Topic 2 Errors

Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: Errors
Mbigili, L.J
March 28, 2017
Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: ErrorsMarch 28, 2017 1 / 44

Outline for section 1
1 Errors in Computations
Introduction
Sources of Errors
Errors in Numerical Computations
Human Error
Inherent errors
Truncation Errors
Rounding Errors
Absolute and Relative Errors
Significant digits
General Error Formula
Function Approximation
Stability and Condition

Introduction
Introduction
Numerical methods are methods for solving problems on
computers by numerical calculations, often giving a table of
numbers and/or graphical representations or figures.

Introduction
Introduction
Numerical methods tend to emphasize the implementation of
algorithms.

Introduction
Introduction
algorithms.
The aim of numerical methods is therefore to provide systematic
methods for solving problems in a numerical form.

Introduction
Introduction
algorithms.
The aim of numerical methods is therefore to provide systematic
methods for solving problems in a numerical form.
The process of solving problems generally involves starting from
an initial data, using high precision digital computers, following
the steps in the algorithms, and finally obtaining the results.

Introduction
Introduction
Often the numerical data and the methods used are approximate
ones.

Introduction
Introduction
ones.
Hence, the error in a computed result may be caused by the errors
in the data, or the errors in the method or both.

Introduction
Introduction
ones.
If not carefully treated, the errors will continue propagating from
one step after another and eventually will lead to a wrong
approximation.

Introduction
Introduction
ones.
If not carefully treated, the errors will continue propagating from
one step after another and eventually will lead to a wrong
approximation.
For this reason it is important in numerical analysis to do error
analysis for each technique used and decide which technique is
better than the other in approximating the solution to the
problem.

Sources of Errors
Definition
How can we define an ERRORin computation?

Sources of Errors
Definition
In its simplest form, it is just the difference between the exact
value(answer), XE , say, and the computed(approximated)
value(answer), XA .

Sources of Errors
Definition
In its simplest form, it is just the difference between the exact
value(answer), XE , say, and the computed(approximated)
value(answer), XA .
Hence, we can write
Error, E = XA XE

Sources of Errors
Sources of Errors
What are the possible sources of error in computation?

Sources of Errors
Sources of Errors
When a computational procedure is involved in solving a
scientific-mathematical problem, errors often will be involved in
the process.

Sources of Errors
Sources of Errors
When a computational procedure is involved in solving a
scientific-mathematical problem, errors often will be involved in
the process.
A rough classification of the kinds of original errors that might
occur is as follows:

Sources of error
Kinds of Original Errors

1 Modelling Errors: Mathematical modelling is a process when
mathematical equations are used to represent a physical system.

Sources of error

This modeling introduces errors and are called modelling errors.

Sources of error

2 Blunders and Mistakes: Blunders occur at any stage of the
mathematical modeling process and consists to all other
components of error.

Sources of error

2 Blunders and Mistakes: Blunders occur at any stage of the
mathematical modeling process and consists to all other
components of error.
Blunders can be avoided by sound knowledge of fundamental
principles and with taking proper care in approach and design to a
solution. Mistakes are due to the programming errors.

Sources of error
Sources of Error
3 Machine Representation and Arithmetic Errors: These errors are
inevitable when using floating-point arithmetic when using
computers or calculators. Examples are rounding and chopping
errors.

Sources of error
Sources of Error
3 Machine Representation and Arithmetic Errors: These errors are
inevitable when using floating-point arithmetic when using
computers or calculators. Examples are rounding and chopping
errors.
4 Mathematical Approximation Errors: This error is also known as a
truncation error or discretisation error. These errors arise when an
approximate formulation is made to a problem that otherwise
cannot be solved exactly.

Accuracy and Precision

It is important to differentiate between two key concepts of errors:
Accuracy and Precision.


Accuracy: Accuracy refers to how close a computed or measured
value agrees with the theoretical true value.


It is the degree of closeness of agreement between a measured
value and a true or accepted value.


It is the degree of closeness of agreement between a measured
value and a true or accepted value.
Measurement error is the amount of inaccuracy.


Precision: Precision refers to how close individual computed or
measured values agree with each other.Is a measure of how
repeated a value is.
Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: Errors

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It is the degree of consistency and agreement among independent
measurements of the same quantity; also the reliability or
reproducibility of the result.

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It is the degree of consistency and agreement among independent
measurements of the same quantity; also the reliability or
reproducibility of the result.
The uncertainty estimate associated with a measurement should
account for both the accuracy and precision of the measurement.

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Inaccuracy (also known as bias) is the systematic deviation from
the truth.

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the truth.
Imprecision (uncertainty) refers to the magnitude of the scatter.

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the truth.
To illustrate this point, think of throwing darts at a dart board.

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the truth.
Being accurate is similar to throwing five darts and surrounding
the bulls eye.

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the truth.
Being accurate is similar to throwing five darts and surrounding
the bulls eye.
Precision is similar to throwing five darts and that all strike right
next to each other, but are not necessarily on the bulls eye.

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Figure: Concepts of accuracy and precisions

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In numerical computations, we come across the following types of
errors:
1 Human Errors

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errors:
1 Human Errors
2 Inherent errors

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errors:
1 Human Errors
2 Inherent errors
3 Round-off errors

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errors:
1 Human Errors
2 Inherent errors
3 Round-off errors
4 Truncation errors

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Human Error
Human Error
A typical human error is Arithmetic Errorand Programming
Error.

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Human Error
Human Error
Error.
These errors can be very hard to detect unless they give obviously
incorrect solution.

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Human Error
Human Error
Error.
These errors can be very hard to detect unless they give obviously
incorrect solution.
In discussing errors, we shall assume that Human errors are not
present.

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Inherent errors
Inherent errors
Inherent errors are the errors that pre-exist in the problem
statement itself before its solution is obtained.

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Inherent errors
Inherent errors
Inherent errors exist because the data being approximate or due to
the limitations of the calculations using digital computers.

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Inherent errors
Inherent errors
Inherent errors exist because the data being approximate or due to
the limitations of the calculations using digital computers.
Inherent errors cannot be completely eliminated but can be
minimized if we select better data or by employing high precision
computer computations.

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Truncation Errors
Truncation Errors
Truncation error is present when some infinite process is
(prematurely broken off) approximated by a finite process.

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Truncation Errors
Truncation Errors
Thus, we can say that truncation error results from terminating
after a finite number of terms known as formula truncation error
or simply truncation error.

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Truncation Errors
Truncation Errors
Thus, we can say that truncation error results from terminating
after a finite number of terms known as formula truncation error
or simply truncation error.
The Taylors theorem in studying truncation errors is a good
example and worth be considered.

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Truncation Errors
Theorem (Taylors Theorem)

Suppose f C n [a, b] and f n+1 exists on [a, b]. Let x0 be a number in
[a, b]. For every x in [a, b], there exists a number (x) between xo and x
such that
f (x) = Pn (x) + Rn (x) where (1)
f 00 (x0 ) f n (x0 )
Pn (x) = f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x x0 ) + (x x0 )2 + . . . + (x x0 )
2! n!
n
X f k (x0 )
= (x x0 )k and
k!
k=0
(2)
x
f n+1 ((x))
Z
1
Rn (x) = (x t)n f n+1 (t)dt = (x x0 )n+1 (3)
n! x0 (n + 1)!

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Truncation Errors
Truncation Errors
Here, Pn (x) is called the nth Taylor polynomial for f about x0
and Rn (x) is the Truncation error(or Remainder term)
associated with Pn (x).

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Truncation Errors
Truncation Errors
Since the number (x) in the truncation error Rn (x) depends on
the value of x at which the polynomial Pn (x) is being evaluated, it
is actually a function of the variable x.

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Truncation Errors
Truncation Errors
Since the number (x) in the truncation error Rn (x) depends on
the value of x at which the polynomial Pn (x) is being evaluated, it
is actually a function of the variable x.
In fact, one of the common problems in numerical methods is to
try to determine a realistic bound for the value of f n+1 ((x)) for
values of x within some specified interval.

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Truncation Errors
Truncation Errors
It is possible sometimes to place upper bound on the x of Rn (x)
depending on the nature of function f (x).

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Truncation Errors
Truncation Errors
If the maximum value of |f n+1 ((x))| over the interval [x0 , x] is
known or can be evaluated, then

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Truncation Errors
Truncation Errors

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Truncation Errors
Truncation Errors
n (x) , max |f n+1 ((x))| (4)

x0 (x)x

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Truncation Errors
Truncation Errors
n (x) , max |f n+1 ((x))| (4)

x0 (x)x
From (3) and (4), the upper bound on the size of the truncation
error can be written as

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Truncation Errors
Truncation Errors
n (x) , max |f n+1 ((x))| (4)

x0 (x)x

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Truncation Errors
Truncation Errors
n (x) , max |f n+1 ((x))| (4)

x0 (x)x
|(x x0 )|n+1
|Rn (x)| n (x) (5)
(n + 1)!

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Truncation Errors
Truncation Errors
If h = x x0 , then the truncation error Rn (x) is said to be of
order O(hn ).

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Truncation Errors
Truncation Errors
order O(hn ).
In other words, as h 0, Rn (x) 0 at the same rate as hn .

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Truncation Errors
Truncation Errors
order O(hn ).
Hence

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Truncation Errors
Truncation Errors
order O(hn ).
Hence

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Truncation Errors
Truncation Errors
order O(hn ).
Hence
O(hn ) chn , where |h| << 1 (6)
where c is a non-zero constant.

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Truncation Errors
Truncation Errors: Example 1

Consider the Taylor series expansion for the function f (x) = ex at
x = 0.

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Truncation Errors

x = 0.
We have

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Truncation Errors

x = 0.
We have

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Truncation Errors

x = 0.
We have
x2 x3 xn
ex = 1 + x + + + ... + + ... (7)
2! 3! n!
If this formula is used to calculate f = e0.1 we get

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Truncation Errors

x = 0.
We have
x2 x3 xn
ex = 1 + x + + + ... + + ... (7)
2! 3! n!

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Truncation Errors

x = 0.
We have
x2 x3 xn
ex = 1 + x + + + ... + + ... (7)
2! 3! n!
(0.1)2 (0.1)3 (0.1)n

e0.1 = 1 + 0.1 + + + ... + + ... (8)
2! 3! n!

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Truncation Errors
Truncation Errors:Example 1
Here the questions are, where do we stop the calculations? How
many terms do we include?

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Truncation Errors
Truncation Errors:Example 1
Here the questions are, where do we stop the calculations? How
many terms do we include?
Theoretically the calculations will never stop. There are always
more terms to add on and if we do stop after a finite number of
terms, we will not get the exact answer.

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Truncation Errors

For example if we take the first five terms as the approximation we
get

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Truncation Errors

get

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Truncation Errors

get
(0.1)2 (0.1)3 (0.1)4

f = e0 .1 1 + 0.1 + + + = f 1.10517 (9)
2! 3! 4!
For this calculation, the truncation error T E(ie the sum of the
terms that have been chopped off) is

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Truncation Errors

get
(0.1)2 (0.1)3 (0.1)4

f = e0 .1 1 + 0.1 + + + = f 1.10517 (9)
2! 3! 4!

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Truncation Errors

get
(0.1)2 (0.1)3 (0.1)4

f = e0 .1 1 + 0.1 + + + = f 1.10517 (9)
2! 3! 4!
(0.1)5 (0.1)6 (0.1)7 (0.1)8

T E = R4 (x) = f f = + ...
5! 6! 7! 8!
(10)
The numerical analyst might try to estimate the size of the
truncation error, that is |T E| = |R4 (x)|.
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Truncation Errors

In this example we can easily get a rough estimate

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Truncation Errors


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Truncation Errors

(0.1)5 (0.1) (0.1)2 (0.1)3

|R4 (x)|= (1 + + + + . . .)
5! 6 67 678
(0.1)5 (0.1)2 (0.1)3 (0.1)4 (11)
(1 + 0.1 + + + + . . .)
5! 2! 3! 4!
(0.1)5 0.1 0.00001
= e 1.10517 107
5! 120

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Truncation Errors

Thus the error in truncating to five terms is approximately 107 at
x = 0.1.

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Truncation Errors

Thus the error in truncating to five terms is approximately 107 at
x = 0.1.
This truncation error which is an actual error could coincide with
the bound of the accuracy to the approximation computed through
x5
|R4 (x)| max |f n+1 ((x)|
0<(x)<0.1 5!

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Rounding Errors
Rounding Errors(Round-off Error)

Rounding error is due to the inaccuracies that arise due to a finite
number of digits of precision used to represent numbers.

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Rounding Errors

All computers represent numbers, except for integers and some
fractions, with imprecision.

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Rounding Errors

Digital computers use floating-point numbers of fixed word length,
and this type of representation will not express the exact or true
values correctly.

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Rounding Errors

Digital computers use floating-point numbers of fixed word length,
and this type of representation will not express the exact or true
values correctly.
Therefore, errors introduced by the omission of significant figures
due to computer imperfection is called the the round-off error

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Rounding Errors
Rounding Errors
For further clarification of the idea of rounding error, lets consider
the calculation of f that was considered in the example above.

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Rounding Errors
Rounding Errors

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Rounding Errors
Rounding Errors
(0.1)2 (0.1)3 (0.1)4

f= 1 + 0.1 + + + .
2! 3! 4!
= 1 + 0.1 + 0.005 + 0.000166 + 0.000004166 (12)
= 1.105170833

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Rounding Errors
Rounding Errors
The exact answer to the truncated problem, f is an infinite string
of digits and, as such, is not very useful.

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Rounding Errors
Rounding Errors
Since we know that it is in the seventh decimal place, we could
round it to six or seven decimal places.

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Rounding Errors
Rounding Errors
Since we know that it is in the seventh decimal place, we could
round it to six or seven decimal places.
For example, rounding to six decimal places gives
f ' 1.105171 = f where the usual rounding process has been
adopted.

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Rounding Errors
Rounding Errors
The difference between f and f, f f = 0.000000166 = RE is the
rounding error.

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Rounding Errors
Rounding Errors
rounding error.

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Rounding Errors
Rounding Errors
rounding error.
Using the usual rounding process(and rounding to six decimal
places) the rounding error is always bounded by 12 10k .

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Rounding Errors
Rounding Errors
rounding error.
Thus, in computing the answer e0.1 f = 1.105171, two errors are
present.

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Rounding Errors
Rounding Errors
rounding error.
present.

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Rounding Errors
Rounding Errors
rounding error.
present.
ERROR(E)= f f = (f f) + (f f )
= RE + T E and the absolute error is
1 1
|E| |RE| + |T E| 106 + 107 106
2 2
Note that in this case the actual error is dominated by Rounding.

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Definition
In numerical analysis, we are usually interested in the magnitude
or absolute value of the error.

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Definition
In numerical analysis, we are usually interested in the magnitude
or absolute value of the error.
So we define the absolute error as the difference between the
approximated measurement or computed value (XA ) and the exact
measurement or exact answer (XE ).
Absolute Error, Ea = |XA XE | (13)

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Relative Error and upper bound

In practical calculations, it is important to obtain an upper bound
on the error.

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on the error.
That is, a number is found such
Ea = |XA XE | <

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on the error.
Ea = |XA XE | <
Clearly we would like to be small.

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on the error.
Ea = |XA XE | <

In practice, we are often more interested in so called Relative
Errorrather than absolute error and we define
|XA XE |
Relative Error, Er = (14)
|XE |

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on the error.
Ea = |XA XE | <

In practice, we are often more interested in so called Relative
Errorrather than absolute error and we define
|XA XE |
Relative Error, Er = (14)
|XE |
This is often expressed as a percentage.

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Relative Error
Thus an error of 105 may be a good or bad relative
errordepending on the answer.
Answer = 1000, E = 105 very good

Answer = 1, E = 105 good
Answer = 105 , E = 105 very bad

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Significant digits
Significant digits
Significant digits: The concept of a significant figure, or digit,
has been developed to formally define the reliability of a numerical
value.

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Significant digits
Significant digits
value.
The significant digits of a number are those that can be used with
confidence.

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Significant digits
Significant digits
value.
The significant digits of a number are those that can be used with
confidence.
If XE is the exact or true value and XA is an approximation to
XE , then XA is said to approximate XE to t significant digits if t
is the largest non-negative integer for which
XA XE
< 5 10t (15)
XE

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Significant digits
Chopping and Rounding errors

Example 1: Let the exact or true value XE = 20/3 and the
approximate value XA = 6.666. Determine the absolute error,
relative error and the number of significant digits.

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Significant digits

Example 2:If XE = e (base of the natural algorithm =
2.7182818) is approximated by XA = 2.71828, what is the
significant number of digits to which XA approximates XE ?

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Significant digits

Example 3: Given the number is approximated using n = 5
decimal digits.

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Significant digits

decimal digits.
(a) Determine the relative error due to chopping and express it as a per
cent.

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Significant digits

decimal digits.
(a) Determine the relative error due to chopping and express it as a per
cent.
(b) Determine the relative error due to rounding and express it as a per
cent.

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Significant digits

Example 4: Use Taylor series expansions (zero through fourth
order) to predict f (2) for f (x) = ln(x) with a base point at x = 1.
Determine the true percentage relative error for each
approximation.

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Significant digits

approximation.
Example 5: If the number = 4 arctan(1) is approximated using
5 decimal digits, find the percentage relative error due to, (a)
chopping (b) rounding.

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Significant digits

approximation.
Example 5: If the number = 4 arctan(1) is approximated using
5 decimal digits, find the percentage relative error due to, (a)
Example 6: Given two numbers a = 8.8909 103 and
b = 8.887 103 . Calculate the difference between the two numbers
(a b) using decimal floating point approximation (scientific
notation) with three significant digits in the mantissa by (a)
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Significant digits

Example 7: Given the trigonometric function f (x) = sin x.

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Significant digits

(a) expand f (x) about x = 0 using Taylor series

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Significant digits

(b) truncate the series to n = 6 terms

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Significant digits

(c) find the relative error at x = 4 due to truncation in (b).

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Significant digits

(d) determine the upper bound on the magnitude of the relative error
at x = 4 and express it as a percent.

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Significant digits

(d) determine the upper bound on the magnitude of the relative error
at x = 4 and express it as a percent.
Example 8: Determine (a) the second and (b) the third Taylor
polynomials for f (x) = cos x about x = 0, and use these
polynomials to approximate cos(0.01). (c) Use the third Taylor
R 0.1
polynomial and its remainder term to approximate 0 cos xdx

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In this section, we derive a general formula for the error
committed in using a certain formula or a function relation.

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Consider the function F = f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) be a function of
several variables xi (i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n).

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Consider the function F = f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) be a function of
several variables xi (i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n).
Let the error in each variable xi be xi . Then the error F in F
is given by
F + F = f (x1 + x1 , x2 + x2 , . . . , xn + xn ) (16)

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Expanding the right hand side by Taylors series, we obtain
n
X f
F + F = f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) + xi
xi
i=1
+ terms involving higher powers of xi .

n
X f
= f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) + xi + O(x2i )
xi
i=1

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Assuming that the errors in xi are small enough so that x
xi << 1,
i
and that the squares and other higher powers of xi can be

neglected, then the above relation yields
n
X f
F xi
xi
i=1 (17)
f f f
= x1 + x2 + . . . + xn
x1 x2 xn

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We observe that this formula has the same form as that for the
total differential of F .

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The formula for the relative error follows immediately
F f x1 f x2 f xn
Er = = + + ... + (18)
F x1 f x2 f xn f

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F f x1 f x2 f xn
Er = = + + ... + (18)
F x1 f x2 f xn f
The following example illustrates the use of this formula

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F f x1 f x2 f xn
Er = = + + ... + (18)
F x1 f x2 f xn f
The following example illustrates the use of this formula

2
Example 9: Given the function F = f (x, y, z) = 5xy
z3
. Let
x = y = z = 0.001, and x = y = z = 1. Determine the
relative maximum error (Er )max .(Answer (Er )max = 0.006.

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A numerical computation is said to be numerically unstable if
the uncertainty of the input values is grossly magnified by the
numerical method employed.

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Consider the first-order Taylors series of the function given by
f (x) = f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x x0 ) (19)

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Consider the first-order Taylors series of the function given by
f (x) = f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x x0 ) (19)
The relative error of f (x) then becomes
f (x) f (x0 ) f 0 (x0 )(x x0 )

Er = = (20)
f (x) f (x0 )

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The relative error of x becomes
x x0
(21)
x0

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The relative error of x becomes
x x0
(21)
x0
A condition number is often defined as the ratio of the relative

errors given by Equations (20) and (21) as
x0 f 0 (x0 )
Condition number = (22)
f (x0 )

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The condition number given by Equation (22) indicates the extent
to which an uncertainty in x is magnified by f (x).

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1 Condition number= 1 (functions relative error = relative error in x)

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2 Condition number> 1 (relative error is amplified)

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3 Condition number< 1 (relative error is attenuated) (1.41)

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4 Condition number > very large number (the function is
ill-conditioned)

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4 Condition number > very large number (the function is
ill-conditioned)
Example 10: Compute and interpret the condition number for

(a) f (x) = sin x for x0 = 0.51 and (b) f (x) = tan x for x0 = 1.7.

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Questions?

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Topic 2 Errors

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Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: Errors

March 28, 2017

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: ErrorsMarch 28, 2017 1 / 44

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: ErrorsMarch 28, 2017 2 / 44

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Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: ErrorsMarch 28, 2017 3 / 44

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: ErrorsMarch 28, 2017 3 / 44

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: ErrorsMarch 28, 2017 3 / 44

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: ErrorsMarch 28, 2017 4 / 44

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Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: ErrorsMarch 28, 2017 4 / 44

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: ErrorsMarch 28, 2017 4 / 44

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: ErrorsMarch 28, 2017 5 / 44

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: ErrorsMarch 28, 2017 5 / 44

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: ErrorsMarch 28, 2017 5 / 44

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: ErrorsMarch 28, 2017 6 / 44

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: ErrorsMarch 28, 2017 6 / 44

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: ErrorsMarch 28, 2017 6 / 44

Kinds of Original Errors

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: ErrorsMarch 28, 2017 7 / 44

Kinds of Original Errors

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: ErrorsMarch 28, 2017 7 / 44

Kinds of Original Errors

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: ErrorsMarch 28, 2017 7 / 44

Kinds of Original Errors

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: ErrorsMarch 28, 2017 7 / 44

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: ErrorsMarch 28, 2017 8 / 44

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: ErrorsMarch 28, 2017 8 / 44

Accuracy and Precision

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: ErrorsMarch 28, 2017 9 / 44

Accuracy and Precision

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: ErrorsMarch 28, 2017 9 / 44

Accuracy and Precision

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: ErrorsMarch 28, 2017 9 / 44

Accuracy and Precision

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: ErrorsMarch 28, 2017 9 / 44

Accuracy and Precision

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: Errors

Accuracy and Precision

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: Errors

Accuracy and Precision

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: Errors

Accuracy and Precision

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: Errors

Accuracy and Precision

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: Errors

Accuracy and Precision

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: Errors

Accuracy and Precision

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: Errors

Accuracy and Precision

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: Errors

Accuracy and Precision

Figure: Concepts of accuracy and precisions

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: Errors

Errors in Numerical Computations

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: Errors

Errors in Numerical Computations

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: Errors

Errors in Numerical Computations

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: Errors

Errors in Numerical Computations

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: Errors

Mbigili, L.J Numerical Analysis-Topic Two: Errors