the intricate complexity,
idiosyncrasy of one particular case
investigation of a bounded system
Some entity deemed worthy of close watch
a single child, a single classroom, a single school, a single
national program
Goals
Understand and report the uniqueness of individual
cases (both commonalities and differences)
Usually no attempt to represent case by single or
multiple scores
Case Study Methods
Similar to ethnographic field methods
ASKING - Interviews
Gather narrative and testimony

WATCHING - Observations
SEARCHING - Written records and artifacts
Reporting
Develop a conceptual structure, look for patterns,
consistencies, repetitions, and manifestations
pertinent to your research question(s)
Validity and Reliability
There are many different stories to be
told
Different researchers have different questions to
answer, different conceptualizations of the
situation, and set different boundaries for the case
Generalizability: What is true of one case is
often true about other cases
Consistencies can be found - predictability
How many cases are needed before patterns
emerge? It depends...
Survey Research Methods
Purpose and Goal
Describe specific characteristics of a large group of
persons, objects, or institutions
Understand present conditions, rather than the
effects of particular intervention (as in
experimental research)
Sample of Population
Groups of interest are well defined and chosen
using well defined rules
Representativeness
Survey Methods
Mail
postage and printing costs, participation rate

Telephone
sampling, wage and time costs, participation rates

Face-to-Face
wage and time costs, participation rates, like structured
interview

Web-based
anytime, anywhere, cost effective
Issues in Survey Construction
Item (question) and scale construction
Pilot Testing and revision
Sampling procedures
Analysis and reporting of results
Generalizability
Drawing conclusions about the conditions,

attitudes, opinions, or status of a population of

persons, objects, institutions, or other entities.