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procedure
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The design procedure is
Transform Methods
1. Backward dierence
2. Forward dierence
3. Bilinear transformation
5. Impulse-invariance
6. Step-invariance
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There is no optimum method for a given system as this depends on the
sampling frequency, the highest-frequency component in the system, etc.
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s-plane to z -plane mapping
Note that the entire j axis maps into one complete revolution of the
unit circle.
(z = eT s maps j axis into innite number of revolutions of the unit circle)
2 1 z 1
s=
T 1 + z 1
2 D T
A = tan (1)
T 2
(1) shows the frequency distortion.
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The responses are equal when
2 D T
A = tan
T 2
Procedure for prewarping
2. transform
2
tan aT
2
GD (z) = T
|s= 2 1z1
s + T2 tan aT
2
T 1+z 1
tan aT
2
= 1z 1 aT
1+z 1
+ tan 2
Impulse-invariance method
We require
gD (kT ) = T g(t) |t=kT
Now,
GD (z) = Z[gD (kT )] = T Z[g(t)] = T Z[G(s)] = T G(z)
a Ta
If G(s) = GD (z) = T G(z) =
s+a 1 eaT z 1
Step-invariance method
1 1 1 1
Z GD (z) = L G(s)
1 z 1
s t=kT
step response of GD (z) step response of G(s) at t=kT
1 G(s) G(s)
GD (z) = Z L1 =Z
1z 1 s s
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or
G(s)
GD (z) = (1 z 1 )Z
s
T s
1e
= Z G(s)
s
a
For G(s) = s+a
G(s)
1
GD (z) = (1 z ) Z
s
a
= (1 z 1 ) Z
s(s + a)
aT 1
(1 e )z
=
1 eaT z 1
Matched pole-zero mapping method
Finite poles and zeros at s = b are replaced with z = ebT . For innite
poles and zeros in s, we replace with z = 1
Also, the gains should be matched.
a
Consider G(s) = s+a
GD (z) = K a(z+1)
zeaT
2a
require GD (1) = K 1eaT
= G(0) = 1
1eaT
K= 2a
1eaT (1+z 1 )
GD (z) = 2 (1eaT z 1 )
Implementation
All of the methods above which produce stable lters except for the step-
invariance method, give results of the following form
Y (z) 1 + z 1
GD (z) = =K , K, , and are constants
X(z) 1 + z 1
The corresponding dierence equation is
y(kT ) = y((k 1)T ) + Kx(kT ) + Kx((k 1)T )
These require y[(k 1)T ], x[(k 1)T ] and x(kT )
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Dierence equation
So, if x(kT ) cannot be included to get y(kT ), then the step-invariance method
must be used.
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Design Example
First, design analog system taking into consideration the frequency eects
of a ZOH
s+2
let Gc (s) = 20.25( s+6.66 )
Closed-loop TF
C(s) 202.5
=
R(s) (s + 2 + j2 3)(s + 2 2j 3)(s + 12.66)
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Pole at s = 12.66 is far away, so we can neglect it and use the complex
poles.
Note, complex poles have = 0.5 and n = 4 rad/sec
(Since the analog controller was designed to cancel the undesired plant pole
at s = 2)
thus
z 0.6703
GD (z) = 13.57
z 0.2644
Check design
1 e0.2s 1
G(z) = Z
s s(s + 2)
0.01759 (z + 0.8760)
=
(z 1) (z 0.6703)
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4-6 Design based on the frequency response method
1 + T2 w
z=
1 T2 w
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The origin in the z plane maps into the point w = T2 in the w plane.
The dierence between the s plane and w plane is that the frequency
range 12 s 12 s in the s plane maps to the range < < in
the w plane, where is the ctitious frequency on the w plane. Thus there is
a compression of the frequency scale. G(w) is treated as conventional trans-
fer function. Replacing w by j we can draw Bode plots.
2 z1 2 ejT 1
w |w=j = j = | jT =
T z + 1 z=e T ejT + 1
1
2 ej 2 (T ) ej 2
T
2 T
= T
j T = j tan
T e 2 +e 2
j T 2
or
2 T
= tan (2)
T 2
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thus if the bandwidth is specied as b , then the corresponding bandwidth
in the w plane is
2 b T
tan
T s
Similarly, G(j1 ) corresponds to G(j1 ) where
2 1 T
1 = ( ) tan1
T 2
Note, for T small,
G(w) = G(z) | 1+ T
2 w
z=
1 T
2
w
Choose T about 10 times the bandwidth of the closed-loop system.
2. Substitute w = j into G(w) and plot the Bode diagram for G(j)
3. Read from the plot the gain and phase margins and the low frequency
gain (which will determine static accuracy).
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Example
Design a digital controller in the w plane such that the phase margin is
50o , the gain margin is 10dB and static velocity constant Kv is 2 sec1 .
Assume T = 0.2
Solution
1 e0.2s K
G(z) = Z
s s(s + 1)
K(z + 0.9356)
= 0.01873
(z 1)(z 0.8187)
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Try a lead compensator
1+ w
GD (w) =
1+ w
1+ w
w + 1)(1 w )
K( 300.6 10
GD (w) G(w) =
1+ w
w( w + 1)
0.997
Require Kv = 2
where
Kv = lim wGD (w) G(w)
w0
K=2
With this value of K, we can read the gain and phase margins. We nd
0
30 phase margin and 15.5 dB gain margin. To give a boost in the phase
margin, we adjust the parameters of the lead network and
we decide on
w
1 + 0.997
GD (w) = w
1 + 3.27
50o phase margin and 14 dB gain margin.
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z 0.8187
GD (z) = 2.718
z 0.5071
The open-loop pulse transfer function of the compensated system is
z + 0.9356
GD (z) G(z) = 0.1018
(z 1)(z 0.5071)
= 0.5
We nd that ws = 2
T
= 14.3 wd
where wd is the damped natural frequency of these poles.
wd = wn 1 2
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