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CHEMISTRY MATTER AROUND US

Matter around Us
Matter

Anything which occupies space or volume, has mass and can be perceived by our senses is called
matter.
All materials are made up of matter, and matter consists of particles such as atoms, ions or molecules.
The three states of mattersolid, liquid and gaseousare based on the differences in physical
properties such as mass, volume, shape, rigidity, density and arrangement of particles.

Kinetic Theory of Matter


The kinetic theory of matter states that all matter is composed of particles which
Have intermolecular spaces between them.
Attract each other with a force.
Are in a continuous random motion.

Properties of Matter

Solid State Liquid State Gaseous State

Mass Solids have a definite Liquids have a Gases have a


mass. definite mass. definite mass.

Volume, Solids have a definite Liquids do not have Gases neither have
Shape, shape. They maintain a fixed shape but a definite shape nor
Rigidity their shape even when have a fixed have a definite
they are subjected to an volume. Liquids take volume. They fill up
external force, i.e. they up the shape of the the container
are rigid. container in which completely. They
they are poured. are not rigid.
They are less rigid.
On the basis The space between the The space between The particles are
of kinetic particles is very less. the particles is much farther apart
theory slightly more as from one another as
Intermolecul compared to solids compared to solids
ar space but still very less. and liquids. They
The particles of have a very
liquids can slip and disorderly
slide over each arrangement of
other. particles compared
to solids and liquids.

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On the basis The force of attraction The force of The force of


of kinetic between the particles is attraction between attraction between
theory strong. Thus, particles in the particles is the particles is
Force of a solid are closely strong enough to negligible; hence,
attraction packed. hold the particles particles of a gas
together but not move freely in all
strong enough to directions.
hold the particles in Gases can thus mix
a fixed position. or diffuse into other
Thus, particles in a gases.
liquid are not as
closely packed as in
solids.
On the basis Solid particles vibrate Liquid particles are Gaseous particles
of kinetic only about their mean free to move around move with high
theory position. in the liquid only. speed in all
Movement They can slip and directions and can
slide over each exert pressure on
other. the walls of the
container.
Density Solids have high density. Liquids have less Gases have least
This is because the density as density as the
number of particles in a compared to solids number of particles
solid is more and the because the number is least and the
intermolecular space is of particles is less intermolecular
minimum. and the space is maximum.
intermolecular
space is more.
Free surface Solids have an infinite Liquids have one Gases do not have
free surface. upper free surface. any free surface.

Miscibility or Solids do not diffuse with Liquids may diffuse Gaseous particles
Diffusibility other solid particles. with other liquid rapidly diffuse with
particles. other gaseous
particles.

Compressibi Solids cannot be Liquids cannot be Gases can be


lity compressed. compressed much. compressed easily.
The compressibility Examples: LPG
of liquids is almost cylinders used at
negligible. home and CNG
cylinders used in
vehicles.
Some solids may change Liquids show a
their shape when an property called
external force is applied, viscosity. More __
but when that force is viscous liquids flow
removed, they can regain slowly, while less
their original shape. This viscous liquids flow
shows that some solids easily.
are elastic.

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Change of State (Interconversion of Matter)


The phenomenon of change from one state of matter to another and then back to the original state is
called the interconversion of states of matter.

It is affected by changes in conditions such as


1. Changing the temperature.
2. Increasing or decreasing the pressure.
3. Changing both temperature and pressure.

Interconversion of states of matter

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Term Definition Process of change (at


particular temperature)
Melting The process of change of state from solid Melting (Solid Liquid)
to liquid on absorbing heat at a particular
temperature and at one atmospheric
pressure is called melting or fusion.
Vaporisation The process of conversion of a substance Evaporation (Liquid Gas)
from the liquid state to the gaseous state
at any temperature below its boiling point
is called evaporation or vaporisation.
Evaporation is a surface phenomenon.
Liquefaction The process of change from the gaseous Liquefaction (Gas Liquid)
state to the liquid state at a particular
temperature is called liquefaction.
Solidification The process of change of matter from the Freezing (Liquid Solid)
liquid state to the solid state at a particular
temperature is called freezing or
solidification.
Sublimation A change of state of a substance directly Sublimation (Solid Gas)
from solid to gas without changing into a
liquid state (or vice versa) is called
sublimation.
Melting point The constant temperature at which a solid Melting point (Solid Liquid)
becomes liquid upon absorbing heat under
normal pressure is called the melting
point of that solid.
Boiling point The constant temperature at which a liquid Boiling point (Liquid Gas)
becomes gas upon absorbing heat under
normal pressure is called the boiling
point of that liquid
Liquefaction The constant temperature at which a gas Liquefaction point (Gas
point becomes liquid under normal pressure is Liquid)
called the liquefaction point of that liquid.
Freezing point The constant temperature at which a liquid Freezing point (Liquid
changes into a solid by giving out heat Solid)
energy is called the freezing point of that
liquid.

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Interconversion of Matter on the basis of Kinetic Theory

Melting Vaporisation
On heating solids, the temperature rises. On heating liquids, the temperature rises.
Particles gain energy. Particles gain energy.
Intermolecular force of attraction Intermolecular force of attraction
decreases. decreases.
Intermolecular space between the Intermolecular space between the
molecules of a solid increases. molecules of a liquid increases.
At the melting point, particles of At the boiling point, particles become
solid become free from the fixed completely free and convert into a
position and get converted into a gas/vapour.
liquid.
Liquefaction Solidification
On cooling gases, the temperature falls. On cooling liquids, the temperature falls.
Particles lose energy. Particles lose energy.
Intermolecular attraction Intermolecular attraction increases.
increases. Intermolecular space between the
Intermolecular space between the particles/molecules of gases
particles/molecules of gases decreases.
decreases. At solidification/freezing point,
At liquefaction point, particles particles slow down, come close and
slow down, come close and get get converted into a solid.
converted into a liquid.

Daltons Atomic Theory, 1808


In 1808, the English chemist John Dalton gave a systematic idea about the structure of an atom. His ideas
are grouped together and known as Daltons atomic theory.

Postulates of Daltons Atomic Theory


1. All matter is made up of very tiny, indivisible and indestructible particles called atoms.
2. Atoms can neither be created nor be destroyed.
3. Atoms of same elements are alike in all respects.
4. Atoms combine in the ratio of small whole numbers to form compounds or molecules.

Modern Atomic Theory


An atom comprises three fundamental sub-atomic particleselectron, proton and neutron.
Atoms of the same element may not be alike in all respects.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element differing in properties.

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Atoms and Molecules

Atom
An atom is the basic unit of matter.
An atom may or may not have an independent existence.
An atom is further divisible into protons, neutrons and electrons.

Molecules
Atoms of the same element or different elements can join together to form molecules.
A molecule is the smallest particle of a substance which can normally exist on its own.
A molecule retains the physical and chemical properties of the substance.

Atoms Structure
Basic Structure of an Atom
An atom consists of three fundamental or sub-atomic particlesproton, neutron and electron.
The central core or the nucleus of every atom consists of protons and neutrons. Electrons revolve
around the nucleus in different orbits.

Fundamental particles of an atom

Atomic Number and Atomic Mass Number


Atomic Number (Z)
The number of protons in an atom of an element is called the atomic number of the element. It is denoted
by the letter Z.
Z = p = e
(Atomic no.) (No. of protons) (No. of electrons)

Mass Number (A)


The sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom of an
element is called the mass number of that element. It is denoted by the letter A.

A = p + e
(Mass no.) (No. of protons) (No. of electrons)

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Electronic Configuration
Orbits
Electrons revolve around the nucleus in an imaginary path called an orbit or shell.
The maximum number of electrons which can be present in any shell of an atom is given or
represented by the formula 2n2.
Here, n is the principal quantum number which is equal to the number of shells as counted from the
nucleus.

Shell Shell number Formula Maximum number of


designation (n) 2n2 electrons in each shell
K-shell 1 2 (1)2 2
L-shell 2 2 (2)2 8
2
M-shell 3 2 (3) 18
2
N-shell 4 2 (4) 32

The outermost shell cannot hold more than 8 electrons.


As soon as the maximum capacity of a shell is satisfied, a new shell is filled.

Electronic Configuration of Sodium


Atomic number of sodium = 11. Thus, we know that an atom of sodium contains 11 electrons.
The orbit-wise distribution of electrons in a sodium atom is as follows:

Orbit number of Maximum number of electrons


electrons
K-shell 2n2 = 2 12 = 2 electrons
L-shell 2n2 = 2 22 = 8 electrons
M-shell Remaining = 1 electron

Thus, the electronic configuration of sodium is (2,8,1).

Relative Atomic Mass


The relative atomic mass of an element is defined as the ratio of the average mass of an atom of the
element to 1/12th of the mass of one carbon-12 atom.
Atomic mass or relative atomic mass is simply the number of times one atom of an element is heavier
than either the mass of an atom of hydrogen or the 1/12th mass of an atom of carbon-12.

Relative Molecular Mass


The relative molecular mass of an element or compound is the ratio of mass of one molecule of a
substance to the mass of 1/12th the mass of one atom of carbon-12.
Molecular mass or relative atomic mass is simply the number of times one molecule of an element is
heavier than either the mass of an atom of hydrogen or the 1/12th mass of an atom of carbon-12.

Isotopes and their application


Atoms of the same elements differing in the number of neutrons in their nuclei are known as isotopes.
Thus, isotopes of an element have the same atomic number but different atomic mass number.
Isotopes of an element have similar chemical properties but different physical properties.

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Formation of Compounds from Atoms


1. Stable and unstable Electronic Configuration
Stable electronic configuration

Noble gases have stable electronic configuration.


Their valance or outermost shell is completely filled.
They have 2 electrons (He) or 8 electrons (Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn) in their outer shell.
They do not gain, lose or share electrons.

Unstable electronic configuration

Atoms of other elements have unstable electronic configuration.


Their valance or outermost shell is incompletely filled.
They tend to attain stable electronic configuration of the nearest inert gas by
Gaining or losing electrons (electron transfer).
Sharing electrons.

2. Atoms Combine to Form Compounds


Electron transfer Electrovalency

Sodium (Na) atom Chlorine (Cl) atom


Electronic configuration = 2,8,1 Electronic configuration = 2,8,7
Nearest inert gas = Neon [2,8] Nearest inert gas = Argon [2,8,8]
It loses one electron from the outermost It gains one electron in the outermost
shell (valence shell) to attain stability. shell (valence shell) to attain stability.

Sharing of electrons Covalency

Oxygen (O) atom Oxygen (O) atom


Electronic configuration = 2,6 Electronic configuration = 2,6
Nearest inert gas = Neon [2,8] Nearest inert gas = Neon [2,8]
Needs two electrons to attain stability. Needs two electrons to attain stability.

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Classification of Matter (Elements, Compounds and Mixtures)

Matter may be broadly classified into elements, compounds and mixtures.

Element
An element is a pure substance composed of only one kind of atom.
An element cannot be broken down into two or more simple substances by any physical or chemical
means.

Characteristics of an Element
1. An element is made up of only one kind of atom.
2. An element is a pure and homogeneous substance.
3. An element has fixed melting and boiling points.
4. An atom is the smallest particle of an element which takes part in a chemical reaction.
5. An element may chemically react with another element or compound.
6. An element can occur in the solid, liquid or gaseous state.

Classification of Elements

Have metallic Do not have Properties are Are gaseous in


lustre. lustre. mid-way between nature.
Are good Are bad metals and non- Are chemically
conductors of conductors of metals. inert.
heat and heat and Contain one kind Occur in free
electricity. electricity. of atom state in traces in
Are malleable Are neither (monoatomic). the atmosphere.
and ductile. malleable nor Contain one kind
Are solids. ductile. of atom
Contain one kind Are solids, liquids (monoatomic).
of atom and gases.
(monoatomic). Contain two kinds
of atoms
(monoatomic or
diatomic).

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Compound
A compound is a pure substance composed of two or more elements combined chemically in a fixed
proportion by mass.

Characteristics of Compounds
1. Components in a compound are present in a definite proportion.
2. They have a homogeneous composition.
3. Particles in a compound are of one kind.
4. A compound is made up of one or more atoms of the same or different elements.
5. In a compound, the elements are present in a fixed ratio by mass.
6. A compound can be divided into simpler substances by a chemical process.
7. The physical and chemical properties of a compound are completely different from those of its
constituents.

A Comparative Study between Elements and Compounds

Element Compound
1. It is a pure substance which cannot 1. It is a pure substance made up of two
be converted into simpler substances or more elements combined
by any physical or chemical means. chemically in a fixed ratio.
2. It is made up of atoms of only one 2. It is made up of two or more different
kind. kinds of atoms.
3. The molecules are made up of one or 3. The molecules are made up of two or
more atoms. more atoms.
4. Elements cannot be broken down into 4. A compound can be divided into
two or more simpler substances by simpler substances only by chemical
any physical or chemical means. means.
5. Elements have their own set of 5. Properties of compounds are
properties. different from their constituent
elements.

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Mixtures
A mixture is defined as matter composed of two or more substances whose particles are in contact but
are not chemically combined and have not lost their individual properties.
The properties of a mixture vary according to the proportions of the components present in it.

Types of Mixtures
Homogeneous mixtures: A mixture which has uniform composition and properties throughout its mass is
called a homogeneous mixture. Examples: Sugar solution, salt solution
Heterogeneous mixture: A mixture which has different composition and properties in different parts of its
mass is called a heterogeneous mixture. Examples: Sand mixed with salt, sugar in oil

Types of mixture Homogeneous Heterogeneous


Solid in solid Alloys (Bronze - Cu, Zn, Sn) Gun powder (charcoal,
sulphur, nitre)
Solid in liquid Iodine in alcohol, sugar in Sugar in oil, sand in water
carbon disulphide, sugar in
water, salt in water
Liquid in solid Amalgam (Hg + Au) Water in sponge
Liquid in liquid Methanol in water, acetone Oil in water, kerosene in
in water water
Gas in liquid HCl in water Helium in water
Liquid in gas Moisture in air Mist, fog
Gas in gas Pure air Air in industries

A Comparative Study between Compounds and Mixtures

Compound Mixture
1. It is obtained by the chemical 1. It is obtained by the physical
combination of more than one combination of either elements,
element. compounds or both.

2. The composition of elements 2. The composition of elements present


present in a compound is fixed. in a mixture is not fixed.

3. The properties of a compound are 3. It shows the properties of all its


different from those of its elements. constituent elements.

4. Its constituents can be separated by 4. Its constituents can be separated


using only chemical and using physical methods.
electrochemical methods.

5. A compound is always 5. The mixtures can be homogeneous


homogeneous in nature. or heterogeneous.

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Methods of Separation
Separation of SolidSolid Mixtures
Sublimation
To separate the mixture of sublimable solid X + non-sublimable solid Y.
Magnetic separation
To separate the mixture of magnetic solid X + non-magnetic solid Y.
Solvent extraction method
To separate the mixture of insoluble solid X + soluble solid Y.
Chromatography For Complex Mixtures
To separate the mixture of different solid constituents in a liquid constituent.

Separation of SolidLiquid Mixtures


Filtration
To separate the mixture of insoluble solid X from liquid component Y.
Sedimentation and Decantation
Insoluble solid X from liquid component Y.
Evaporation
To separate the mixture of soluble solid X from liquid component Y.
Distillation
To separate the mixture of soluble solid X from liquid component Y.

Separation of LiquidLiquid Mixtures


Separating funnel
To separate the mixture of immiscible heavier liquid X from immiscible lighter liquid Y.
Fractional distillation
To separate the mixture of miscible liquid X with lower boiling point and miscible liquid Y with higher
boiling point.

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Basic Chemistry Terminology and Reactions

Symbol
A symbol is a short form of the name of an element.
The specific abbreviation used to denote the name of an element is called its symbol.

Representation of a Symbol
Daltons Symbol, 1808
Dalton was the first scientist to use figurative symbols for atoms of some of the elements. His symbols
represented the element as well as one atom of that element.

Drawbacks of Daltons Symbols


Dalton's symbols for elements were difficult to draw and inconvenient to use. Thus, they are not used
any more.

Berzelius Symbol, 1814


In 1814, the Swedish Chemist Jns Jakob Berzelius devised a system using letters of the alphabet. He
put forward certain points for presentation.

1. In most cases, the first letter of the name of an element was taken as the symbol for that element and
written in capitals.
Name Symbol
Carbon C

2. In some cases, the initial letter of the name in capital and its second letter in small were used.

Name Symbol
Calcium Ca

3. The symbols for some elements were derived from their Latin names.

English name of Latin name of the Symbol


the element element
Sodium Natrium Na
Potassium Kalium K
Silver Argentum Ag

The method suggested by Berzelius forms the basis of the IUPAC (International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry) system of chemical symbols and formulae.

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Radicals and Valency

What are Ions or Radicals?


Two or more non-metals which collectively accept or donate one or more electrons and become
negatively or positively charged in the process are called radicals.

Types of Ions or Radicals


Radicals are either positively charged or negatively charged.
Positively charged radicals (ions) are called cations, and negatively charged radicals (ions) are called
anions.

Valency
It is the number of hydrogen atoms which can combine with or displace one atom of the element or
radical.

Number of atoms of Combining Molecule Valency


Hydrogen (H) element
1 1 atom of Chlorine Hydrogen chloride 1
(Cl) (HCl)
2 1 atom of Oxygen Water 2
(O) (H2O)

Variable Valency
Sometimes, the same element may exhibit one valency in one compound and another valency in other
compound. This property is called variable valency.
Example
Element Symbol Valencies exhibited
(variable valencies)

Copper Cu 1, 2 Cu1+, Cu2+

Valency Chart

List of common electrovalent List of common electrovalent negative ions or radicals


positive ions or radicals
1. Monovalent electropositive 1. Monovalent electronegative ions
ions Acetate CH3COO
Cuprous Cu+ Copper [I] 2. Bivalent electronegative ions
2. Bivalent electropositive ions 2
2+ Sulphate SO4
Cupric Cu Copper [II]
3. Trivalent electropositive ions 3. Trivalent electronegative ions
3+
Aluminium Al Phosphide
4. Tetra-positive ions 4. Tetravalent electronegative ions
4+ 4
Plumbic Pb Carbide C

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Molecular Formula
A molecular formula, also known as a chemical formula, is a combination of elemental symbols and
subscript numbers which is used to show the composition of a compound.

Writing the Molecular Formula


Step 1: Write the symbol of a basic radical (element with positive valency) to the LHS and that of the acid
radical (element with negative valency) to the RHS.
Step 2: Write the valency number of each of the respective radicals at the right hand top of
its symbol.
Step 3: Interchange the valency number. Ignore the (+) and () signs.
Step 4: Write the interchanged number.
Step 5: Write the compounds formula.

Chemical Equation
The representation of a chemical reaction with the help of chemical formulae of the reactants and
products is a chemical equation.
The reaction can be represented by either a word equation or a chemical equation using symbols and
formulae.
Word equation:

Chemical equation:

How are Chemical Equations Represented?


In a chemical reaction, the reactants are written on the LHS and the products on the RHS of the
equation.
An arrow () pointing towards the products is inserted between the reactants and the products. It also
represents the direction of the reaction.
A single arrow () indicates the direction in which the reaction proceeds.
A double arrow ( ) indicates a reversible reaction, i.e. products recombine to form reactants.
A plus sign (+) is inserted between two or more reactants and products formed.
A chemical reaction can be characterised by factors such as change of state, change in colour,
evolution of a gas, change in temperature, formation of a precipitate and evolution of heat, light or
sound.

Balancing an Equation
In a balanced chemical equation, the total number of atoms of each element in the reactants on the
LHS of the equation is the same as the number of atoms in the products formed on the RHS of the
equation.
The total mass of the reactants is equal to the total mass of the products, or the number of atoms of
each element before the reaction and after the reaction is equal.

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Steps involved in Balancing a Chemical Equation


Consider the chemical reaction between magnesium and oxygen to understand the steps involved in
balancing a chemical equation.
1. Let us first write the word equation for this reaction.
Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium oxide
2. Write the chemical equation for the reaction between magnesium and oxygen.
Mg + O2 MgO
3. Count the number of times an element occurs on both LHS and RHS in this equation.
Mg + O2 MgO

Component Reactant Product


Magnesium 1 1
Oxygen 2 1

This is an unbalanced equation.


4.
Choose a reactant or product which has the maximum number of atoms in it. In this equation, we shall
select MgO, i.e. magnesium oxide and the element oxygen in it.
To balance the oxygen atoms, let us multiply the magnesium oxide molecule by 2 on the RHS.
The equation can now be expressed as
Mg + O2 2MgO

Component Reactant Product


Magnesium 1 2
Oxygen 2 2

5. There are two oxygen atoms on either side of the equation, but one magnesium atom on the reactant's
side and two on the product's side. Therefore, multiply the magnesium atom by 2 on the LHS.

Component Reactant Product


Magnesium 2 2
Oxygen 2 2

The balanced equation is 2Mg + O2 2MgO


The number of atoms of each element of reactants = The number of atoms of each element of
products

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Chemical Reaction
Chemical reactions involve the transfer of matter from one substance to another substance during a
chemical change.

Main Types of Chemical Reactions

1. Direct A chemical reaction in which two or more substances combine to form a


combination or single product is called a combination reaction or synthesis.
synthesis
2. Decomposition A chemical reaction in which a single compound splits into two or more
simple substances is called a decomposition reaction.
3. Thermal During thermal decomposition, a chemical compound breaks into
decomposition simpler compounds. The simpler compounds do not reunite to form the
original compound on cooling.
4. Reversible A reaction in which the direction of a chemical change can be easily
reaction reversed by changing the conditions under which the reaction occurs is
called a reversible reaction.
5. Thermal A reaction in which a substance dissociates into two or more simpler
dissociation substances on the application of heat is called a thermal dissociation
reaction. It is a reversible reaction.
6. Displacement Reactions in which the more reactive element displaces the less
reactive element from its compound are called displacement reactions.
7. Double Reactions in which ions of the reactants exchange places to form two
displacement new compounds are called double displacement reactions.
In double displacement reactions, the two reactants taking part are
generally water soluble, and one of the products is soluble and the other
being insoluble separates out as a solid.
8. Double A type of chemical change in which two compounds in a solution react
decomposition to form two new compounds by the mutual exchange of radicals.
Usually, a solid is formed as a result of the reaction.
These reactions are of two typesprecipitation reactions and
neutralisation reactions.
Precipitation reactions
The insoluble solid formed during double displacement reactions is
called a precipitate. Reactions in which a precipitate is formed as one of
the products are also called precipitation reactions.
Neutralisation reactions
The reaction between an acid and a base to form a salt and water is
called a neutralisation reaction.
9. Catalytic A chemical reaction which involves the use of a catalyst.
reaction Catalyst: It is a compound which alters the rate of a reaction but does
not take part in a chemical reaction.
Examples: V2O5, Fe2O3, finely divided iron (Fe), platinum (Pt)

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10. Exothermic Exothermic reaction


and Chemical reactions which proceed with the evolution of heat energy
Endothermic are called exothermic reactions.
reactions A + B C +
Endothermic reactions
Chemical reactions which proceed with the absorption of heat energy
are called exothermic reactions.
11. Oxidation and Oxidation Reactions
reduction Reactions which involve the addition of oxygen or the removal of
reactions hydrogen are called oxidation reactions.
(redox) What is an oxidising agent?
The substance which loses oxygen or an electronegative radical is
called an oxidising agent. The substance which gains hydrogen or an
electropositive radical is also called an oxidising agent.
Examples: Oxygen, chlorine
Reduction reactions
The addition of hydrogen to a substance is called reduction. The
removal of oxygen from a substance is also called reduction. Reactions
which involve the addition of hydrogen or removal of oxygen are called
reduction reactions.
What is a reducing agent?
The substance which loses hydrogen or an electronegative radical is
called a reducing agent. The substance which gains oxygen or an
electronegative radical is also called a reducing agent.
Examples: Hydrogen, carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulphide
Redox reactions
Oxidation and reduction reactions occur together. When oxidation
occurs in one substance, reduction occurs in the other substance. Such
reactions are called redox reactions.
When an atom or a group of atoms loses electrons, oxidation occurs. In
this reaction, hydrogen sulphide is oxidised to sulphur.

Differences between Oxidation and Reduction

Oxidation Reduction
1. Addition of oxygen 1. Removal of oxygen
2. Removal of hydrogen 2. Addition of hydrogen
3. Loss of electrons 3. Gain of electrons

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