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This paper offers a review on effective instructional tnethods from educational and
psychological research. Thirteen instructional principles are presented which should
help teachers and educators to improve the quality of their instruction. Principles 1
to 4 concern general conditions of successful instruction. Principles 5 to 8 consist
of instructional methods to improve and optimize cognitive effects of learning.
Principles 9 to 11 refer to motivational and efnotional design. Principle 12 is deal-
ing with the handling of ethic aspects. Finally, principle 13 concerns the design of
instructional materials.
Many experts in the field of education of instruction (e.g., Baumert, Artelt, Klieme,
assume that people can only manage a cotn- Neubrand. Prenzel, Schiefele, Schneider,
plex personal and pt ofessional life when they Tillmann, & WeiB, 2003); and d) practical
are well educated. Such a credo builds the approaches which do not only consist of
core of actual quality assurance activities in traditional methods of instruction, but also
schools. These activities are based at the best reflect new developments which assist in
on a rnodel of good or effective instruction. facing global educational competition (e.g.,
The question of what makes instruction ef- Mayer, 1999; Paris & Paris, 2001).
fective has been in the focus of educational These results of research are summarized
and psychological research for decades. It is - within this paper - as "principles" of good
obvious and helpful for instructional practice instruction (e.g.. Sternberg. 1998). "Prin-
that research results are reviewed from time ciples" are general standards or guidelines for
to time. Such a review represents the goal acting which were created by generalizations
of this paper and will focus on: a) results of research results and which educational
of research which are repeatedly confirmed practitioners should keep in mind when they
and which meet criteria of social empirical want to design effective instructional methods
research (e.g.. Atkinson. Derry, Renkl. & and processes. Focusing on such principles
Wortham, 2000: Dubs, 1995; Haenisch. 2002; only increases the success of instruction
Helmke & Weinert. 1997; Slavin, 2000); b) when instructional methods are continuously
approaches which not only consider cogni- planned, implemented, evaluated, and adapt-
tive characteristics of students as relevant for ed based on these principles. To adapt means
learning, but also motivational and emotional that instructional methods are calibrated to
aspects (e.g.. Astleitner. 2005; Astleitner, given characteristics of students, teachers,
2000; Bergin, 1999); c) experiences which and subject matters. Such a calibration can-
allow toestablishanation-widequality assur- not be delivered by this paper, because it is
ance system for itnproving the effectiveness assu med that the connection between research
and practice can only be realized at a general
Hennann Astleitner, Professor of Educational level. However, when integrating these prin-
Psychology. University of Salzburg. Salzburg. ciples during planning, impletnenting, and
Austria.
evaluating instructional tnethods - together
Correspondence concerning this article
should be addressed to Dr. Hennann Astleitner, with a diagnosis of problems conceming
Associate Professor, Departtnent of Education and students and subject matters -. then it can
Sociology. University of Salzburg, Akademies- be expected that general guidelines have a
trasse 26, A-5020 Salzburg. Austria. specific influence on the design of fine-graded
41 Journal of Instructional Psychology, Vol. 32, No. 1
Principle 4: Knowledge acquiring and ap- should be an integrated part of the achieve-
plying in varying contexts ment evaluation. Especially, many different
Daily instruction in school focuses traditional and new ways of achievement
within a first step on the acquisition of basic evaluation (e,g,, tests, observations, or
knowledge. It contains declarative (e.g., portfolios) should be used in order to get a
concepts, facts) and procedural (e,g,. rules) comprehensive and multi-faceted view ofthe
knowledge which should be presented and students' knowledge, thinking, and problem
become a part of the student's memory in solving behavior.
correct, structured, and inter-linked patterns.
In order to be able to use this knowledge base Principle 6: Stimulating argumentation
flexibly, it is necessary that it is applied and skills
evaluated repeatedly within practical cases. Argumentation skills or critical thinking
Such cases should vary in their difficulty skills concern general techniques which can
(number of elements to be used for problem be applied in many different subject areas
solving), in their correspondence with a and which represent an important capabil-
real task (reality), and in the availability of ity to handle obsolete, lacking, or wrong
guidance (learning support). Letting students information. For successful argumentation,
explain their knowledge to other students it is necessary to identify, to construct, and
also represents an effective way of varying to evaluate arguments. Instructional methods
contexts. supporting argumentation are: group activi-
ties with ranking procedures (of ideas, etc.),
Principle 5: Supporting and evaluating basic pro-and-cons-listings (e.g., advantages and
knowledge but also higher-order skills disadvantages), knowledge-wishes-learn-
In respect to research results, instruction questions (e,g,, what knowledge is avail-
should not only support the acquisition of able? what knowledge is desired? what was
basic knowledge, but also stimulate higher- learned?), summing up (e,g,, the core argu-
order thinking which guides problem solving. ment of a text), worksheets for stimulating
During instruction, basic knowledge should thinking (e,g,, writing a thinking protocol),
be presented with illustrative examples debates (e,g,, discussions of controversial
together with tasks and their solutions. issues), g) problem-based learning (e,g,, com-
Analytical thinking processes are stimulated parison of single cases), or graphic organizer
when students are asked to divide elements (e,g., using mapping techniques).
of knowledge, to compare, to evaluate, and
to explain them. Creative thinking can be fos- Principle 7: Realizing and guiding self-regu-
tered when students are required to imagine lated learning
elements of knowledge and to develop own In general, research found that system-
products of learning. Analytical and creative atically designed instruction by teachers was
thinking should be trained within problem often able to positively influence the achieve-
solving stages which consist of: finding a ments of students, what does not mean that
problem (what is the problem here?), defining students cannot acquire knowledge by self-
a problem (what are the components of the regulated learning activities. Self-regulated
problem?), formulating a problem solving learning means that the students control the
strategy (how can the problem be solved?), learning process in relation to given goals and
allocating resources (what is needed for that the student select activities to improve
solving the problem?), and evaluating the learning outcomes. However, for successful
solution (was problem solving successful?). self-regulated learning, students must dispose
Knowledge, thinking, and problem solving of general and specific learning strategies.
6/ Journal of Instructional Psychology, Vol. 32, No. 1
Such strategies concern and must be taught students. For teaching contents, it should be
within different subject matters: reading skills illustrated why they are important (relevant)
(e.g., taking notes), studying skills (e.g., forthe goalsand the lifeof students. Showing
memorizing), collaborative learning (e.g., students what kind of knowledge they do not
conflict resolution), project management dispose of and how this knowledge can be
(e.g., organizing projects), communication acquired also represents a major source for
skills (e.g., presenting results to others), increasing interest. Finally, interest can be
preparing and taking tests (e.g., anticipat- aroused when integrating idols, activating
ing test content), or preparing to learn (e.g., worksheets, learning games, or story telling
managing time). into instruction.
but also point out the beauty of things) for Principle 13: Using self-instructional learn-
reducing fear; encourage comparison with ing materials
autobiographical and criterion reference Many of the presented principles can
points instead of social standards (e.g.. show more easily be integrated in daily instmc-
students their individual learning history), tion, when learning materials are designed
install consistent and transparent evaluating in a way that they stimulate self-regulated
and grading (e.g., inform students in detail learning. In order that self-regulated learn-
about guidelines for grading), inspire a sense ing can take place, learning materials must
of authenticity and openness (e.g.. install be self-instructional. Such materials show
"personal information boards" telling others these characteristics: a reason why the ma-
who you are), and avoid unequal distributed terial should be learned, a statement what
privileges among students (e.g., grant all pre-knowledge is necessary to understand
students or no student access to private mat- the material and how this knowledge can be
ters) for decreasing envy among students; acquired, a consequent orientation on teach-
and stimulate the control of anger (e.g., ings goals, a clear structure of the content,
show students how to reduce anger through tasks which allow students to test their knowl-
counting backward), show multiple views of edge, learning guidance by questions and
things (e.g., demonstrate how one problem marginalia, pre- and post-organizers, a pool
can be solved through different operations), of tasks varying in difficulty together with
let anger be expressed in a constructive way (complete, incomplete, or multiple) solutions
(e.g., do not accept escaping when interper- and solution paths, also text attributes which
sonal problem solving is necessary), and do support the search, the organization, and the
not show and accept any form of violence integration of knowledge, and figures which
(e.g., avoid threatening gestures). help to understand the material better.