ASPHALT AT A GLANCE

Asphalt or Bitumen is a hydrocarbon product primarily obtained from the

distillation of petroleum
The major application of asphalt is in pavements
There are 3 main types of asphalt products
Asphalt Cement (Solid)
Cutback Asphalt (Liquid)
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS Asphalt Emulsions (Liquid)
ASPHALT Asphalt products are graded based on their consistency using various
systems
Various tests are available for safety and quality control of asphalts since
their property may vary greatly among the sources
Asphalt products are often mixed with aggregates to make layers of flexible
pavements, each with different properties
Failures of asphalt pavement often occurred due to inappropriate grade of
asphalt or improper mixture proportion

2010 Praveen Chompreda, Mahidol University 1 2

DISAMBIGUOUS OUTLINE

Please note the differences between the British English (UK, European
countries) and American English (North America, Thailand) usages of some
terms

British English American English Explanation of Terms

Bitumen Asphalt (cement) Thick black substance which is the
residue of distillation Introduction
Bituminous ~ Asphaltic~ or Adjective for all things relating to Components of Asphalt Asphalt Mixture
Bituminous~ asphalt Sources of Asphalt Asphalt Pavement
Asphalt Mixture Design
Asphalt (Hot Mixed) Asphalt A kind of mixture of asphalt and Applications
Concrete Pavement aggregates for use in road paving Manufacturing
Macadam Macadam A kind of mixture of asphalt and
aggregates for use in road paving Types/ Grades/ Tests Deterioration of Asphalt &
Asphalt Cement Prevention
Cut-Back Asphalt
Emulsified Asphalt
3 Source: Wikipedia 4
 COMPONENTS OF ASPHALT

Asphalt (or bitumen) is a complicated system of hydrocarbons soluble in

trichloroethylene. In general, it is made up of 3 groups of hydrocarbons
Asphaltenes (C/H > 0.8) provides the body of the asphalt
Resins (0.6 < C/H < 0.8) contribute to adhesiveness and ductility
Oils (C/H < 0.6) contribute to viscosity and flow

INTRODUCTION
Component of Asphalt Oils Resins Asphaltenes
Carbon
Sources of Asphalt 0.6 0.8
Hydrogen

Distillation of Crude Oil

Applications
The fractions that are not soluble in trichloroethylene are called carbenes.
They are hard at normal temperature but soften when heated. They are
mixed with aggregates and allowed to cool to form a pavement surface

5 6

S OU R C E S O F A S P H A L T S OU R C E S O F A S P H A L T

1. Native Asphalt or Natural Asphalt they are asphalt materials found in 2. Tar it is a liquid by-product from the distillation of coal to make coke
natural states. Only few native sources in the world can produce enough (which is used as smokeless fuel in stove or blast furnace). The use of
asphalt to have economical importance. tar (mostly in the UK) has been declined dramatically because its vapor
Asphalt Lake The area may be the bottom of a lake in prehistoric times. was found to cause cancer
Asphalt may be separated or mixed with water.
Tar Pit (e.g. Rancho La Brea Tar Pit in Los Angeles)
Rock Asphalt Asphalt impregnated within sedimentary rocks (limestone,
shale, or sandstone). Usually used by crushing the rock and asphalt
together.

Source: Wikipedia Source: Wikipedia Source: Wikipedia

Coal Coke + Coal Tar

Source: Wikipedia Source: Wikipedia Source: Wikipedia

Asphalt Lake in Trinidad Rancho La Brea Tar Pit Bituminous Sandstone 7 8

S OU R C E S O F A S P H A L T S OU R C E S O F A S P H A L T

3. Refinery Asphalt or Petroleum Asphalt from distillation of crude oil.

It is the most popular type.
Asphalt based crude oil (easiest to obtain asphalt from)
Paraffin-based crude oil
Mixed-based crude oil

Source: Wikipedia

Bituminous Coal Layer

Source: Wikipedia
9 10

DISTILLATION OF CRUDE OIL APPLICATIONS

Asphalt cement from residue of crude oil distillation Pavement/ Runway

Roof Shingles (not commonly found
in Thailand)
Waterproof Coating
Expansion Joints
Joint and Crack Sealant
Higher Temperature

Higher Temperature

Source: Wikipedia

Source: Wikipedia Source: Wikipedia Source: Wikipedia

11 12
TYPES OF ASPHALT PRODUCTS

There are three main types of asphalt products used in constructions

Asphalt Cement (Penetration Grade Bitumen)

Product from distillation of petroleum
Solid
ASPHALT CEMENT
Cutback Asphalt
Asphalt Cement + Hydrocarbon Solvent
Asphalt Cement
Liquid Grades of Asphalt Cement
Properties and Tests
Emulsified Asphalt or Asphalt Emulsions
Asphalt Cement + Emulsifier + Water
Liquid

13 14

ASPHALT CEMENT ASPHALT CEMENT

Asphalt cement is the direct product from distillation of petroleum

It is solid at room temperature
To use it, we need to heat it until it becomes soft enough. Then we mix it
with hot aggregates, lay on the road, and compact. It becomes solid again
once it is cool. We call the product Hot Mix Asphalt Concrete (HMAC)

Asphalt Heat to about 90 C

Cement
Mixer or Compact Road
Aggregates Paving Machine Surface
Cool to Source: Wikipedia
Heat to about 150 C
ambient
temperature Hot Mix Asphalt Paving Machine

Compaction of Asphalt Surface Source: Wikipedia

15 16
GRADES OF ASPHALT CEMENT GRADES OF ASPHALT CEMENT

Asphalt cement can be manufactured to have different consistency or fluidity A different consistency can be achieved by 2 means
from hard to soft Lower the temperature during the distillation to get more oils in the residue
Why do we need different consistencies of asphalt? softer asphalt
Softer asphalt is suitable to colder climate to avoid excessive brittleness during Diluting (fluxing) some lighter oils with asphalt cement (not good)
winter
Harder asphalt is suitable to hot climate as to avoid softening in summer
Asphalt that is too soft will not provide uniform film to bind all the aggregates Asphalt cement is primarily graded by its consistency using one of these
Asphalt that is too hard is difficult to mix and the resulting mixture will be systems:
nonuniform Penetration (in unit of 0.1 mm) this is the oldest and most popular grading of
asphalt cement
Absolute Viscosity (in poise)
Kinematic Viscosity (in stoke)

Source: Wikipedia Source: Wikipedia

Too hard asphalt may crack Too soft asphalt may deform
17 18

GRADES OF ASPHALT CEMENT GRADES OF ASPHALT CEMENT

Penetration (ASTM D 5) is an measure of hardness/softness of asphalt cement by
dropping a standard needle to an asphalt surface for 5 sec at temperature of 25 C
Viscosity is a more direct measurement of the fluidity of asphalt cement
Measured by counting the time it takes for a standard amount of hot asphalt (in liquid
state at standard temperature) to flow through a standard orifice
Absolute viscosity has the unit of poise (g /cm /sec)
Kinematic viscosity has the unit of stoke (cm2/sec) or centistoke (0.01 cm2/sec = 1
mm2/sec)
Absolute viscosity (ASTM D 2171) and kinematic viscosity (ASTM D 2170) differ by
the type of viscometer used but can be related (for the same test temperature).

Absolute Viscosity
Kinematic Viscosity =
Density of Asphalt Cement
Penetration Distance Drop (in mm) 10
The density of AC is about 1 g/cm3. Therefore, absolute viscosity in poise is
Higher value indicates softer asphalt Source: http://www.soiltest.com
approximately numerically equal to kinematic viscosity in stoke
Common penetration grades are AC 40-50, AC 60-70, AC 70-80, AC 80-100,
AC 120-150 (example: AC 60-70 has the penetration between 60 and 70) Higher viscosity value means that the asphalt does not flow well (i.e. harder
asphalt)
This grading has been used for a very long time
There is a trend to substitute the penetration with viscosity grading system
19 20
PROPERTIES & TESTS AC SPECIFICATIONS

Once we classify asphalt cement based on its consistency, the asphalt

cement must have some other properties met the standard specifications

Standard Specifications:
. . 401/2531
. 851-2542
ASTM D 946 Standard Specifications for Penetration-Graded Asphalt Cement
for Use in Pavement Construction

21 22

PROPERTIES & TESTS PROPERTIES & TESTS

Other relevant tests for asphalt cement:

Property to be Measured Test Method

Fluidity (or consistency) Penetration Test (ASTM D 5), Viscosity
Tests (ASTM D2170, 2171)
How well asphalt can bind aggregate Ductility Test (ASTM D 113)

Temperature we need to make it sufficiently Softening Point Test (ASTM D 36, E 28)
soft
Maximum temperature that we can heat it
without catching fire
How much impurities there are
How much volatile constituents are
presented
Specific Gravity and Density
In ductility test, we pull the sample of AC
Flash Point Test (Cleveland Open-Cup or
Pensky-Marten Closed Tester) (ASTM D
92, 93)
Solubility Test (ASTM D 4, D 2042)
Loss on Heating (ASTM D 6), Thin-Film
Oven Test (ASTM D 1754)
Specific Gravity Test (ASTM D 70)
23
apart in a temperature-controlled bath and see
how much it can stretch without breaking, the
higher the better.
In softening point test, we use ring and ball apparatus. The
softening point is defined as the temperature at which the asphalt
sample in the ring becomes soft enough that the asphalt stretches
to the reference plate under the weight of the metal ball
24
PROPERTIES & TESTS

In the flash point test, the asphalt

sample is heated. A pilot flame is passed
over at regular interval. The flash point is
defined as the temperature at which the
vapor above the surface begin to ignite.

In the solubility test, the asphalt sample CUTBACK ASPHALT

is dissolved in Trichloroethylene (it used
to be carbon disulfide) and filtered. The
Cutback Asphalt
materials retained on the filter are the Grades of Cutback Asphalt
impurities. Properties and Tests
In the loss on heating and thin-film oven test, we put samples in the
oven for several hours. The volatile oils will evaporate. We can weight the
sample before and after to see how much loss there is. We can also perform
Penetration and Ductility test on the residue material.
25 26

CUTBACK ASPHALT GRADES OF CUTBACK ASPHALT

Cutback asphalt is a liquid asphalt product. It is obtained by diluting asphalt Since cutback asphalt is obtained by mixing asphalt cement with solvents, it is
cement in volatile oils. therefore classified based on the solvent used
It is liquid at room temperature so it can be sprayed and mixed easily Rapid Curing (RC) use gasoline as solvent + low-penetration AC
The solvent (oils) will eventually evaporated, leaving the asphalt cement on Medium Curing (MC) use kerosene as solvent + higher-penetration AC
the road Slow Curing (SC) use heavy oils as solvent + very high-penetration AC
Due to the pollution and health risk of the evaporation solvent, cutback or obtained directly from the distillation by cutting off early to get
asphalt is no longer permitted in the USA, but it is still in use in many parts residue + heavy oils
of the world, including Thailand.
The choice of curing rate depends on:
Solvent The time desired for curing
Room The penetration grade of the finished pavement (after solvent has
Temperature Evaporation evaporated); for example, MC will result in softer finished pavement
Cutback Mixer or Asphalt compared with RC due to the higher-penetration AC used, which is good
Compact
Asphalt Sprayer Cement for colder climates)
on Road

27 28
GRADES OF CUTBACK ASPHALT GRADES OF CUTBACK ASPHALT

For each type, the cutback asphalt is graded by kinematic viscosity (in
centistoke = 0.01 stoke) or Saybolt-Furol viscosity (ASTM D 88) (in
seconds; 1 SSF = 0.02 stoke)
Different viscosity is obtained by changing the amount of solvent
Common grades are RC-70, RC-250, RC-800, RC-3000, MC-30, MC-70
(example: RC-70 has kinematic viscosity between 70 and 140, MC-30 has
kinematic viscosity between 30 and 60 etc)
The choice of viscosity depends on
Application (spraying requires lower viscosity)
Aggregate used (smaller aggregates requires lower viscosity)
Cost (lower viscosity requires more solvent and cost more but it
requires less heat which saves the fuel cost)
Saybolt Furol Viscosity Test

29 30

GRADES OF CUTBACK ASPHALT CUTBACK SPECIFICATIONS

Kinematic viscosity is in stoke or Standard Specifications:

centistoke (1 centistoke = 0.01 . . 402/2531
stoke) . 865-2544
Saybolt-Furol viscosity is ASTM D 2028 Standard Specifications for Cut-Back Asphalt (Rapid Curing Type)
measured in second
1 SFS = 0.02 stoke = 2 centistoke
Flow
Saybolt-Furol Second Grade Easily
15-30 0
40-80 1
100-200 2
250-500 3
600-1200 4
1500-3000 5
Difficult
to Flow 31 32
CUTBACK SPECIFICATIONS
Standard Specifications:
. . 403/2531
. 865-2544
ASTM D 2027 Standard Specifications for Cut-Back Asphalt (Medium Curing Type)
PROPERTIES & TESTS
The distillation test is used to see
how much asphalt cement there is.
After the test, we can perform tests,
such as penetration and ductility, on
the asphalt residue as well
PROPERTIES & TESTS
Other relevant tests for Cut-Back Asphalt
Property to be Measured
Fluidity (or consistency)
Maximum temperature that we can heat
it (if needed) without catching fire
Amount of water presented (impurity)
Amount of asphalt cement
Fluidity (or consistency) of residue
How well asphalt residue can bind
aggregate
How much impurities there are in the
residue
How much asphalt binder is presented
(for SC only)
33
EMULSIFIED ASPHALT
The flash point test using
the tag open cup is similar
to the cleveland open cup.
35
Test Method
Viscosity Tests (ASTM D 88, 2170, 2171)
Flash Point Test (Cleveland Open-Cup or
Tag Open Cup) (ASTM D 92, 1310)
Water Content Test (ASTM D 95)
Distillation (ASTM D 402)
Penetration Test (ASTM D 5), Float Test
(ASTM D 139),Viscosity Tests
Ductility Test (ASTM D 113)
Solubility Test (ASTM D 4, D 2042)
Residue of Specified Penetration Test
(ASTM D 243)
34
Emulsified Asphalt
Emulsifier
Grades of Emulsified Asphalt
Properties & Tests
36
EMULSIFIED ASPHALT EMULSIFIER

Emulsified Asphalt or Asphalt Emulsion is a liquid asphalt product. It is a The emulsifier is a long
colloidal mixture obtained by mixing asphalt cement in water, with the help hydrocarbon chain with ionic
of the emulsifier. part at the end
It is liquid at room temperature so it can be sprayed and mixed easily The hydrocarbon end attached
The water will eventually evaporated, leaving the asphalt cement on the road to the asphalt particle
It is an alternative to cutback asphalt The ionic end has an affinity for
water
The same ions repel each other,
allowing the asphalt particle to
Water
suspend in water without
Room sticking to each other
Temperature Evaporation
Emulsified Mixer or Compact Asphalt
Asphalt Sprayer Cement
on Road

37 Source: Illston and Domone (2001) 38

GRADES OF EMULSIFIED ASPHALT GRADES OF EMULSIFIED ASPHALT

Since Emulsified Asphalt is obtained by mixing the asphalt cement with For each type, the emulsified asphalt is graded by kinematic viscosity (in
water and emulsifier, they are graded by the types of emulsifier. centistoke = 0.01 stoke) or Saybolt-Furol viscosity (ASTM D 88)
Anionic Emulsions the asphalt cement particle has negative (-) charge Common grades are: CRS-1, CRS-2, CMS-2, CSS-1
(good for limestone aggregate, which has positive charges)
Rapid Setting (RS)
Medium Setting (MS)
Flow
Slow Setting (SS) Easily
Saybolt-Furol Second Grade
Cationic Emulsions the asphalt cement particle has positive (+) charge
15-30 0
(good for silica aggregate, which has negative charges)
Rapid Setting (CRS) 40-80 1

Medium Setting (CMS) 100-200 2

Slow Setting (CSS) 250-500 3
600-1200 4
1500-3000 5
Difficult
to Flow
39 40
PROPERTIES & TESTS
Other relevant tests for Emulsified Asphalt
Property to be Measured
Fluidity (or consistency)
Amount of water presented
Amount of asphalt cement
Fluidity (or consistency) of residue
How much impurities there are in the residue
How well it can coat aggregate and withstand
washing of water
How well asphalt residue can bind aggregate
How fast the emulsified asphalt will set
How well it withstand the addition of water
Stability during storage
EMULSIFIED ASPHALT SPECIFICATIONS
Standard Specifications:
. . 404/2531
. 371-2530
ASTM D 977 Standard Specification for Emulsified Asphalt
ASTM D 2397 Standard Specification for Cationic Emulsified Asphalt
PROPERTIES & TESTS
In the water content test, the emulsified is heated in a
Test Method
closed container. The water will evaporate, condense in a
condenser, and be collected in the trap. The water content
Viscosity Tests (ASTM D 88, 2170, 2171)
is the percentage of the total water collected to the
Water Content Test (ASTM D 244)
original weight of sample.
Distillation (ASTM D 6997), Residue by
Evaporation (ASTM D 6394)
Penetration Test (ASTM D 5),Viscosity Tests
Solubility Test (ASTM D 4, D 2042) In particle charge test,
Coating Ability and Water Resistance (ASTM D electrodes are inserted into
244) the liquid asphalt. If it is a
Ductility Test (ASTM D 113) cationic emulsified asphalt
Demulsibility Test (ASTM D 6936), Cement-Mixing (positive charge), the asphalt
Test (ASTM D 6935), Silica Sand Coating Test particles will adhere to the
(ASTM D 244) cathode (negative side).
Miscibility in Water Test (ASTM D 6999) There will be nothing on the
Sieve Test (ASTM D 6933), Settlement Test (ASTM anode side.
D 244), Freezing Test (ASTM D 244)
41 42
SUMMARY ON ASPHALT PRODUCTS
Properties & Tests
Advantages & Disadvantages
43 44
PROPERTIES & TESTS SUMMARY PROPERTIES & TESTS SUMMARY

Asphalt Cement Cut-Back Asphalt Emulsified Asphalt Continued

Penetration On distillate residue On distillate residue
Kinematic Viscosity Asphalt Cement Cut-Back Asphalt Emulsified Asphalt
Saybolt-Furol Viscosity Float Test On distillate residue On distillate residue
Softening Point (Ring and Ball) On distillate residue On distillate residue Water Content Occasionally

Flash Point Residue of Specified Penetration On SC only

Ductility On distillate residue On distillate residue Demulsibility

Solubility On distillate residue On distillate residue Cement-Mixing Test

Loss on Heating Silica Sand Coating Test

Thin-film Oven Miscibility in Water Test

Specific Gravity On distillate residue On distillate residue Sieve Test

Residue by Distillation Settlement Test

Residue by Evaporation Freezing Test

Particle Charge Test

45 46

USAGE & APPLICATIONS

Advantages & Disadvantages for each type of asphalt for

pavement applications

Advantages Disadvantages
Asphalt Strong and durable Require high heat to mix
Cement Must use with dry aggregates ASPHALT MIXTURES
Cut-Back Does not require high heat to use Highly flammable Types of Asphalt Pavement
Asphalt Evaporated fume is toxic Applications in Pavement
Solvent can be expensive
Must use with dry aggregates Required Properties of Pavement
Emulsified Does not require high heat to use Can be washed off by rain quite Asphalt Concrete Mixture
Asphalt easily
Use with wet or dry aggregates Marshall Method
Less toxic
Non-flammable Manufacturing

47 48
TYPES OF ASPHALT PAVEMENTS TYPES OF ASPHALT PAVEMENTS

There are many types of asphalt pavement construction, ranging from low- Hot Mix Asphalt Concrete
cost, lightly traveled roads to heavily traveled highways. We first consider 2
extremes of asphalt construction, hot-mix asphalt concrete (or just
asphalt) and macadam.

Macadam

Source: Illston and Domone (2001) 49 Source: Illston and Domone (2001) 50

TYPES OF ASPHALT PAVEMENTS TYPES OF ASPHALT PAVEMENTS

Asphalt concrete uses more asphalt and gap-graded aggregates. It is denser

and more durable, but also more expensive because more asphalt is
needed. It is typically used for heavily-traveled roads.

Macadam uses asphalt just enough to coat aggregates and provide adhesion.
Dense-graded aggregate is needed for strength. It is porous and not very
durable, but cheaper because it needs only little asphalt. It is generally used
for lightly traveled roads.

Actually, there are ranges of asphalt pavement that are somewhere

between asphalt concrete and macadam

51 Source: Illston and Domone (2001) 52

APPLICATIONS IN PAVEMENTS APPLICATIONS IN PAVEMENTS

In typical asphalt pavement, the road structure has several layers, each Asphalt Cement (Hot-Mixed or Liquid Asphalt (Cutback or
having a specific function. Different asphalt products and different Hot-Rolled Asphalt) Emulsified)
mixtures are used for different layers. Wearing surface of new road Patching of minor surface
construction damages
Wearing Course Resurfacing or overlaying of Surface Dressing
Surfacing existing road Tack Coat - to provide adhesion
Basecourse Surface Dressing hot asphalt is between old and new layers
Asphalt Materials sprayed over compacted base, Prime Coat to prepare (base)
Roadbase followed by a layer of graded surface for new asphalt layer
crush stone, and then rolled Slurry Seal
together. Another layer may be
put on top. Soil Stabilization
Sub-Base
Foundation Granular Materials Patching of surface damages
Capping

Subgrade Soil

Typical Pavements
53 54

ASPHALT CONCRETE MIXTURE PROPERTIES OF PAVEMENTS

Generally, hot-mix asphalt concrete mixture consists of asphalt cement (AC
60/70 or AC 80/100 are most common), fine aggregate (sand), and coarse
aggregate (crushed limestone)
The quality and proportion of each of these components plays an important
role in the property and durability of the finished asphalt pavement
Required properties of the pavement are:
Stability is the strength of the pavement to resist deformation under
traffic load. It comes from aggregate interlocking and asphalt cohesions
Durability is the resistance of the pavement against disintegration either
by weathering of asphalt or mechanical breakdown of aggregate.
Flexibility is the ability to withstand deformations without cracking
Skid Resistance is the ability of the pavement to provide long-lasting
nonskid surface. Pavement bleeding and aggregate polishing is the two main
sources of slippery surface

Source: Wikipedia
55 56
ASPHALT CONCRETE MIXTURE MIXTURE PROPORTIONING

Compromise is needed for the property of asphalt, aggregate, and the Factors affecting asphalt concrete pavement are:
amount of air voids in the asphalt mixture Quality of Asphalt Binder
Quality of Aggregates (gradation, strength, texture, shapes, etc)
Construction Processes
Property Asphalt Aggregate Air Void Mixture Proportions
Stability Just enough to coat Angular shapes
the aggregate Rough texture We want to know the optimum content of asphalt for a given type and
Dense graded gradation of aggregate, and the asphalt cement used to provide the best
Durability Need a lot of asphalt Need minimal air void stability, durability, flexibility, and skid resistance
to coat the aggregate to prevent oxidation
and completely fill and entrance of water
There are several methods developed. Some of the more popular mix-
out the voids
design methods are:
Flexibility Open graded
Hubbard-Field (Asphalt Institute)
Skid Resistance Just enough to coat Aggregate containing Need some void Marshall (U.S. Army Corps of Engineer)
the aggregate many minerals in it space to prevent
bleeding Stabilometer or Hveem (California Highway Department)

57 58

MARSHALL METHOD MARSHALL METHOD

Using 4 diameter and

2.5 high cylindrical
specimen. Specimens
are compacted using a
standard hammer
Stability (i.e. maximum
load) and flow (i.e.
deformation) is
measured using
Marshall apparatus

Source: http://www.soiltest.com

Mold
Source: http://www.soiltest.com
Hammer Source: http://www.soiltest.com

Source: http://www.soiltest.com
Breaking Head
Marshall Stability Testing Machine
59 60
MARSHALL METHOD
Stability is the maximum
load, which indicates the
strength of the asphalt
mix
Flow is the deformation
at the maximum load,
which indicates the
flexibility of the asphalt
mix
Durability of the asphalt
mix is measured through
the determination of air
Source: Illston and Domone (2001) voids in the specimen
MARSHALL METHOD
We try several mixtures
with different amount of
asphalt and test the
sample for
Density of Mix (or unit
weight)
Compacted Aggregate
Density (may be plotted
as Voids in Mineral
Aggregate)
Marshall Stability
Flow
Source: Illston and Domone (2001)
MARSHALL METHOD
Typical procedures for Marshall method:
1. Select aggregate proportions to meet specific requirements
2. Estimate optimum asphalt content for a given aggregate type
3. Prepare few asphalt concrete specimens with asphalt content above
and below the estimated optimum content according to the mix design
method used
4. Test the specimens for physical properties such as specific gravity, air
voids, stability, etc
5. Plot the above properties with asphalt content and use a guideline to
determine the range of acceptable asphalt content
6. Optimum asphalt content can be selected from that range - usually it is
the content that gives highest stability value or the most economical
one
7. The process may be repeated with different aggregate blends
61 62
MARSHALL METHOD
The following observations can be made:
Mix Density initially increases with asphalt content because asphalt fill
out the air voids and lubricates the aggregate movement (allow for
denser compaction). However, too much asphalt replaces the heavier
aggregates.
Stability follows the same trend as density since it is mainly a function of
aggregate interlock and, hence, the density
Compacted aggregate density (i.e. how much aggregate can be packed in
the volume) follows approximately the density curve because volume of
aggregate is the main volume of the mix
Flow increases with an increase in asphalt content because friction
between aggregate particles decreases with thicker asphalt films
It can be seen that the optimum asphalt content for density and stability are
NOT the same so we generally average them to get the design asphalt
content. We read the flow from the flow curve.
63 64
MARSHALL METHOD MARSHALL METHOD

Optimum asphalt content to

Asphalt completely fills the voids lubricate the mix and make it easy
Too little asphalt: have Too little asphalt: mix to compact
a lot of unfilled voids is dry and difficult to
Too much asphalt: lighter asphalt compact Too much asphalt: asphalt
replaces the heavier aggregate, replaces the aggregate, leading
leading to lower density to lower compacted aggregate
density

Source: Illston and Domone (2001) 65 Source: Illston and Domone (2001) 66

MARSHALL METHOD MARSHALL METHOD

Optimum asphalt: enough asphalt

Too little asphalt: not to coat aggregate
enough adhesions Too much asphalt reduces
between aggregate friction between aggregates

Flow
increases as
asphalt
content
increases

Source: Illston and Domone (2001) 67 68

MANUFACTURING MANUFACTURING/ BATCH PLANT
Batch Plant produce one mix at a time
Asphalt is typically manufactured (i.e. hot mixed) at a plant
and transport by truck to the construction site Aggregates are
Aggregates are
heated to remove
The plant should be close to the construction site to weighted and mixed
moisture
avoid the hardening of asphalt during transit according to the
gradation needed
Two main types of asphalt manufacturing plants:
Batch Plant
Continuous Plant

Hot asphalt is mixed

with hot aggregate
and fillers in a mixer

The mixture is loaded in a truck

Source: Wikipedia
69 to be used or stored in a silo 70

MANUFACTURING MANUFACTURING
Continuous Plant produce asphalt mixture continuously
The choice of mixing process depends on:
The hot asphalt is mixed Production Capacity (Continuous plant is good for large production of
with the heated aggregate
one material specification whereas Batch plant is good for small
in the final portion of the
productions of different mix proportions)
drum

Maintenance Cost (Continuous plant has lower maintenance cost)

Graded aggregates are
continuously loaded Cost of Construction (Continuous plant has lower construction cost)
into a drum.

Environmental Issues (dusts, fumes, noise, etc)

The first portion is the drying
of aggregates.

At the end of the drum, the mixture is loaded

in a truck to be transported or stored in a silo 71 72
 DESIGN LIFE OF PAVEMENT

Asphalt pavement has a design life of 40 years (concrete structures have

about 75 years). This is the life after which we need to replace the whole thing.
However, we need to do some maintenances periodically to get that design life.

DETERIORATION OF ASPHALT
Design Life of Pavement
Failure Modes
Deterioration of Surface
Deterioration of Structure
Preventions
Remedies
Source: Illston and Domone (2001)
73 74

FAILURES OF ASPHALT PAVEMENT MODES OF FAILURES

The failure of asphalt pavement is a little tricky to define because when the The asphalt may fail in one of the two main forms
pavement fails it does not collapse Deterioration of Road Surface the damages occur at the top of the
So we define failure in terms of serviceablity (ability to service) or wearing course (top layer) of the pavement
repairability (ability to repair vs. rebuilt) Bleeding of asphalt
Examples of criteria Breakdown of surface materials
Riding Comfort (surface too rough, uneven surface, excessive noise) Polishing of surface
Safety of Drivers on the road (slippery road, potholes) Fuel spillage
Crack widths Deterioration of Road Structure the damages occurs on the pavement as
Permanent deformations a whole
Permanent Deformation
Fatigue Cracking

75 76
DETERIORATION OF SURFACE
Bleeding of asphalt to the surface
(and sinking of aggregates to the
bottom). This occurs under
traffic pressure due to too little
air voids. This leads to reduced
skid-resistance of the road
surface.
Aggregate breakdown weak
aggregate may break into pieces
under traffic and separated from
asphalt
Aggregate polishing soft
aggregate may become polished
under traffic, resulting in slippery
road surface
DETERIORATION OF SURFACE
Low Temperature Crack this occurs
in cold climates when the asphalt is too
hard. When the asphalt shrinks under
low temperature, it cannot deform
enough, so it cracks.
DETERIORATION OF SURFACE
Aging of Asphalt this is the hardening of
asphalt (decrease in penetration or increase
in viscosity) when exposed to the
atmosphere. The asphalt becomes more
brittle and cracks more easily.
Oxidation of asphalt in which resins was
Source: www.asphaltwa.com
converted into asphaltenes. Because the Source: www.asphaltwa.com
resin provides ductility and adhesiveness, Oxidation Damage
Surface Bleeding loosing it results in a harder material. The
pavement also turns grey
Loss of volatile constituents lighter oils
evaporated, leaving only the heavy oils on
the road. In asphalt cement, this is often
caused by too much heat during mixing.
Fuel spillage oil spills from vehicles may
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dilute asphalt cement Source: www.asphaltwa.com
Aggregate polishing Fuel Spillage
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DETERIORATION OF STRUCTURE
Structure failures consists of two main types
Permanent Deformation
Fatigue Failure
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Crack from low temperature and
binder hardening
79 Source: Illston and Domone (2001) 80
DETERIORATION OF STRUCTURE
Permanent Deformations it is
the deformation of the whole
pavement structure (affect several
layers, not just the surface).
Possible causes are:
Foundation settlement due to
insufficient compaction or water
scour
Rutting under High Stress + High
temperature this occurs under
heavy traffic on hot days when
too soft asphalt is used. The
asphalt deforms permanently in
the form of wheel track. Once it
is occurred, vehicles tends to lock
into the wheel track, accelerating
the process.
DETERIORATION OF STRUCTURES
Fatigue Failures this occurs
under repetitive stresses from
traffic.
Cracking usually starts at the base
of top layer
By the time it reaches the surface,
a lot of damage has occurred
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Characterized by alligator skin
Deformation due to foundation settlement
cracking pattern
Occurs from the use of asphalt
that is too hard
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Source: www.asphaltwa.com
Fatigue cracking
Deformation due to high stress
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PREVENTIONS REMEDIES

To prevent or delay the failure, the followings must be done:
Use of strong and durable aggregates
Use asphalt binder with grade suitable for the geographical area to
prevent cracking
Control maximum temperature during mixing to prevent excessive
evaporation of lighter constituents, which may result in premature
hardening
Control maximum air voids in the mix to prevent water permeation and
oxidation
Control minimum air voids to prevent bleeding and slippery surface
Control the amount of asphalt in the mix (not too low and not too
high)
When the pavement has deteriorated, we need to do some maintenances.
The maintenance of roads may fall into one of these categories:
Patching
It is the repairs of potholes and minor damages
Surface Treatments
It is the application of liquid asphalt onto small sized stone on the
existing surface
To improve skid resistance or prevent further deterioration of the
existing pavement
We do this when the structure of the pavement is still OK
Also known as Surface Dressing, Chip Seal, Slurry Seal, etc

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REMEDIES MODIFIED ASPHALT

Pavement Resurfacing / Overlay
This involves the laying of the new surface layer (usually hot rolled
asphalt) either after removal of the existing surface or on top (overlay)
May be laid on top of existing asphalt surface or concrete surface
Restore ride quality, skid resistance, and road profile
To prevent further deterioration of the existing pavement
Also increase the strength of the pavement due to increase thickness
Usually the most cost-effective method
Reconstruction
This involves the removal of the construction depth and construct a
newly designed pavement
Only used at the end of service-life or when overlay is not possible
In recent years, modified asphalt material has becoming more popular.
Additives are added to the asphalt binder for the purpose of:
Improve durability (reduce oxidation)
Increase stability/ stiffness / fatigue resistance
Improve aggregate adhesion
Improve workability/ viscosity/ ductility
Improve elasticity/ reduce permanent deformation
Reduce bleeding
Reduce fuel and oil damage
Dosage varies from less than 1% of the total mix to more than 20%,
depending on the additive
Examples: tar, gilsonite, carbon black, sulfur, ethylene vinyl acetate,
polyethylene, polypropylene, natural rubber, styrene-butadiene rubber-
synthetic latex, styrene-butadiene-styrene, manganese catalyst, epoxy-resin,
etc

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RECAP REFERENCES

Introduction Properties & Tests ASTM (1996), Annual Book of ASTM Standards, West Conshohocken, PA.
Components of Asphalt Ductility, Solubility, Softening Point, Atkinson, K. (1990), Highway Maintenance Handbook, Thomas Telford, London,
Flash Point, Loss on Heating, 460 pp.
Sources of Asphalt
Distillation, Solubility, Miscibility, Hunter, R. N. (2000), Asphalt in Road Construction, Thomas Telford, London, 563
Natural, Tar, Petroleum
etc pp.
Applications Asphalt Mixture
Types Illston, J. M., and Domone, P. L. J. (2001), Construction Materials Their Nature and
Properties Required Behavior, 3rd Edition, Spon Press, London.
Asphalt Cement Design Methods
Cutback Asphalt Marshall Design Method Krebs, R. D. and Walker, R. D. (1971), Highway Materials, McGraw Hill, New York
Emulsified Asphalt Applications http://www.asphaltwa.com
Grading of Asphalt Deterioration of Asphalt & http://www.doh.go.th
Prevention
Penetration
Causes of Failure
Kinematic, Absolute, and Saybolt-
Prevention
Furol Viscosity
Remedies
Curing Rate (Cutback), Setting
Rate (Emulsified) Modified Asphalt Products

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