Dehydrate Inhibition PDF

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Dehydration And Hydrate Inhibition
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not
already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given,
or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part,
without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering
Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Process For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: CHE10405 R.A. Al-Husseini on 874-2792
Engineering Encyclopedia Process
Dehydration and Hydrate Inhibition
Contents Pages
PRINCIPLES OF DEHYDRATION ....................................................................... 1
Background .................................................................................................. 1
Water Content of Hydrocarbons................................................................... 2
Water Content Measurement for Natural Gas .............................................. 3
Hydrate Formation ....................................................................................... 3
Hydrate Inhibition ........................................................................................ 4
WATER REMOVAL PROCESSES ........................................................................ 6
Liquid/Solid Desiccants................................................................................ 6
Glycol Dehydration ...................................................................................... 6
Background....................................................................................... 6
Process/Design Variables.................................................................. 9
Solid Desiccant Dehydration ...................................................................... 12
Background..................................................................................... 12
Adsorption Calculations ............................................................................. 17
Regeneration Calculations.......................................................................... 20
Dehydrating Liquids................................................................................... 21
Process Variables ............................................................................ 22
Other Dehydration Processes.......................................................... 26
OPTIMIZING AND TROUBLESHOOTING DEHYDRATOR ........................... 28
Operations .................................................................................................. 28
Glycol Maintenance ................................................................................... 28
Methanol ......................................................................................... 28
Oxidation ........................................................................................ 28
Thermal Decomposition.................................................................. 28
pH Control ...................................................................................... 29
Salt Contamination.......................................................................... 29

Hydrocarbons.................................................................................. 29
Sludge ............................................................................................. 29
Foaming .......................................................................................... 30
Analysis and Control of Glycol .................................................................. 30
Glycol Loss Prevention .............................................................................. 31
Glycol Filtration ......................................................................................... 32
Optimizing Adsorption-Type Dehydrators................................................. 32
Desiccant Performance ................................................................... 32
Equipment Items ............................................................................. 34
WORK AID 1: SOLUBILITY OF WATER IN LIQUID HYDROCARBONS .. 35
WORK AID 2A:WATER CONTENT OF HYDROCARBON GAS .................... 36
WORK AID 2B: EFFECTIVE WATER CONTENT FOR CO2............................ 37
WORK AID 2C: EFFECTIVE WATER CONTENT FOR H2S ............................ 38
WORK AID 3: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL INHIBITORS ..... 39
WORK AID 4: USEFUL EQUATIONS FOR DEHYDRATION

CALCULATIONS...................................................................... 40
WORK AID 5: TYPICAL DESICCANT PROPERTIES .................................... 43
GLOSSARY .......................................................................................................... 46
APPENDIX A - SAUDI ARAMCO SOLID DESICCANT

DEHYDRATION UNITS ............................................................ 48
APPENDIX B - REPRESENTATIVE VENDORS OF SOLID

DESICCANT EQUIPMENT ....................................................... 49
APPENDIX C - VENDOR INFORMATION........................................................ 50

PRINCIPLES OF DEHYDRATION
Background
Liquid water and/or water vapor are removed from natural gas to:
Prevent formation of hydrates in transmission lines.

Meet a water dew point requirement of a sales gas contract.
Prevent corrosion.
Many sweetening agents used in gas treating utilize an aqueous solution. Therefore,
dehydration usually follows gas treating. Techniques for dehydrating natural gas include:
Absorption using liquid desiccants.

Adsorption using solid desiccants.
Dehydration by refrigeration.
Through absorption, the water in a gas stream is dissolved in a relatively pure liquid solvent
stream. The reverse process, in which the water in the solvent is transferred into the gas
phase, is known as stripping. The term regeneration is also used to describe stripping (or
purification) because the solvent is usually recovered for reuse in the absorption step.
Absorption and stripping are frequently used in gas processing and most gas sweetening
operations, as well as in glycol dehydration.
The second major process by which water vapor is removed from a gas stream is called
adsorption. Adsorption is a physical phenomenon that occurs when molecules of a gas are
brought into contact with a solid surface and some of them condense on the surface.
Dehydration of a gas (or a liquid hydrocarbon) with a dry desiccant is an adsorption process
in which water molecules are preferentially held by the desiccant and removed from the
stream.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

Water Content of Hydrocarbons
Work Aid 1, based on experimental data, shows the solubility of water in sweet hydrocarbon
liquids. In sour hydrocarbon liquids, water solubility can be substantially higher. For sour
liquids an equation of state may be used to estimate water solubility.
The water content of a gas depends on pressure, temperature, and composition. The effect of
composition increases with pressure. For lean, sweet natural gases containing small amounts
of "heavy ends," pressure-temperature correlations are suitable for many applications. Work
Aid 2A is an example of one such correlation that has been widely used for many years in the
design of natural gas dehydrators. When the gas contains more than about 5% CO2 and/or
H2S, correction for the acid gas components should be made, particularly above 700 psia.
Below 40% acid gas components, one method of estimating the water content is to use
Equation 1 (Work Aid 4) and Work Aids 2A, 2B, and 2C.

Water Content Measurement for Natural Gas
Specifications are given in GPA Publication 2140 in the GPA Technical Standards Book.
These include the valve freeze method, the Bureau of Mines Dew Point Tester, and the cobalt
bromide method. Cobalt bromide color change occurs at about 25-30 ppm. Absolute water
content can be determined by titration with Karl Fischer reagents.
There are several commercial instruments available for monitoring water content based on
other principles. Measuring water content less than 10 wppm, or determinations at less than -
40F can be very difficult.
Hydrate Formation
A hydrate is a physical combination of water and other small molecules to produce a solid
that has an "ice-like" appearance, but possesses a different structure than ice.
There are two crystalline structures for gas hydrates. Limiting hydrate numbers (ratio of
water molecules to molecules of included gaseous component) are calculated using the size of
the gas molecules and the size of the holes in the H2O lattice. Smaller molecules (CH4,
C2H6, H2S) form a body centered cubic (Structure I) with a limiting hydrate number of 5 3/4
for CH4 and 7 2/3 for C2H6. Larger molecules (C3H8, i-C4H10) form a diamond lattice
(Structure II) with a limiting hydrate number of 17. Mixed gases will form Structure II.
The conditions that promote hydrate formation are:
Primary Considerations
Gas must be at or below its water dew point with "free" water present.
Low temperature.
High pressure.
Secondary Considerations
High velocities.
Pressure pulsations.
Introduction of a small crystal of the hydrate.
Physical site for crystal formation such as a pipe elbow, an orifice, thermowell, or line
scale.
All of these primary and secondary considerations should be minimized when forced to
operate near a possible hydrate region.
Conditions for hydrate formation can be calculated using Hyprotech's HYSIM, SimSci's
PROCESS or PRO/II simulation programs. These calculations are based on the gas
composition and vapor-solid equilibrium constants.

Hydrate Inhibition
The formation of hydrates can be prevented by dehydrating to prevent a free water phase, or
by inhibiting hydrate formation in the free water phase. Dehydration is usually preferable, but
inhibition can often be satisfactory.
Inhibition utilizes injection of one of the glycols or methanol to lower the hydrate formation
temperature at a given pressure. Both glycol and methanol can be recovered. For continuous
injection in non-cryogenic conditions, one of the glycols usually offers an economic
advantage. At cryogenic conditions, methanol usually is preferred because glycol's higher
viscosity makes effective separation very difficult.
Ethylene, diethylene, and triethylene glycols have been used for glycol injection. The most
popular has been ethylene glycol because of its lower cost, lower viscosity, and lower
solubility in liquid hydrocarbons. Physical properties of these glycols are tabulated in Work
Aid 3.
The inhibitor must be present at the very point where the wet gas is cooled to its hydrate
temperature. Therefore, the inhibitor is sprayed upon the face of the feed gas chiller tube
sheet where free water is present. Injection must provide good distribution to every tube in
chillers and heat exchangers operating below the gas hydrate temperature.
Glycol and its absorbed water are separated from the gas stream, possibly along with
hydrocarbons. The glycol-water solution and liquid hydrocarbons can emulsify when
agitated, or when let down together from a high pressure to a lower pressure. Careful
separator design will allow nearly complete recovery of the glycol for regeneration and
recycle.
The regenerator in a glycol injection system should be operated to produce a regenerated

glycol solution that will have a freezing point below the minimum temperature encountered in
the system. Figure 1 shows the freezing point of various concentrations of glycol water
solutions. To use this plot, locate the glycol concentration, read up to the glycol type, and
then read across to find the freezing point temperature. Glycol concentrations less than
70-75 wt% are typically used.
The minimum inhibitor concentration in the free water phase may be approximated by
Hammerschmidt's equation (Equation 2 in Work Aid 4). The quantity of inhibitor required to
prevent hydrate formation can also be calculated using Hyprotech's HYSIM, SimSci's
PROCESS or PRO/II simulation programs.

The amount of inhibitor to be injected not only must be sufficient to prevent freezing of the
inhibitor water phase, but also must be sufficient to allow for some vaporization and the
solubility of the inhibitor in any liquid hydrocarbon. The vapor pressure of methanol is high
enough that significant quantities will vaporize. The total injection rate required may be
about three times that needed to maintain the water concentration desired. The amount of
methanol that will vaporize can be estimated using the above computer programs. No
allowance for glycol vaporization is necessary.
Inhibitors can cause problems in downstream process units. In these cases efficient inhibitor
separation should be provided.
FREEZING POINTS OF AQUEOUS GLYCOL SOLUTIONS
With permission from Gas Processors Suppliers Association. Source: GPSA Engineering
Data Book.
FIGURE 1

WATER REMOVAL PROCESSES
Liquid/Solid Desiccants
In those situations where inhibition is not feasible or practical, dehydration must be used.
Both liquid and solid desiccants may be used, but economics favor liquid desiccant
dehydration when it will meet the required dehydration specification.
Liquid desiccant dehydration equipment is simple to operate and maintain. It can easily be
automated for unattended operation; for example, glycol dehydration at a remote production
well. Liquid desiccants can be used for sour gases, but additional precautions in the design
are needed due to the solubility of the acid gases in the desiccant solution.
Solid desiccants are normally used for extremely low dew point specifications as required to
recover liquid hydrocarbons.
Glycol Dehydration
Background
The more common liquids in use for dehydrating natural gas are diethylene glycol (DEG),
triethylene glycol (TEG), and tetraethylene glycol (TREG). In general, glycols are used for
applications where dew point depressions of the order of 60F to 120F are required.
DEG was the first glycol to be used commercially in natural gas dehydration and can provide
reasonable dew point control. With the exception of TEG, DEG is the best liquid available.
However, with normal field equipment, DEG can be concentrated to only 95% purity,
whereas TEG concentrations can reach 98 to 98.5% without special equipment. Although
both glycols perform sufficient dehydration in many situations, TEG is used more commonly
because it requires lower circulation rates for a comparable dew point depression than DEG
does and can reach lower dew points. It is not advisable to use triethylene glycol for
dehydration at low temperatures (approximately 50F), due to its high viscosity. TREG is
primarily used when dehydration conditions fall between those encountered in normal TEG
operations, and those in which gas stripping or vacuum distillation becomes necessary. The
properties of these glycols are compared in detail in Work Aid 3.
A process flow diagram of a glycol dehydration unit is shown in Figure 2. Good practice
dictates installing an inlet gas scrubber, even if the dehydrator is near a production separator.
The inlet gas scrubber will prevent accidental dumping of large quantities of water,
hydrocarbons, and/or salt water into the glycol contractor. Even small quantities of these
materials can result in excessive glycol losses due to foaming, reduced efficiency, and
increased maintenance.

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM FOR GLYCOL DEHYDRATION UNIT
Data Book.
FIGURE 2
In the glycol dehydration process, regenerated glycol is pumped to the top tray of the
contactor (absorber). The glycol flows down through the contactor countercurrent to the gas
flow. Water rich glycol is removed from the bottom of the contactor, passes through the
condenser coil, flashes off gas in a flash drum, and flows through the glycol-glycol heat
exchanger to the regenerator. In the regenerator, absorbed water is removed from the glycol
at atmospheric pressure by heating. The regenerated glycol is cooled in the glycol heat
exchangers and is recirculated to the contactor by the glycol pump.
TEG will absorb about 1 SCF of natural gas per gal at 1000 psig absorber pressure. There
will be more absorption if aromatic hydrocarbons are present. A three to five minute
residence time in the flash drum is required for degassing. Excessive hydrocarbons in the
glycol may cause high glycol losses and foaming. The overhead vent from the glycol
regenerator may contain hydrocarbons and should be piped to a safe location.
The separation of TEG and water in the regenerator is accomplished easily with only internal
reflux. The separation of DEG and water is more difficult due to DEG's higher vapor
pressure.

EQUILIBRIUM WATER DEW POINTS FOR GASES IN CONTACT WITH

VARIOUS CONCENTRATIONS OF TEG
Data Book.
FIGURE 3
To obtain the high glycol concentrations required for high dew point depressions, stripping
gas or vacuum distillation must be used in the reboiler portion of the regeneration unit. The
amount of stripping gas required to reconcentrate the glycol to a high purity ranges from 2 to
10 ft3 per gallon of glycol circulated. If stripping gas is used, a recovery system may be
justified.
The dew point depression obtainable with triethylene glycol can be estimated from Figure 3
based on the contact temperature and the concentration of the reconcentrated glycol that is
used. Figure 3 shows the equilibrium water dew point at different temperatures for gases in
contact with various concentrations of glycol. To use this plot, locate the contact temperature,
read up to the glycol concentration, and then read across to find the equilibrium water dew
point. In practice it is seldom economical for actual gas dew points to approach equilibrium
dew points closer than 20F.

Process/Design Variables
Several process and design variables have an important effect on the successful operation of a
glycol dehydration system.
Gas Temperature
Plant performance is especially sensitive to the temperature of the incoming gas. At constant
pressure, the water content of the inlet gas increases as this temperature is raised. Glycol
vaporization losses are also increased at the the higher temperature. Furthermore, problems can
result from too low a temperature (below 50F) because glycol becomes very viscous.
Lean Glycol Temperature

The temperature of lean glycol entering the absorber has a significant effect on the gas dew
point depression, and should be held to a minimum to achieve the best operation. However, it
should be kept at least 10F above the inlet gas temperature to minimize hydrocarbon
condensation in the absorber and subsequent foaming.
Glycol Reboiler Temperature

The reboiler temperature controls the concentration of the water in the glycol. With a
constant pressure, the glycol concentration increases with higher reboiler temperatures. The
reboiler temperature should never be allowed to remain at or above the glycol degradation
temperatures (see Work Aid 3) for any period of time. When higher glycol concentrations are
required, stripping gas can be added to the reboiler.
Regenerator Top Temperature

The temperature in the top of the regenerator is also important. A high temperature can
increase glycol losses due to excessive vaporization. The recommended temperature in the
top of the column is about 225F. If the temperature in the top of the column drops too low,
too much water can be condensed and washed back into the regenerator to flood the column
and fill the reboiler with excessive liquids.
Contactor Pressure
At constant temperature, the water content of the inlet gas decreases with increasing pressure.
Therefore, less glycol circulation is required at higher pressures. However, if carbon dioxide
is present, at a certain point a higher pressure will actually increase the water content. If not
otherwise fixed, optimum dehydration pressure is typically in the range of 700 to 1100 psig.
Reboiler Pressure
Reducing the pressure in the reboiler at a constant temperature results in higher glycol purity.
This pressure reduction lowers the water partial pressure in the vapor, increasing the driving
force under which water leaves the glycol solution.

Glycol Concentration
The water content of the dehydrated gas depends primarily on the lean glycol concentration.
The dry gas leaves the contactor approaching equilibrium with the lean glycol. The leaner the
glycol flowing to the absorber, the more efficient the dehydration. Figure 3 shows the effect
of glycol concentration on gas dew point.
Glycol Circulation Rate

When the number of absorber trays and glycol concentration are fixed, the dew point
depression of a saturated gas is a function of the glycol circulation rate. Whereas the glycol
concentration mainly affects the dew point of dry gas, the glycol rate controls the total amount
of water that can be removed. A typical glycol circulation rate is about three gallons of glycol
per pound of water removed (seven maximum). The minimum circulation rate to assure good
glycol-gas contacting is about two gallons of glycol for each pound of water removed.
A greater dew point depression is easier to achieve by increasing the glycol concentration
rather than by increasing the glycol circulation rate (see Figure 4). To use this plot, locate the
glycol circulation rate, read up to the glycol concentration, and then read across to find the
dew point depression. An excessive circulation rate, especially above the design capacity,
overloads the reboiler and prevents good glycol regeneration. It also prevents adequate
glycol-gas contacting in the absorber, increases pump maintenance problems, and can
increase glycol losses.
EFFECT OF TEG CIRCULATION RATE AND CONCENTRATION ON DEW POINT

DEPRESSION
From non-proprietary information from Exxon Production Research Company, Production

Operations Division, "Dehydration and Hydrate Inhibition," July, 1986, from Surface
Facilities School, Vol. II.
FIGURE 4

Number of Absorber Trays

For a new design, the number of theoretical trays required for dehydration in the absorber or
contactor is determined by constructing a McCabe-Thiele diagram. A tray efficiency of 25%
to 40% is typically used. Generally, the number of actual trays in a design ranges from 4 to
12. Bubble cap trays are normally used in glycol dehydrators to facilitate low liquid loadings
and to allow significant turndown.
For high-performance units, specifying more than four trays in a new design can achieve fuel
savings because a lower circulation rate, reboiler temperature, and/or stripping gas rate are
required to achieve the same dew point depression. Figure 5 shows that specifying a few
additional trays in the contactor is much more effective than increasing the glycol circulation
rate. To use this plot, locate the glycol circulation rate, read up to the number of actual trays,
and then read across to find the dew point depression. The additional investment for
additional trays and a taller contactor is often justified by fuel savings.
EFFECT OF NUMBER OF ABSORBER TRAYS

ON DEW POINT DEPRESSION

FIGURE 5

Solid Desiccant Dehydration
Background
Since solid desiccant units cost more than glycol units, their use is usually limited to
applications such as very sour gases, very low water dew point requirements, simultaneous
control of water and hydrocarbon dew points, and special cases such as oxygen containing
gases, etc. In cryogenic plants, solid desiccant dehydration usually is preferred over methanol
injection to prevent hydrate and ice formation. Solid desiccants are also often used for the
drying and sweetening of NGL liquids. Appendix A is a listing of Saudi Aramco's solid
desiccant dehydration units.
Desiccants in common commercial use fall into one of three categories:
Alumina - Regenerable aluminum oxide base desiccant.
Silica Gel - Regenerable silicon oxide adsorbent.
Molecular Sieves - Regenerable solid desiccants composed of crystalline metal

aluminosilicates (zeolites).
Each desiccant category offers advantages in different services. The best choice is not
routine. A listing of representative vendors of solid desiccants is presented in Appendix B.
Activated alumina has a strong affinity for water and high internal adsorption area due to the
presence of pores or very fine capillaries. Alumina condenses and holds the water in the
pores by surface adsorption and capillary attraction. Activated alumina desiccant can be used
for drying liquids which do not contain unsaturates such as olefins or diolefins. It is less
costly than molecular sieve desiccant but its capacity for absorbing water also tends to be
lower, particularly when attempting to reach very low water levels, e.g. 5 wppm in the
product.
Silica gel has a higher equilibrium adsorption capacity (see Figure 6) than alumina because its
available surface is greater. Due to silica gel's higher price per pound, alumina is generally
the economic choice. Silica gel is not used where free water can be present, because free
water destroys silica gel. Free water over long-term operation, either as droplets or slugs, will
also damage molecular sieve and activated alumina by mechanical attrition and should be
avoided.
Molecular sieves have a high water equilibrium capacity at low relative humidities (see Figure
6). Molecular sieves also have the feature of uniform pore size, which allows them to exclude
molecules based on size. Because different pore size molecular sieves are produced, selection
of proper type of sieve can alleviate the problem of undesirable coadsorption. Molecular

sieves have a higher design adsorption capacity than the other regenerable desiccants, but this
is often offset by their considerably higher price per pound.

Molecular sieve dehydrators are commonly used ahead of NGL recovery plants where
extremely dry gas is required. Cryogenic NGL plants designed to recover ethane produce
very cold temperatures and require very dry feed gas to prevent formation of hydrates.
Dehydration to approximately 1 ppmw is possible with molecular sieves.
Two types of molecular sieves, Type 3A and Type 4A, are commonly used for drying
hydrocarbon liquids. Type 4A sieves are less costly than Type 3A sieves and are used for
distillates which do not contain unsaturates. When unsaturates are present in the feed, Type
3A are used to assure good regeneration.
WATER VAPOR ADSORPTION AT 60F

FIGURE 6

Solid desiccants are used in gas dehydrators containing two or more towers. Figure 7 is a
simple two-tower system. One tower is onstream adsorbing water from the gas, while the
other tower is being regenerated and cooled. Figure 8 shows a typical molecular sieve
dehydrator vessel. Hot gas removes the adsorbed water, after which the tower is cooled. The
towers are switched before the onstream tower becomes water saturated. Generally a bed is
designed to be on line for 8 to 24 hours. When the bed is taken off-line, the water is removed
by heating the bed to 450-600F. The regeneration gas used to heat the bed is usually a
slipstream of dry process gas. The regeneration gas is returned to the process after it has been
cooled and the free water removed. Since heat is a major operating cost, this is a major
design consideration.
SOLID DESICCANT DEHYDRATOR TWIN TOWER SYSTEM
Data Book.
FIGURE 7

TYPICAL MOLECULAR SIEVE GAS DEHYDRATION VESSEL

FIGURE 8

Adsorption Calculations
Adsorption calculations for a molecular sieve dehydrator are discussed below. The allowable
superficial vapor velocity through the bed is the first parameter that must be estimated using
Figure 9. To use this plot, locate the operating pressure, read up to the type sieve, then read
across to find the allowable superficial velocity. Once the allowable superficial velocity is
estimated, the bed diameter can be calculated for a design vapor rate. The design pressure
drop through the bed is calculated using Equation 4 in Work Aid 4 and should be about five
psi. A design pressure drop higher than eight psi is not recommended.
ALLOWABLE VELOCITY FOR MOLE SIEVE DEHYDRATOR
Data Book.
FIGURE 9
The next step is to choose a cycle time and calculate the pounds of sieve required. Eight to
twelve hour cycles are common. Cycles greater than 12 hours may be justified, especially if
the gas is not water saturated. Long cycles mean fewer regenerations and longer sieve life,
but larger beds and additional capital investment are required.

During the adsorption cycle, the bed operates with three zones The top zone is called the
saturation zone. The molecular sieve in this zone is in equilibrium with the wet inlet gas. The
middle or mass transfer zone (MTZ) is where the water content of the gas is reduced from
saturation to < 1 ppm. Normally a system is designed so that there is a moisture analyzer to
indicate when the mass transfer zone is likely to break through the end of the bed. A guard
bed zone (typically one to two feet deep) is provided after this point to prevent actual
breakthrough before the system has a chance to change to the regenerated bed.
Unfortunately, both the water capacity and the rate at which the molecular sieves adsorb water
change as the molecular sieves age. The object of the design is to install enough sieve so that
three to five years into the life of the sieve, the mass transfer zone will be at the bottom of the
bed at the end of the adsorption cycle.
In the saturation zone, the molecular sieve is expected to hold approximately 13 pounds of
water per 100 pounds of sieve. This capacity needs to be adjusted when the gas is not water
saturated or when the temperature is above 75F. See Figures 10 and 11 for the correction
factors. To determine the pounds of molecular sieve required in the saturation zone, calculate
the amount of water to be removed during the cycle and divide by the sieve capacity (use
Equations 5 and 6 in Work Aid 4).
Even though the MTZ will contain some water, the saturation zone is calculated assuming it
will contain all the water to be removed. The length of the mass transfer zone can be
calculated using Equation 7 from Work Aid 4. The total bed height is the summation of the
saturation zone, mass transfer zone, and guard bed zone heights. Approximately six feet free
space above and below the bed is needed.

MOLE SIEVE CAPACITY CORRECTION FOR UNSATURATED INLET GAS
Data Book.
FIGURE 10

MOLE SIEVE CAPACITY CORRECTION FOR TEMPERATURE
Data Book.
FIGURE 11
Regeneration Calculations
Regeneration calculations for a molecular sieve dehydrator are discussed below. The first
step in the regeneration calculations is to calculate the total heat required to desorb the water
and heat the sieve and vessel. A 10% heat loss is assumed. For the entire regeneration cycle,
only about 1/2 of the heat put into the regeneration gas is utilized. This is because by the end
of the cycle the gas is leaving the bed at about the same temperature at which it enters. The
heating time is usually 1/2 to 5/8 of the total regeneration time, which must include a cooling
period. For 8 hour adsorption cycles, the regeneration normally consists of 4-1/2 hours of
heating, 3 hours of cooling and 1/2 hour for standby and switching. For longer cycles, the
heating time can be lengthened as long as a minimum pressure drop of 0.1 psi/ft is
maintained. Figure 12 can be used to estimate the required minimum velocity to meet 0.10
psi /ft. To use this plot, locate the operating pressure, read up to the type sieve, then read
across to find the minimum superficial velocity.
The regeneration cycle frequently includes depressuring/repressuring to match the

regeneration gas pressure and/or to maximize the regeneration gas volume to meet the
velocity criterion. Some applications, termed pressure swing adsorption, regenerate the bed
only with depressurization and sweeping the bed with gas just above atmospheric pressure.

MINIMUM REGENERATION VELOCITY FOR MOLE SIEVE DEHYDRATOR
Data Book.
FIGURE 12
Dehydrating Liquids
Typical liquid dehydration systems have filtering equipment ahead of the dehydration unit to
remove particulates that may clog the solid desiccant. There are usually two beds containing
the desiccant, although it is sometimes necessary to have additional beds to handle very large
streams. The desiccant beds are regenerated on an alternating basis. Downstream from the
desiccant beds, another filter must be used to capture small particles of desiccant which may
be attrited during the drying step.
The diameter of desiccant beds is usually determined by the volumetric flow rate. For
activated aluminas, a maximum of 30 gallons per minute per square foot of cross-sectional
area is recommended. Bed depth determines the time required for the drying step. In liquid
dehydration, drying times are typically 12 to 120 hours before regeneration.
Liquids that cannot be dried with activated alumina are those exhibiting complete miscibility
with water, and highly acidic and caustic compounds. The latter types can cause
disintegration of the activated alumina in addition to being corrosive to equipment.

Desiccant regeneration is performed in one of two basic ways. At times the only available
medium for heated regeneration is a slipstream of the process stream which must be
vaporized. An alternative scheme uses vapor or gas other than the vaporized process stream
to regenerate the desiccant.
The heat requirement for regeneration include the sensible heats for the desiccant and
equipment plus the heat required to desorb the water and hydrocarbons. The latter consists of
the sensible heats, the latent heats of vaporization, and the heats of wetting. These values
may be calculated individually and added together or may be estimated at 1,600 Btu/lb water
and 200 - 800 Btu/lb hydrocarbons. The amount of water for this calculation is assumed to be
the water content of the inlet stream over the drying period. The hydrocarbon liquids present
are estimated to be the amount contained in the total pore volume of 0.048 gallons for
hydrocarbon liquid per pound of adsorbent.
The temperature necessary for regeneration is that needed to assure the desired effluent water
content in the next drying step. For activated aluminas, temperatures of approximately 400F
at the exit end of the bed during regeneration result in effluent water levels down to about 10
ppmw. Increasing the temperatures to about 550F results in effluent water contents of 1
ppmw or below. The extent of removal of hydrocarbons depends primarily on the boiling
points of the hydrocarbons. The regeneration temperature should be that which gives as
complete removal of the hydrocarbons as possible within the economics of the system.
Drying of hydrocarbon liquids (NGL, liquid propane and butane) is done at Saudi Aramco's
Shedgum, Uthmaniyah, Ju'aymah, and Yanbu facilities (see Appendix A).
Process Variables
Several process variables can have a major effect on solid desiccant bed sizing and operating
efficiency.
Quality of Inlet Gas

The most important variable in sizing a desiccant bed is the relative saturation of the inlet gas.
This variable is the driving force that affects the transfer of water to the adsorbent.
The performance of a desiccant bed designed to remove water is adversely affected by gas
containing quantities of carbon dioxide, heavy hydrocarbons (even in vapor phase), and
sulfur-bearing compounds. The greater the molecular weight of a compound, the greater its
adsorption potential.

Temperature
The following are important temperature-related factors:
Molecular sieves and most other adsorbents have significantly higher adsorptive
capacity at low temperatures.
Temperature of the regeneration gas that mixes with the incoming wet gas ahead of the
dehydrators is also important. If the temperatures of these two gas streams differ more
than 15 to 20F, liquid water and hydrocarbons may condense as the hotter gas stream
cools. Condensed liquids that strike the bed can shorten the desiccant's life.
The temperature of the hot gas entering and leaving a desiccant tower during the heating
cycle can significantly affect plant efficiency and the desiccant life. To assure good
desorption of the water and contaminants, a high regeneration gas temperature is
needed. The maximum hot gas temperature needed depends on the type of
contaminants and the "holding power" or affinity of the desiccant for the contaminants.
The desiccant bed temperature reached during the cooling cycle is important. If wet gas
is used to cool the desiccant, the cooling cycle should be terminated when the desiccant
bed reaches a temperature of about 125F. Additional cooling may cause water to be
adsorbed from the wet gas stream and presaturate or preload the desiccant bed, before
the next adsorption cycle begins. If dry gas is used for cooling, the desiccant should be
cooled within 10 to 20F of the incoming gas temperature during the adsorption cycle.
This will keep the desiccant's adsorption efficiency high.
The temperature of the regeneration gas going through the regeneration gas scrubber or
water knockout should be held low enough to condense and remove as much of the
water and hydrocarbons from the gas as possible.

Pressure
Generally, the adsorption capacity of a desiccant bed decreases as the pressure is lowered. At
constant temperature, the water content of the inlet gas increases as the separation pressure is
lowered. If the dehydrators are operated well below design pressure, the desiccant will have
to work harder to remove the additional water and to maintain the desired effluent dew point.
With the same volume of incoming gas, the increased gas velocity occurring at the lower
pressures could affect the effluent moisture content and damage the desiccant. At pressures
above 1300 to 1400 psia, the co-adsorption effects of hydrocarbons are very significant.
Cycle Time
Most adsorbers operate on a fixed drying cycle time, and that time is frequently set for the
worst conditions. However, the adsorbent capacity is not a fixed value; it declines with usage.
For the first few months of operation, a new desiccant normally has a high capacity for water
removal. If a moisture analyzer is used on the effluent gas, a much longer drying cycle can
typically be achieved. As the desiccant ages, the cycle time can be shortened to save
regeneration fuel costs and improve the desiccant life.
Gas Velocity
As the gas velocity during the drying cycle decreases, both lower effluent moisture contents
and longer drying cycle times to the breakthrough point are usually obtained. However, low
linear velocities require towers with large cross-sectional areas to handle a given gas flow. In
selecting the linear flow rate, therefore, a compromise must be made between the tower
diameter and the maximum utilization of the desiccant. At lower velocities, the gas may
channel through the desiccant bed without being properly dehydrated. A lower adsorption
efficiency and desiccant damage may occur at higher velocities.
The regeneration gas velocity is important, especially when effluent moisture contents below
0.1 ppm are needed. A minimum heating gas velocity of 10 ft/min may be required to
achieve this superdehydration. At lower velocities, the hot gas may channel through the
desiccant bed, tending to leave excess water in the bed after regeneration and resulting in poor
dehydration.
Sources of Regeneration Gas

The source of gas for heating and cooling desiccant beds depends on plant requirements and,
possibly, on the availability of a suitable gas stream. When low effluent moisture contents (in
the range of 0.1 ppm) are required, the regeneration stream should be dry. Plant tail gas can
normally be used for this purpose. If only moderate drying is required, a portion of the wet
feed gas can be used.

Direction of Gas Flow

The flow direction influences effluent purity, regeneration gas requirements, and desiccant
life. The direction of flow during the drying cycle is normally downward. This direction
permits higher velocities without lifting or fluidizing the desiccant bed. Fluidization can
severely damage the desiccant.
The direction of heating gas flow is generally countercurrent (opposite) to the direction of the
adsorption flow. This flow permits better reactivation of the lower portion of the desiccant
bed, which must perform the superdehydration during the drying cycle, especially in
cryogenic plants.
Bed support and screens on top of the bed consist of three to five layers in graduated sizes.
Since the flow is both directions through the bed, both ends must be protected.
Desiccant Selection
No desiccant is suitable for all applications. In some cases, the choice is determined primarily
by economics. Sometimes process conditions control the choice. Many times desiccants are
interchangeable, and the equipment designed for one desiccant can often operate effectively
with another.
The desirable characteristics of a solid desiccant are listed below:
High adsorptive capacity (lb/lb), which reduces contactor size.
Easy regeneration, for simplicity and economics of operation.
High rate of adsorption, which allows higher gas velocities and thereby reduces
contactor size.
High adsorptive capacity retained after repeated regeneration, allowing smaller initial
charge and longer service before replacement.
Low resistance to gas flow, to minimize gas pressure drop through the unit.
High mechanical strength, to resist crushing and dust formation.
Inert chemicals, to prevent chemical reactions during adsorption and regeneration.
Volume unchanged when product is wet, which would otherwise necessitate costly
allowance for expansion.
Noncorrosive and nontoxic properties, avoiding the need for special alloys and costly
measures to protect the operator's safety.
Low cost, to reduce initial and replacement costs.

Desiccant Selection (Cont'd)

Certain physical characteristics of the more common solid desiccants are given in Work Aid 5
and Appendix C.
Molecular sieves have the highest adsorptive capacity of all the desiccants, when the feed gas
is at very high temperatures or at low relative saturation. If the feed gas entering the
dehydrators is saturated with water vapor, however, silica gel or alumina may be a better
selection. For water-saturated gases, these desiccants can adsorb twice as much water as
molecule sieves and at lower first cost. Silica gel has another advantage in that it can be
regenerated to a lower water content than molecular sieves and at much lower temperatures
(400F for silica gel versus 500 to 600F for sieves).
Effect of Regeneration Gas on Outlet Gas Quality

Regeneration gas desorbs molecular sieve beds in the reverse order of the adsorption bond.
For example, adsorbed methane and ethane would be desorbed first, then propanes and
heavier hydrocarbons, then carbon dioxide, followed by any hydrogen sulfide that might have
been in the inlet gas, and, last of all, the water. The effect of the concentration of these
impurities in the regeneration gas stream may be significant when regeneration gas is 10 to
15% of the net inlet gas.
Other Dehydration Processes
Two other general categories of dehydrators are briefly discussed below. The first of these is
the nonregenerable dehydrator, of which the calcium chloride brine unit will be described.
The second is refrigeration, in which dehydration is not necessarily the prime purpose; but the
availability of dehydration as a side benefit further justifies its installation.
Nonregenerable Dehydrator
Calcium chloride is used as a consumable desiccant. Solid calcium chloride combines with
water vapor to form a brine solution. The drying tower must periodically be recharged with
fresh calcium chloride and the brine frequently removed from the bottom of the tower (see
Figure 13). A tray section in the tower is often used in conjunction with a dry bed of calcium
chloride to take advantage of the brine's capability to combine with additional water vapor.
Up to 3.5 lb H2O/lb CaCl2 can be absorbed with the addition of trays versus 1.1 lb H2O/lb
CaCl2 for a dry bed type. This type of installation is efficient for remote, small-capacity gas
wells without heat or fuel. It is reported that units of this type can lower the dew point to 7F
with a bed depth as low as 2 feet and a gas temperature of 127F.
Refrigeration
Whether cooling is obtained by gas expansion or mechanical refrigeration, its net effect is the
condensation of water from saturated inlet gas when the gas is cooled. The removal of water
from the system achieves dehydration. Of course, the water condensation and water removal
steps require an environment resistant to hydrate formation, either by use of inhibitors or by
spot heating.

CALCIUM CHLORIDE (NONREGENERABLE) DEHYDRATOR

FIGURE 13

OPTIMIZING AND TROUBLESHOOTING DEHYDRATOR
Operations
Glycol Maintenance
Operating and corrosion problems usually occur when the circulating glycol gets dirty.
Therefore, to achieve a long, trouble-free life from the glycol, it is necessary to recognize
these problems and know how to prevent them. Some of the major areas are discussed below:
Methanol
Methanol in the feed gas to a glycol dehydrator will be absorbed by the glycol. This results in
the following problems:
Methanol will add additional heat duty on the reboiler and additional vapor load on the
regenerator. High methanol injection rates and slug carryover can cause flooding.
Aqueous methanol causes rust in carbon steel, so corrosion can occur in the regenerator
and reboiler vapor space.
Most of the methanol absorbed in the rich glycol solution can be removed by flashing in the
regenerator. Activated carbon filters are used to adsorb methanol from the lean glycol
solution to avoid these problems.
Oxidation
Oxygen enters the system with the incoming gas, through unblanketed storage tanks and
sumps, or through the pump packing glands. Sometimes glycol will oxidize in the presence
of oxygen and form corrosive acids. To prevent oxidation, bulk storage tanks should have a
gas blanket to keep air out of the system. Oxidation inhibitors can also be used to minimize
corrosion.
Thermal Decomposition
Excessive heat, a result of one of the following conditions, will decompose glycol and form
corrosive products:
High reboiler temperature above the glycol decomposition level.
High heat-flux.
Localized overheating, caused by deposits of salt or tarry products on the reboiler fired
tubes or by poor flame direction on the fired tubes.

pH Control
New glycol has a neutral pH of approximately seven. As it is used, however, the pH always
decreases and the glycol becomes acidic and corrosive, unless pH neutralizers or buffers are
used. The equipment corrosion rate increases rapidly with a decrease in the glycol pH. Acids
created by glycol oxidation, thermal decomposition products, or acid gases picked up from
the gas stream are the most troublesome of corrosive contaminants. A low pH accelerates the
decomposition of glycol. Ideally, the glycol pH should be held at a level of 7.0 to 7.5. A
value above 8.0 to 8.5 tends to make glycol foam and emulsify.
Borax, ethanolamines (usually triethanolamine), or other alkaline neutralizers can be used to

control the pH. These neutralizers should be added with great care -- slowly and continuously
-- for best results. An overdose of neutralizer will usually precipitate a suspension of black
sludge in the glycol. The sludge could settle and restrict glycol circulation. Frequent filter-
element changes should be made while pH neutralizers are added.
Salt Contamination
Salt deposits accelerate equipment corrosion, reduce heat transfer in the reboiler tubes, and
alter specific gravity readings when a hydrometer is used to measure glycol-water
concentrations. This troublesome contaminant cannot be removed with normal regeneration.
Therefore, an efficient scrubber upstream of the glycol plant should be used to prevent salt
carryover with the incoming gas. In areas where large quantities of brine are produced, some
salt contamination will occur. The removal of salt from the glycol solution is then necessary.
Salt contaminated glycol may be reclaimed by several methods. Scraped-surface heat
exchangers in conjunction with centrifuges are used in cases of extreme contamination. Other
reclamation methods are vacuum distillation or ion exchange.
Hydrocarbons
Liquid hydrocarbons, a result of carryover with the incoming gas or condensation in the
absorber, increase glycol foaming, degradation, and losses. They must be removed with a
glycol-gas separator, hydrocarbon liquid skimmer, or activated carbon beds.
Sludge
An accumulation of solid particles and tarry hydrocarbons very often forms in the glycol.
This sludge is suspended in the circulating glycol; over a period of time, the accumulation
becomes large enough to settle out. This action results in the formation of black, sticky,
abrasive gum that can cause trouble in pumps, valves, and other equipment, usually when the
glycol pH is low. The gummy substance becomes hard and brittle when deposited on the
absorber trays, stripper packing, and other places in the circulating system. Good solution
filtration prevents a buildup of sludge.

Foaming
Foaming can increase glycol losses and reduce plant capacity. Entrained glycol will be
carried over the top of the absorber with the sales gas when stable foam builds up on the trays.
Foaming also causes poor contacting between the gas and glycol, decreasing the drying
efficiency.
Some foam promoters are:
Hydrocarbon liquids.
Field corrosion inhibitors.
Salt.
Finely divided suspended solids.
Excessive turbulence and high liquid-to-vapor contacting velocities usually cause the glycol
to foam. This condition can be caused by mechanical or chemical problems.
The best way to prevent foaming is proper care of the glycol. This involves effective gas
cleaning ahead of the glycol system and good filtration of the circulating solution. The use of
defoamers does not solve the basic problem, and serves only as a temporary control until the
conditions generating foam can be identified and removed.
Analysis and Control of Glycol
Analysis of glycol is essential to good plant operation. Meaningful analytical information

helps pinpoint high glycol losses, foaming, corrosion, and other operating problems.
Analyses enable the operator to evaluate plant performance and make operating changes to
obtain maximum drying efficiency.
A glycol sample should first be visually inspected to identify some of the contaminants:
A finely divided black precipitate may indicate the presence of iron corrosion products.
A black, viscous solution may contain heavy hydrocarbons.
The characteristic odor of decomposed glycol (a sweet aromatic odor) usually indicates
thermal degradation.
A two-phase liquid sample usually indicates the glycol is heavily contaminated with
hydrocarbons.

Analysis and Control of Glycol (Cont'd)

The visual inspections should next be supported by chemical analysis. Samples of the lean
and rich glycol should be taken and routine tests performed: salt analysis, solids content, pH,
iron content, foam test, and titration procedure (to determine the amount of neutralizer
necessary to raise the pH to a safe level). These analyses usually provide sufficient
information to determine the condition of the glycol.
Glycol Loss Prevention
Glycol losses can be defined as liquid carryover from the contactor (normally 0.10 gal/ MSCF
with a standard mist eliminator) plus vaporization from the contactor and regenerator, and
spillage. Glycol losses, exclusive of spillage, range from 0.05 gal/MSCF for high pressure,
low temperature gases to as much as 0.30 gal/MSCF for low pressure, high temperature gases.
There are several ways to reduce glycol losses.
A certain amount of glycol always vaporizes in the sales gas stream. Adequate cooling
of the lean glycol before it enters the absorber minimizes these losses.
Normally, most of the glycol entrainment is removed by a mist eliminator in the top of
the absorber. Excessive gas velocities and glycol foaming in the absorber sharply
increase the glycol carryover. A downstream gas scrubber can pay for itself quickly and
save much money by trapping the carryover and recovering the excess glycol. This gas
scrubber also helps prevent problems downstream of the glycol plant.
Vaporization losses in the stripper can be held to a minimum with good glycol
condensation and control of the tower top temperature. Glycol entrainment, or
mechanical carryover, can be reduced with proper maintenance of the stripper and
reboiler.
Mechanical leaks can be reduced by keeping the pump, valves, and other fittings in
good order. The glycol from these leaks should be collected and reprocessed.
Excessive entrainment losses may be the result of foaming in the absorber and/or
regenerator. Defoamers are sometimes used.

Glycol Filtration
Filters extend the life of the glycol pumps, and prevent an accumulation of solids in the
absorber and regeneration equipment. Solids that settle on metal surfaces frequently set up
cell corrosion. Filters also remove the solids that contribute to fouling, foaming, and
plugging. Sock-type filters are preferred, although fine screens and cartridge filters are also
suitable. The filters should be designed to remove all solid particles over 5 microns in size.
They should be able to operate up to pressure drops of 20 to 25 psi. For best results, filters
should be placed in the rich glycol line, but the lean glycol can also be filtered to help keep
the glycol clean. Frequent filter changes may be needed during plant start-up, or when
neutralizers are added to control the glycol pH.
Activated carbon filters can eliminate most problems caused by hydrocarbons, well-treating
chemicals, compressor oils, and other troublesome impurities in the glycol. Use of carbon
filters increases glycol efficiency and life. The carbon filter should be placed on the lean
stream since it has the lowest hydrocarbon load (a large portion of entrained hydrocarbons are
flashed off in the regenerator) and it should be placed downstream of the solids filter. The
carbon filter is generally sized for 1 to 5 gpm per ft2 of carbon bed cross-sectional area with a
bed depth of 3 to 10 feet. A slipstream of lean glycol equal to 10% of the circulation rate is
typically fed to the carbon filter. A full stream filter would require such a large vessel that it
would not be economical or practical to use.
Optimizing Adsorption-Type Dehydrators
Desiccant Performance
Operating data should be monitored to try to prevent permanent damage to the desiccant.
Performance tests are frequently scheduled on a routine basis, ranging from monthly during
early operations, to six months or longer. The size of the unit and the quantity of the
desiccant also affect the frequency of performance tests.
Desiccants decline in adsorptive capacity at different rates under varying operating

conditions. Markedly different capacity-decline rates may be experienced for the same
desiccant under similar conditions of gas flow, temperature, pressure, water removal
requirements, cycle times, and regeneration temperatures. Desiccant aging is a function of
many factors, including the number of cycles experienced and exposure to any harmful
contaminants present in the inlet stream. Many of these contaminants are not completely
removed during normal reactivation. Contaminants may be the cause of 90% of
unsatisfactory solid desiccant operations. Therefore, the single most important variable
affecting the decline rate of desiccant capacity is the chemical composition of the gas or liquid
to be dried. Feed stream composition should always include the contaminants.

The capacity of a new desiccant will decline slowly during the first few months in service
because of cyclic heating, cooling, and wetting. Desiccant capacity usually stabilizes at about
55 to 70% of the initial capacity. To get maximum use out of the desiccant, a moisture
analyzer can be used to optimize the drying cycle time. That time can be shortened as the
desiccant ages. Both inlet and outlet moisture-analyzer probes should be used. Moisture
analyzers for very low water contents require care to prevent damage to the probes. Sample
probes and temperature probes must be installed to reach the center of the gas phase.
Proper conditioning of the inlet gas is important. Compressor oils, corrosion inhibitors,
glycols, amines, and other high-boiling contaminants present in the feed gas cause a further
decline in desiccant capacity, because normal reactivation temperatures will not vaporize the
heavy materials. The residual contaminants slowly build up on the desiccant's surface,
reducing the area available for adsorption. Many corrosion inhibitors chemically attack
certain desiccants, permanently destroying their usefulness. A layer of less expensive
desiccant can be installed on the top of the bed to catch these contaminants.
Although gases rich in heavier hydrocarbons may be dried satisfactorily with molecular
sieves, the use of this same rich gas in a 550 to 600F regeneration service aggravates coking
problems. Lean dry gas is always preferable for regeneration, if it is available.
Methanol in the inlet gas is a major contributor to the coking of molecular sieves where
regeneration is carried out at temperatures above 550F. Polymerization of methanol during
regeneration may produce dimethyl ether and other intermediates that will cause coking of the
beds.
Monitoring bed differential pressure is important. An increase in differential pressure can

indicate desiccant problems such as excessive coking or the formation of fines. The
differential pressure along with the bed run length should also be recorded when doing a
performance test on a desiccant bed.
The useful life of most desiccants ranges from one to four years in normal service. A longer
life is possible if the feed gas is kept clean. The effectiveness of reactivation can also play a
major role in slowing the decline of a desiccant's adsorptive capacity and in prolonging its
useful life. Obviously, if all the water is not removed from the desiccant during each
regeneration, its usefulness will sharply decrease.

Performance data are used for monitoring desiccant life and planning for desiccant change
out. The steps involved are as follows:
Plot plant capacity and cycle time versus number of cycles.

Extrapolate to determine when shortest cycle possible with existing regeneration
equipment will be reached.
At that point, or during the nearest regular plant turnaround preceding that point, an
adsorbent change must be planned.
Regeneration gas not only supplies heat but also acts as a carrier to remove water vapor from
the desiccant bed. Insufficient reactivation can occur if the regeneration gas temperature or
velocity is too low. The desiccant manufacturer will generally recommend the optimum
regeneration temperature and velocity for the product. Velocity should be high enough to
remove the water and other contaminants quickly. This measure will minimize the amount of
residual water and protect the desiccant.
To maximize desiccant capacity and to ensure the minimum effluent moisture content, a
higher reactivation temperature or a drier reactivation gas, or both, may be needed. Higher
reactivation temperatures may also be used to remove volatile contaminants before they can
form coke on the desiccant. The final effluent hot gas temperature should be held one or two
hours to achieve effective desiccant reactivation.
Equipment Items
In addition to the above process variables, engineers can optimize solid desiccant dehydration
equipment by considering the following:
An accurate estimation of bed sizes in order to realistically evaluate competitive bids

from desiccant vendors.
Optimal design of adsorber internals (inlet gas distributor, internal insulation and bed
supports), switching valves, and control systems.
Proper design of regeneration gas systems.
Since mole sieve can produce dust, filters are frequently installed downstream to protect
subsequent equipment.

WORK AID 1: SOLUBILITY OF WATER IN LIQUID HYDROCARBONS
Data Book.

WORK AID 2A: WATER CONTENT OF HYDROCARBON GAS
Use Photostat
Data Book.

WORK AID 2B: EFFECTIVE WATER CONTENT FOR CO2
Use Photostat
Data Book.

WORK AID 2C: EFFECTIVE WATER CONTENT FOR H2S
Use Photostat
Data Book.

WORK AID 3: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL INHIBITORS
ETHYLEN DIETHYLEN TRIETHYLEN TETRAETHYLE

PROPERTY METHANO E GLYCOL E GLYCOL E GLYCOL NE GLYCOL
L
MOLECULAR WEIGHT 32.04 62.10 106.10 150.20 194.23
BOILING POINT AT 148.10 387.10 427.60 532.90 597.2

760 mm Hg, F
VAPOR PRESSURE AT 94 0.12 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01
SPECIFIC GRAVITY AT 77F 0.7868 1.110 1.113 1.119 1.120
SPECIFIC GRAVITY AT -- 1.085 1.088 1.092 1.092

140F
POUNDS PER GALLON AT 6.55 9.26 9.29 9.34 9.34
77F
FREEZING POINT,F -144 8 17 19 22
POUR POINT, F --- < -75 -65 -73 -42
ABSOLUTE VISCOSITY IN 0.55 16.5 28.2 37.3 39.9

CENTIPOISES AT 77F
ABSOLUTE VISCOSITY IN 0.36 5.1 7.6 9.6 10.2

CENTIPOISES AT
140F
SURFACE TENSION AT 22 47 44 45 45
SPECIFIC HEAT AT 0.27 0.58 0.55 0.53 0.52
FLASH POINT, F --- 240 280 320 365
FIRE POINT, F --- 245 290 330 375
DECOMPOSITION --- 329 328 404 460

TEMPERATURE, F
HEAT OF VAPORIZATION 473 364 232 179 ---

AT
14.65 psi, Btu/lb


WORK AID 4: USEFUL EQUATIONS FOR DEHYDRATION CALCULATIONS
Water content of natural gas (with < 40% acid gas).
W = yHC WHC + yCO2 WCO2 + yH2S WH2S (Eqn. 1)
where: y= Mole fraction.

WHC = Water content for hydrocarbon components, lb/MSCF.
WCO2 = Water content for CO2, lb/MSCF.
WH2S = Water content for H2S, lb/MSCF.
W= Water content for natural gas stream, lb/MSCF.
Minimum inhibitor concentration in free water phase.
KH I
d= (Eqn. 2)
100 MWI - MWI I
where: d = Depression of the gas hydrate freezing point, F.

I = Weight percent inhibitor in the liquid phase.
MWI = Molecular weight of inhibitor (see Work Aid 3).
KH = 4000 for glycols; 2335 for methanol.
Water removal rate by dehydration process.
Wi - Wo G
Wr = (Eqn. 3)
24
where: Wr = Water removed, lb/hr.

Wi = Water at inlet, lb/MSCF.
Wo = Water at outlet, lb/MSCF.
G = Gas flow rate, MSCF/D.

Molecular sieve pressure drop.
P = BV + C V2
L (Eqn. 4)
where: P = Pressure drop, psi.

L= Length of packed bed, ft.
V= Vapor velocity, ft/min.
= Vapor viscosity, cP.
= Vapor density, lb/ft3.
Constants:
Desiccant Type B C
1/8 in. bead 0.0560 0.0000889

1/8 in. extrudate 0.0722 0.000124
1/16 in. bead 0.152 0.000136
1/16 in. extrudate 0.238 0.000210
Molecular sieve requirement in adsorber saturation zone
Wr
SS =
0.13 CSS CT (Eqn. 5)
where: SS = Amount of molecular sieve required in saturation zone, lb.

CSS = Saturation correction factor for sieve (see Figure 10).
CT = Temperature correction factor (see Figure 11).
Length of molecular sieve packed bed saturation zone.
SS bd 4
LS =
3.14 D2 (Eqn. 6)
where: bd = Bulk density (see Work Aid 5).

LS = Length of packed bed saturation zone, ft.
D = Bed diameter, ft.

Length of molecular sieve packed bed mass transfer zone.
LMTZ = (V/35)0.3 (Z) (Eqn. 7)
where: LMTZ =Length of packed bed mass transfer zone, ft.

V = Vapor velocity, ft/min.
Z = 1.70 for 1/8 in. sieve.
0.85 for 1/16 in. sieve.

WORK AID 5: TYPICAL DESICCANT PROPERTIES
APPROXIMATE
MINIMUM
MOISTURE
CONTENT OF
BULK DENSITY EFFLUENT GAS
DESICCANT SHAPE lb/ft3 PARTICLE SIZE (wppm)
Alumina Gel Spherical 52 1/4 in. 5-10
Activated Granular 52 1/4 in.-8 mesh 0.1

Alumina
Activated Spherical 47-48 1/4 in.-8 mesh 0.1

Alumina
Silica Gel Spherical 50 4-8 mesh 5-10
Silica Gel Granular 45 3-8 mesh 5-10
Mole Sieve Spherical 42-45 4-8 mesh or 0.1

8-12 mesh
Mole Sieve Extruded 40-44 1/8 in. or 1/16 in. 0.1

Cylinder
Data Book.
DESIGN
BULK SPECIFIC NORMAL ADSORPTIVE
DENSITY HEAT SIZES USED CAPACITY
(lb/ft3) (Btu/lb/F) (wt%)
Activated alumina 51 0.24 1/4 in.-8 mesh 7
Mobil SOR beads 48 0.25 4-8 mesh 7
Florite 50 0.24 4-8 mesh 4-5
Alumina gel (H-151) 52 0.24 1/8 in.-1/4 in. 7
Silica gel 45 0.22 4-8 mesh 7
Molecular sieves (4A) 45 0.25 1/8 in. 14




GLOSSARY
absorption The assimilation of one material into another. In natural gas

dehydration, the use of an absorptive liquid to selectively remove
water vapor from a gas stream.
adsorption Adhesion of molecules of gases, liquids, or dissolved substances to

a solid surface, resulting in relatively high concentration of the
molecules at the place of contact.
alumina A regenerable aluminum oxide base desiccant.
calcium chloride A type of consumable desiccant.
DEG Diethylene glycol.
dehydration The act or process of removing equilibrium water from gases or

liquids.
desiccant A substance used in a dehydrator to remove water and moisture.
EG Ethylene glycol.
hydrate A solid material resulting from the combination of a hydrocarbon

with water under pressure.
molecular sieves Regenerable solid desiccants composed of crystalline metal

aluminosilicates (zeolites).
MSCF Million standard cubic feet.
MTZ Mass transfer zone for an adsorption bed.
NGL Natural gas liquids are those hydrocarbons liquefied at the surface
in field facilities or in gas processing plants. Natural gas liquids
include propane, butanes and natural gasoline.
regeneration A process by which a catalyst or a chemical reagent is returned

close to its original reactiveness.

silica gel A regenerable silicon oxide adsorbent.
stripping Substantially complete removal of the more volatile components

from a mixture. It is usually accomplished by passing the hot
bottoms from a flash drum or tower through a stripping vessel
through which steam or inert gas is passed, to sweep out the volatile
components.
TEG Triethylene glycol.
TREG Tetraethylene glycol.
water dew point The temperature at which water vapor starts to condense from a gas
mixture.

APPENDIX A - SAUDI ARAMCO SOLID DESICCANT DEHYDRATION UNITS
FLOW INSTALLED BED

DEHYDRATION RATE NO. OF
LOCATION/PLT. # SERVICE MOLE/H TYPE VENDOR BEDS
R
BERRI G.P. #470 SWEET NGL GAS 46279 MOLECULAR SIEVE, 4A UNION 3+1 ON
CARBIDE REGEN
OR GRACE
SHEDGUM SWEET NGL GAS 30400 MOLECULAR SIEVE, 4A UN.CARBID 2+1 ON

G.P. #R42 E REGEN
OR GRACE
SWEET NGL 2398 ACTIVATED ALUMINA,A 1+1 ON
LIQUID RHONE- REGEN
F-200 POULENC,
ALCOA
UTHMA. G.P. #R33 SWEET NGL GAS 32908 MOLECULAR SIEVE, 4A UN.CARBID 2+1 ON
E REGEN
OR GRACE
SWEET NGL 2314 ACTIVATED ALUMINA, A 1+1 ON
LIQUID RHONE- REGEN
F-200 POULENC,
ALCOA
JU'AYMAH LIQUID PROPANE 14416 MOLECULAR SIEVE, 4A UN.CARBID 1+1 ON

G.P. #R84 E REGEN
OR GRACE
LIQUID BUTANE 5976 MOLECULAR SIEVE, 4A 1+1 ON
UN.CARBID REGEN
E
OR GRACE
YANBU G.P. #V84 LIQUID PROPANE 9676 MOLECULAR SIEVE, 4A UN.CARBID 1+1 ON
E REGEN
OR GRACE
LIQUID BUTANE 3964 MOLECULAR SIEVE, 4A 1+1 ON
UN.CARBID REGEN
E
OR GRACE
R.T. REF. PLT #25 SOUR GAS 4840 MOLECULAR SIEVE, 564C GRACE 2+2 ON
REGEN
ABQ. PLANT 462 SOUR GAS 14293 MOLECULAR SIEVE,

50% 564C GRACE, 2+1 ON
AND 50% SF1087 UN.CARBID REGEN
E

APPENDIX B - REPRESENTATIVE VENDORS OF SOLID DESICCANT

EQUIPMENT
Activated Alumina
Alcoa-Aluminum Company of America

Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15219
Telephone: (800) 533-4511
Rhone-Poulenc Chimie Minrale Fine

18 Avenue d'Alsace
Cedex 29, 92097 Paris La Defense
Courbevoie, France
Telephone: (1) 47 68 1234
Telex: 610500F
Molecular Sieve
W. R. Grace & Co.

Davison Chemical Division
Dept. TR
P.O. Box 2117
Baltimore, Maryland 21203
Telephone: (301) 659-9000
Telex: 87834
UOP (Union Carbide/Allied Signal) Molecular Sieve Adsorbents

Dubai International Trade Centre, Floor 25
P.O. Box 9248
Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Telephone: (971) 4-376846
Silica Gel
W. R. Grace & Co.

Davison Chemical Division
Dept. TR
P.O. Box 2117
Baltimore, Maryland 21203
Telephone: (301) 659-9000
Telex: 87834

APPENDIX C - VENDOR INFORMATION
TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF RHONE-POULENC ALUMINAS

ALCOA F-200 ACTIVATED ALUMINA FOR ADSORPTION APPLICATIONS

ALCOA F-200 ACTIVATED ALUMINA FOR ADSORPTION APPLICATIONS

(CONT'D)

DAVISON MOLECULAR SIEVES ESTABLISHED APPLICATIONS

DAVISON MOLECULAR SIEVES ESTABLISHED APPLICATIONS (CONT'D)

BASIC TYPES OF UNION CARBIDE MOLECULAR SIEVES

Dehydrate Inhibition PDF

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Dehydrate Inhibition PDF

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Dehydration And Hydrate Inhibition

Chapter : Process For additional information on this subject, contact

PRINCIPLES OF DEHYDRATION ....................................................................... 1

WATER REMOVAL PROCESSES ........................................................................ 6

OPTIMIZING AND TROUBLESHOOTING DEHYDRATOR ........................... 28

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

WORK AID 1: SOLUBILITY OF WATER IN LIQUID HYDROCARBONS .. 35

WORK AID 2A:WATER CONTENT OF HYDROCARBON GAS .................... 36

WORK AID 2B: EFFECTIVE WATER CONTENT FOR CO2............................ 37

WORK AID 2C: EFFECTIVE WATER CONTENT FOR H2S ............................ 38

WORK AID 3: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL INHIBITORS ..... 39

WORK AID 4: USEFUL EQUATIONS FOR DEHYDRATION

WORK AID 5: TYPICAL DESICCANT PROPERTIES .................................... 43

APPENDIX A - SAUDI ARAMCO SOLID DESICCANT

APPENDIX B - REPRESENTATIVE VENDORS OF SOLID

APPENDIX C - VENDOR INFORMATION........................................................ 50

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Prevent formation of hydrates in transmission lines.

Absorption using liquid desiccants.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

Water Content of Hydrocarbons

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 2

Water Content Measurement for Natural Gas

The conditions that promote hydrate formation are:

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

The regenerator in a glycol injection system should be operated to produce a regenerated

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 4

FREEZING POINTS OF AQUEOUS GLYCOL SOLUTIONS

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 5

WATER REMOVAL PROCESSES

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 6

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM FOR GLYCOL DEHYDRATION UNIT

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 7

EQUILIBRIUM WATER DEW POINTS FOR GASES IN CONTACT WITH

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 8

Lean Glycol Temperature

Glycol Reboiler Temperature

Regenerator Top Temperature

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 9

Glycol Circulation Rate

EFFECT OF TEG CIRCULATION RATE AND CONCENTRATION ON DEW POINT

From non-proprietary information from Exxon Production Research Company, Production

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 10

Number of Absorber Trays

EFFECT OF NUMBER OF ABSORBER TRAYS

From non-proprietary information from Exxon Production Research Company, Production

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 11

Solid Desiccant Dehydration

Desiccants in common commercial use fall into one of three categories:

Alumina - Regenerable aluminum oxide base desiccant.

Silica Gel - Regenerable silicon oxide adsorbent.

Molecular Sieves - Regenerable solid desiccants composed of crystalline metal

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 12

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 13

WATER VAPOR ADSORPTION AT 60F

From non-proprietary information from Exxon Production Research Company, Production

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 14

SOLID DESICCANT DEHYDRATOR TWIN TOWER SYSTEM

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 15

TYPICAL MOLECULAR SIEVE GAS DEHYDRATION VESSEL

From non-proprietary information from Exxon Production Research Company, Production