2.

WATER SERVICES

2.1 Standards and Regulations

Water Regulations Guide, including the Water Bylaws 2000 (Scotland),

ISBN 0-9539708-9.

BS 6700: 1997 Specification for the design, installation testing and

maintenance of services supplying water for domestic use within buildings
and their cartilages.

2.2 Water Demand

The water demand for a building is dependent on a number of factors:

Type of building and function

Number of occupants and type occupancy

Landscape and water features

Typical daily water demands/usage are given in the table below:

Table 2.1 Daily Water Demand

Building and function Litres Criteria/Unit Note

Dwelling 120 - 200 person
School (boarding) 90 - 150 student
School (day) 20 - 30 student
Hotel 250 - 500 bedroom Depends on star
rating
Hospital 150 - 600 bed
Office 40 - 50 person
Restaurant 7 cover
Recreation/Leisure 5 10 person

2.3 Water Supply

Water supply can either be from the public utility or by private water supply
arrangements.

ARC 851 BUILDING SERVICES (2014) - AIRCONDITIONING 1

 In most parts of Nigeria, the public water supply is non-existent or unreliable.
Most people depend on private water supply arrangements.

Source of Private Supply

Borehole

Well

River (or water body)

Fig 2.1 Private Water Supply

ARC 851 BUILDING SERVICES (2014) - AIRCONDITIONING 2

2.4 Water Treatment

The suitability of water supplied for potable use depends on its purity. Potable
water has to conform to the WHO standards.

Common water impurities are tabulated below:

Table 2.2 Impurities in the Water Supply

Impurity Explanation
Total Solids Organic solids from animal and vegetable
debris.
Inorganic solids from chalk or salt bearing
strata.
Ammonia Free and saline ammonia in water from shallow
( 0.08 ppm) wells indicate pollution by sewage.
Oxygen absorbed Organic matter in water derived from decay of
( 2.00 ppm) animal and vegetable matter.
Nitrates Pollution
( 5.00 ppm)
Nitrites Sewage pollution.
( 5 ppm)
Chlorine Salinity
Hardness (temporary and Hardness is due mainly to the salts of calcium
permanent) and magnesium.
10 soft
20 - hand
Bacteria Organic pollution

The 3 main processes of treatment are:

Filtration

Sterilization

Softening

ARC 851 BUILDING SERVICES (2014) - AIRCONDITIONING 3

Fig 2.1 Schematic of Water Treatment Process

2.5 Water Storage

In order to improve the reliability of water supply to a building development, it is

now common practice to provide for storage of potable water.

Storage tank construction can be of:

Steel
Concrete
UPVC
GRP

The stored capacity shall not exceed the equivalent of 3 days water demand.
Storage tanks can be located at the grand and/or elevated positions.

The advantages of storage facilities include:

i) A means of water reserve during mains failure

ii) The reduced line pressure from storage tanks as compared to mains
pressure implies a quieter operation.

ARC 851 BUILDING SERVICES (2014) - AIRCONDITIONING 4

 iii) Minimizes backflow contamination of the public supply pipe is reduced.

2.6 Water Distribution

There are 2 forms of water distribution within the building:

Line pressurization

Gravity

Line pressurization
In recent times, the minimum pressure required by modern top range faucets is 1
bar (10m). The mains pressure in most cities of Nigeria is not adequate for this
requirement and a line booster system is usually incorporated. The distribution is
extended directly from the mains supply. In other installations where the
provision of an elevated storage tank is not practical, the booster unit can take
supply from a ground or underground storage tank.

The controls for the line booster unit are effected using a pneumatic system
(pneumatic vessel or membrane pressure tank).

Fig 2.2 Pressure Vessels (courtesy Rycroft)

ARC 851 BUILDING SERVICES (2014) - AIRCONDITIONING 5

 Gravity Flows
For gravity installations, there is usually a storage tank installed at an elevated
position on the roof or scaffold. Water distribution within building is effected
under gravity pressure realized from the different elevation between the tanks
and the faucets. Line losses would need to be considered.

In multi-storey installations where the differential elevation between the tank and
the uppermost fittings (topmost floor) is not adequate, it may become necessary
to install line boosters to serve the upper floors.

2.6 Pipe Sizing

The demand for water at sanitary appliances is intermittent and mainly random
but it can peak at some fairly regular times. As such sizing pipes based on the
peak demand is uneconomic. Rather, sizing is carried out based on theoretical
probability of use commonly referred to as demand unit or loading unit.

Table 2.3 Loading Units

Appliance Frequency of use Note
Low Medium High
Basin (15mm tap) 1 2 4
Sink (15mm tap) 2 5 10
Sink (20mm tap) - 7 -
Bath (15mm tap) 4 8 16
Bath (20mm tap) - 11 -
WC (6L cistern) 1 2 5
Shower (15mm head) 2 3 6
Urinal - 1 1

Table 2.4 Recommended Rates of Flows for Sanitary Appliances.

Appliance Flows (L/s)
WC 0.11
Basin 0.15
Bath 0.30
Shower 0.11
Sink (15mm) 0.19
Sink 20mm 0.30

ARC 851 BUILDING SERVICES (2014) - AIRCONDITIONING 6

 The procedure for pipe sizing is as follows:

1. Draw the pipe layout on the building plan.

2. Draw a schematic layout

3. Mark the LU (loading units) for each appliance.

4. Sum the LU along the pipework to the source (water tank or mains valve).

5. Convert the LU to flow rates using table (this may not be necessary if
sizing graph of figure 2.4 or 2.5 is used.

6. Determine the pressure head H (in metre) of water causing the flow.

7. Estimate the equivalent length EL (in metre) of the pipe run on each flow.
Assume the measured length plus 30% allowance for fitting losses.

8. Find the index circuit i.e. the lowest H/EL ratio.

9. Depending on the pipe material, choose pipe sizes using Fig 2.4 or 2.5
and the index circuit. Limit flow velocity to less than 2m/s.

10. Size other circuits based on respective H/EL ratio and the limiting velocity.

ARC 851 BUILDING SERVICES (2014) - AIRCONDITIONING 7

Fig 2.3 pipe sizing chart copper and stainless steel

ARC 851 BUILDING SERVICES (2014) - AIRCONDITIONING 8

Fig 2.5 Pipe sizing chart - plastic

ARC 851 BUILDING SERVICES (2014) - AIRCONDITIONING 9

Fig 2.6 Water services layout for bedroom toilet

ARC 851 BUILDING SERVICES (2014) - AIRCONDITIONING 10

2.7. Hot Water Services

The hot water requirement for the building can be met by using central hot water
service or decentralized (point-of-use) service.

Central Service
The source of hot water can be gas, diesel or electric boilers. The boilers can be
hot water or steam generators. The hot water can be distribution directly even
though this is not usual. The indirect system is more common in which hot water
or steam from the boiler is used to heat the secondary water system that is used
in the building.

Fig 2.7 Steam and Hot Water Generation

Decentralized Service
This is common in residential dwellings or where the points of use are minimal.
Electricity is the common means of heating. Local electric water heaters (EWH)
come in various sizes 10L, 25L, 50L, 80L, 100L and 125L. The bigger units
with capacities above 50L are used in mini-centralized services. The small units
with capacities of 10L are usually of the instantaneous type.

Hot water distribution pipe works are lagged (insulated) to conserve heat if the
pipes are not buried in the walls.

ARC 851 BUILDING SERVICES (2014) - AIRCONDITIONING 11

 Water storage temperatures are up to 650C as a means of preventing the
legionnaire disease. Temperatures at points of use are usually do not exceed
500C.

Table 2.5 Daily Hot Water Demands

Building L/Person
Schools - boarding 115
Schools - day 15
Dwelling 120
Hotels 100 - 150
Office 14
Sports 40
Restaurant 6

2.8 Pipe Materials

Table 2.6 Schedule of Pipe Material

Material Application Jointing
Copper All water services, gas and oil pipeline; Compression, manipulative, silver
solder, bronze weld, flanged or push-
fit ring seal using polybutylene fittings
Black mild Indirect hot-water heating systems, British Standard pipe thread (BSPT),
steel pipework and radiators screwed and socketed, flanged or
welded.
Galvanized Hot and cold water pipework on open BSPT screwed, socketed, flanged or
mild steel systems and water mains; cold-water push-fit ring seal using polybutylene
storage tanks and indirect cylinders. fittings.
Stainless Hot and cold water pipework 15 28mm; Compression, silver solder, flanged or
steel thickness and diameter correspond to push-fit ring seal using polybutylene
those of semi-hard copper and can be fittings
bent in the same way; larger diameters
are used for chemicals or for sterile fluids
in hospital services.
Cast iron Central heating radiators, boilers and BSPT screwed fittings and gasket
centrifugal pump bodies joints
Brass Pipe fittings and valves BSPT screwed.
Polybutylene Cold and hot water pipes and fittings in Push-fit ring seal, compression fusion
15mm and 22mm diameters, withstanding weld.
90oC at 3 bar (atm) pressure.
Polythylene Underground mains cold water Compression
UPVC Mainly cold-water services, cold water Compression, solvent weld.
distribution.

ARC 851 BUILDING SERVICES (2014) - AIRCONDITIONING 12

References and acknowledgements

1. Chadderton David. Building Services Engineering, Spon Press

ISBN 0 415 415 31534 2.

2. Peter Bubbery. Environment and Services, BT Batford Ltd

ISBN 07134 05155

3. Stein and Reynolds. Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings, Wiley
ISBN 047156965.

4. The Institute of Plumbing. Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide

ISBN 1 871956 40 4

5. The Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers. Guide G Public Health

Engineering

6. Hall F. Water Installation and Drainage Systems, Construction Press

ISBN 0 86095 808 6

ARC 851 BUILDING SERVICES (2014) - AIRCONDITIONING 13