Journal of Sound and Vibration (1982) 84(l), 133-147

THEORY OF TRANSIT TIME ULTRASONIC FLOWMETERS

J. HEMP
Fluid Engineering Unit, Cranfield Institute of Technology, Cranfield, Bedford h4K43 OAL, England

(Received 27 July 1981, and in revised form 14 January 1982)

A theory of transit time ultrasonic flowmeters for clean fluids is developed from the
equations of fluid mechanics applied simultaneously to the fluid flow and the sound
vibrations. These equations are linearized (weak sound) and use is made of the elec-
troacoustic reciprocity theorem to give a relation between the voltages and currents at
the transducer terminals and the fluid velocity. The technique of reciprocal operation
of a transit time ultrasonic flowmeter is described and the way this technique eliminates
zero drift is explained. The theory can be applied to meters with broad sound beams
(which provide a better average over velocity profiles) or meters in which the wavelength
of sound is not necessarily small compared with the duct diameter. Small modifica-.
tion of the sound field (due to flow) is assumed and the resulting phase (or amplitude11
shift of the received signal is expressed as an integral throughout the fluid of the dot
product of the fluid velocity and a weight vector defined in terms of the sound fields in
the stationary fluid. Simple flowmeter designs which approach the ideal of complete
immunity to velocity distribution are described.

1. INTRODUCTION

The advantages and the basic principle of the transit time ultrasonic flowmeter are well
known; see, for example, reference [l]. It is the object of this paper to derive from first
principles a theory of this instrument for clean homogeneous fluids. In its most simple
form (see Figure 1) the meter consists of two electroacoustic transducers (I and II)

Figure 1. Illustration of a transit time ultrasonic flowmeter.

situated on either side of a duct (III) through which fluid flows, the arrangement being
such that sound emerging from one transducer travels via a path through the fluid to
the other. The path is oblique (i.e., not perpendicular to the direction of flow) so that
the speed of sound along the path is increased or decreased by the fluid motion according
as this takes place in or against the direction of sound propagation. This increase or
decrease in sound speed causes the transmission time of sound pulses to be shortened
133
0022-460X/82/170133+ 15 $03.00/O @ 1982 Academic Press Inc. (London) Limited
134 J. HEMP

or lengthened, or, in continuous sine wave operation, causes the phase of sound at the
receiver to be advanced or retarded. Measurement of the transit times in the two directions
along the same sound path enables the fluid velocity to be measured.
In the usual theoretical treatment it is assumed that sound travels in a narrow beam
through the fluid at a speed of c + v cos 8, where c is the speed of sound in the stationary
fluid, v the local fluid velocity and 8 the angle between the direction of sound propagation
and the local direction of fluid motion. Clearly these assumptions are valid only when
the wavelength is very small compared with the beam width and the beam width is itself
small compared with the duct diameter. In some applications however the width of the
beam is comparable to the duct diameter. This is especially the case in a meter designed
to reduce velocity profile effects [2] and in the usual configuration (see Figure 2) of
industrial meters for pipe sizes of less than 2 in diameter. Also in the case of fluids
which absorb high frequency sound rather greatly (e.g., oils and gases) it is not always
possible to ensure that the wavelength is very small.

Figure 2. Configuration of industrial flowmeter for small pipe sizes.

In the present theoretical treatment general situations are considered in which the
wavelength and beam width are not necessarily small. The analysis is restricted to
calculating flow induced phase (and amplitude) shifts in the received signals in continuous
sine wave operation, but it can be extended to pulse operation by Fourier analysis. The
theory is based on the general equations of compressible flow together with a simple
equation of state. These equations are used to describe simultaneously the fluid motion
in the duct and the sound vibrations. They are linearized (weak sound) and used in
conjunction with an equation expressing the electroacoustic reciprocity theorem for a
pair of transducers. General expressions relating the voltage and currents at the transducer
terminals to the fluid velocity are then derived on the assumption that the change in the
sound field (due to flow) is small everywhere in the fluid. The change in received signal
is then a linear function of the flow velocity and can be expressed as an integral throughout
the fluid of the dot product of the vector velocity with a weight vector W which is a
function of the sound fields in the fluid when there is no flow. The condition that the
meter is ideal (Le., its reading is independent of velocity distribution) is then that
V x W = 0 everywhere in the fluid. Some solutions of this equation are presented which
lead to configurations which are ideal except for end effects.

2. PROPAGATION OF SOUND IN A MOVING MEDIUM

2. I. BASIC EQUATIONS
In order to describe the effect produced by fluid motion on a sound field use is made
of the compressible viscous flow equations with a simple equation of state to describe
the entire motion of the fluid: that is, the motion on account of the flow and the sound.
These are
Pl[av,lat + (v, *Vvtl = -VP, + rlv*v, + (5 + 9/3)V(V - Vt), (1)
 ULTRASONIC FLOWMETER THEORY 135
+,/at + v * (p,v,) = 0, Pr=Pm+C2(Pl-Pm), (Z3)
where the constants P,,, and P,,, are a mean (homogeneous) pressure and density in the
flowmeter and c is supposed to be constant in space and time.
It is assumed that temperature variations in the fluid are small and also that 1~~-pm 1ccpm.
The general conditions under which c may be assumed to be constant are difficult to
derive. Under the above assumptions, however, it is clear that c is a constant for liquids
(c = JK/~,,,, where K is the bulk modulus of the liquid) and also for gases when adiabatic
behaviour is assumed (c = Jyp,/pm). c is of course the speed of sound in the stationary
fluid.
Now let vf = v, + v, pt = ps +p, p, = ps + p : that is, divide each variable quantity into a
part (suffix s) representing the undisturbed flow and a part (no suffix) representing the
presence of sound. vs, ps and ps satisfy equations (l)-(3) with subscript t replaced by
subscript s. By subtracting these from equations (l)-(3) for the total flow a set of equations
is obtained for v, p and p in which v,, ps and ps may be regarded as known. (Note that
a similar technique has been used to investigate sound propagation in a turbulent fluid
[3] and to study duct noise through a jet flow [4].) These equations can be simplified
by assuming that non-linear effects, viscosity effects and effects due to the compressibility
and unsteadiness of the undisturbed flow are all small. Upon omitting the terms expressing
those effects and assuming
v, <<c, (4)
the equations become
p,[av/at+ (v, * V)v+ (v * V)v,] = -VP, (5)
ap/at+p,V . v+Vp - V, = 0, p = c2p. (67)

The conditions under which this simplification can be made appear to be as follows. For
non-linear effects to be small it is necessary that
v <<c, (6)

as in ordinary acoustics. For absorption to be small over the whole sound path (of length
L) it is necessary that
:v + 5 K p&i 2/L, (9)

where A is the wavelength. Compressibility effects of the undisturbed flow are negligible
even in the worst case of a half closed pipe near the flowmeter when the terms expressing
these effects are of order u:A/c2d times the leading terms (d being the tube diameter).
Effects of unsteadiness in the undisturbed flow are negligible when

fsccf: (10)
i.e., when the characteristic frequency of the unsteady flow is small compared with the
sound frequency.
When sound is propagating both in the fluid and in neighbouring stationary media
(such as duct walls) equations (5)-(7) must be combined with the usyal equations for
sound in these media and the normal boundary conditions must be used. Thus if dSi
(suffix notation) is an element of a surface S separating a stationary medium and the
fluid and ui, -pSij and vi, Sg are the velocity and stress (associated with the sound) in
the fluid and the stationary medium respectively, then, on S (see the Appendix)

UidSi = UidSi, -pSijdSj = Sij dSp (11)

136 J. HEMP

Equations (5)-(7) can, therefore, under the conditions stated, be used to determine the
modification of a sound field caused by the background flow v,. This modification may
be small like the modification due to viscosity or non-linear effects. In that case the
background flow effects and the viscosity or non-linear effects (being independent) may
be determined separately and the results added to give the total effect.
Since v, is assumed to be quasi-stationary equations (5)-(7) have single frequency
solutions. With the usual complex notation and with the factor eplwt omitted, equations
(5)-(7) become
pm[-iwv+(v, *V)v+(v * V)V,~]= -VP, (12)
-iup+p,V*v+Vp*v,=O, p = c2p. (13,14)

2.2. FIRST ORDER SOLUTION

Although the terms involving v, in equations (12)-(14) are small the fractional change
in the sound field may still be 100% or more. For example, in the case of a plane wave
propagating in the same direction as a uniform flow the velocity of the wave is v, + c so
after it has travelled a sufficient distance its phase is quite different from the case v, = 0:
i.e., the sound field is completely changed. However, for sufficiently low u,, long
wavelengths or short distances, i.e., when
VJC K AIL, (15)
where L is a characteristic length of the sound field, the phase in the above example is
only a little altered and in general the sound field is only slightly different from the case
v, = 0 everywhere in the region of space under consideration. In this case it is possible
to calculate v, p and p with v, = 0 obtaining, let us say, vo, p. and p. as the zeroth
approximation, to substitute these into the terms of equations (12)-(14) involving v, and
to solve the resulting more simple equations. This technique of working to terms of first
order is used in section 5.1. Physically the terms involving v, in equations (12)-(14) can
now be regarded as sources of secondary sound arising from the interaction of the primary
sound with the flow.
Condition (15) is not always satisfied in ultrasonic flowmeters. For example, in phase
systems the phase change of the received signal is not always <<27r.The first order
treatment is therefore limited in its application. It is, however, a natural starting point
in the theory and is at least approximately valid in many cases. A more general theory
is being developed by the author and may be the subject of a further paper. In this more
general theory the change in phase of the received signal is a non-linear function of v,.
This non-linearity has been observed experimentally by Lynnworth and Pederson [5]
and is due to the fact that the phase shifts are different for each path of sound between
transmitter and receiver (see reference [6]).

3. THEORY OF ELECTROACOUSTIC TRANSDUCERS

The mathematical theory of electroacoustic transducers is of course an essential part
of ultrasonic flowmeter theory. Of special relevance is the electroacoustic reciprocity
theorem [7]. In one form this gives a general relationship between the voltage V across
the terminals of a transducer, the current I flowing through it, the external pressure p
and the outward pointing normal component of velocity u, over its surface S in two
physically distinct cases (1) and (2). The relationship (equation (17) of reference [7]) is

_p2v;~) &Jr ( vI~_ v21)+ Ag.dV

(16)
V
 ULTRASONIC FLOWMETER THEORY 1.37
(note that equation (12) of reference [7] should read n * S = -np; this accounts for the
negative sign of the integral in equation (16)). In equation (16) quantities are complex
amplitudes referring to a single frequency, the factor exp (--iwt) (or exp (iol) in reference
[7]) being omitted, V is the volume enclosed by S and Ai"g'2' is the quantity in square
brackets in equation (10) of reference [7]. The sign convention for the voltages and
currents is such that when V and I are positive, current flows into the terminal of highest
potential.
Because it is based on the differential equations for fields inside the transducer equation
(16) holds true regardless of any effects that may be present outside the transducer. Iii
the derivation of equation (16) it is assumed in reference [7] that the transducer is
immersed in a fluid but the proof is easily extended (by omitting the step in equations
(12) and (13) of reference [7]) to the case of any elastic medium in contact with the
transducer. As shown in reference [7] Ay'."' = 0 if the electroacoustic coupling is magnetic
only or magnetostrictive only or a combination of the two and A!!',"' = 0 if the elec-
troacoustic coupling is electrostatic only or piezoelectric only or a combination of the
two. Hence in one or other of those cases

where dSi is the outward pointing surface area element and where, for example, the
lower sign should be taken for a piezoelectric transducer. Equation (17) serves as the
basis of the theory developed in this paper. Of course the validity of equation (17)
depends on the assumptions of linearity, symmetry conditions and no electromagnetic
radiation made in [7]. These however appear to be of fairly general applicability.
In the operation of an ultrasonic flowmeter the electric signals are not applied or
detected directly at the transducer but remotely (e.g., at the ends of co-axial cables).
Also, passive elements such as inductances and resistors are sometimes connected directly
to the transducers for impedance matching purposes. A cable and passive elements
constitutes a four-terminal passive network between a transducer and the points where
signals are applied or detected. The ordinary reciprocity theorem applies to this network
so that equation (17) may be understood to refer to voltages and currents at terminals
remote from but connected to the actual transducer terminals.

4. ELECTROACOUSTIC RECIPROCITY THEOREM

APPLIED TO ULTRASONIC FLOWMETERS
4.1. APPLICATION OF THE THEOREM

In reference [7] a derivation is given of the electroacoustic reciprocity theorem for a

pair of transducers I and II communicating through a stationary fluid. This is expressed
as
0 = r( VI?- v211)*r ( pp_ v2I)II
(18)
(equation (30) of reference [7]) where V and I are voltages and currents associated
with transducers as described in section 3 of the present paper, where a subscript I or
JI outside a parenthesis means that each quantity inside refers to transducer I or II,
and where (as in section 3) the upper or lower sign should be taken according as the
transducer in question is magnetic and/or magnetostrictive or electrostatic and/or
piezoelectric.
An equation similar to equation (18) may be derived for an ultrasonic flowmeter. It
is assumed that the meter consists of transducers I and II situated near to and in acoustical
138 J. HEMP

Figure 3. General configuration of flowmeter showing surfaces for integration.

contact with a duct through which a fluid flows (see Figure 3) and the case of sinusoidal
variation of electrical and acoustical quantities is considered.
For any two flows, sound fields and associated transducer voltages and currents equation
(17) gives

(19)

and

where Si and Sn are the surfaces of transducers I and II.

With regard to the sound fields outside the transducers and on account of the reciprocity
theorem for linear sound waves in a continuous stationary medium

c
JS
(s;;)ui2J - S$~) dSj = 0
(21)

for any closed surfaces S in the medium. The integrand in equation (21) is continuous
at a boundary separating two elastic media and therefore equation (21) applies also when
within S there are a number of different stationary media in contact.
Consider a region of space (see Figure 3) interior to a large sphere of radius R centred
at the flowmeter and exterior to the duct and the transducers. Equation (21) may be
applied to the surface S of this region. The contribution to the integral of the spherical
part of S tends to zero as R -+ co. (This is because at large distances S!, and u: (and
also S$ and ~1)) fall exponentially owing to absorption, or otherwise are related to
one another as in a plane wave so that the integrand in equation (21) is zero as far as
terms -l/R* are concerned.) The contribution to the integral of surfaces Sr and Sir is
obtained by using expressions (19) and (20). Finally on the inside surface of the duct
the stress in the fluid is a simple pressure. Hence the following equation is obtained:

T(v12_ v21)~~ (v12_ v(2)f1))lI+

ID
(pv2_p(2)y(1)) . dS= 0,
(22)

where D is the inside surface of the duct. By equation (21) the integral over D vanishes
if the fluid is at rest but, as will be shown, it does not vanish when the fluid is moving.
 ULTRASONIC FLOWMETER THEORY 139
4.2. ADVANTAGE OF RECIPROCAL OPERATION

Equation (22) has an interesting consequence for the ultrasonic flowmeter. It implies
that when the meter is operated in what may be called a reciprocal fashion possible
sources of zero drift are removed: that is, when there is no flow, the meter reading stays
closer to zero.
To understand this first suppose that in case (1) transducer I is driven by an alternating
current while the open circuit voltage at transducer II is detected and in case (2) transducer
II is driven by the same current while the open circuit voltage at transducer I is detected.
Accordingly, set
I
I = 1, 1;; C 0 1;; = 1,I 12= 0 * (23)
When vS = 0 it follows from equation (22) that for transducers of the same kind Viz) =
() : that is, the received voltages are identical in amplitude and phase independently
VII
of the electrical or acoustical properties of parts of the flowmeter head or of the electrical
properties of cables and any passive elements present. By Fourier analysis it follows also
that for any current pulse I(t) applied to the transmitters the received voltage pulses
are always identical in shape, size and time of arrival. If the meter works by comparing
the received voltages it follows that in this mode of operation there is no possibility of
zero drift caused by changes in the electrical and/or acoustical properties of parts of the
flowmeter head or cables and passive elements embodied in the transducers.
A method of operation in which the transducers are voltage driven in the transmitting
mode and the closed circuit currents are detected in the receiving mode is of course an
alternative example of reciprocal operation with the same advantage. The advantage is
not present however if, for example, transducers are voltage driven in the transmitting
mode and open circuit voltages are detected in the receiving mode (see section 5.4). In
this non-reciprocal mode of operation changes in, for example, the acoustical properties
of the flowmeter due to a change in temperature could cause changes in the relative
arrival times of received pulses.

5. THEORY OF ULTRASONIC FLOWMETERS WHEN FIRST

ORDER EQUATIONS FOR SOUND IN THE MOVING MEDIUM ARE APPLICABLE

5.1. DERIVATION OF WEIGHT VECTOR

The integral in equation (22) may be transformed into one over the entire volume of
the fluid,
(1)v(2)_ P2v) . & = _ v . ( pv2 _ p2v) d V,
(24)
I D (P I

in which
v. (pp _pp) = (VP(l). v(*)_57p(2). p) +(pv. p_pv . p). (25)
Equations (12)-(14) may be used to show that
VP . v(*LQp *p = _p,[{(vj . qp+ (p . qv;l} .p

-{(VP) * V)P + (P * v)vp} * v], (26)

pv . v(~Lp2v . vl), -(l/c2p,)[pq+2. v~~Lp2vpl . v;]* (27)
Since each term on the right sides of equations (26) and (27) contains v, it is possible,
to first order, to replace v(l), v(*), p and p by vg, VA*pb
, pb2: that is, by their values
when v,~= 0 (see section 2.2). Hence by equations (24)-(27) the integral in equation (22)
140 J. HEMP

becomes

(plJ(vS * V)vb + (vb . V)vb} vf) - {(vy * V)vX + (vf * V)vk2} * #I

I
+(l/~~~,,,)[p~~Vp&~ . ~:~-p;~Vp~~) *v:])dV. (28)
To simplify this integral use can be made of the identity
(v, *V)v+(v*V)v, =V(v, ~v)-vvsxvxv-vxvxvvs,
with v replaced by vb or vb.Then since, for example V x vx = 0

{(vjl) . V)@ + (@ . V)vy} *v8 = [V(vj . #) - v;r, X V X v:] . vb

=V * [(vjl) *#))#-v:) x (vfx Vb)]-V; *[vhV . vF+v x (v:xv;;)]. (29)

On substituting this into expression (28) the integral of the divergence term transforms
into a surface integral which vanishes because v, = 0 on the duct wall. The integrand in
expression (28) may thus be written as
#&J-v: - [v:v - v~2~+vx(vbxv~1)+(l/cp~)p~vp~~]

+vLZ* [VXV * vb+vx (v~1~xv~2)+(l/c2p~)pbvp~2]). (30)

With v, = 0 equations (12)-(14) give the well known relations VP,, = iuP,,,v,, and p0 =
(c*p,/iw)V * vo, which show the equivalence of the first and last terms in each square
bracket of expression (30). Since V *v, = 0, v, *pb2)Vps = V * (pi?pbv,) -pb1)Vpb2 *v,,
so that the terms -pb*V& and pbl)Vpb2in expression (30) are effectively equal. Using
all these results and the expansion for the curl of a cross product, transforms equation
(22) into

*( V1r2_ V2~)1f ( V*f2 _ V2f1)II = (v; + ,,:) . W d V,

(31)

w = pm[(v12
* V)vb- (v:- v)v:]. (32)

As in section 3, in equation (31) the lower sign outside a parenthesis labelled I or II

should be taken if the corresponding transducer is piezoelectric and/or electrostatic and
the upper sign if it is magnetostrictive and/or magnetic.
Equations (31) and (32) are the basic flowmeter equations when the first order equations
for sound in a moving medium are valid. They can be used to determine the sensitivity
of a meter in any mode of operation (see sections 5.3-5.5). In theory transducers I and
II could be transmitting and receiving simultaneously. However, in practice one trans-
ducer is used as a transmitter and the other as a receiver. In this way the effect of fluid
motion on a transducer signal is most easily detected. Also it is usual to reverse the roles
of transmitter and receiver and compare the phase of received signals with one another.
This effectively doubles the signal change due to fluid flow, removes the necessity for a
very high degree of stability in flowmeter components and enables changes in flow rate
to be distinguished from changes in sound speed in the stationary fluid. For the usual
practical system, then, equation (31) is applied by choosing case (1) to refer to the
situation in which transducer I is transmitter and transducer II receiver and case (2) to
refer to the situation in which the roles of transducers are reversed; VI and VPare both
set equal to the actual flow velocity v, (see e.g., sections 5.3 and 5.4). In equation (32)
vt and vi are then the sound velocity fields when transducers I and II are transmitters
respectively.
 ULTRASONIC FLOWMETER THEORY 141
From equation (31) it is evidently appropriate to call W the weight vector in that
it weighs the fluid velocity in every part of the duct or measures the contribution of
each moving fluid element to the value of a function of electrical quantities at the
terminals of the transducers. W itself can be determined by using the theory of sound
transmission in stationary media. It is interesting to note that a weight vector can be
defined in the theory of electromagnetic flowmeters (see references [8,9]) and that the
reciprocity theorem for the electromagnetic field is used to derive expressions for this
weight vector also. As explained in reference [S] the necessary and sufficient condition
for a flowmeter with a weight vector W to be ideal, that is, for its reading to be
independent of velocity distribution and to depend only on total volume flow, is
vxw=o. (33)
There is interest, therefore, in finding sound fields for which W, as given by expression
(32), satisfies condition (33). Some such sound fields are described in sections 6.1 and 6.2.

5.2. CONSTANCY OF TRANSMITTER IMPEDANCE

Since the acoustic properties of a fluid are different when it is moving it might be
thought that the electrical impedance of a transducer in acoustic contact therewith depends
on the motion. However in the present first order theory there is no such dependence.
To show this equation (31) may be applied to the following cases: case (l), Vi= V,
Ij = v/z;, s = 0.) case (2) ) V1
P,* = Z L I ii', v(l) * = v, p = v/zj2, vp = z,rp, vy,=
v,. Equation (3 1) then gives, for the change in impedance of transducer I (while transducer
II is constantly loaded),

v, . WdV

The fields v(r) and vC2)are in this case identical; therefore, by equation (32) W vanishes
and Zi2 = J:).

5.3. RECIPROCAL OPERATION

It can now be shown how for reciprocal operation (section 4.2) equation (31) can be
used to derive the relation between the received signals and the fluid velocity. Put 1; = I,
1:: = 0, v(sl
= v, and 1:: = 1, 1i2 = 0, v? = v,: that is, assume the transmitter is current
driven and the open circuit voltage at the receiver is detected. Equation (31) gives (for
transducers of the same kind)

r ( vk2
-V;:)1=2 v,.WdV, (34)
I

which is the required relation. In equation (34) W is given by equation (32) in which
vi: and vb are now the sound field velocities set up in the stationary fluid when
transducers I and II respectively are driven with current I, the remaining transducer
being in open circuit. Since the theory is first order, Vi2 - Vi: is small compared
with the received voltage at either transducer and is linear in v,. In general V: and
V:: may differ in amplitude as well as in phase, though measurement of phase difference
alone is evidently sufficient to determine the flow rate. By equation (34) the phase
difference A& is

Ac$ = Im {( Vi2- V::)/V:}= +2 v, . WdV,

 142 J. HEMP

where W = Im {W/ V?I}. Note that the requirement for an ideal flowmeter is now the
less stringent condition V x W = 0.

5.4. NON-RECIPROCAL OPERATION

As an example of the way equation (31) can be applied to a non-reciprocal mode of

operation the case of a voltage driven transmitter and open circuit voltage detection is
considered. In this case put Vi = V, 1;: = 0, vkl= v, and Vi: = V, IF) = 0, v(,*)= v,.
Equation (31) now gives (for transducers of the same kind)
v2 v
r -$--z V=2 v;WdV, (35)
( I II ) 5
where the transducer impedances are independent of v, (see section 5.2). When v, = 0
the relation between the detected voltages is clearly dependent upon Zi/Zi,. A change
in this ratio, due for example to temperature variation, could therefore cause a zero drift.

5.5. UNI-DIRECTIONAL OPERATION

Equation (31) may also be used to obtain an expression for the change due to llow
of the received signal at a single transducer, the other transducer being always in the
transmitting mode. In these cases sound travels in one direction only.
For example, if transducer I is current driven and the open circuit voltage at transducer
II is detected equation (31) is applied as follows. First put Ii = Z, Z{:= 0, vy = v, and
Zir= Z, Zj2= 0, vy = 0. Equation (31) then gives (for transducers of the same kind)

F( vi* 136)

Second, in order to compare Vi (which refers to v, = 0 and transducer II as transmitter)

to (Vk:' )o, i.e., to the voltage at transducer II with v, = 0 and transducer I as transmitter,
put Ii = Z, Ii: = 0 vk = 0 and I:: = Z, 112= 0, v(rz= 0. Equation (31) then gives
Vi: = V?. Hence in equation (36) it is possible to replace Vy by (Vl:)o, to obtain
the required expression. Note that the voltage change is exactly half of that in section 5.3.

6. APPLICATION OF THE THEORY

6.1. FLOWMETER WITH PLANE WAVE MODES IN A RIGID WALLED DUCT

As an example of the application of the theory it is instructive to treat the case of a

meter consisting of a pair of transducers housed in small cavities at different points along
the length of a rigid walled duct of uniform section (see Figure 4). Let the distance L
between the transducers be large compared with the transverse dimensions of the duct,
and take axes as shown in Figure 4. For operation at a frequency lower than the first

Figure 4. Flowmeter with transducers in cavities and operating below the lowest cut-off frequency of
the duct.
 ULTRASONIC FLOWMETER THEORY 143
cut-off frequency of the duct the sound radiated by either transducer will (except near
the transducer) be simple plane waves in the +ue and -ue x directions [lo].
Let cases (1) and (2) be cases in which transducer I and transducer II are respectively
the transmitters. Then, assuming the reflection of waves from one transducer by the
other transducer is negligible,
a2 eplkx, x CL
I (2) c
7 0 = bZ eikx, x > L 3 (37, 38)
1

where al, a2, bl and b2 are complex constants depending on the properties and exact
positions of transducers and on the shape of the cavities in which they are housed.
Substituting expressions (37) and (38) into equation (32) gives

0, XC0
W=i 2p,ala2ik, O<x<L . (39)
1 0, L<x 1
The weight vector is hence uniform (except of course near the transducers) and therefore
satisfies condition (33): that is, except for end effects the meter is ideal.
The actual value of W may be related to the driving signal, received signal (when
v, = 0), frequency and duct sectional area A as follows. Draw a surface S (see Figure 4)
enclosing transducer I and a part of the duct and having one pair of opposite faces
parallel to the yz plane. Now apply equation (17) (which on account of equation (21)
holds, in stationary media, for any surface enclosing the transducer) to the surface S.
Since vb and vb*are non-zero only within the duct,

f ( vbp - v~# )I = (pf~f-p~~v~)) 0 ?dy dz - (p$$-p~%jl)) - ? dy dz,

Al A2
(40)
where A 1 and A2 are the parts of S within the duct as indicated in Figure 4. By substituting
expressions (37) and (38) in equation (40) and using the fact that p. = c2p,V * vo/iw, the
relation
*( v~1Lb2- VbIf), = (c2p,/iw)ala2 ik 2A (41)
is obtained.
It is possible to apply equation (31) to this problem with v? = vi*= v,. Then, by using
equations (39) and (41) it is found that
vlp
*(
- V2I)I f ( v12- v2I)11= 2i w AL
(42)
*( viJIg- vb2p)I c*
where ZSAis the total volume flow. Thus with reciprocal operation with current driven
transducers of the same kind (see section 5.3) equation (42) becomes

(Vi* - V!:)/( Vi*' )0 = 2i(w/c*)CL, (43 1

and since w5L/c2~< 1 the phase difference between I;* and Vi: is 2ofiL/c2. This is in
agreement with the phase shift expected when v, is uniform. With voltage driven
transmitters and open circuit voltage detection (see section 5.4.) equation (42) becomes

( Vi2 - Vi:ZI/ZII)/( V:2)o = 2i(w/c*)CL.

The phase difference between Vi* and V[: is now 2wCL/c2 + (Zr/Zrr).
144 J. HEMP

By modal analysis of sound in the duct a more general expression for W can be
obtained enabling the effect of non-uniform sound field near the transmitter to be taken
into account. This analysis is not carried out here, however.

6.2. FLOWMETER WITH SIMPLE RAY FIELDS

Another interesting application of the theory is to cases in which the wavelength of

the sound is much less than the flowmeter dimensions and the sound fields in the fluid
are simple ray fields. Simple ray fields is used here to mean that the field of one
transducer in a continuous sinewave transmitting mode can be pictured as a system of
rays (geometrical acoustics) which do not cross each other. Simple ray fields are never
actually present in ultrasonic flowmeters. This is because reflection and refraction at
interfaces and diffraction cause rays to cross. The usual practice of pulse operation and
gating of the received signal, however, removes the effect of many reflections while
effects due to refraction or diffraction may not be very significant. Therefore the simple
ray field model is a useful simplification. In keeping with the first order technique of
section 2.2 it is assumed that phase shifts along rays due to flow are much less than 27r.
In geometrical acoustics in a stationary medium the velocity can be expressed in terms
of a potential as
vg = -vC#J (44)
and the potential can be expressed in terms of the eikonal [ll]: that is,
C$= a e*, (45)
where a and I) are real slowly varying functions of position (i.e., varying significantly
only over distances >>A)and IJ -L/h (where L is the sound path length) and is therefore
>>l. The eikonal IJ satisfies the equation [l l]
(w/c, - (v+)2 = 0. (46)
The weight vector in this case can be obtained by using equations (44) and (45) to express
the velocities in equation (32) in terms of the amplitudes and phases of the ray fields in
the stationary fluid. Thus the first term in the square brackets in equation (32) becomes
(& . qvb = qa2 ei@L21)
, qqa elq*

Since (I,>>1 the operator V need be applied only to the exponential term and as a result
the expression for W reduces to
w = ip,ala2 eiw+w) (V&l . ,$/2)(vp - V&l)
(47)
Since 4 is large and changes by large (absolute) amounts on passing along a ray the
exponential term in equation (47) is generally a rapidly alternating function of position.
This causes the average value of W over a small region of space (i.e., <<duct diameter
but >>A)to be small except where the rays of the field in case (2) retrace or nearly retrace
those of the field in case (1).
From now on only the case of perfectly retracing rays is considered: that is, it is
assumed that $2= -+l+K, where K is a constant. On account of equation (46),
equation (47) becomes
W = 2iPm(w2/C2)aa2 eKV+. (48)
The weight vector is thus in the same direction as the sound rays.
It is of interest to consider the possibility of an ideal flowmeter with perfectly
retracing rays. Applying equation (33) to equation (48) gives the required condition as
 ULTRASONIC FLOWMETER THEORY 145
V(UU~)x V@= 0, or
ama(2) =
constant on surfaces of constant phase. (49)
Let S and S be two surfaces, any distance e apart, on which (jl() is constant (see Figure
5). Through 0 in S draw the normal OOPO. OOPQ is normal also to S and is a ray

Figure 5. Geometrical construction for the determination of ideal configurations.

of the sound field. In S draw a small rectangle OTUV with sides OV and OT in the
directions of the principal curvatures which are of magnitude l/r1 and 1/r2. Let OV
and OT subtend angles 81 and e2 at the centres of curvature P and Q. Produce PO, PV
and QT to meet S in 0, V and T and then form the small rectangle 0 VUT in
S. By conservation of energy
(a)~r~&r2& = (a);+1 + 8)01(r2 + 8)02,
(a2);rle1r282 = (a*)& +e)el(r,+m,.

On multiplying these equations and taking the square root there results

e-rl+r2 + e2$
(a%(2))o =
( 1+
rlr2 1(d1V2))~,. (50)

Condition (49) therefore implies that

rl fr2 1
l+C----- + e2 - = constant on S.
hr2 rlr2

Since this must hold for all 8 the principal curvatures must be separately constant over
S. The only surfaces satisfying this condition are the plane, the cylinder and the sphere.
This implies three ideal configurations. Corresponding to the plane the configuration
is one of retracing plane waves and can be realized in designs shown in Figures 2 and
6. Corresponding to the cylinder the configuration is one of retracing cylindrical waves
and could be realized in the design shown in Figure 7, which includes cylindrical
piezoelectric elements I and II transmitting in a radial mode (the fluid enters via the
pipe III and leaves via the circumferential slot IV). Corresponding to the sphere the
configuration is one of retracing spherical waves. In each configuration a ac2must be
constant on one surface orthogonal to the rays; then, by equation (50), condition (49)
is satisfied. This allows choice in the variation of amplitude of rays in say case (1) after
146 J. HEMP

Figure 6. Flowmeter with uniform opposing beams.

Figure 7. Ideal cylindrical waves configuration.

which a() is fixed (apart from a constant factor) by condition (49). Uniform plane,
cylindrical or spherical retracing waves are the most simple cases satisfying the require-
ment (33). Note however that in these ideal configurations V x W f 0 at the boundaries
of the beams in the fluid. Thus there are end effects due to velocity distribution changes
at those boundaries. These become smaller in proportion, however, as, for example, the
width (in Figure 6) or length (in Figure 2) of the beams is increased or as more fluid is
sensed by a sound field inside which condition (33) is satisfied.

7. CONCLUSION

In conclusion it may be said that in the case of a small fractional change (due to flow)
in the sound fields a mathematical method has been formulated for determining the
corresponding change in signals transmitted through ultrasonic flowmeters, the
wavelength of sound in the fluid being not necessarily small and account being taken of
the possible broad dimensions of the sound beams in the fluid.
The method of calculating the phase shifts enables the contribution of each element
of moving fluid to be assessed so that the basis of a study of velocity profile effects in
broad beam meters has been laid down. The method requires the calculation of the
sound fields within the fluid when the fluid is at rest thus reducing the problem to one
of ordinary acoustics.
In future work the theory could be applied to flowmeters of various configurations:
for example, to a flowmeter consisting of large area transducers situated externally to a
pipe in a coupling medium surrounding the pipe. This configuration would not require
breaking into the pipeline and at the same time would provide useful velocity profile
averaging.
In the theory effects due to strong absorption of sound in the fluid are ignored and
also it cannot be applied when flow produces a large effect on the sound field. Since
these effects are likely to be present in some applications generalization of the theory
in these respects would be useful.
 ULTRASONIC FI.OWMFTER THFORL 137

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thanks are due to Professor R. C. Baker for encouragement to pursue the >;ubject
matter reported and to Professor W. S. Hemp for advice on one or two theoretical lpointc.

REFERENCES

1. J. L. MCSHANE 1974 Flow-Its Measurement and Control in Science and Industry. 1, Part !.
897-915. Pittsburgh Instrument Society of America. Ultrasonic Howmeters.
2. L. C. LYNNWORTH 1975 U.S. Patent No. 3,906,791. Area averaging ultrasonic flowmeteri.
3. J. A. NEUBERT and J. L. LUMLEY 1970 Journal of the Acoustical Society qfAmerm 48,
1212-1218. Derivation of the stochastic Helmholtz equation for sound propagatir.ll~ in a
turbulent fluid.
4. H. E. PLUMRLEE and P. E. DOAK 1979 Jomzal o,fSmr~l ur?tl Vihruriorl 65. 15% 39 I. Ihrt
noise radiation through a jet flow.
5. L. C. LYNNWORTH and N. E. PEDERSON 1972 Proceeding of IEEE I/ltra,m~;csS\~mposiUW,
Boston, Massachusetts 87-90. Ultrasonic mass flowmeter.
6. C. J. DROST 1978 SatI Diego Biomedicul Symposium, California 17, 209KiO2. \t,ssc,l
diameter-independent volume flow measurements using ultrasound.
7. H. PRIMAKOFF and L. L. FOLDY, 1947 Journal of the Acomtical Society IofArrlerxa 19.
50-58. A general theory of passive linear electroacoustic transducers and the electroacoust!c
reciprocity theorem II.
8. M. K. BEVIR 1970 Journal of Fluid Mechanics 43, 577-590. The theory of induced ~.cblxapr
electromagnetic flowmeters.
9. R. AL-RABEH, R. C. BAKER and J. HEMP 1978 Proceedings of the Royul .Iocirtx*. i ot~kj~~
A361, 93-107. Induction flow-measurement theory for poorly conducting fluids.
10. P. M. MORSE and K. U. INGARD 1968 TheoreticuiAcottstic.\. New York: McCirawHill fG)o~
Company.
1 1. L. D. LANDAU and E. M. LIFSHITZ 1959 Fluid Mechanrcs. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
12. M. K. MYERS 1980 Journal ofSomd and Vihrutim 71. 429-434. On the acoustic hotlntiarv
condition in the presence of flow.

APPENDIX: NOTE ON BOUNDARY C( )NDITIONS

The viscous boundary layer in the sound field is assumed to be thin compared tc A.
(This requires Jv/cp,h<< 1.) It is therefore possible to assume slip (of the sound field
velocity) at S. Myers [12] has derived a general boundary condition for the norlnal
component of sound field velocity in the presence of a background flow. If the backgrountl
flow is slipping at the surface the boundary condition is not simply continuity of the
normal component of sound field velocity; it involves additional terms of relative (or&-
(o,Jc)(h/d) and (u,/c)(h/d,). These additional terms could not necessarily he neglec!.e4
in the present investigation. However, it is assumed that v, = 0 on the boundary. Thr.:
additional terms are then of second order (as Myers has shown) and can thereforcx
be neglected at least so long as the thickness iz, of the boundary layer of the *~ R:XV
is not cc A.