SOSC 1 Report Guide

Lesson IV. Culture

Define Culture
Like group, culture is a concept in sociology which has a common meaning expressed in
a variety of definitions. The classic definition of culture indicates its inclusiveness and is
provided by an eminent English scholar, E.B. Tylor. He defined culture as that complex whole
which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities and habits
acquired by man as a member of society. Leslie A. White refers to culture as an organization of
phenomena that is dependent upon symbols, phenomena which includes acts (patterns of
behavior); objects (tools and things made by tools); ideas (beliefs, knowledge); and sentiments
(attitudes, values). In this sense, culture means the entire life followed by a people and
everything learned and shared by people in society. It includes all socially standardized ways of
seeing and thinking about the world, establishing preferences and goals, and also consisting of
the rules which generate and guide behavior. More specifically, the culture of a particular
people or any society is everything that one must learn to behave in ways that are
recognizable, predictable, and understandable to those people.

Other anthropologists have developed another definition of culture based on the premise
that all behavior is, in the final analysis, a product of how people think about things their
cognitions. Thus, they speak of the cognitive model of culture. Simply stated, this model views
culture as a mental map which guides people in their relation to their surroundings and to other
people. To be useful, this map must be shared, to a greater or lesser extent, by a number of
interacting people or by a whole society or a significant part of it. To be sure, each person may
have a slightly different map, each family a somewhat different version which it passes on to the
next generation, but the general outline and the details of the map will be shared by a large
number of people.

Another way of expressing this is to speak of differing perceptions. Persons from varied
cultural backgrounds see the same objects and situations differently. To an educated,
sophisticated Manilan, for example, a tree may be a natural resource which provides lumber or
shade. But to a Tiruray in the mountains of Cotabato or to a Negrito in the hinterlands of
Zambales, it may be viewed as a living thing with a spirit of its own and needs, wishes,
perceptions, and desires. The differences in the perception of things define reality for people, and
often that which governs our actions is not what we actually see but what we believe. When a
group of people believes in the reality of omens and spirits, then omens and spirits are real to
them, and this perceptions will govern their actions. The poet, T.S. Eliot, described culture as
simply The way of life of a particular people living on one place.

Culture also includes mans material inventions and accomplishments such as tools,
weapons, instruments, etc. Bolos, missiles, atom bombs, cars, etc. are part of mans culture and
form much of his social heritage. These material aspects of culture, called artifacts, tell much
about the things that a people value and the processes with which that people provide solutions to
their biological and cultural needs. In fact an anthropologist who specializes in archeology can
reconstruct the social and cultural life of prehistoric peoples by examining carefully the material
objects he unearths from archeological sites. For instance, on the basis of archeological findings,
Professor Jocano estimates that a fairly complex human society existed in the Philippines 25,000
years ago.

The cultural elements of human existence, however, are not primarily physical but mental
or ideational. The things that really count are ideas and meanings. A piece of metal may be a
material artifact, but the important thing about it is its meaning within a given cultural setting. It
may be used as a weapon in one culture, but in another it may hang about a persons neck as an
amulet to ward off hostile environmental spirits. Scholars generally agree that the key to culture
lies in the minds of individuals, and that peoples mentifacts or ideas are the foundation of
culture.
Difference between Culture and Society

Sometimes culture and society are interchangeably. While these two concepts are
interdependent and interrelated in that no society can exist without a culture and not culture can
develop without a society, they are not the same.

A society is a group of people bound together in a more or less permanent association

organized for collective activity. A society is made up of individuals who are interacting with
each other in a shared pattern of customs, beliefs, values and traditions. The common pattern to
which they are reacting is the culture of the society. Culture is a system of behavior shared by
members of a society while society is a group of people who share a common culture.

A succinct definition of society is given by Horton and Hunt: A society is a relatively

independent, self-perpetuating human group who occupy a territory, share a culture, and have a
most of their associations within this group. Society and culture express different aspects of the
human situation.
Classification and Characteristics of Culture

QUALITIES/ CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE

1. It is learned.
2. It is transmitted either orally or by writing as well as consciously or unconsciously from
one generation to another or the generation of itself through CONDITION, IMITATION,
and SUGGESTION as well as identification, formal instruction, mass communication;
AND PUNISHMENT & REWARD.
3. It is social- It is a group product, it is shared.
4. It is gratifying, fulfilling
5. It is adaptive because culture is dynamic. No culture is completely static nor permanent
state. Culture is constantly changing.

The first essential characteristic of culture is that it is learned. If a child born in the
Philippines of Filipino parents were moved shortly after birth to Japan and brought up by
Japanese parents, he would develop one of the traits of Filipino culture. Instead he would
manifest all the behavior patterns of the Japanese, including language and dietary practices.

Among the many sources of learning, the most important is usually the family or parents.
Playmates, working companions, schools, churches, books, television, radio, and the like are
additional sources. Although humans, like animals, learn much by simple imitation, many
important parts of culture are taught largely by precepts. One can imagine the number of children
who would fail to survive childhood if they had to learn the danger of poisons by experience
rather than by being warned and scolded.

The poet, T.S. Eliot argues that not only does the family transmit culture, but that upper-
class families have a unique obligation in that respect. He argues that one of the functions of the
upper-class family is to serve as a model of the essence of the culture of the group. Upper-class
culture is merely an aspect of the culture of the total society. However, the greater leisure,
wealth, and prestige of the upper-class family gives it an advantage both in acquiring a complex
culture and in transmitting it to the young. Eliot feels that without a fairly stable upper-class,
culture will revert to simpler, cruder forms.
 The second characteristic is that culture is shared by a group of people. Each person
probably has a few idiosyncrasies, things not done by anyone else within the group. These
individuals habits are not part of the culture because they are not shared, but they could become
so if they were learned by others and became the customary actions of a group.

Third, culture is cumulative. Knowledge is stored and passed on from one generation to
the next, and new knowledge is constantly being added to the existing stock. Each culture has
worked out solutions to the basic problems of life, which it then passes on to its children.

Consequently, the child gains free time to devote to making changes or improvements or
facing the new situations he may encounter. The jeepneys and pedicabs in the Philippines are
good examples of the cumulative quality of culture. Their invention involved the use of materials
which are invented in different place of the world.

Fourth, culture is dynamic. No culture is ever in a permanent state. It is constantly

changing. The changes may be imperceptible, but they are changes nonetheless. The practices of
today will never be the same tomorrow. The dynamic character of culture stems from its
cumulative quality.

A culture is always changing because new ideas and new techniques are added and old
ways are constantly being modified or discarded. This is as true for the most isolated and simple
complex society. The degree of change and the rate of change may vary enormously. Change is
slow in a primitive, isolated society and rapid, but nowhere does the culture of a group remain
static.

In our age the rapid changes that occur from one generation to the next are brought about
by new cultural ideas being introduced either from within or from without. Those changes that
occur within the society are the result of discoveries or inventions, while those from outside are
brought about through the medium of culture borrowing.

Culture also grows by the spread of traits from individual to individual and from one
group to another. The spread of a cultural trait is called diffusion. Diffusion taking place within
the group is sometimes called primary diffusion. Intergroup or intersociety diffusion is the
passing of traits from one society to another. The term borrowing is used for the group that
receives the new element.

Diffusion is the principal source cultural change. Most cultures are built up through an
accumulation of borrowed traits.

One form of diffusion is the movement of words from one language to another. Filipino
languages have borrowed many words from Spanish, Chinese, and English. There is also a
reverse process and Avelina J. Gil reports having come across some 350 Tagalog words which
are listed in English dictionaries. A partial list includes the following:

bagoong chopsuey querida

baguio cocoa saba
balut duhat salakot
bangos durian sago
banig gabi tienda
barong-barong gogo tinikling
barong tagalog gulaman tuba
bayong ilang-ilang yoyo
bruja jeepneys
caimito kaingin
camisa manga
chinelas mani

Regardless of whether it is material or nonmaterial, the borrowed trait must be adapted or

fitted into the culture of the group taking it on. Those new traits which are the most readily
modifiable or which meet an existing need adapt themselves quickly to the new culture. Most
borrowed traits tend to undergo some modifications as they are adapted into the new culture
pattern. At times, though, a new trait may be completely taken over without adaptation. Present-
day Filipino culture is the result of the borrowing of diverse culture elements and fitting them
together to form a workable unit.
Fifth, culture is diverse. The sum-total of human culture consists of a great many separate
cultures, each of them different. Even in such a basic problem as providing someone to care for
children during the years of infancy and youth, there are a great number of workable alternatives.
People must be careful then to avoid assuming that their way of doing things is the only
practical or right way.

Finally, each culture is a whole, a system with many mutually interdependent parts. For
example, the choice of a marriage partner involves many different parts of culture. Religion,
economic class, education, and ideas of beauty and romance all play a role.

Functions of Culture
Culture as a System of Norm

One of the salient qualities we have noted about culture is that it provides us with
guidelines for action. It serves as a guide for proper conduct in our day-to-day interaction with
others. Another way of saying this is that culture tells us how things should be done. Thus we say
that culture is normative since it regulates our actions and conduct. A norm is nothing but a
behavior expectation, an idea of how people are supposed to act and behave. For example, in the
rural areas of Visayas and Mindanao (and to a much lesser extent in the cities), when a family
member dies, relatives, friends, and neighbors come and contribute some amount of cash to the
family of the dead. The contribution is usually placed on a plate or in a box beside the dead
person. They are no longer expected to help make the coffin. The bereaved family serves food to
the visitors during the nine days of prayer, after the day of burial, during the last day of the
prayer for the dead (katapusan or patapos), and at the end of the first year of the death (hubkas or
babaing luksa).

Another behavior expectation in the Philippine concerns the keeping of the family purse.
Filipino husbands are expected to turn over their monthly income to their wives, who keep the
family budget. In most American families it is the husband who keeps the family purse and
makes the budget.

Concepts related to Culture

1. Learned: Pwedeng matutunan kahit kanino.
 2. Adopted: Pwedeng iaccept or ireject.
3. Transmitted: Pwedeng ituro.
4. Shared: Can be shared to others
5. Dynamic / Diversity: Iba-iba and malawak yet we can still understand each other.

Lesson V. Philippine Values

Qualities of Values

Filipino Values
1. PHILIPPINE VALUES

No elite anywhere in the world has pardoned so many of its errant members as the
Philippine elite. Despite all the financial corruption, political mayhem, personal violence, and
treason of the last 45 years, few if any members of the elite have been punished not even
martial-law torturers, the coup leaders who nearly wrecked the country in 1987 and 1989, nor the
contractors who stole from the Mount Pinatubo rehabilitation funds.

- Dennis Murphy,
The Manila Chronicle,
January 4, 1993.

Value is a word indicating worth. In business it denotes a products desirability in relation

to its price (e,g, carrots are of good value they are nutritious and inexpensive). In other realms,
values are indicated comparatively as in I value saving money more than having a good time.
In brief, value is the worth of something.
 In the social sciences, values are deep-rooted motivators of behavior. They define what is
important to us and indicate the course of action we may take when confronted with choices.

TRADITIONAL PHILIPPINE VALUES: AIMS, ASPIRATIONS, AND GOALS

In recent years, many social scientists have appraised Philippine values. This is not a new
endeavor, as we can glean from Dr. Jose Rizals reactions to the supposed indolence of the
Filipino, from textbooks written by Camilo Osias in the mid-twentieth century and even from the
works of writers during the early Spanish period.

Those values we have designated as Filipino are not unique to the Philippines; they are
found in different countries throughout the world. The justification for designating these values
as Filipino is that they seem to be more influential here than in most other countries.
 II. CULTURE

b. Definition of Culture

Culture the values, beliefs, behavior, and materials objects that, together, form a
peoples way of life. It includes what we think, how we act, and what we own. Culture helps us
make sense of ourselves and the surrounding world (Macionis 2003). It is the complex whole
which includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, laws, customs, and other capabilities and habits
acquired by individuals as members of society (Taylor 1974 in Panopio et al. 1994).

c. Types of Culture

Nonmaterial culture is the intangible world of ideas created by members of a society

(thoughts)
Material culture is the tangible things created by members of a society

d. Theories of Culture

Culture as a mode of adaptation (Schwartz 1968). The culture of any society represents an
adaptation or adjustment to the various conditions of life, including their physical, social, and
supernatural environment.
Behavior as biologically based (Edward Wilson 1975). Social behavior is determined by
inborn genetic traits similar to the influence or genetic traits on lower animals. Social groups
adapt to their environment through the evolution of genetic traits or by genetic mutation and
natural transmission. This adaptation shapes human behavior. Thus, human behavior like
aggression, love, greed or spite can be explained in terms of genetically based transmission.
The existence of behavior patterns or culture universals indicate that much of culture is
biologically inherited rather than learned.

e. Characteristics of Culture (Palispis 1996)

 Culture is a product of human behavior.
It is always transmitted through learning.
It always gratifies human needs.
It always tends toward integrating a society.

f. Functions of Culture (Zulueta 1998)

Culture provides behavioral patterns.

Culture maintains the biologic functioning of the group.
Culture gives meaning and direction to ones existence.
Culture offers ready-made solutions to mans materials and nonmaterial problems.
Culture develops a persons attitude and values and gives conscience.

g. Components of Culture (Panopio et. Al. 1994; Macionis 2003)

a. Knowledge total range of what has been learned or perceived as true; body of
information accumulated through experience, study, or investigation
Natural knowledge accumulated facts about the natural world, including the biological
and physical aspects
Technological knowledge knowledge of nature which are useful in dealing with practical
problems (e.g. knowledge of the methods of acquiring food, dealing with diseases, means of
transportation, tools and implements, weapons of war)
Supernatural knowledge perceptions about the actions of gods, goddesses, demons,
angels or spirits, natural beings like shamans, witches, or prophets who are held possess
supernatural powers
Magical knowledge perceptions about methods of influencing supernatural events by
manipulating certain laws of nature in simple sacred societies with a traditional way of life,
supernatural and magical knowledge influences social behavior. While modern advanced
societies rely more on natural and technological knowledge.
 b. Norms (or social norms) are prescriptions and standards of behavior expected to be
followed; ideas in the minds of the members of a group put into statements specifying
what members of the group should do, ought to do, or are expected to do under certain
circumstances (Homans 1950)

Guides or models of behavior which tell is what is proper and which is not, appropriate or
inappropriate, right or wrong
Pertain to societys standards of propriety, morality, ethics, and legality

Vary from society to society or from group to group within a society, differ according to the
age, sex, religion, occupation, or ethnic group

Sanctions (punishment and reward from others) promote conformity to norms. They operate
a system of social control. When a person fails to conform adequately to a cultures norm,
social control comes into play. (Lenski and Lenski) Sanctions used are ridicule, raised
eyebrows, critical and sarcastic remarks, disapproval and embarrassment to those who do not
conform.

The following are forms of social norms: folkways, mores, and laws

i. Folkways norms for routine and casual interaction; everyday matters of politeness;
general rules, customary and habitual ways and patterns of expected behavior within the society
where it is followed without much thought given to the matter. They are considered the right
way but are not rigidly enforced by society. Folkways include rules of eating, drinking, smoking,
dressing, sleeping, dancing and working, ceremonies and rituals, polite behavior in institutional
settings.

ii. Mores norms that are important to the welfare of the people and their cherished
values; consists mostly of taboos. They have great moral significance and strong sanctions. They
apply to sex behavior, marriage and family relations, physical and moral aggression against
members of a group, betrayal of a group, attitudes toward authority, religion and the unfortunates
in society, dealings in business and the varied professions, and other vital matters which involve
group welfare. Violations of mores result in strong disapproval and even severe punishment.
 Mores distinguish between right and wrong; folkways draw the line between right and rude.

iii. Laws formalized norms enacted by people who are vested with governmental
power and enforced by political and legal authorities designated by the government. Laws regulate
or control the peoples behavior and conduct.

Enforcement of laws is hard when the laws do not reflect folkways and mores. If laws are to
be strong, society must search for their bases in folkways and mores.

c. Values and Beliefs Values are culturally defined standards by which people assess
desirability, goodness, and beauty, and that serve as broad guidelines for social living.
They are abstract concepts of what is important or worthwhile and indicate the social
conscience of the group. They motivate and determine the behavior of people to a great
extent and become the means of social control. Beliefs are specific statements that
people hold to be true. People consider, consult, and depend on their body of beliefs
for certain courses of action.

The following values were found by Fr. Jaime Bulatao, SJ, to be held highly by the Filipinos:
emotional closeness and security in the family; authority value (approval by the authority figure),
economic and social betterment, and patience, suffering, and endurance.

d. Language and Symbols Language is the system of symbols that allows people to
communicate with one another and transmits culture from one generation to the next.
Human culture cannot exist without language. Language makes us aware of our
limitations and ultimate mortality and enables us to dream and hope for a future better
than the present. The possession of language is the most distinctive cultural attribute.
Symbol is anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share
culture (e.g. word, whistle, flashing red light graffiti). Culture relies on symbols. Eye
winking has different meanings: it can convey interest, understanding or insult.

e. Artifacts and Technology Artifacts are tangible human creations. They reflect a
societys technology (knowledge that people use to make a way of life in their
 surroundings). To understand artifacts fully, know their uses, body of knowledge and
skills for their effective use, and beliefs and values attached to them.

1. Related Concepts

a. Culture Shock--Culture shock is personal disorientation when experiencing an

unfamiliar way of life.
It is inability to read meaning in new surroundings which leaves a person feeling lost and
isolated, unsure of how to act, and sometimes frightened.

b. Cultural Universals--Cultural universals are similarities in the broad areas of

culture. These are norms, values, beliefs, and conditioned emotional responses
shared among members of the society. Examples of cultural universals are:
calendar, cleanliness, training, courtship, dancing, gift giving, hospitality, incest
taboos, and marriage. Factors that contribute to the existence of cultural
universals are biological similarities, necessary prerequisites for social living
psychic unit of mankind and geographic environment.

c. Cultural Diversity (Panopio and Rolda 1988)--Cultural diversity is the wide

range of differences in the various aspects of culture and social organization.
While people all over the world have similar biological drives and needs, the
ways of meeting them differ. Each culture adapts to its environment in its
distinctive way. Factors that give rise to cultural differences are king of
environment with which the society lives; human and natural resources
available within this environment; extent and intensity of exposure the society
has to other from which they can borrow ideas; and cultural heritage.

d. Ethnocentrism and Xenocentrism--Ethnocentrism is the practice of judging

another culture by the standards of ones own culture. It considers ones ways
as the right, appropriate, and moral way. Ethnocentrism increases ones
appreciation and commitment to ones own culture thereby strengthening group
morale and enhancing group solidarity and individual self esteem. It leads to
nationalism and love of country. Extreme ethnocentrism increases resistance to
change, encourages the exclusion of outsiders who may have something good to
contribute, encourages racism, discourages integration efforts, increases
intergroup hostility and conflict resulting to ingroup-outgroup feeling, and
 prevents change that would be beneficial to all (Salcedo et.al. 2001).
Xenocentrism believes that what is foreign is best, and that ones own
lifestyle, products, or ideas are inferior to those of all others. Strong feelings of
xenocentrism cause people to reject their own group.

e. Cultural Relativism--The logical alternative to ethnocentrism is cultural

relativism the practice of evaluating a culture by its own standards. Culture is
relative and no cultural practice is good or bad in itself. It is good if it integrates
smoothly with the rest of the culture. There is no single universal standard to
evaluate any culture. A cultural pattern or trait must be viewed in terms of its
meaning, function or significance in the culture of which it is a part. In such a
way, we develop understanding and tolerance for people in other cultures
(Panopio and Rolda 1988). Cultural relativism requires understanding
unfamiliar values and norms and it is important especially that people of the
world are coming into increasing contact with one another (Macionis 2003).

f. Subculture and Counterculture (Panopio and Rolda 1988--Subculture is the

way of life of a subgroup with a society that is formed on the basis of age, sex,
social class, occupation, religion, or ethnic groupings. The subgroup develops a
unique set of norms, attitudes, and values that give them a distinct identity from
the dominant culture. The norms and values of subcultures or small cultures
may not conform with the dominant or national culture.

g. Counterculture--A subculture that contradicts the norms and values of the

dominant culture.- Its members develop folkways and ideas that may come in
some conflict with the larger culture. Among these are the groups of juvenile
delinquents, drug addicts, criminals, smugglers, or prostitutes.

2. Cultural Change

ultural change is change in the distinctive way of life of the people, such as changes in tools;
changes in norms, values, and knowledge; addition of new words or alteration in structure of the
language; changing norms of morality, ethics, and propriety; new forms of government and
political parties; rise of new sects and religions; new discoveries and findings in science; and
alterations in the forms of music, dance, poetry, and other arts. These changes are accompanied
with changes in social organizations, patterns of social relations, values, and attitudes (Panopio
and Rolda 1988).
Cultural changes are caused by: 1) invention (creating new cultural elements); 2) discovery
(recognizing and better understanding something already in existence, and 3) diffusion (spread
of cultural traits from one society to another).

3. A Global Culture?

Societies around the world are increasingly coming into contact with one another as
shown by global economy (flow of goods), global communication (flow of information) and
global migration (flow of people). These global links make cultures of the world similar but the
formation of global culture should consider these facts: 1) The global flow of goods,
information, and people is uneven. Urban areas have stronger ties with one another while rural
areas remain isolated. North America and Western Europe influence the rest of the world. 2)
People in many parts of the world cannot afford various new goods and services. 3) People do
not attach the same meaning to cultural practices found in many parts of the world (Macionis
2003).

10. Sociology of Culture

The Structural-Functional Model

Under structural-functionalism, norms and roles contribute to the ongoing social processes.
Norms spell out social expectations. Roles are appropriate ways to act in various social
situations. Norms and roles are structurally produced and contribute to the ongoing functioning
of society. They are the result of social agreements and are transmitted through social structures.
Attempts to devise new norms and new roles are temporary adjustments of the social system and
lead to stronger social understandings that allow society to continue to function. New gender
role expectations, for example, may be only temporary deviance or may lead to a new set of
acceptable norms and roles. Knowledge of acceptance of norms and roles promotes the smooth
functioning of society. Social structures such as agents of socialization ensure continuity by
passing on acceptable understandings.
 Mertons theory of anomie is structural-functional. Deviance occurs when members of
society do not have access to or reject acceptable social goals and means. Those who find new
ways of doing things or who do new things are deviant because they do not contribute to the
existing normative order. Deviance, in the view of structural-functionalists, is either functional
or dysfunctional to society. Deviance can help or hurt society.