Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
DIGITAL LANDSCAPE
IN MALAYSIA
Access and use of digital technologies by children and adolescents
United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF) Malaysia,
November 2014
ISBN 978-967-12284-4-9
www.unicef.my
4
Exploring the Digital Landscape in Malaysia
Foreword
or Click Wisely programme It is hoped that the data from
was launched in 2012. This the studies can be utilized to
programme incorporates the promote an informed civil
values enshrined in the Rukun society where online services
Negara, and is also aligned will provide the basis of
with Malaysian values, ethics continuing enhancements
and morals, as well as the to quality of work and life,
National Policy Objectives especially for young people.
of the Communications and Therefore, we encourage
Multimedia Act 1998. more parties to contribute to
the knowledge on Malaysian
MCMCs approach in youth digital experiences
As Malaysia moves towards developing national policies so that we can continuously
its goal of becoming a and initiatives has always enhance our efforts to keep
developed nation by the year been substantiated by strong our children safe from online
2020, an increasing number evidence-based studies. In abuses and threats.
of Malaysians have adopted this regard, in addition to its
the online or digital lifestyle own survey on household Mohamed Sharil Tarmizi
and have joined other digital Internet users, MCMC also Chairman
citizens of the world. The collaborates with local Malaysian Communications
success of the Malaysian institutions of higher learning and Multimedia Commission
National Broadband Initiatives through the Networked
has seen the broadband Media Research Collaboration
household penetration rate Programme (NMRCP). The
reach new highs at 67.3 per NMRCP is now in its sixth year
cent as at the end of 1st and has conducted a number
Quarter 2014. of studies on the social
impact of Internet usage on
Whilst Malaysians are individuals and the community
enjoying the benefits from in both quantitative and
online services everywhere qualitative ways.
across the country, the
Malaysian Communications The desk review conducted by
and Multimedia Commission UNICEF and any subsequent
(MCMC) is cognizant of the studies from it could lead
increasing need to safeguard to better information and
them, especially children who understanding of Internet
are the most vulnerable, from access and use by the
threats and risks related to Malaysian public. We believe
the Internet. Based on the the desk review is a useful
Internet Users Survey 2012 reference to prior studies
conducted by MCMC, 37.9 per that have been done on the
cent of the users in Malaysia state of childrens online
are under 24 years old and experience in Malaysia and
the number of young children will provide valuable insights
exposed to digital devices is into new research areas to
also rising. As such there is a be considered by all parties
need to ensure these young interested in advancing the
children are taught to be digital citizenship project.
safe, secure and responsible
online users so that their
experiences online are positive
ones; and with this mind, the
Klik Dengan BijakTM (KDB)
5
Foreword
of Generation Z are growing on the leadership Malaysia
up in a world where global has already shown to create
social media, crowdsourcing, a safe and enabling Internet
open platform-education and environment for children, and
sharing, are giving them a identifies knowledge gaps in
chance for unprecedented the media practices and online
engagement and civic safety of children and youth.
influence, as agents of change The Review also recommends
in a changing world. opportunities to leverage and
strengthen existing initiatives
The CRC has always ensured to promote and deliver Digital
a childs right to information Literacy for all children,
The children of the 21st and to participation. adolescents and youth in the
century, often referred to as Authentic participation is country.
Generation Z, are those born the kind that empowers and
after 1995, born into the digital engages children, the kind Together with our partner, the
age a transformational that acknowledges they are Malaysian Communication
generation living in a the best, most eloquent, and Multimedia Commission,
transformative time. spokespeople and interpreters as well as stakeholders in
of their world and of their government, the private
They are a huge group 2 experiences. sector, NGOs and children
billion children worldwide. themselves, we hope to
As members of Generation Z, While there are huge numbers encourage and empower
they are described as digital of children online, with a children and youth in Malaysia
natives, screenagers, wired household Internet access to use ICT safely, responsibly,
from the crib; who dont just rate of over 60 per cent in a pro-social way to
represent the future but are (2011) in Malaysia, many create positive change for
already actively involved in girls and boys still do not themselves, their peers and
shaping and creating it. have access to the creative, their communities.
informative, interactive
Twenty-five years ago, when and participatory features Lets Klik
the Convention on the Rights of the digital environment.
Dengan Bijak!
of the Child (CRC) first came The digital divide affects the
into force, many of the most vulnerable whether by
Wivina Belmonte
platforms and much of the virtue of geography, economy,
UNICEF Representative to
digital technology that children gender or disability. So our
Malaysia
readily use today didnt exist. work is twofold getting more
As we commemorate 25 years children engaged online and
of the CRC and, coincidentally ensuring they participate in
the 25th anniversary of the their digital freedom in a safe
World Wide Web, we live in and responsible manner.
a world transformed by the
technology, tools, applications, This desk review was carried
platforms and channels out under the Voices of Youth
available for those who have Citizens initiative by UNICEF
access to them, including to empower children and
children especially children. adolescents to use digital
technologies for the realisation
The technology of the digital of their rights as enshrined in
age has changed how we the CRC.
communicate, how we see
and interact with a world now The report provides
at our fingertips, changing information to enable all
our social norms. The children stakeholders to further build
Acknowledgements
The authors of this report would like to express their gratitude to all the
organisations and individuals for sharing with us their technical expertise and
insights, and for providing additional sources and information.
And also to the Berkman Centre for Internet and Society at Harvard University,
with special thanks to Professor Urs Gasser, Executive Director, and Sandra
Cortesi, Director of the Youth & Media Project, for their technical review and
feedback on the report.
Cathryn Anila, 13
Haziqah, 14
Kher Nawawi Amin Bin Noranizam, 17
Mohammad Hanafi Bin Yabiran, 16
Muhammad Akif Rabbani bin Ab Rashid, 17
Muhammad Khairul Nizam Bin Haris, 17
Chooi Weng Hui, 14
CONTENTS
Child Rights in a Digital Age 11
Observations 54
Endnotes 56
8
Exploring the Digital Landscape in Malaysia
9
ACRONYMS
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
CIE Computers-in-Education
LGBTIQ Lesbian/Gay/Bisexual/Transgender/Intersexed/Questioning
BACKGROUND, OBJECTIVES,
METHODOLOGY
In recent years, growing digital access globally to digital tools continues to grow, UNICEF
has meant that the amount of research Malaysia seeks to understand how best to
available for topics like digital adoption, empower adolescents and youth to use ICT
cyberbullying, the pros and cons of social safely and responsibly in a pro-social way.
media, bridging digital divides, and the
growth of digital literacyand their impact One approach that has been identified has
on childrenhas led to richer datasets and been to build the digital skills, and media
qualitative analyses, particularly in the United and information literacy of young Malaysians
States, Canada and Europe. The same, however, through the education system via an approach
is not available in many countries belonging to underpinned by the concept of digital
what is termed as the global South. citizenship, and a balance between delivering
a safe online environment and one that does
While country-level data is available on not become so restrictive that it diminishes the
penetration, popularity of certain digital obvious benefits. Fostering digital citizenship
platforms and trends, this data is often not means giving young people the information
disaggregated. Additionally, there is limited and skills they need to use the technology
research available with regard to younger responsibly, taking advantage of opportunities,
children, the motivations behind the use of managing their own safety and the safety
technology among children and youth, and of others, and being able to deal with any
their specific online behaviourincluding risks that occur. It seeks to build a culture of
how they deal with online risk. The challenges responsibility online, and teaches adolescents
related to research on children and the impact the ability to judge, navigate and create a range
of digital tools on their lives is explored in more of media content and services while operating a
detail in a report commissioned by UNICEFs system of selection, control and protection.
Office of Research-Innocenti, co-authored by
Professor Sonia Livingstone and Dr Monica For UNICEF Malaysia, this desk review seeks to:
Bulger, entitled: A Global Agenda for Childrens
Rights in the Digital Age: Recommendations for provide an overview of the digital
developing UNICEFs research strategy.8 landscape in the country with a particular
focus on children and young people;
For UNICEF Malaysia, participation in the and with the objective of identifying
Voices of Youth Citizens project is timely, given what is known about the access to, and
Malaysias growing Internet penetration rates opportunities and risks of, digital usage in
and concerns regarding child online safety; Malaysia;
as well as the increase in Government and establish the gaps in knowledge to inform a
corporate investment in ICT. As UNICEF and research agenda; and
other organisations increasingly use ICT in inform the action plans of the Malaysia
their communication and advocacy work with Country Office in this field of work for 2015
adolescents and young people; and as access and beyond.
14
Exploring the Digital Landscape in Malaysia
Methodology
This desk review represents a compilation of
primary and secondary data sources on the
ICT landscape in Malaysia, and the attendant
opportunities and risks for children, adolescents
and young people.
Limitations
It was beyond the scope of the desk review Captivated by Facebook, MCMC study:
to conduct further in-depth research on some based on 1,200 questionnaires distributed
of the issues discussed in the desk review, to to users aged 1822, and focus group
help contextualise them further or to examine discussions with 92 upper-secondary
whether any changes have taken place since the school and university students.
research was conducted. The authors hope that 2012 Microsoft WorldWide Online Bullying
this desk review will assist other stakeholders Survey: data collection between January
in shaping their research priorities relating to and February 2012 based on face-to-
children and ICT. While research into childrens face questionnaires with 300 children in
use of ICT continues to attract more interest as Malaysia aged between eight and 17.
access to the Internet and social media grows,
most studies are not nationally representative. This means that the findings from these
different studies are not strictly comparable
It is important to note that the main sources of and where they are used in reference to the
data mentioned in the report employed various same issues, this has been with the intention
sampling methodologies, at different points in of examining trends rather than for scientific
time, with respondents falling into different age comparison.
categories and various geographical locations.
Every effort has been made to identify the most
Notably: recent data or information available. However,
it must be noted that some studies are one-
Young people and New MediaSocial offs, and more recent data is unavailable.
uses, Social Shapings and Social Furthermore, data or research that evaluated
consequences: data collected in 2010 the initiatives and programmes mentioned
involving 1,200 children aged 1416. throughout the desk review was, in most cases,
CyberSAFE in Schools National Survey unavailable.
2013: data collected in 2013 involving 9,651
primary and secondary school students in
Malaysia.
16
Situation of Children and Youth in Malaysia
SITUATION OF CHILDREN
1
AND YOUTH IN MALAYSIA
17
1.1
Country profile
Malaysia is home to a multilingual Malaysia is also externally
population of 30 million that includes
Malays, Chinese, Indians and more than competitive, ranking 12th
200 indigenous ethnic groupsand nearly (out of 135 economies)
half of the population is under the age of
24.9 Eighty per cent of the people live in
in the World Banks 2013
Peninsular Malaysia while the remaining Doing Business Survey.15
20 per cent live in Sabah and Sarawak on Malaysia is placed 147 out
the island of Borneo.10 More than two-thirds
of the population live in urban areas.11 of 180 countries on the
Malaysia is a parliamentary democracy 2014 World Press Freedom
with elected federal and state governments.
It is composed of 13 federated states
Index16 and was ranked 53
and the three federal territories of Kuala out of 175 countries on the
Lumpur, Putrajaya and Labuan.12 Transparency International
The countrys aspirations for development Corruption Perception Index
after its independence in 1957 resulted in a 2013.17
series of economic and social development
programmes and policies that catalysed the The country is an active member of the
nations transformation from an agrarian Association of Southeast Asian Nations
economy into an upper-middle income (ASEANof which it was a co-founder
economy with a 2012 Gross National in 1967), the Organisation of Islamic
Income per capita of US$9,820.13 After Cooperation (OIC), the Commonwealth
the Asian financial crisis of 19971998, and the Non-Aligned Movement, and it
Malaysia continued to post solid growth is strongly committed to South-South
rates averaging 5.5 per cent per year from cooperation in the region and beyond.18
20002008. By 2013, Malaysias GDP was
US$312.5 billion. Its economy is highly
open (exports comprise 100 per cent of
GDP) and it is now a leading exporter of
electrical appliances, electronic parts and
components, palm oil and natural gas.14
18
Situation of Children and Youth in Malaysia
1.2
Meeting the Millennium
Development Goals
The country is on track to meet the targets of the Under-Five Mortality Rate (U5MR) was nine
most of the Millennium Development Goals per 1,000 live births in 2012 (the 2012 global
(MDGs), especially those related directly to average was 48).23 Also, more than 90 per cent
children. Growth in the country has been of the population has access to safe drinking
accompanied by a dramatic reduction in water.24
poverty, from 12.3 per cent in 1984 to 2.3 per
cent in 2009; and aggregate social indicators In 2002, Malaysias Education Act 1996
are approaching levels similar to those of fully was amended to make primary education
developed countries. Childrens economic compulsory to partially conform with CRC
standard of living improved dramatically Article 28(1)(a): Make primary education
between 1989 and 2007. Child poverty (for compulsory and available free to all.25 As a
children under the age of 15 years) decreased result, Malaysia is on target to realise universal
threefold over the past 20 years from 29.3 per primary education with enrolment in primary
cent in 1989 to 9.4 per cent in 2007.19 education at 94.54 per cent in 2012, and with
complete gender parity.26 However, enrolment
However, recent evidence suggests that in lower and upper secondary schools for the
although national-level figures indicate that same year was lower at 86.18 per cent and 77.96
progress is on track, at a disaggregated level, per cent respectively.27
gaps still exist along rural/urban, ethnic and
geographic lines.20 Pockets of poverty exist The percentage of Malaysian citizens aged
and income inequality remains high relative 20 years and over with higher education (i.e.
to developed countries.21 In 2010, Malaysia post-secondary, college or university) increased
launched the New Economic Model (NEM), from 16 per cent in 2000 to 21.6 per cent in
which aims for the country to reach high- 2010.28 The literacy rate among Malaysian
income status by 2020 while ensuring that citizens aged 1064 years in 2010 reached 97.3
growth is also sustainable and inclusive.22 per cent compared to 93.5 per cent in 2000.29
1.3
Realising rights for children
Children and youth (024 years) make up The provisions of the Child Act 2001 are based
46 per cent of Malaysias population of 29.9 on the four core principles of the CRC: non-
million (2013). Of this total, 10.6 million are discrimination; the best interests of the child;
children below the age of 19. Males make up the right to life, survival and development;
approximately 52 per cent of the total child and respect for the views of the child.34 Other
and youth population, while 48 per cent are policies that are in place to safeguard childrens
female.30 The age of majority in Malaysia is 1831 interests are the National Policy on Children
and the voting age is 21. and its Plan of Action (which focus on the
thrusts of development relating to childrens
In line with its vision to become a fully survival, protection, development and
developed country by 2020, Malaysia has participation as provided for in the CRC), and
put in place a legal, policy and institutional the National Child Protection Policy and its Plan
framework for developing and implementing of Action (which aim to ensure that children
social policies for children. Malaysia acceded to are protected from all forms of neglect, abuse,
the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) violence, and exploitation).35
in 1995 and to the CRC Optional Protocol on the
Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child The Child Protection Policy focuses on aspects
Pornography, and the Optional Protocol on the of prevention, advocacy, intervention, reporting
Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict in and giving support services in protecting
2012. children. It also provides standard guidelines
and procedures in areas related to child
The Governments ratification of the CRC in protection.36
1995 contained reservations to 12 Articles on
the grounds that these Articles were said to In 2001, the Child Act 2001 established
not conform to the countrys Constitution, the National Council for the Protection of
national laws and national policies, including Children, which advises the Government on
Shariah law.32 Seven of these reservations have child protection issues, as well as a National
since been withdrawn, including reservations Advisory and Consultative Council for Children
to Article 13 (which protects a childs freedom to to act as a national focal point for childrens
express his or her views, to obtain information wellbeing and development. Act 611 also
and to make information and ideas known to required the setting up of Child Protection
others) and Article 15 (freedom of assembly Teams and Child Activity Centres at both
and participation). Malaysia currently has five state and district levels. Aimed at mobilising
remaining reservations to the CRC, namely: community participation in the implementation
Article 2 on non-discrimination; Article 7 on of preventive and rehabilitative programmes,
name and nationality; Article 14 on freedom these initiatives are targeted at children at risk
of thought, conscience and religion; Article or children vulnerable to all forms of abuse and
28(1)(a) on free and compulsory education at exploitation.37
primary level; and Article 37 on torture and
deprivation of liberty.33
1.3.1 Challenges and emerging threats In 2011, the Ministry of Women, Family and
Community Development recorded 3,428
The Child Rights Coalition Malaysia, in its 2012 child abuse cases involving neglect, physical
Status Report on Childrens Rights in Malaysia, and sexual abuse.39 It is recognised that there
identified: discrimination faced by marginalised is a need for holistic reforms of the juvenile
children; abuse and maltreatment of children; justice, and child and family welfare systems
corporal punishment; and lack of monitoring in Malaysia to conform with international
and reporting on childrens rights as some of standards and practices, and to achieve a more
the challenges facing children in the country.38 coordinated and systematic response to the
protection of children. Additionally, against
the backdrop of the growing use of ICT, there
is concern about children and adolescents
According to the report, Malaysian being exposed to bullying, harmful content and
children most at risk were: children predators online.40
from indigenous and minority
communities; refugee, stateless, According to the 2012 Global School Based
street, and migrant children; children Student Health Survey, 19.1 per cent of students
living among the rural and urban aged 1317 in Malaysia were overweight while
poor; and LGBTIQ children. 7.9 per cent were obese. The same survey
revealed that among the students who had
used drugs, 73 per cent had first done so before
the age of 14; while 50.4 per cent of those who
had sexual intercourse had first done so before
the age of 14.41
The provisions of
the Child Act 2001 are
based on the four core
principles of the CRC:
non-discrimination,
the best interests of
the child, the right
to life, survival and
development, and
respect for the views of
the child.34
23
24
Situation of Children and Youth in Malaysia
1.4
Youth in Malaysia
In 1997, Malaysia introduced a National Youth
Development Policy to establish a holistic and
harmonious Malaysian youth force imbued
with strong spiritual and moral values, who
are responsible, independent and patriotic thus
serving as a stimulus to the development and
prosperity of the nation in consonance with the
vision 2020.44 While the Policy defined youth as
those aged from 1540, it specified that youth
development programmes and activities would
be focused on youth aged 1825.45 In 2011, the
Government announced that the Policy would
be reviewed to revise the definition of youth
to those aged 1825 in line with international
standards.46
UNICEF Malaysia
26
Online and Digital Context
ONLINE AND
2
DIGITAL CONTEXT
27
2.1
Overview of the online
and digital context
In 2012, Malaysia ranked in 59th place 1996, the National Information Technology
on the International Telecommunications Agenda (NITA) was launched in Malaysia
Unions (ITU) ICT Development Index, and by the National Information Technology
the country has registered marked growth Council (NITC)a body composed of
in recent years with improved access to representatives from public, private and
computers and the Internet among its community interest sectorswhose
citizens.58 role is to counsel the Government on
ICT strategy.61 NITA serves to guide the
According to the World Bank and ITU, the strategic use of ICT in the country and to
percentage of households with a computer contribute to advancing Vision 2020.62
more than doubled from 31.3 per cent in
2005 to 64.1 per cent in 2011 while the The National Strategic ICT Roadmap in
percentage of households with access to Malaysia provides a framework for growing
the Internet quadrupled from 15.2 per cent the productivity of the most important
to 61.4 per cent over the same period.59 sectors of the economy and to promote the
Information pertaining to computer literacy emergence and growth of new industries
was first collected during the 2010 Census, that are ICT-based and knowledge-
which found that the literacy rate for intensive.63 According to the Ministry
Malaysian citizens aged 569 years reached of Science, Technology and Innovation
more than 45 per cent in every state. The (MOSTI), the National Cyber Security
computer literacy rates in urban and rural Policy (NCSP) comprising legislative
areas were 68.6 per cent and 42.1 per cent, and regulatory, technology, public-private
respectively.60 cooperation, institutional, and international
aspectswas designed and implemented
There are numerous national ICT policies, to support Malaysias advancement
key ICT initiatives, technology roadmaps towards a knowledge-based economy.
as well as special funds designed to drive
ICT development in Malaysia. Since the The NCSP seeks to address identified
early 1990s, the Malaysian Government risks to the countrys Critical National
has placed considerable emphasis on Information Infrastructure (CNII), which
the development of ICT in the country. In comprises the networked information
systems of the 10 critical sectors of national citizens. E-Government was one of eight MSC
defence and security, banking and finance, flagship applications launched in 1997 and
information and communications, energy, was introduced in line with the Vision 2020
transportation, water, health services, plan.70 Malaysia was ranked in 52nd place on
government, emergency services, and food the global e-Government Index and 31st for
and agriculture. Within the NCSP are eight online service delivery in 2014 in the United
policy thrusts with various Government bodies Nations E-Government Survey.71 According to
responsible for advancing priorities within a 2011 McKinsey survey of 311 small-medium
these thrusts.64 enterprises (SMEs), filing of taxes was the most
popular e-Government service followed by
2.1.1 Multimedia Super Corridor accessing of information about government,
(MSC) Malaysia contacting government officials, researching
official statistics or reports, and registering for
One of the Governments key ICT initiatives official documents.72
is MSC Malaysia, formerly known as the
Multimedia Super Corridor, which is an 2.1.3 e-Commerce
initiative to attract national and international
technology companies. MSC Malaysia status E-Commerce is a growing part of the Malaysian
is the recognition given by the Malaysian economy and shows increasing potential,
Government to ICT and ICT-facilitated as both foreign and local companies expand
businesses that develop or use multimedia their online services in Malaysia. Some of the
technologies to produce and enhance their significant developments between 2011 and
products and services65 in four clusters: 2013 include online coupon-giant Groupon
InfoTech, Creative Multimedia, Shared Services entering the Malaysian market, payment
and Outsourcing, and Institutions of Higher portal PayPal opening a global operations
Learning. The majority (around three-quarters) centre in Malaysia and the introduction of new
of companies with MSC Malaysia status fall regulations in the country to protect online
into the InfoTech cluster. shoppers.73
2.1.2 e-Government
2.2
Legal Framework and Policies
relating to ICT in Malaysia
Malaysia has a comprehensive legal framework
relating to the use of the Internet and digital 2.2.4 Telemedicine Act 1997
technology.
To manage the quality of healthcare received
This section provides a brief overview of key through the Internet and to keep abreast
legislation and policy in the country. of developments in electronic medicine,
the Telemedicine Act 1997 provides for
2.2.1 Digital Signature Act 1997 telemedicine licensing and informed consent
so that registered doctors can provide medical
The Digital Signature Act 1997 came into services from distant locations using electronic
effect in 1998 to provide for and regulate medical data.81 The Act also prescribes the
the use of Digital Certificates as a means of medical prescription standards to be adhered
performing secure Internet-based commercial to, as well as regulations for how telemedicine
transactions.76 In November 2001, the may be practised in Malaysia.
MCMC took over the role as the Controller of
Certification Authorities under the Act and, as 2.2.5 The Communications and
such, can exercise and perform the various Multimedia Act 1998
duties and functions ascribed to that authority.77
The Communications and Multimedia Act 1998
2.2.2 Copyright (Amendment) Act 1997 provides a mechanism to protect industry
interests and regulate communications
The Copyright (Amendment) Act 1997 (in and multimedia activity in Malaysia. This
force from 1999) updated the Malaysian Act regulates three distinct industries:
Copyright Act to protect individuals broadcasting, telecommunications and on-
creative and professional expressions of line activities,82 and provides a framework for
thought. Additionally, it expanded coverage the MCMC to act as a single advisory body in
of authorship to include audio, visual and advancing its cause for the industry. Among
verbal forms of electronically transmitted the many objectives of the Act are: to establish
information.78 Malaysia as a global hub for the industry;
to promote information-based services; to
2.2.3 Computer Crimes Act 1997 encourage the growth of national information
resources (and thus to increase cultural
Under the Computer Crimes Act 1997, it is an representation); to develop a sense of self-
offence to enter or attempt to enter a computer regulation among industry players; to build
system without authorisation, to damage human capital capacity in ICT; and to ensure
or modify data in a computer, or to aid in greater security and reliability of ICT resources.
the unauthorised use of a computer system. Under the Act, the main functions of the MCMC
Activities such as hacking, sending a virus or are licensing, economic regulation, technical
cracking someones password are unlawful. regulation, consumer protection and social
However, this Act has come under criticism regulation.83
as several of its provisions lack clarity and are
perceived to have multiple interpretations.79 It 2.2.6 The Electronic Government
was recommended that the authorities clarify Activities Act 2007
the statutory language used in the Act and
adopt provisions that would provide a more The administration of the Electronic
progressive solution to crimes of this nature.80 Government Activities Act 2007 comes under
the purview of the Malaysian Governments
Modernisation and Management Planning
Unit (MAMPU). The Act provides the legal
framework for the planning, implementation
and monitoring of all e-Government projects.84
31
Under the Act, all electronic messages between or pseudonym appears on any publication
citizens and the government are recognised depicting himself as the owner, host,
to fulfil legal requirements.85 The Act also administrator, editor, or sub-editor, or who in
authorises a variety of e-business transactions any manner facilitates to publish or republish
by the public through the portal www.malaysia. the publication is presumed to have published
gov.my, such as submitting income tax or republished the contents of the publication,
returns and paying bills, as well as applying unless the contrary is proved.87
for national registration cards, immigration
documents and university admission. However, The extension to the Evidence Act has broad
the Act has been criticised for being redundant implications for any material published on
as there are sufficient laws to deal with the Internet. The Act reduces the power of
electronic communications in the country.86 the individual to use the Internet by curbing
dissemination of information. Individuals and
2.2.7 Evidence (Amendment) (No 2) organisations are held accountable for any
Act 2012 information such as third-party opinions or
feedback that is disseminated through their
The Evidence (Amendment) (No 2) Act 2012 blogs or websites. It thus does not protect the
updates the Evidence Act 1950 to include interests of bloggers and tweeters against
the Internet. Section 114A of the amendment imposters. Upon implementation in 2012,
identifies persons accountable for illicit (i.e. the Act came under severe public criticism
defamatory, seditious, or libellous) content and served as the focus of the 2012 Internet
published on the Internet. The Section states Blackout Day in Malaysia.88
that a person whose name, photograph,
Although the Government provides resources
for Internet access, there are several limits
to this provision. Noteworthy is the lack
of a comprehensive data protection law
that covers the right to privacy as far as
personal information is concerned.89 The
Government keeps detailed records of each of
its citizens, such demographic data with the
National Registration Department as well as
employment and financial data with the Inland
Revenue Board. This is despite Malaysia being
a signatory to the United Nations Declaration of
Human Rights, which makes provisions for the
right to privacy.90
32
Online and Digital Context
2.3
Digital growth and access in
Malaysia
2.3.1 Computer and Internet use under-35 age group was higher than that of the
over-35, but by a much smaller margin than
MCMC data from 2012 show that, overall, other countries in the region such as Vietnam or
46.3 per cent of households in Malaysia have Thailand.97
access to a laptop, 21 per cent have access to
a personal computer and 15.3 per cent have According to web analytics provider
access to a tablet. Tablet access is the highest Alexa.com, the most popular websites in
in the Federal Territories of Putrajaya and Kuala Malaysia in 2013 were: Google.com, Facebook,
Lumpur and in the state of Selangor. While YouTube, Blogspot, Google.com.my,
laptop access is the highest of the three devices Yahoo.com, Wikipedia.org, maybank2u.com.my,
even in states with the lowest access levels, blogger.com and mudah.my.98
it is also the device registering the greatest
variation in access (72.4 per cent household 2.3.2 Cellular phones, smartphones
access in Putrajaya compared to 29.4 per cent and mobile Internet
in Kelantan).91
Following a similar pattern to that of many
Fixed (wired) broadband subscriptions in countries around the world, cellular telephone
Malaysia increased from 19,302 in 2002 to subscriptions have grown each year over
2,443,100 in 2013.92 The overall broadband the past 10 years in Malaysia while fixed-line
penetration per 100 households for Q1 2014 telephone subscriptions have decreased.99
was 67.3 per cent but there are significant Similarly, the number of public payphones
differences among states: for example, Kuala decreased between 2012 and 2013. According
Lumpur reached 115.7 per cent penetration to MCMC data for Q1 2014, the cellular
while Kelantan reached only 41.2 per cent.93 penetration rate per 100 inhabitants was
While an 8.4 fixed (wired) broadband 143.7.100 Prepaid subscriptions far outweighed
penetration per 100 inhabitants (based on post-paid subscriptions by approximately 35.2
2012 figures) places Malaysia above many million against 7.8 million.101 The countrys
other ASEAN countries, this figure is lower main telecommunications service providers are
than many of the countrys 10 biggest trading Telekom Malaysia, Celcom, Maxis, DiGi, and
partners.94 UMobile.
There are more than 31,121 hotspot locations Based on 2012 data, cellular penetration per
in the country, enabling easy public access to 100 inhabitants was over 100 in all but the
the Internet from personal devices including state of Sabah and the Federal Territory of
mobiles and tablets.95 Putrajaya.102 There are significantly higher
percentages of cellular telephone users in
The latest available demographic data from the urban areas (68.8 per cent against 31.2 per
MCMC with regard to Internet use is based on cent rural) but between 2007 and 2012, the gap
2012 figures and covers only users from private between cellular telephone users in urban and
households. The data indicate that there are rural areas decreased slightly.103 According to
more male Internet users than female (56.4 per the MCMCs Handphone User Survey 2012, the
cent and 43.6 per cent respectively) and that share of cellular telephones per state largely
2024-year-olds make up the biggest proportion mirrored the distribution of people per state
of Internet users in Malaysia (at 21.4 per cent), with the exception of the states of Selangor,
followed by the 2529 age group, the 1519 age Sabah, Sarawak and the Federal Territory of
group and the 3034 age group.96 According Kuala Lumpur.104
to global technology company ComScore,
the average duration of Internet use by the
33
Furthermore, Malaysia, along with Hong Kong, The membership of Instagramers Malaysia has
Japan, New Zealand and the Philippines, had grown from 200 in early 2013 to over 1,000.143
the highest levels of engagement in the region The number of images tagged #igersmalaysia
based on the average level of completion for stood at nearly 489,500 in June 2014.144
videos played.138 According to website analytics However, hashtags combining the term igers
company Alexa, 0.9 per cent of YouTube users (short for instagramers) and a location are not
come from Malaysia and it is the third most necessarily used exclusively by the official
popular website visited by Malaysians after instagramers of that particular location, or even
Google and Facebook. While data for 2013 permanent inhabitants.
detailing the number of users is not publicly
available, data from the 2011 ComScore Video In April 2013, The New Straits Times newspaper
Metrix showed that YouTube accounted for in Malaysia published an article profiling some
around two-thirds of all videos viewed online of the most popular Malaysian instagramers
in Malaysia.139 In 2012, YouTube launched including: artist Hong Yi (@redhongyi) who has
a localised version in Malaysia, optimised just over 108,000 followers; air steward Jimmy
for visitors from the country, which can be Khoo (@jimmykhoo) who has some 14,400
accessed at youtube.com.my.140 followers; and event party planner Samantha
Lee (@leesamantha) who has 383,000
followers.145 Malaysias Prime Minister has just
over 34,300 followers.146
c) WeChat
f) Waze
2.4
The digital divide
The digital divide is a term used to refer to Furthermore, based on 2012 data collected by
differences between those who have access to the MCMC, rural households constituted only
digital technology and those who do not. Digital 24.2 per cent of Internet users153, yet the rural
divides can manifest themselves based on population of Malaysia is approximately 30
geography, gender, socioeconomic status and per cent of the countrys total population154
race/ethnicity. In many countries, geography, suggesting lower access levels in rural areas.
in particular, emerges as a predictor of access, Interestingly, looking at data collected by the
with people living in rural areas typically having MCMC on cellular telephone penetration by 100
less access and lower usage levels of digital inhabitants, in spite of significant differences
technologies than those living in urban areas. among states with the highest and lowest
In addition to issues of physical access and penetration levels, even states with the lowest
connectivity, divides also manifest themselves penetration ratesPutrajaya and Sabahhave
in the types of technologies and tools people penetration of 87 per cent and 87.6 per cent,
use to connectfacilitating very different types respectively.155
of user experiencesas well as in levels of
digital literacy.149 The 2012 survey of Malaysian youth by the
Asia Foundation suggests that, among the
Available data from Malaysia suggests that youth surveyed, there did not appear to be
in spite of the massive growth in ICT access a major digital divide; however, the youth
in recent years, certain parts of the country from rural areas rely more on their peers
lag behind others in terms of access and use. for information.156 There appears to be little
Some of the significant differences in access
to hardware as well as broadband penetration
among states have already been highlighted in
this report:
USE OF INFORMATION
& COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY (ICT) BY
3
ADOLESCENTS AND YOUTH
41
3.1
Access and use of digital
technology among
children and young people
3.1.1 Devices, access points and A collaboration between the Malaysian
time spent online Communication and Multimedia
Commission (MCMC) and Institutions
According to the International of Higher Learning in Malaysia in recent
Telecommunication Unions (ITUs) years has resulted in research on issues
Measuring the Information Society 2013 such as Internet and social media use,
report, Malaysia stands out as having the habits as well as experience of risk
fourth-highest proportion of digital natives among adolescents in Malaysia. One
in the world, despite ranking much lower study based on data collected in 2010 and
globally in information and communication entitled Young people and New Media
technology development.186 Social uses, Social shapings and Social
consequences (from here on referred
The report defines digital natives as to as the Young People and New Media
youths aged 15 to 24 with at least five study), found that 50.5 per cent of the
years of active Internet use. The study, respondents aged 1416 spent four or more
jointly conducted with the Georgia hours a week phoning and texting, social
Institute of Technology, counted 13.4 per networking and playing new media games
cent or more than 3.9 million Malaysians using a variety of tools.188
as digital natives, accounting for nearly
three-quarters of the countrys youths. About 17 per cent of them spent more
Neighbouring Singapore was ranked than 12 hours a week on such activities.
12th in the study at 12.2 per cent of the Respondents who reported sending and
population or 643,589 youths, followed by receiving over 80 text messages a week
Brunei Darussalam in 13th place with 12.1 were significant: 29.8 per cent received in
per cent or 50,049 people from its total excess of 80 text messages a week, while
population being digital natives.187 27.8 per cent sent in excess of 80 messages
a week. More than a third (35.6 per cent)
of respondents spent between one and 12
hours a week in cyber cafes; of these, 2.9
per cent spent 12 hours a week in cyber
cafes.189
The CyberSAFE in Schools National Survey 3.1.2 The popularity of social media
2013, conducted with 9,651 primary and and online gaming
secondary school students in Malaysia, also
reveals a wealth of information about digital Overall, 68 per cent of participants in the
access and use among children and young CyberSAFE in Schools National Survey 2013
people in the country.190 More than half of reported using the Internet for social media and
those surveyed reported that they learnt how to 44 per cent use the Internet to do research for
use the Internet from family members (32 per school. Social media use was higher among
cent from siblings/relatives, 26 per cent from the older age groups (1618 and 18+), with
parents). There are multiple locations where more than three-quarters in these age cohorts
students access the Internet but the home is reporting that they use social media.193
the main location for a majority of them: 75 per
cent of respondents stated that the home is the a) Facebook
place where they access the Internet most often
and only 7 per cent said that they use Internet Young Malaysians are active users of social
cafes most often.191 media, and children and young people (aged
1324) make up nearly half of the Facebook
Most students use multiple devices to connect users in the country.194 Given the popularity
to the Internet, with desktops being the most of Facebook in the country, the MCMC
common device used. On average, only 29 commissioned a study to better understand
per cent reported using a smartphone and young peoples use and experiences of the
23 per cent reported using a mobile phone social networking platform, based on 1,200
to connect to the Internet, although this was questionnaires distributed to users aged 1822,
higher among older respondents aged between and focus group discussions with 92 upper
1618 and over 18 years. Almost half of the secondary school and university students.195
students spend eight hours or less per week
on the Internet; however, nearly 16 per cent The survey showed that the reason cited by
of students spend 28 hours or more per week the most respondents as to why young people
online.192 use Facebook is for communicationwith
existing friends, new friends, classmates and
family memberswith the added value that
Facebook communication is often cheaper
than other modes of communicating.196 The
other motivations for using Facebook included:
escapism (31.6 per cent), politics (22.5 per cent),
and news and information seeking (14.3 per
cent).197
The most
important thing
isknowing
your limits.
Cathryn Anila, 13
43
3.2
Keeping safe online
3.2.1 Exposure to online risk themselves.205 While nearly 90 per cent of
participants in the study reported that they view
Access to the Internet and to social media learning about Internet safety as important or
offers children and young people many very important, only 26 per cent reported that
opportunities for growing existing and new they definitely know how to keep safe online.
friendships, for exploring their identities, for Over 30 per cent say they either do not know
entertainment, and for education and learning. or barely know.206 Nearly one-fifth of children
At the same time, using social media or the and adolescents who participated in the study
Internet more broadly can also expose children expressed concern about not knowing who was
and young people to risks, which can have an on the other endwith more of the younger
adverse effect on their emotional and physical participants expressing this (26 per cent)and
well-being. These include a range of risks 17 per cent expressed concern about invasion
and crimes such as cyberbullying, grooming, of privacy.207
stalking, inappropriate self-exposure, exposure
to harmful content, breach of privacy, targeted The CyberSAFE in Schools: A National Survey
advertising and gambling, in which children Report 2014208 report gives deeper insight
can assume the role of participant, recipient or into some of the findings of the 2013 report,
actor. and more information about how children in
Malaysia consider issues of online safety. The
Researchers Staksrud and Livingstone, in their report reveals that:
article Children and Online Risk: Powerless
Victims or Resourceful Participants, point out There was little difference among male
that there are no easy solutions to reducing the and female children when it came to the
potential for harm online and that restricting number of actions they took to protect
access, even if it is for the protection of youth, themselves on the internet. The actions
has the detrimental effect of limiting access included the following: set my privacy
to the numerous opportunities that the online settings; scan all my downloaded files;
world offers.204 not add strangers as friends; not
reveal my personal information; log off
While recent studies in Malaysia have helped everytime when using a public computer,
to shed light on the experiences of online and others.209
risk among children and young people, there Older children were found to take more
remain gaps in knowledge and a lack of data, actions than younger children.210
in particular about issues such as online Overall, it was found that only half of all
grooming, sexting or exposure to pornographic children felt they were safe while they were
and other types of potentially harmful content. on the Internet.211
Available data also does not necessarily Concerns about being bullied were raised
provide insight into the level of harm that by 9 per cent of children, in contrast to 25
results from exposure to risk, nor does it delve per cent of children who stated work not
into the way in which children negotiate risk being done on time because [of] spending
and develop resilience. The available data does, too much time on the internet as a
however, provide a solid basis from which to concern.212
design a future local research agenda that can Children overwhelmingly reported parents,
help in the design of interventions and other siblings or friends as those who they would
responses. turn to for support when feeling unsafe
online. Very few said that they would talk to
The CyberSAFE in Schools National school staff, government organisations or
Survey 2013 is an important resource for hotlines.213
understanding the extent of exposure to
online risk among children and young people
in Malaysia, their knowledge of online safety
as well as the measures they take to protect
45
part of the EU Kids Online study, the findings Internet use is more complicated than simply
of which are captured in a paper entitled the amount of time spent online; that it is not
Excessive Internet Use among European always clear whether excessive Internet use is
Children.223 the cause of certain problems in a childs life,
or whether it is a symptom of other issues; and
Based on responses from nearly 20,000 that there is no consensus among researchers
children (aged 11 to 16 years old), the study about the degree to which excessive Internet
examined five components, or areas, of use can be considered an addiction.227
excessive use, and their prevalence among
children.224 These five components were: While there is no single comprehensive study
unsuccessfully trying to spend less time on the looking at excessive Internet use in Malaysia
Internet; decreased time spent with friends or based on a similar framework to the one used
family or on doing homework because of the by the EU Kids Online study, several studies in
Internet; surfing the Internet when not really Malaysia have asked questions of children and
interested; being bothered when unable to be young people about the amount of time they
on the Internet; and going without sleep or food spend on the Internet and about the effects of
because of the Internet. this on other parts of their lives:
The EU Kids Online study found that In the Young People and New Media study,
while 29 per cent of all children surveyed less than half of the participants indicated
had experienced one or more of the five that they spent between four and 12 hours
components, only one per cent reported a week on gaming.228
experiencing all five components.225 The most In the CyberSAFE in Schools National
commonly reported behaviour was surfing Survey 2013, nearly 16 per cent of students
the Internet when not really interested, but reported spending 28 hours or more online;
the authors of the paper state that this does 16 per cent expressed concern about
not mean that the children are at risk of more becoming addicted; and 23 per cent
pathological use. The authors also found that expressed concern about not getting their
vulnerability to excessive Internet use was work done due to too much time spent on
more likely among children who were older, the Internet.229
had emotional problems and who showed high In the CyberSAFE in Schools: A National
levels of sensation-seeking.226 Survey Report 2014, 20 per cent of children
were found to have expressed concern
The paper also situates the findings in the about becoming addicted, while 25 per
context of different theories and arguments cent stated they were concerned about not
around the issue, highlighting that excessive getting their work done. (These findings are
Everyone is
talking to a screen
today. I worry. I
think teenagers,
as a result, are
growing up without
communication skills.
Mohammad Hanafi Bin Yabiran, 16
48
Use of Information & Communication Technology (ICT) by Adolescents and Youth
not based on a new data collection, but a their siblings; and 45 per cent would tell their
new analysis of data collected for the 2013 friends. Only six per cent stated that they would
report). not tell anyone. Only about four in 10 survey
The MCMC study on Facebook use found participants were aware of the Childline 15999
that 33.5 per cent of respondents felt number that they could call for help if they
their school or work productivity was were bullied online.235
sometimes affected by their use of
Facebook and 21.7 per cent of respondents Passwords are considered an important
agreed or strongly agreed that they feel protective tool for online users, and weak
depressed, moody or nervous when they passwords or the sharing of passwords can
are offline.230 increase the likelihood of security breaches
and potentially lead to negative consequences.
c) Exposure to scams, viruses, spam In the CyberSAFE in Schools National Survey
and malware 2013, only half of the participants said that they
do not share their passwords with anyone.
In their 2013 report on security threats, Internet Among those that do, the people they share
security company Sophos listed Malaysia in their passwords with are typically parents,
fifth place in the top 10 riskiest countries for other family members and close friends.236
exposure to malware while using a personal One-third of participants use the same
computer.231 While little data is available about password for multiple accounts, while another
the percentage of children in Malaysia who third use two or three passwords for all of their
have been victim of online scams, viruses, accounts. Changing passwords for security
spam or malware, they are likely to be exposed reasons is not a common practiceone-third
to these risks given their high rate of Internet have the same password they have always had,
use. In the 2010 Young People and New while another third have only changed their
Media232 study, it was found that respondents password because they forgot their original
rarely refer to cyber security websites for one.237
issues on online safety and risks. Respondents
expressed little knowledge of phishing scams; b) Policies and laws relevant to
malware; stolen passwords or identities; protection of children online
cyberbullying; and privacy features for online
games.233 Furthermore, the study found To date, Malaysia has not introduced specific
that few respondents appeared to be able to legislation targeting crimes against children
evaluate the quality, relevance and accuracy of or adolescents as they interact with others
online sources of information.234 through the Internet. However, in 2013, the
Government announced plans to develop
3.2.2 Responding to online risks for a policy on child online protection which is
children and young people expected to be passed by end-2014.
Laws under the Malaysian Criminal Procedure CyberSAFE in Schools: A National Survey Report
Code (also referred to as the Penal Code) 2014
cover all forms of criminal activity involving
children, such as sexual offence, intimidation, In 2014, a second analysis of the CyberSAFE
ill-treatment, neglect, abandonment, as well as in Schools 2013 Survey data was undertaken,
resulting in a follow up report CyberSAFE in
the unlawful possession, custody or control of
Schools: A National Survey Report 2014.
a child.238 According to the Criminal Procedure
Code, children under the age of 10 are The survey reveals that:
considered not to have criminal capacity while
children aged between 10 and 12 cannot be More than 90 per cent of children aged 7 to 12
found guilty of an offence if he or she has not reported that they do not undertake a broad
attained sufficient maturity of understanding range of actions to protect themselves on the
to judge the nature and consequence of his Internet.
conduct on that occasion.239 Although there 45 per cent of all schoolchildren exercise low
are special provisions for young offenders (age levels of online safety. Despite this, 52 per cent
1018) under the Criminal Procedure Code,240 it of all children say that they feel safe on the
Internet. Further, 38 per cent of all children are
is noted that, in Malaysia, corporal punishment
not aware of the need for multiple steps that
of children is lawful in all settings.241 The crime
can be taken to safeguard themselves on the
of violence against children within a family is Internet.
covered by the Domestic Violence Act 1994, While more than 80 per cent of those
which protects children against an instance surveyed view online safety as important,
of wilful placing of a child in fear of physical a large percentage of children do not know
injury, causing physical injury, compelling how to protect themselves on the Internet.
the victim by force or threat to engage in any Comparisons between age groups show that
conduct or act, sexual or otherwise, from children aged 15 or less are more vulnerable to
which the victim has a right to abstain, and risk than those in the 1619 age bracket.
harassment or psychological harm so as to There is not necessarily a higher level of
cause ill health.242 awareness or protective action taken by
children from urban areas as compared to
those in rural areas.
The role of the Internet in facilitating child and
Childrens awareness of online dangers does
human trafficking is well documented, and one not necessarily translate into action: more than
of the key online risks for children is contact 40 per cent of children who said that online
with, and grooming by, traffickers. In 2012, safety is important, continued to exercise low
Malaysia acceded to the Optional Protocol to levels of online protection.
the Convention on the Rights of the Child on Children have genuine concerns about
the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and using the Internet, including - anonymity
Child Pornography.243 According to the Laws or unknown identity of people they are
of Malaysia Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act interacting with, school work not being done,
2007, any person, who traffics in persons becoming addicted, and invasion of their
privacy.
being a child, for the purpose of exploitation,
All age groups reported incidences of cyber-
commits an offence and shall, on conviction,
bullying, with a quarter of all children reporting
be punished with imprisonment for a term not that they have been bullied at least once.
less than three years but not exceeding twenty
years, and shall also be liable to fine.244 The results of the 2014 report are based on
inferential analysis using chi-square statistics. It
Under the Child Act 2001, a child is defined as should be noted that this follow-up analysis was
being sexually abused if he or she has taken also done based on a larger sample of 13,845
part, whether as a participant or an observer, responses from children. Due to time constraints
in any activity which is sexual in nature for the with data analysis, the CyberSAFE in Schools 2013
purposes of (1) any pornographic, obscene Survey was based on a sample of 9,651 survey
responses. With the additional time permitted,
or indecent material, photograph, recording,
CyberSAFE in Schools: A National Survey Report
film, videotape or performance; (2) sexual
2014 is based on the complete number of useable
exploitation by any person for that persons or respondents 13,845 out of 15,000.
another persons sexual gratification.245 While
the law in Malaysia does not specify Internet SOURCE: Digi Telecommunications, CyberSAFE
pornography, sexual and pornographic material in Schools: A National Survey Report 2014, 2014.
qualifies as prohibited material under the The full report can be accessed at: https://digi.
Printing Presses and Publications Act 1984.246 cybersafe.my/files/article/CyberSAFE_Survey_
Report_2014.pdf
50
Use of Information & Communication Technology (ICT) by Adolescents and Youth
51
Additionally, the policies covering overall ICT Similarly, the study on young peoples use of
governance described in Section 2 of this report new media commissioned by MCMC252 found
also apply to children and young people in so that parents and teachers pay little heed to
far as they are designed to ensure a safer and issues of Internet security. The study reported
better experience and use of ICT in the country. that 71 per cent of teachers and 63 per cent
Although there are a number of laws providing of parents never or rarely talk about violence
for the rights of the child in Malaysia, there on new media. Additionally, it was found that
is a need for appropriate mechanisms for the most parents exercised little control over their
implementation, monitoring and reporting of childrens use of mobile telephones, nor did
child protection in the country, and improved they impose stringent conditions for use of
coordination among the various government the Internet. In return, children did not inform
agencies entrusted with child protection laws parents or teachers about threats or violence
and policies.247 It has been noted that there is an experienced online.253
urgent need to address cyberbullying, extortion
and child pornography over the Internet.248 The 2012 Microsoft WorldWide Online Bullying
Furthermore, although there are a number of Survey also explored the involvement of
school-based ICT programmes, Internet safety parents, and found that only around
is not central to the curricula, demonstrating one-quarter of parents talk to their children
the need for a concerted effort toward child about online risk, while slightly less than
protection.249 one-third monitor their childrens use of the
computer.254 The study also found that in
c) The role of parents Malaysia, only 18 per cent of parents teach
their children online manners and only 13 per
In seeking to understand the use of ICT by cent ask their children if they have been bullied
children and young people in Malaysia, the online. The involvement of parents in Malaysia
CyberSAFE in Schools National Survey 2013 ranked much lower than global averages in this
contained several questions related to the role particular study.255
of parents in their childrens use of digital tools.
Two-thirds of participants reported that their d) Noteworthy digital citizenship and
parents impose rules for using the Internet and safety initiativespublic and private
40 per cent have parents who have talked to
them many times about Internet safety.250 In line with the growing access of ICT by
children and young people, Government
Having rules imposed was reported more agencies have introduced several initiatives in
by the younger participants in the survey and partnership with NGOs and private companies
the most commonly reported types of rules to develop digital citizenship and safety
imposed by parents were: limiting the time awareness among children and young people.
spent on the Internet, being careful about These include:
what to post, and only using the Internet after
completing their homework. However, less than
half of the participants could recall the specific
rules set by their parents. Slightly less than
half of participants have computers located in a
common area at home and less than half have
computers with parental controls.251
52
Use of Information & Communication Technology (ICT) by Adolescents and Youth
CyberSAFE
Observations
Since 2010, there have been a number of It is the recommendation of the authors of
significant research undertakings by public this desk review that the observations detailed
and private organisations in Malaysia which below serve as the basis for discussions,
have provided important insights into digital planning and partnership by key stakeholders
trends and the impact of ICT on childrens rights from the Government, the development
and childrens well-being in the country. In community, the non-profit sector and industry.
spite of this, data that is gathered is often not Gaps in research should be prioritised
disaggregated or does not focus specifically according to the planned results of existing
on children. Thus there are knowledge gaps in and planned programmes, projects and
a number of areas, gaps which are important collaborations.
to address if the data is to influence national
responses, strategies and programmes by Specifically, observations pertain to the
various stakeholders. following:
1
Younger children
3
Resilience
A lot of research is focused on adolescents Studies from other countries show that most
and youth, and not much is known about the children and young people develop their own
use and impact of the Internet among younger systems and strategies for dealing with online
children. risk. More information, both quantitative and
2
qualitative, on how Malaysian children and
youth approach and deal with online risk will
help in designing responses that take these
into account and help to strengthen resilience.
Responses need to focus on creating an
4
Opportunities
6
Parents and caregivers
There is little available information that looks Most available sources consulted for this
in-depth at the opportunities of ICTand report regarding parents and caregivers was
specifically social mediafor developing skills, from the perspective of the children, and not
knowledge and learning, and engaging young from the parents and caregivers themselves.
people as active citizens. Furthermore, there is Little appears to be available about the views
a lack of knowledge about how young people of parents and caregivers in Malaysia, the
themselves view the opportunities provided by challenges and enabling factors that surround
digital media for their development. their childrens use of digital tools, and the
support they are or are not able to provide.
5
Other risks, including
7
The impact of
data privacy existing awareness
The report A Global Agenda for Childrens and educational
Rights in the Digital Age: Recommendations for
developing UNICEFs research strategy263 points
programmes and
out that most existing research focuses on initiatives
familiar or known risks for children, and less on
emerging risks. One such area that is gaining Little information is available about the
more attention is data privacy. As more children effectiveness and impact of past and present
and young people use social media and other initiatives. This is a challenge that extends
online services, many of which collect data beyond Malaysia. For many initiatives in other
about users for commercial purposes, research countries, there is also a lack of data that speaks
should also consider what the resulting risks to the efficacy of various projects/approaches
are for younger users. beyond their reach. Such knowledge is crucial
for informing evidence-based design of
programmes and initiatives to build the digital
literacy skills of children and young people.
56
Exploring the Digital Landscape in Malaysia
ENDNOTES
1. Bulger, M. and Livingstone, S., A Global Agenda for index/tis-2013-corruption-perceptions-index-cpi-results/
Childrens Rights in the Digital Age: Recommendations (accessed 10 June 2014).
for developing UNICEFs research strategy. Innocenti
Publications: Florence, 2013. Retrieved from: www. 18. UNICEF Malaysia, Mid-Term Review Situation Analysis
unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/lse%20olol%20final3.pdf. 2013.
2. Vision 2020 outlines the strategies and challenges for 19. Economic Planning Unit. 2013. Profile of Children in
Malaysia to achieve developed status by the year 2020. MalaysiaImplementation of Childrens Rights with
The definition of developed is specific to the plan itself Equity, EPU & UNICEF Malaysia, 2013.
but involves becoming a sustainable high-income nation
with a knowledge-based economy. 20. Ibid.
3. 2014 Budget Speech by Prime Minister and Minister of 21. The World Bank, Overview-Malaysia. www.worldbank.
Finance Datuk Seri Najib Tun Razak in Parliament on 25 org/en/country/malaysia/overview (accessed 20 Dec
October 2013. 2013).
8. Bulger and Livingstone, S. 2013. A Global Agenda for 26. Ministry of Education Malaysia, Malaysia Educational
Childrens Rights in the Digital Age: Recommendations Statistics 2012.
for developing UNICEFs research strategy. Innocenti
Publications: Florence. Retrieved from: www.unicef-irc. 27. Ibid.
org/publications/pdf/lse%20olol%20final3.pdf.
28. Department of Statistics Malaysia, Report on Education
and Social Characteristics of the Population 2010.
SITUATION OF CHILDREN AND YOUTH IN MALAYSIA Retrieved from: www.statistics.gov.my/portal/images/
stories/files/LatestReleases/population/Summary_
9. UNICEF Malaysia, Malaysia Country Programme Findings_on_Education_%20and_Social_Characteristics_
Document 2011-2015, 2010. of_the_Population_2010.pdf.
11. United Nations Country Team Malaysia, Malaysia The 30. Department of Statistics Malaysia, Population Quick Info.
Millennium Development Goals at 2010. Economic Retrieved from: pqi.stats.gov.my/result.php?token=89a34
Planning Unit and UN Malaysia, 2011. a1acf7eb8d01cd20e02cf1af563
12. Office of the Prime Minister of Malaysia. www.pmo.gov. 31. Age of Majority Act 1971. Retrieved from: www.agc.gov.
my/? (accessed 24 June 2014). my/Akta/Vol.%201/Act%2021.pdf
13. The World Bank, DataMalaysia. data.worldbank.org/ 32. Department of Social Welfare Malaysia, Convention on
country/malaysia (accessed 10 June 2014). the Rights of the Child. Retrieved from: www.jkm.gov.
my/content.php?pagename=konvensyen_mengenai_hak_
14. The World Bank. MalaysiaOverview. www.worldbank. kanak-kanak&lang=en
org/en/country/malaysia/overview (accessed 10 June
2014). 33. Ibid.
15. Ibid. 34. UNICEF Malaysia. Child RightsChild Act 2011. www.
unicef.org/malaysia/childrights_child-act-2001.html
16. Reporters without Borders. World Press Freedom Index (accessed 24 June 2014).
2014. rsf.org/index2014/en-asia.php (accessed 10 June
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17. Transparency International Malaysia. transparency. org/malaysia/media_news14-the_launch-of_child_
org.my/what-we-do/indexes/corruption-perceptions- protections_system_in_malaysia.html.
57
36. Statement by Malaysian Permanent Mission to the UN 54. United Nations Country Team Malaysia, Malaysia
at the 67th Session of the UN General Assembly, 18 Millennium Development Goals at 2010, Economic
October 2012. Planning Unit and UN Malaysia, 2011. Retrieved from:
www.undp.org.my/files/editor_files/files/Malaysia%20
37. Ministry of Women, Family and Community MDGs%20report%20clean%200419.pdf.
Development and UNICEF Malaysia, Child Protection
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Exploitation against Children, 2013. Retrieved from:
www.unicef.org/malaysia/Unicef_Child_protection_ 56. Ibid., p9
Oct_13_R7_(1).pdf.
57. Youth Development Index: Interactive Map 2013.
38. Child Rights Coalition Malaysia, Status Report on Retrieved from: www.youthdevelopmentindex.org/
Childrens Rights in Malaysia 2012, p7. views/index.php#OVER
42. Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS, UNAIDS 60. Department of Statistics Malaysia, Report on Education
Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic, 2013. Retrieved and Social Characteristics of the Population 2010.
from: www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/ Retrieved from: www.statistics.gov.my/portal/images/
documents/epidemiology/2013/gr2013/UNAIDS_Global_ stories/files/LatestReleases/population/Summary_
Report_2013_en.pdf. Findings_on_Education_%20and_Social_Characteristics_
of_the_Population_2010.pdf.
43. Ibid.
61. NITA is chaired by the Prime Minister. The Malaysian
44. Ministry of Youth and Sports Malaysia, Dasar Institute & Microelectronic System (MIMOS) serves as its
Pembangunan Belia Negara (DPBN), National Youth secretariat.
Development Policy 1997. www.kbs.gov.my/index.php/
index.php? (accessed 26 Dec 2013). 62. National Information Technology Council. nitc.mosti.gov.
my/nitc_beta/index.php/the-national-it-council/about-nitc.
45. Ibid.
63. Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia,
46. Only those aged 18 to 25 defined as youth, The Star, The National Strategic ICT Roadmap for Malaysia, 2007.
www.thestar.com.my/story.aspx?file=%2f2011%2f11%2f
17%2fnation%2f9918718&sec=nation (accessed 20 Dec 64. National Information Technology Council website, nitc.
2013). mosti.gov.my/
47. Youth Societies and Youth Development Act 2007. 65. MSC Malaysia, What is MSC Malaysia, www.
Retrieved from: www.kbs.gov.my/dokumen/pekeliling/ mscmalaysia.my/what_is_msc_malaysia
akta_Belia_bi.pdf.
66. MSC Malaysia, Annual Industry Report 2012. Retrieved
48. Ibid. from: www.mscmalaysia.my/sites/default/files/
pdf/downloads/MSC%20Malaysia%20Annual%20
49. Government of Malaysia, Tenth Malaysia Plan, Industry%20Report%202012_compressed.pdf.
Chapter 4: Moving towards inclusive socio-economic
development. Retrieved from: www.youthpolicy.org/ 67. Ibid.
library/wp-content/uploads/library/2011_Tenth_Malaysia_
Development_Plan_Chapter4_Youth_Eng.pdf 68. MSC Malaysia, About MDEC, www.mscmalaysia.my/
about_mdec_faq
50. Id., Tenth Malaysia Plan. Retrieved from: www.pmo.gov.
my/dokumenattached/RMK/RMK10_E.pdf. 69. Digital Malaysia, About Digital Malaysia, www.
digitalmalaysia.my/about-digital-transformation-
51. International Labour Organisation, ILOSTAT Database: programme/
Malaysia. Retrieved from: www.ilo.org/ilostat/
70. Mohsin, A., and Raha, O., Implementation Of Electronic
52. Figures provided by the ILO are based on the Malaysian Government In Malaysia: The Status And Potential
Labour Force Survey. Retrieved from http://data. For Better Service To The Public, in Public Sector ICT
worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.TOTL.ZS Management Review. Retrieved from: unpan1.un.org/
intradoc/groups/public/documents/unpan/unpan032410.
53. Ibid. pdf.
58
Exploring the Digital Landscape in Malaysia
71. United Nations, United Nations E-Government Survey 87. Evidence Act 1950. Retrieved from: www.agc.gov.my/
2014. Retrieved from: unpan3.un.org/egovkb/Portals/ Akta/Vol.%202/Act%2056%20-%20Evidence%20Act%20
egovkb/Documents/un/2014-Survey/E-Gov_Complete_ 1950.pdf
Survey-2014.pdf.
88. Centre for Independent Journalism. Internet Blackout
72. Saleh, S., Malaysian ICT Sectoral Outlook: Trends, Day on 14 August gaining momentum, cijmalaysia.
Challenges and Prospects. The Experience of a New org/2012/08/14/internet-blackout-day-on-14-august-
Participant. WTO ITA Symposium, Geneva, Switzerland, gaining-momentum (accessed Aug 2012).
14-15 May 2012. Retrieved from: www.wto.org/english/
tratop_e/inftec_e/symp_may12_e/speaker9saleh.pdf. 89. Ismail, Noriswadi, Yong Cieh, Lee (Eds.), Beyond
Data Protection: Strategic Case Studies and Practical
73. E-commerce Milo, E-Commerce History and Milestones Guidance, Springer, 2013.
in Malaysia, 2013, www.ecommercemilo.com/2013/05/e-
commerce-history-milestones-malaysia.html (accessed 90. Ibid.
30 Dec 2013)
91. Malaysian Communication and Multimedia Commission,
74. E27, The Ultimate guide to e-commerce statistics of Communications & Multimedia PocketBook of Statistics
Malaysia and SEA, e27.co/2013/08/26/the-ultimate-guide- Q1 2014, p13. Retrieved from: www.skmm.gov.my/
to-e-commerce-statistics-of-malaysia-and-sea/ skmmgovmy/media/General/pdf/Q1_2014C-MPocket.pdf.
75. Get Malaysian Business Online (GMBO) website, www. 92. International Telecommunication Union, Statistics,
getmybusinessonline.com.my www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/stat/default.aspx
76. Malaysian Communication and Multimedia Commission, 93. Malaysian Communication and Multimedia Commission,
Digital Signatures, www.skmm.gov.my/Sectors/Digital- Communications & Multimedia PocketBook of Statistics
Signature/Licensing-Application.aspx Q1 2014, p7.Retrieved from: www.skmm.gov.my/
skmmgovmy/media/General/pdf/Q1_2014C-MPocket.pdf
77. Ibid.
94. Ibid., p14.
78. MSC Malaysia. Cyberlaws. Retrieved from: www.
mscmalaysia.my/sites/default/files/pdf/cyberlaws/ 95. Ibid., p10.
cyberlaws.pdf.
96. Ibid., p12.
79. Beatty, D. L., Malaysias Computer Crimes Act 1997
Gets Tough on Cybercrime but Fails to Advance the 97. ComScore, South Asia Digital Future in Focus 2013,
Development of Cyberlaws, Pacific Rim Law & Policy www.slideshare.net/anhlebksp/comscore-2013-southeast
Association, 1998. <http://digital.law.washington.edu/ asiadigitalfutureinfocus
dspace-law/bitstream/handle/1773.1/859/7PacRimLPol
yJ351.pdf?sequence=1 (accessed 28 Nov 2013. 98. Alexa.com, Top sites in Malaysia, www.alexa.com/
topsites/countries/MY, (Accessed Dec 2013).
80. Ibid.
99. International Telecommunication Union, Statistics,
81. Sao, D., Gupta, A., and Gantz, D. A., Disputes Related to www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/stat/default.aspx
Healthcare Across National Boundaries: The Potential
for Arbitration, George Washington International Law 100. Malaysian Communication and Multimedia Commission,
Review, 2011. Retrieved from: docs.law.gwu.edu/stdg/ Communications & Multimedia PocketBook of
gwilr/PDFs/42-3/1-%20Sao%20Gupta%20Gantz.pdf Statistics Q1 2014. Retrieved from: www.skmm.gov.my/
skmmgovmy/media/General/pdf/Q1_2014C-MPocket.pdf.
82. Safinaz M. H., The Malaysian Communications
and Multimedia Act 1998Its Implications on the 101. Ibid., p16
Information Technology Industry, in Information and
Communications Technology Law, 9(1), 2000. 102. Ibid., p17
84. Obi, T., (ed.), The Innovative CIO and E-participation in 105. Ibid., p11
E-government Initiatives. Ios Press Inc, 2010.
106. Ibid., p16
85. Ismail, Noriswadi; Yong Cieh, Edwin Lee (Eds.), Beyond
Data Protection: Strategic Case Studies and Practical 107. Ibid., p17.
Guidance. Springer, 2013.
108. Google and IPSOS Media CT, Our Mobile Planet
86. Abu Bakar M., and Siti Hajar M. Y., Electronic Commerce Malaysia Interactive chart, 2013, www.thinkwithgoogle.
Legal Framework: Some Lessons From Malaysia, 17th com/mobileplanet
Annual Conference on Electronic Transactions, 19-20
May 2009, The Emirates Centre for Strategic Studies and
Research, Abu Dhabi, UAE.
59
109. The Next Web, Report: Smartphone Sales Surge 61% 130. Hassan, S., et al., Measuring the Social Influences
In Southeast Asia, Android Dominates With 72% Share, of Weblogs in the Malaysian Blogosphere, in
thenextweb.com/asia/2013/12/02/report-smartphone- Media matters: Networked Media Content Research
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with-72-share/#!qf2TX (accessed 20 Dec 2013). Commission, vol. 1, p9.
121. Ibid. 141. The Next Web, Tencent plans Malaysia office as it
eyes further growth for its popular WeChat service,
122. ComScore, South Asia Digital Future in Focus 2013, http://thenextweb.com/asia/2013/05/23/tencent-targets-
www.slideshare.net/anhlebksp/comscore-2013-southeast growth-for-its-wechat-service-as-it-opens-an-office-in-
asiadigitalfutureinfocus malaysia/#!qf0Zm (accessed 19 Dec 2013).
125. Malaysians to tweet their way to a world record, New 144. Based on a search for the hashtag #igersmalaysia on
Straits Times, 29 August 2012. Retrieved from www.nst. Instagram on 29 June 2014.
com.my/top-news/malaysians-to-tweet-their-way-to-a-
world-record-1.130776 145. Malaysian trio making waves on Instagram, New
Straits Times, 2013, www.nst.com.my/nation/general/
126. Social Bakers, Malaysia Facebook Statistics, 2014, www. malaysian-trio-making-waves-on-instagram-1.254964
socialbakers.com/facebook-statistics/malaysia (accessed 17 Dec 2013).
127. Twitter profile for @NajibRazak 146. Based on Najib Razaks Instagram profile on 18
December 2013.
128. Alexa.com
129. Ibid.
60
Exploring the Digital Landscape in Malaysia
147. Astro Awani, Astro AWANI and Waze outsmarting traffic 168. Ministry of Education. Retrieved from: www.moe.
together, http://english.astroawani.com/news/show/ gov.my/cms/upload_files/circularfile/1992/circularfile_
astro-awani-and-waze-outsmarting-traffic-together-25785 file_000917.pdf.
(accessed 17 Dec 2013).
169. Curriculum Development Centre, Ministry of Education,,
148. Ibid. ICT Literacy for Secondary School Guideline, Retrieved
from: www.smksgpusu.net/ict/ictl_guideline_2007.pdf.
149. Gasser,U., Palfrey, J., Maclay, C. and Beger, G. Digital
natives and the three divides to bridge, in The State of 170. Ibid.
the Worlds Children 2011. Retrieved from: http://www.
unicef.org/sowc2011/pdfs/Digital-Natives.pdf 171. Multimedia Development Corporation, The Smart
School. Roadmap 2005-2020: An Educational Odyssey.
150. Malaysian Communication and Multimedia Commission, Retrieved from: www.mscmalaysia.my/sites/default/
Communications & Multimedia PocketBook of Statistics files/pdf/publications_references/SMART_SCHOOL_
Q1 2014, p13. Retrieved from: www.skmm.gov.my/ ROADMAP_020506.pdf.
skmmgovmy/media/General/pdf/Q1_2014C-MPocket.pdf.
172. MSC Malaysia, Impact Assessment Studies on the Smart
151. Ibid., p7. school Integrated Solution and other ICT Initiatives, 2006.
Retrieved from: www.mscmalaysia.my/sites/default/files/
152. Ibid., p13. pdf/publications_references/ImpactStudy.pdf.
154. UN Data, Statistics, data.un.org/Data.aspx?q=malaysia 174. Multimedia Development Corporation, The Smart
+rural+population&d=POP&f=tableCodeper cent3a1per School. Roadmap 2005-2020: An Educational Odyssey,
cent3bcountryCodeper cent3a458 Retrieved from: www.mscmalaysia.my/sites/default/
files/pdf/publications_references/SMART_SCHOOL_
155. Malaysian Communication and Multimedia Commission, ROADMAP_020506.pdf
Communications & Multimedia PocketBook of Statistics
Q1 2014, p17. Retrieved from: www.skmm.gov.my/ 175. Malaysian Communication and Multimedia Commission,
skmmgovmy/media/General/pdf/Q1_2014C-MPocket.pdf. The SchoolNet Programme, in My Convergence, 2(1),
2008, pp37-39.
156. Ming, L., et al., The Youth Factor: 2012 Survey of
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23.
177. Pemandu, ETP Annual Report 2013, p181. Retrieved from:
157. Malaysian Communication and Multimedia Commission, etp.pemandu.gov.my/annualreport2013/upload/ENG/11_
Communications & Multimedia PocketBook of Statistics NKEA09_ENG_CCI.pdf
Q1 2014, p12. Retrieved from: www.skmm.gov.my/
skmmgovmy/media/General/pdf/Q1_2014C-MPocket.pdf. 178. 1BestariNet website, http://1bestarinet.net/
158. InTech, www.intechopen.com/books/new-achievements- 179. Pemandu, ETP Annual Report 2013, p188. Retrieved from:
in-technology-education-and-development/the- etp.pemandu.gov.my/annualreport2013/upload/ENG/11_
implementation-of-ict-integration-in-malaysian-smart- NKEA09_ENG_CCI.pdf
schools
180. Chan, F.-M., ICT in Malaysian Schools: Policy and
159. Ibid. Strategies, Educational Technology Division, Ministry
of Education. Retrieved from: unpan1.un.org/intradoc/
160. Malaysian Communication and Multimedia Commission, groups/public/documents/apcity/unpan011288.pdf.
National Broadband Initiative, www.skmm.gov.my/
Sectors/Broadband/National-Broadband-Initiative.aspx, 181. Ibid.
162. Malaysian Communication and Multimedia Commission, 183. ViaSat, Smart Digital Communications To Use LinkStar
Universal Service Provision, www.skmm.gov.my/ Broadband VSATs For Expansion of Internet Access
Resources/eForm/Universal-Service-Provision.aspx in Malaysian Schools, www.viasat.com/news/smart-
digital-communications-use-linkstar-broadband-vsats-
163. Malaysian Communication and Multimedia Commission, expansion-Internet-access-malaysian-s
Communications & Multimedia PocketBook of Statistics
Q1 2014, p8. Retrieved from: www.skmm.gov.my/ 184. Melissa N.L.Y.A., Fong, S.F. and Ong, S.L., An Evaluation
skmmgovmy/media/General/pdf/Q1_2014C-MPocket.pdf of Instructional Videos in EDUWEBTV: Technical
Qualities, Pedagogical Aspects, Engagement and
164. Ibid., p8. Perceived Impact on Learning, in Malaysian Journal of
Educational Technology, 10(2), 2010, pp101-113.
165. Gan, S.-L., An Overview of Information Technology
and Education in Malaysia, in Journal of Global 185. Asia Pacific FutureGov, Making Malaysias Schools
Information Management, 6(1), 1998, pp27-32, www. Smarter, www.futuregov.asia/articles/2010/apr/30/
irma-international.org/viewtitle/51304/ (accessed 30 June making-malaysia-schools-smarter/
2014).
166. Ibid.
167. Ibid.
61
202. Lucintel, Growth Opportunities in Global Gaming 226. Sahel, D., et al, Excessive Internet Use among European
Software Industry 2013 -2018: Trend, Forecast, and Children, EU Kids Online, London School of Economics
Opportunities Analysis, www.lucintel.com/reports/ and Political Science, London, UK, 2012, <www.lse.ac.uk/
telecommunication/growth_opportunities_in_ media@lse/research/EUKidsOnline/EU%20Kids%20III/
global_gaming_software_industry_2013_2018_trend_ Reports/ExcessiveUse.pdf>.
forecast_and_opportunities_opportunities_analysis_
november_2013.aspx (accessed November 2013). 227. Ibid.
203. ScandAsia, Angry Birds Malaysia Theme Park To Open In 228. Balraj, S., et al., Young people and new media - social
2014, scandasia.com/angry-birds-malaysia-theme-park- uses, social shaping and social consequences in Media
to-open-in-2014/ (accessed 18 Dec 2013). Matters: Networked Media Content Research Summary,
vol. 1, 2013.
204. Staksrud, E. and Livingstone, S., Children and Online
Risk: Powerless Victims or Resourceful Participants? in 229. Digi Telecommunications, CyberSAFE in Schools National
Information, communication and society, 12(3), 2009, Survey 2013. https://digi.cybersafe.my/files/article/DiGi_
pp364-387 Survey_Booklet_COMPLETE.pdf
205. Digi Telecommunications, CyberSAFE in Schools 230. Malaysian Communication and Multimedia Commission,
National Survey 2013. https://digi.cybersafe.my/files/ Captivated by Facebook: Selected Portraits of Young
article/DiGi_Survey_Booklet_COMPLETE.pdf Users in Malaysia,.My Convergence Vol. 7. No. 1., 2013,
pp. 4-12.
206. Ibid.
62
Exploring the Digital Landscape in Malaysia
231. Based on the percentage of PCs that experienced a 252. Balraj, S., et al., Young people and new media - social
malware attack, whether successful or failed, over a uses, social shaping and social consequences in Media
three month period. Matters: Networked Media Content Research Summary,
vol. 1, 2013.
232. Balraj, S., et al., Young people and new media - social
uses, social shaping and social consequences in Media 253. Ibid.
Matters: Networked Media Content Research Summary,
vol. 1, 2013. 254. Microsoft, Online Bullying Among Youth 8-17 Years Old
Malaysia, 2012, www.microsoft.com/security/resources/
233. Ibid. research.aspx#cyberbullying
235. Digi Telecommunications, CyberSAFE in Schools 256. Malaysian Communication and Multimedia Commission
National Survey 2013. https://digi.cybersafe.my/files/ Klik dengan bijak: Panduan Keselamatan Melayari
article/DiGi_Survey_Booklet_COMPLETE.pdf internet. Retrieved from: www.skmm.gov.my/
skmmgovmy/media/General/pdf/Panduan_Layari_
236. Ibid. Internet.pdf.
238. Penal Code. Retrieved from: www.agc.gov.my/Akta/ 258. Zulkarnain M. Y., Key Legal, Regulatory and Policy
Vol.%2012/Act%20574.pdf Issues, Malaysian Communication and Multimedia
Commission, ITU-ASEAN Forum on Promoting Effective
239. Ibid. and Secure Social Media, 18-19 July 2012. Retrieved
from: www.itu.int/ITU-D/asp/CMS/Events/2012/
240. Runjit Singh, Non-Custodial Sentencing Options socialmedia/S4_Zulkarnaini_Mohd_Yasin.pdf.
in Malaysia, Attorney-Generals Chambers, The
127th International Training Course, 17 May-25 259. National Service Training Department, Ministry of
June 2004. Retrieved from: www.unicef.org/tdad/ Defence Malaysia, Press Release, Pelaksanaan
malaysiaalternatives.pdf. penambahbaikan modul PLKN dengan memperkenalkan
modul Klik Bijak@plkn dalam program latihan khidmat
241. Owen, S., Corporal Punishment of Children in Malaysia: negara, 23 August 2013, www.khidmatnegara.gov.my/
Briefing for the Universal Periodic Review, 17th session, en/pelaksanaan-penambahbaikan-modul-plkn-dengan-
Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of memperkenalkan-modul-klik-bijakplkn-dalam-program-
Children, 2013, uprdoc.ohchr.org/uprweb/ (accessed 27 latihan-khidmat-negara/
Dec 2013).
260. CyberSecurity Malaysia, CyberSafe, www.cybersafe.my
242. Domestic Violence Act 1994. Retrieved from: www. (accessed 19 March 2014).
wcwonline.org/pdf/lawcompilation/malaysia_DVact1994.
pdf 261. Ibid.
251. Ibid.
DiGiTelecommunications
63
www.unicef.org/malaysia
www.facebook.com/unicef.malaysia
www.youtube.com/UNICEFMalaysia