Course Name Statics and Dynamics

Course Code: ELE 1204

Course Credit: 3 CU
Instructor: Thomas Makumbi (Bsc. Eng, MSc. SEE, MSc. RET)

Brief Course Description

This course introduces the students to the basic principles of statics as applied to particles and
bodies.

Course Objectives
Students will be able to relate statics principles of mechanics to engineering applications.

Course Outline
Statics of particles: 6hrs
Idealization and principles of mechanics, important coordinate systems and vector
quantities. Equilibrium of a particle, Newtons laws of motion and free body diagrams
Equivalent systems of forces: 4 hrs
Equilibrium of rigid bodies in two dimensions and three dimensions
Analysis of Structures: 8 hrs
Plane trusses, analysis of trusses by method of joints and sections, frames and
machines,
Forces in Beams and Cables: 8 hrs
Internal forces in members, types of loading and support, shear and bending moment
in a beam, shear and bending moment diagrams, general loading, shear, and moment
relationships. Cables with concentrated loads, cables with distributed loads, parabolic
cables and catenary cables
Moment of Inertia: 8 hrs
Moment of inertia of areas and moment of inertia of masses.
Friction: 8 hrs
Laws of dry friction, application of friction in machines(wedges, screws, disks
,wheels, axles and flexible belts)
Method of Virtual Work: 6 hrs
Work, equilibrium of particles and rigid bodies, potential energy and stability
Fundamentals of dynamics: 4 hrs
Kinematics of a body in plane motion
Energy, moment, impulse and dynamics of a body in 3 dimensional motion: 8hrs

Mode of delivery: Lectures, tutorials and demonstrations

Mode of Assessment

Continuous assessment: assignments, quizzes and tests (40%)

Final university examination (60%)

1
References

i. J. L Meriam and L. G Kraige. Engineering Mechanics (Statics) Fifth

Edition.JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.
ii. Carleton G. Fanger.1970 Engineering Mechanics. Statics And
Dynamics.CharlesE.Merrill Publishing Company,Columbus, Ohio.
iii. Timoshenko and Young. Engineering Mechanics Fourth Edition. Mcgraw-
HillKogakusha,Ltd.

2
 1. Introduction to Statics

Mechanics is the physical science which deals with the state of rest or motion of bodies under
the action of forces

The principles of mechanics are required for the study of structural engineering, machine
design, fluid flow, robotics, electrical instrumentation, atomic and molecular behavior e.t.c.

Mechanics is divided into two parts, statics and dynamics.

Statics is the branch which deals with bodies at rest (in equilibrium) under the action of
forces.

Dynamics deals with the motion of bodies.

1.1 Basic Concepts

The following concepts and definitions are fundamental to the study of mechanics

Space: is the geometric region occupied by bodies whose positions are described by linear
and angular measurements relative to a coordinate system. For three dimensional problems,
three independent coordinates are required. For two dimensional problems, only two
coordinates are required.

Time: is the measure of succession of events, and is a basic quantity in dynamics. Time is not
directly involved in the analysis of statics problems.

Mass: is the measure of inertia of a body, or the resistance to change in its motion. Mass can
also be thought of as a quantity of matter in a body. The mass of a body is independent of its
position or motion

Force: action of one body on another. Force is characterized by its magnitude, direction and
point of application. {Note that you cannot see a force, only its effects}

Concentrated force: action that is assumed to occur at a single point. In reality, there is no
such thing as a concentrated force since materials can support only a finite stress level.

Distributed force: the push or pull on a body of necessity is distributed over the area of
contact. Distributed force is specified by the intensity of the action, which is a force per unit
area of contact. This is the way all mechanical forces act, but if the dimensions of the contact
area are small compared with other dimensions of the body, the action of the force is (readily)
assumed to be concentrated. Force may also be distributed over the volume of a body, such as
gravitational force (weight) or magnetic force. In this case the intensity is expressed as force
per unit volume

Moment: the tendency of a force to rotate a body about an axis

Couple: the tendency of two equal, opposite non collinear forces to rotate a body

Torque: an alternate term for a moment and/or couple.

3
Newtons laws

1st law: a particle remains at rest or continues to move with uniform velocity unless acted on
by external force

2ndlaw: the acceleration of a particle is proportional to the vector sum of the forces acting on
it; and is in the direction of this vector sum. It may be stated as F=ma, where F is the vector
sum of forces acting on the particle and a is the resulting acceleration

3rd law: for every action, there is equal but opposite reaction

Law of Gravitation

The computation of the weight of a body depends on the law of gravitation, which is
expressed as:

F=

Where; F- mutual force of attraction between two particles

G- Constant of gravitation (6.67310-11m3/kg.s2)

m1, m2- masses of the two particles

r- Distance between the centres of the two particles

1.2 SI Units

Mass-kilogram-kg

Length-meter-m

Time second-s

Force-Newton N

1.3 Scalars and Vectors

Scalar quantities possess only magnitude e.g. time, volume, density, speed, energy and mass.

Vector quantities possess direction as well as magnitude and must obey the parallelogram law
of addition. Examples are displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, moment and
momentum

A vector quantity can be represented graphically by a segment of a straight line, called a

vector.

Line of action Tip or end of the vector

Tail or beginning of the vector

4
Types of vectors

Fixed vector: acts at a fixed point

Sliding vector: has a unique line of action in space but not a unique point of application

Free vector: is one whose action is not confined to or associated with a unique line in space.
It is only necessary that it preserves its magnitude and direction

Equal vectors: have the same magnitude and direction

Negative vector: has a direction opposite to its positive counterpart, but has the same
magnitude

Coplanar vectors lie in the same plane

Concurrent vectors have lines of action that pass through the same point

Collinear vectors: have the same line of action

Fixed vector
Free vector
Negative vectors
Concurrent vectors

Collinear vectors

1.4Vector Addition

Vectors must obey the parallelogram law of addition. It states that two free vectors V1 and
V2may be replaced by an equivalent vector V obtained as the diagonal of the parallelogram
constructed on the vectors V1 and V2

V1 and V2 are the components of the vector V, and V is called the resultant of the vectors V1
and V2

V2 V
V2

V1 V1

Instead of constructing a parallelogram of forces, the result can be obtained by constructing a

triangle of forces as shown

V
V2

V1

If more than two forces act at a point, successive application of the parallelogram law can be
carried out to obtain a resultant force.
5
Example 1
Determine the resultant of the two components

3
50N 4

70 N
Answer: 56.5N acting at 45to the horizontal

Example 2
Determine the force R which has the same effect on the bracket as the forces shown

150N

30
100N 120N

120N
Answer: 150i45j

Look up more examples from the reference textbooks and internet.

Suggested websites
http://curricula2.mit.edu/pivot/book/ph0302.html?acode=0x0200
http://www.ejsong.com/mdme/memmods/mem30005a/add_forces/add_forces.html
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/vectors/u3l3a.cfm
http://cnx.org/content/m13601/latest/

Assignment 1
Read about the principle of transmissibility and superposition

1.5 Analysis Techniques

Formulate the problem: state the given data, desired result and any assumptions and
approximations to be made

Develop the solution:

Sketch any diagram youll need to understand the relationships. The sketches should be
kept neat and simple.
State the governing principles to be applied
Make the calculation
Use consistent units throughout the calculation
Ensure the answers are reasonable in terms of magnitudes, direction, common sense etc
Draw conclusions
Assignment 2
Read and make notes about moment, Varignons theorem, couples, principle of moments,
and resultant of a system of forces. Attempt several questions and file your solutions.
6
 1.6 Free Body Diagram (fbd)

A free body diagram is a drawing which shows all the external forces acting on a body. The
ability to draw a correct fbd is extremely important for solving equilibrium problems.

The basic characteristics of a force are important in drawing a free body diagram.

Procedure for constructing a free body diagram

Step 1: decide which system to isolate based on one or more of the desired unknown
quantities

Step 2: isolate the chosen system by sketching its complete external boundary. Indicate on
this sketch all the forces acting on the particle. These forces are either active or reactive.
Active forces tend to set the particle in motion e.g. weight and reactive forces are caused by
constraints or supports that tend to prevent motion

Step 3: the known forces should be labeled with their proper magnitudes and directions.
Letters are used to represent the magnitudes and direction of unknown forces or angles

If the sense of a vector is unknown, assign an arbitrary sense. The subsequent calculations
from the equilibrium equations will yield a positive quantity if the correct sense was assumed
and a negative quantity if the incorrect sense was assumed. It is necessary to be consistent
with the assigned characteristics of unknown forces throughout the calculations.

Step 4: show the choice of coordinate axes directly on the diagram.

Example of a fbd

B y
T

A C Ra C x

W W

Loading diagram Free body diagram

Practice drawing free body diagrams using reference material.

1.7Equilibrium of a body/particle

A body is in equilibrium when the resultant of all forces acting on it is zero.

Thus the resultant force R and the resultant couple M are both zero and can be expressed as;

R=F =0

M=0

7
The scalar form is;

FX=0 .eqn 1

FY=0 .eqn 2

M0= 0 .eqn 3

The third equation represents the zero sum of moments of all forces about any point O on or
off the body. Equations 1, 2, and 3 are necessary and sufficient conditions for complete
equilibrium in two dimensions.

1.8Statical determinacy and constraints

A constraint is any restriction to movement of a body

A rigid body which possesses more external supports or constraints than are necessary to
maintain equilibrium position is called statically indeterminate

Supports which can be removed without distorting the equilibrium condition of the body are
said to be redundant

Bodies which are supported by the minimum number of constraints necessary to maintain
equilibrium are called statically determinate

Problems in statics are restricted to statically determinate bodies.

Common Constraints and the two dimensional analysis

These supports transmit a

Roller Roller Rocker compressive force normal to the
reacting surface

FX

If the pin is free to turn. If it is not, then it

FY supports a couple
Pin or hinge support

M
FX
The couple M restricts rotation
Built-in or fixed support FY

8
 2. STRUCTURES

The focus of this chapter is on determining forces internal to a structure i.e. forces of
action and reaction between connected members.

An engineering structure is any connected system of members built to support or

transfer forces and safely withstand the loads applied to it.

Examples of structures: trusses, frames, beams, columns, and machines etc.

Only statically determinate structures will be considered in this chapter.

Plane trusses

A truss is a structure/framework composed of members joined at their ends to form a

rigid structure e.g. bridges, roof supports, derricks and pylons etc.

When members of a truss lie essentially in the same plane, the truss is called a plane
truss.

Plane trusses are commonly utilized in pairs, placed parallel on each side and connected
by cross beams, as applied in bridges and similar structures.

Howe (timber) Fink (steel sections)

Pratt (timber) Warren (for long spans)

Commonly used roof trusses

The basic element of a plane truss is a triangle. Structures built from a basic triangle are
called simple trusses.

To analyze a simple truss several assumptions are made:

9
1. All members are two force members. A two force member is one in equilibrium
under the action of two forces only. The two forces are applied at the ends of the
member and are necessarily equal, opposite and collinear for equilibrium.
C C T T

Compression (strut) Tension (tie)

Two force members

2. The weight of the member is small compared to the force it supports. If not the effect
of the weight must be accounted for. The weight W of the member is replaced by two
forces, each , acting at each end of the member. These forces are treated as
external loads applied at pin connections.

3. The members are assumed to be pin jointed, even when welded or riveted
connections are used to join structural members
4. All external forces are applied at the pin connections. Provision for expansion and
contraction due to temperature changes and deformation resulting from applied
loading is usually made at one of the supports, such as by provision of a rocker,
roller or some other kind of slip joint.

Method of analysis of plane trusses

To determine the forces internal to a truss:

i. Dismember the structure and analyze separate free body diagrams of the
individual members or combination of members
ii. The analysis requires careful application of Newtons 3rd law of motion.

Three methods are used for truss analysis:

i. Method of joints
ii. Method of sections
iii. Maxwells diagram

Method of joints

The forces in the members of a truss are found by satisfying the conditions of
equilibrium for the forces acting on the connecting pin of each joint. This method deals
with equilibrium of concurrent forces, and only two independent equilibrium equations
are involved.

Begin analysis with any joint where at least one Known load exists and where not more
than two unknown forces are present.

The external reactions are usually determined first by applying equilibrium equations to
the truss as a whole. Then analysis of the remainder of the truss is performed.

10
Note: Tension arrows are always indicated by an arrow away from the pin and
compression by an arrow toward the pin.

It is often convenient to indicate the tension T and compression C of the various

members directly on the original truss diagram.

Initial assignment of the direction of the force is arbitrary. A negative computed force
value indicates that the initially assumed direction is incorrect.

Consistency must always be maintained using Newtons 3rd law of motion.

Checking for determinacy

For a truss that is statically determinate externally, the relation m+3=2j holds.

Where: m Number of members/ bars

j- Number of pins/joints

If m+3>2j, there are more members than the independent equations and the truss is
statically indeterminate internally, with redundant members present.

If m+3<2j, there is a deficiency of internal members, and the truss will collapse under
load.

Redundant/ zero force members

F x
y F2 The only use of zero force members is to
increase stability of the truss during
construction or provide support when applied
F1 loading is changed.

The force F=0 and F1=F2. This condition holds

regardless of the angle and holds if collinear members are in tension or compression.
If an external force with a component in the y direction is applied to the joint, then F
would no longer be zero.

Find other special cases

Main Reference: Ferdinand P.Beer and E.Rusell Johnston,Jr. Vector mechanics for
Engineers. Statics. Fifth Edition.pp 229-230.McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Example
Determine the force in each member of the truss shown. Indicate whether the members
are in tension or compression
400N y
Cy
B C 400N
x
CX
4m
A 4m
600N
3m 3m D 600N
6m
Ay
fbd 11
Solution

Calculate the support reactions

Fx=0: 600-Cx=0Cx=600 N

MC=0 +

(4003)-(Ay6)+(6004)=0

Ay=600N

Fy=0: 400+Cy- 600=0

Cy=200N

The analysis now starts at either joint A or C.

Joint A

Y FAB Fy=0: -FABSin +600=0

X FAB=750N(Compression)
FAD
Fx=0: FABCos =FAD
600N
FAD=450N (Tension)

Joint D

FDC
FDB
FX=0: FDB= -250N
450N 600N FDB=250N(Tensile)

FY=0: FDC=200N(Compressive)

Joint C

200N

FX=0: FCB=600N (Compressive)

FCB 600N

200N

NOTE: The method of joints is used when the forces in all members of a truss are
required.

Example 2

Determine the force in each member of the truss loaded and supported as shown.
Indicate whether the member is in tension or compression

Ans: AY = 1250N EY= 750N FAB = 2500N(C), FAH=2170N(T), FBH = FDF =FGD = 0N,
12
FHG = 2170N (T), FGF= FFE = 1300N(T), FBG = 1000N(C), FBC = 1500N(C),

FCG = 1500N(T), FCD = 1500N(C), FDE = 1500N(C)

1000N
D
B

30
A E
5m H 5m G 5m F 5m

1000N

Example 3

Determine the axial force Si in each bar of the plane truss supported and loaded as
shown.

8
45
6 7 9

2 3
4
45
1

1000N 1000N

ANS: S1=-1000N, S3=2000N,S5=-2000N, S7=-3000N, S8=3000N,S9=-707N

Example 4.

Each member of the truss is a uniform 8m bar with a mass of 400kg. Calculate the
average tension or compression in each member due to weights of the members

E D

A 60 60 60 60
C
8m B 8m

Ans: FAB=FBC = 5.66KN(T), FAE=FCD = 11.33KN(C), FBD = FBE=4.53KN (T), FED = 7.93KN (C)

13
Example 5
Using the method of joints, determine the forces in each member of the truss shown

1kN
C

1kN 1kN

B 2m D
1kN
1kN
A
E
2m H 2m G 2m F 2m

Attempt several questions in relation to analysis of trusses using method of joints

Method of sections

If the forces in only a few members of a truss are to be found, the method of sections
generally provides the most direct means of finding these forces.

The method consists of passing an imaginary section through the truss, cutting it into
two parts. Provided the entire truss is in equilibrium, then each of the two parts must
also be in equilibrium. As a result, the three equations of equilibrium may be applied to
either of the parts to determine the member forces at the cut section.

Since only three independent equilibrium equations can be applied to the isolated position
of the truss, not more than three members whose forces are unknown should be cut
consequently.

In order for the portion of the truss on each side of the section to remain in equilibrium,
it is necessary to apply to each cut member the force which was exerted on it by the
member cut away as illustrated below.

F E

A
D
B C

Ra L Rd

14
 FEF FE
FFF

FBE FBE

FBC FBC

Ra L Rd

The sense of the arrows may be drawn with their proper sense of a visual
approximation of the equilibrium requirements. An entire section of the truss is
considered as a single body in equilibrium and forces in members internal to the section
are not involved in the analysis of the section as a whole. When taking moments, a
suitable moment center, either on or off the section should be chosen through which as
many unknown forces as possible pass. The cutting section is preferably passed through
the members and not joints. Sometimes the method of joints and sections can be
combined for an efficient solution.

Example 5

Determine the force in members FE,FC and BC of the truss shown. Indicate whether the
members are in tension or compression
E
F 400N

3m

D
A B C
4m 4m 4m

1200N
y

x 400N

3m

AX

8m 4m
AY 1200N DY

FX=0; 400+AX=0. AX=-400N

MA=0; DY=900N

FY=0; AY=300N

15
 LHS section
F FE

FC
AX
BC
AY

FE E 400N
RHS
F
section
C

B D
C
1200N 900
N
Considering the LHS section

MF=0: -(3004)+ (BC3)- (4003) =0

BC=800N Tensile

MB=0: (AY 8) + (FE3) =0

FE=800N Compressive

Considering the RHS section

FY=0: FCsin-1200+900=0

FC=500N Tensile

Example 6

Calculate the loads carried by members BC, CD in the truss shown below.
10KN

b
B 45 45
C

a
D

45 5KN 45

E F

16
Using the method of sections, find the force in member CD and CE of the truss shown
below

30kN 20KN

A B D F

1.5m
2m

C
E
G

2m 2m 2m

Attempt several questions

Read and Make Notes on Maxwells Diagrams. Attempt Several Questions Using This
Method.

FRAMES AND MACHINES

Frames are structures that always contain at least one member acted on by forces at three or
more points. These members are called multiforce members. Frames are constructed and
supported so as to prevent any motion. Frames like structures that are not fully constrained
and are designed to transmit and alter the effects of a force or couple are called machines or
mechanisms.

Analysis of a frame
Analysis of a statically determinate frame or machine starts with calculation of external
reactions. The system/entire frame is isolated using a free body diagram and the 3 equations of
equilibrium are used to determine the external reactions.

To determine the internal forces holding the different parts of the frame together, the frame is
dismembered and free body diagrams of the individual parts are drawn. Consistent
representation of the forces on the diagrams of interacting bodies is absolutely necessary, with
the same force in two separate members being represented in opposite directions.

Two force members should be considered first in the analysis. This analysis is illustrated in the
figure below

17
Frames which cease to be rigid when detached from their supports

The frame analyzed above was designed in such a way that it could keep the same shape
without the help of its supports. Many frames however will collapse if detached from their
supports: such frames cannot be considered as rigid body; it should therefore be considered
made of two distinct rigid parts AC and CB

P Q

A
B

Fbd

CY CY

CX C C
P C C P
X
Q Q

A
AX B
BX B AX B
A
AY X
A BY
BY
Y

Four unknown force components act on AC, while only three independent equations may be
used to express that the body is in equilibrium, similarly for CB.

Write MA=0 for the free body AC and MB=0 for CB. Solve the two simultaneous equations to
find CX and CY.

FX=0 and FY=0 is used for each of the free bodies to obtain AX, AY, BX and BY.

Since the equations of equilibrium are satisfied by the forces acting on AC and CB, they must be
satisfied by the forces acting on the two free bodies considered simultaneously.

Since the internal forces at C cancel each other, the equations of equilibrium must be satisfied by
the external forces shown on the free body diagram of the frame ACB although it is not a rigid
body. These equations may be used to determine some of the components of the reactions at A
and B. However, the reactions cannot be completely determined from the free body of the whole
frame .The equilibrium conditions for ACB are necessary for equilibrium of a non rigid structure
but not sufficient conditions.

Alternatively, one can utilize the fbd ACB as well as AC and CB. Write the MA=0 and MB=0 for
ACB to obtain By and Ay. Write MC=0, FX=0 and FY=0 for free body AC to obtain AX, CX and CY.
Finally writing FX=0 for ACB to obtain BX.

18
 To determine whether a structure is statically determinate and rigid, draw afbd for each of
its component parts, count the reactions and internal forces involved. Determine the
number of independent equilibrium equations (excluding equations expressing the
equilibrium of the whole structure or groups of components already analyzed).

If there are more unknowns than equations, the structure is statically indeterminate. If there
are fewer unknowns than equations, the structure is nonrigid. If there are as many
unknowns as equations, and if all unknowns may be determined and all equations satisfied
under general loading conditions, the structure is statically determinate and rigid. If all
unknowns cannot be determined and all equations cannot be satisfied, the structure is
statically indeterminate and nonrigid.

Example
The frame shown supports part of a roof of a small building. If the tension in the cable is
150KN, determine the reaction at the fixed end, E.

2.25m
A B
C
20KN
1.8m 1.8m 1.8m 1.8m
20KN 20KN 20KN
3.75m

E F

4.5m

Attempt several questions

BEAMS

Beams are structural members which offer resistance to bending due to applied loads. Beams
are usually long prismatic members/bars designed to support loads, applied normal to the axes
of the bars.

Types of beams
Beams supported so that their external support reactions can be calculated by the methods of
statics alone are called statically determinate beams

A beam that has more supports than needed to provide equilibrium is statically indeterminate

Only statically determinate beams will be analyzed

19
 Simple Cantilever
Combination
Statically determinate beams

Continuous End supported Fixed

Statically indeterminate beams

Beams can also be identified by the external loading they support i.e. concentrated loads as
shown above, and distributed loads. The intensity of a distributed load can be expressed as a
force per unit length of the beam. The loading intensity may be constant or variable, continuous
or discontinuous (changes magnitude abruptly).

Point load/ Uniformly distributed variable

concentrated load

Distributed loads
The resultant of a distributed load passes through the centroid, as shown on the next page.

R1=1L R2=0.5 (1-2)L

L
1/3L L
R=L

2
1

L L L

20
For general load distribution

R
dR=dx

dx
x

Starting with a differential increment of force dR=dx. The total load R is then

R=

The resultant R is located at the centroid of the area under consideration. The x-coordinate of
the centroid is found by the principle of moments

R =

The vertical coordinate of the centroid does not need to be found. Once the distributed loads
have been reduced to their equivalent concentrated loads, the external reactions acting on the
beam can be found using static analysis already developed in earlier chapters.

Examples

Determine the reactions at A and B for the beam subjected to the uniform load distribution

1.8KN
0.15m
6KN/m Ax
A
B
0.3m
Ay
300mm 300mm By

Ay=1.35KN, By=0.45KN

SHEAR AND BENDING

A beam can resist shear, bending and torsion, in addition to supporting tension or compression.

T
V
M M

V
T
Shear force M-bending moment T-Torsional moment 21
Shear

The shear force V on a section is the algebraic sum of all lateral components of the forces acting
on one side of the section. The shear force tends to slide sections of the beam.

Shear force is positive when the resultant of the forces on the left section is upwards or to the right
is downwards.

Positive shear
V

Bending moment

Bending moment is the algebraic sum of all moments acting on one side of that section due to
the forces.

Bending moment is considered positive when the moment of the left section is clockwise and on the
right portion anticlockwise

M M M
M

Positive bending moment Hogging-negative bending moment

Shear and bending moment diagrams

The variations in shear variations and moment are usually shown graphically and the
expressions for V and M, when plotted against distance along the beam to give the shear force
and bending moment diagrams for the beam.

The first step is to determine the reactions at the supports from the fbd of the entire beam

Isolate a portion of the beam either to the right or to the left of an arbitrary transverse section,
with a fbd, and apply the equations of equilibrium to this isolated portion of the beam. These
equations yield expressions for the shear force V and bending moment M acting at the cut
section on the part of the beam isolated.

The part of the beam, which involves the smaller number of forces either to the right or to the left
of the arbitrary section, usually yields the simpler solution.

Avoid using a section which coincides with the location of a concentrated load or couple, as such
a position represents a point of discontinuity in the variation of shear or bending moment

Be consistent with the positive conventions illustrated earlier.

Shear and bending moment relationships

Consider a portion of the beam loaded as shown

22
 =f(x)

V
=== M M+dM

x
dx dX
V+dV

At the location x, the shear V and moment M act on the element. On the opposite side x+dx, the
shear V and moment are also shown in the positive convention. V and M Change with length,
hence label V+dV and M+dM

Fy=0: V-dx-(V+dV)=0

= ..eqn 1

Thus the slope of the shear diagram must everywhere be equal to the negative of the value of
the applied loading. This equation holds on either side of a concentrated load but not at the
concentrated load/couple.

Integrating equation 1

Or V=Vo+ (the negative of the area under the loading curve from Xo to X)

Vo is the shear force at Xo and V is the shear force at X

Summing the area under the loading curve is the simple way to construct a shear force diagram.

Moments on the left side of the element gives;

M+ (dx ) + (V+dV)dx- (M+dM) =0

The differentials of a higher order can be dropped. Hence

V= .eqn 2

Thus the shear everywhere is equal to the slope of the moment curve. Equation 2 holds on
either side of a concentrated couple but not at the concentrated couple because of discontinuity
caused by abrupt change in moment.

M= Mo+ (area under shear diagram from Xo to X)

Mo is the bending moment at Xo and M is the bending moment at X.

Summing the area under the shear diagram is the simplest way to draw a moment diagram.

23
For beams where there is no externally applied moment at x=0, the total moment at any section
equals the area under the shear force diagram up to that section.

When V is zero, the bending moment is either a maximum or a minimum

At a point on the beam where the type of bending is changing from sagging to hogging, the
bending moment must be zero and this is called a point of inflexion or contraflaxure.

Equation 1&2 can be combined to yield

- = ..eqn 3

Thus the bending moment can be obtained by two integrations, but this method is only usable if
is a continuous function of x.

The internal axial forces are not considered because of the following assumptions

In most cases the loads applied to the beam act perpendicular to the beams axis and hence
produce only an internal shear force and bending moment
For design purposes, the beams resistance to shear, and particularly to bending is more
important than its ability to resist axial force.

Examples

Determine the shear and bending moment distributions in the simple beam

4KN
6m 4m

Draw a fbd of the entire beam to determine the external reactions

4KN

R1=1.6KN R2=2.4KN

Draw afbd of the section either to the right or left of the concentrated load. Do not take a section at
the concentrated load

V
M M

X V 10-x
1.6KN
2.4KN

From the left section

24
Fy=0: 1.6-V=0: V=1.6KN

MR1=0: M-1.6X=0: M=1.6X

From the right section of the beam

Fy =0: V+2.4=0: V=-2.4KN

MR2=0: M=2.4(10-X)

Plot the shear force and bending moment diagrams

4KN

1.6KN 2.4KN
V, KN

V=1.6KN
X, m

V=-2.4KN

M,KNm

9.6KN

X, m
0 10
6

Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams of the beam loaded as shown

6KN/m

A B

9m

From the equations of equilibrium, Ra=9KN and Rb=18KN

Taking a section as indicated on the loading diagram

25
 6KN/m
y
M
X
V x
9KN 9m

Use the principle of similar triangles to find the loading intensity at a section of x,m. OR use the
equation of a straight line,y = ax+b since the boundary conditions are known.

Fy=0:-9+V+ =0: V=9

M=0; M=(9X
Draw the shear and bending moment diagrams based on the equations obtained

Assignment

Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the beams loaded as shown.

3000N
2000N

A B C D
4m 4m 4m

1.6KN/m 2 KN

o
.
0.5 m 0.5 m 0.5 m

AY BY

4KNm 2 KN

3m 1.5 m 1.5 m

Attempt several questions

26
CABLES

Flexible cables are used in many engineering applications, such as suspension bridges,
transmission lines, aerial tramways, messenger cables for supporting heavy trolley or
telephone lines, and many others. To design these structures, relations involving
tension, span, sag and length of cables are important. These quantities are determined
by examining the cable as a body in equilibrium.

Cables are divided into two categories, according to their loading; Cables supporting
concentrated loads and Cables supporting distributed loads

In the analysis of cables, it is assumed that;

Cables are perfectly flexible, thus any resistance to bending is negligible. This means
that the force in the cable is always in the direction of the cable.
Cables have a constant length before and after loading (inextensible)
The weight of the cable is negligible compared with the loads supported by the
cable. However the weight of the cable may be an appreciable load or the sole load
and cannot be neglected.

Cables with concentrated loads

Consider a cable attached to two fixed points A and B supporting the loads P1, P2, P3.
Any portion of the cable between successive loads may be considered as a two force
member, and the internal forces at any point in the cable reduce to a force of tension
directed along the cable. It is also assumed that the horizontal and vertical distances
between the supports are known. To determine the vertical distance from support A to
each of the points C1, C2, C3 and the tension T in each portion of the cable

27
 Ay Ay
L
L
Ax Ax

y y1
C1 y2 d
D
P1
y3
T
X1 P1 C1
x X1 X1 D C2 C3
P2 P1 By
X2 P3 X2
P2 P3
X3 X3
Ay
The first step is to draw a fbd of the entire cable
Ax There are 4 unknowns involved, and the 3
equations of equilibrium are not sufficient to
y2
determine the reactions at A and B. An additional
C1
C2 equation is obtained by considering the
P1 equilibrium of a portion of the cable. This is
P2
X1 T possible if the coordinates x and y of a point D on a
X2 cable are known.

From the fbd, Md=0. An additional relationship between Ax and Ay is obtained. The
vertical distance from A to any point of the cable is now easily obtained.

For example, considering point C2, draw afbd for that portion of the cable

From MC2=0: y2 can be solved for.

Fx=0 and Fy=0, the components of the force T representing tension in the portion of
the cable to the right of C2 can be obtained

Tcos = Ax

The horizontal component of the tension is the same at any point in the cable.

It follows that the tension is maximum when cos is minimum i.e. in the portion of the
cable which has the largest angle of inclination of . This portion of the beam must be
adjacent to one of the two supports of the cable.

Example

The cable AE supports the vertical loads from the points indicated. If point C is 5m
below the left support, determine the elevations of point Band D, the maximum slope
and the maximum tension in the cable.

28
 E

D 20m

A
C 5m
4N
B
12N
6N
20m 10m 15m 15m

From the Fbd of the entire beam

ME =0; 20Ax- 60Ay+6(40) +12(30)+4(15)=0

20Ax-60Ay+660=0

Fbd of ABC

Ay
T
A Ax 5m
MC =0; -5Ax- 30Ay+6(10) =0
C
B Solving the two simultaneous
12N
equations:
6N
20m Ax= -18N and Ay= 5N
10m

T Elevation, yBat point B

D
5N
yD 5N
A 18N 5m
C 18N T
B A
4N yB
6N 12N B
20m 10m 15m 20m 6N MB=0:
18yB-5(20) =0

yB = 5.56m below A

Elevation at D

MD=0

-18yD-5(45)+6(25)+12(15)=0

29
 Ey yD=5.83m
E Ex above A
D
20m
Ay
A Ax C 5m The horizontal
B component of the
4N
12N tension is constant.
6N
20m 10m 15m 15m
tan = 14.17/15

= 43.4

Tmax=18/cos

Tmax=24.8N

General relationships

X y
X+dx T+dT
x +d
B x

T
A dx

Consider a cable carrying a distributed load as shown above. If the intensity is

expressed as units of force per units of horizontal length x, then the resultant R of the
vertical loading is

R=

Finding the position of R

R =

The elemental load dR=dx is represented by an elemental strip of vertical length and
width dx of the shaded area of the
Ey loading diagram and R is
Ex
represented by the total area. R
14.17m
D therefore passes through the
5N
5.83m centroid of the shaded area.
A 18N 5m
C
The equilibrium conditions of the
B 12N 4N
cable are satisfied if each
6N
20m 10m 15m 15m infinitesimal element of the cable is
in equilibrium

30
Fy = 0: (T+dT) sin (+d) = Tsin+ dx

Fx= 0: (T+dT) cos (+d) = Tcos

As d tends to zero, sind = d and cosd=1

Trigonometric expansion and substitution of sind = d and cosd=1, yields

(T+dT) [sin+cosd ]= Tsin+ dx

(T+dT) [cos-sind ]= Tcos

Dropping the second order terms and simplifying gives

Tcosd+dTsin=dx

-Tsind+ dTcos=0

Which can be written as

d (Tsin)= dx Eqn 1

d (Tcos)= 0 Eqn 2

From eqn2, the horizontal component of T remains unchanged

If To=Tcos, for the constant horizontal force; then T= To/cos

Substituting T in equation 1: d (To tan) = dx

But tan =

Thus .Eqn 3

Equation 3 is the differential equation of flexible cables. This relationship defines the
slope of the cable.

Parabolic cables

When the intensity of vertical loading is constant, the condition closely approximates
that of a suspension bridge. The load is uniformly distributed along the horizontal. The
mass of the cable itself is not distributed uniformly with the horizontal but is relatively
small, thus neglected. Consider a cable suspended from two points, A and B, which are
not on the same horizontal line.

31
 y
LB LA X
A T
d
y SA
hA s y
B c
To x
hB SB
x X/2

R=X

= load per unit of horizontal length

To prove that the cable hangs in a parabolic arc and placing the origin at the lowest
point of the cable, where the tension is horizontal and is To.

Integrating equation 3 with respect to x gives

For the coordinate axes shown, when x= 0 , hence C=0

Thus
which defines the slope of a curve as a function of x

Integrating again yields

Or y= .Eqn 4

Equation 4 gives the shape of the cable, which is a vertical parabola

Alternatively

T W

TO

From the figure above; T= tan =

Md=0: (x ) - (Toy) = 0

y= as shown in equation 4

32
Inserting the corresponding values x=LA and y=hA

And

Tension T is found from Pythagoras Theorem: T=

Eliminating To gives

T= .Eqn 5

The maximum tension occurs at x=LA and is

T max = .Eqn 6

The length SA of the cable is obtained from the origin to point A by integrating the
expression for a differential length

dS=
dS dy

dx

dx

= dx

Using binomial expansion

Which converges for replacing x in the series by and setting n=1/2

= Eqn 7

The series is convergent for values of , which holds for most practical cases.

The relationships which apply from the origin to point B can be easily obtained by
replacing HA,LAand SA by HB, LB and SB respectively.

33
For a suspension bridge, where the supporting towers are on the same horizontal line,
the total span L=2LA, the sag h=hA, and the total length of the cable is S=2SA. With these
substitutions, the maximum tension and the total length become

T max =

Catenary Cable

A catenary cable carries a load uniformly distributed along the cable itself. Cables
hanging under their own weight are loaded in this way. It is assumed that the cable
assumes a curved shape known as catenary.

y
y
LB LA X
A T

d ds dy
SA
hA s y
B c dx
To x
hB SB
x

R=s

The fbd of a finite portion of the cable, length s, measured from the origin is shown. The
total vertical force is equal to the weight of the cable section of length s. if the cable has a
weight of per unit of its length, the resultant load R=s and the incremental vertical
load is ds .

The equation of the cable becomes Eqn 8

Substituting the identity

.Eqn 9

Equation 9 is the differential equation of a curve (catenary)formed by a cable. To ease

the solution of this equation, the substitution P is made

Integrating this equation yields

In

34
The constant C is zero because when x=0. Substituting P , changing to
the exponential form, and clearing the equation of the radical give

The slope may be integrated to obtain

But x = 0 when y = 0

Hence
Eqn 10

Equation 10 is the equation of the curve (catenary) formed by a cable hanging under the
action of its weight only.

From the fbd,

........Eqn 11

(Using the relations dx=dscos and dy=dssin)

To obtain the tension T in the cable

Combined with equation 11 gives

Eqn 12

Expressing the tension interms of y (from equation 10)

T=To+y Eqn 13

Equation 13 shows that the change in cable tension from that at the lowest position
depends only on y.

Most problems dealing with catenary involve solutions which can be handled by
graphical approximation or solved by a computer. When the cable is fairly taut, the load
may be assumed distributed along the horizontal and the catenary replaced by a parabola.
Many problems dealing with both catenary and parabolic cables involve suspension

35
points that are not at the same level. In such cases, apply the relations developed to the
part of the cable on each side of the lowest point.

Examples

A cable supports a load of 50Kg/m uniformly distributed with respect to the horizontal
and is suspended from two fixed points located as shown. Determine the maximum and
minimum tensions Tmax and TO in the cable.

100 m

20 m

20 m

50 Kg/m

Moment of inertia for an area

When forces are distributed continuously over an area on which they act, it is often
necessary to calculate the moment of these forces about some axis either in or
perpendicular to the plane of the area. The intensity of a force (pressure or stress) is
proportional to the distance of the line of action of the force from the moment axis.

The elemental force acting on an elemental area, then is proportional to distance times
differential area, and the elemental moment is proportional to distance squared times
differential area. Therefore the total moment involves an integral called the moment of
inertia or the second moment of area. Moment of inertia formulas are used frequently in
fluid mechanics, strength of materials, and structural mechanics and thus important for an
Engineer to familiarize with the methods used to compute these quantities.

Consider the area A, which lies in the x-y plane.

Y A
x
dA

r y

Z X

36
If each element of area is multiplied by the square of its distance from an axis, the
summation of these quantities for the whole area is the second moment of area about the
axis and is denoted by I.

And

These are termed as the rectangular moments of inertia

The second moment of area about Z (perpendicular to area)

This is termed as the polar moment of inertia and is denoted by J. This term will always be
positive and it is necessary in solving elastic torsion problems.

Since it follows that

Radius of gyration

Radius of gyration of a planar area is often used in column design in structural mechanics. If
the area of the plane is A, the second moment of area may be written as . K is
termed as the radius of gyration and it is the radius at which the area would have to be
imagined concentrated to give the same value of r.

And and

Thus

Parallel-axis theorem
It states that the second moment of area of a plane about any axis is equal to the second
moment of area about a parallel axis through the centroid, together with the product of the
area and the square of the distance between the axes.

dA
y
X X
G

O O

If it is required to find the 2nd moment of area about a parallel axis O-O, distance h from X-X.
The 2nd moment of area of element dA about O-O is

37
For the whole area

A+

The term in the middle is zero because the first moment through the centroid is zero

If a transfer is required between two parallel axes neither of which passes through the
centroid, it is first necessary to transfer one axis to the parallel centroidal axis and then
transfer from the centroidal axis to the second axis.

Typical values for moment of inertia

Rectangle, breadth b and depth d

d x

b o

Circle

r
x

Triangle

a X1

38
Semi circle

r
x

Quarter circular area

Moment of inertia for composite areas

A composite area consists of a series of connected simpler areas or shapes such as semi-
circles, rectangles and triangles. Provided the 2nd moment of area of the shapes is known, or
can be computed about a common axis, the moment of inertia of the composite area equals
the algebraic sum of all its composite parts

Example
Determine the 2nd moment of area about the reference axis x-x if r=25mm
Circle(hole) A

=11.46106mm4

Rectangle A

=112.5106mm4

2nd moment of area =112.5106mm411.46106mm4

=101.6106mm4

39
 y

75mm
r

75mm

x
100mm

Assignment

Compute the moment of inertia of the area shown about the x axis.

y y2=400x

x 100-x
dy

200 mm
y

x
100 mm

Compute the moment of inertia of the beams cross-sectional area shown in the figure
about the x and y centroidal axes.

100 mm

400 mm y

100 mm 400 mm

100 mm
600 mm

Review: Read about centre of gravity.

Centre of mass (will be very helpful in dynamics)

Attempt several questions

40
Friction
In the preceding chapters, the surfaces of contact between two bodies were considered
to be perfectly smooth, and because of this, the force of interaction between the bodies
always acted normal to the surfaces at points of contact.

However in reality, friction forces are present throughout nature and exist in all
machines no matter how accurately constructed or carefully lubricated. A machine or
process in which friction is small enough to be neglected is said to be ideal. When
friction must be taken into account, the machine or process is termed real.

Definition

Friction may be defined as a force of resistance acting on a body which prevents or

inhibits any possible slipping of the body. This force always acts tangent to the surface
at points of contact with other bodies and is directed so as to oppose the possible or
existing motion of the body at these points.

Importance of friction

Friction is a nuisance in most situations and efforts are always made to reduce it in for
example bearings, power screws, gears, flow of fluids e.t.c

Friction is desirable in certain aspects and in such situations it is always desirable to

increase it e.g. in clutches, belt drives, wedges, footwear e.t.c.

Types of friction

i. Dry friction
ii. Fluid friction (contacting surfaces are separated by a film of fluid, either gas or
liquid)
iii. Internal friction

NB: fluid friction and internal friction are dealt with in fluid mechanics and strength of
materials. Our focus will be on dry friction

Dry friction

Dry friction exists when unlubricated surfaces of two solids or rigid bodies are in
contact under conditions of sliding or tendency to slide.

It is also known as Coulomb friction since its characteristics were extensively studied
by C.A. Coulomb in 1781

Theory of dry friction

Consider a block of uniform weight W resting on a rough horizontal floor and the effects
that are caused by pulling horizontally by a force P.

As shown in the fbd, the floor exerts a normal force and a frictional force along the
contacting surface.

41
 W W W
Impending motion Tipping

P P
P h
F
x a/2 a/2 F
Rough surface
W N N

P
F Motion
N

Where N is the normal force, F the frictional force and W is the weight of the block.

F= frictional force

Therefore provided the block does not slip, any increase in P causes a corresponding
increase in x and as a result, this tends to concentrate the distribution of the normal
force further towards the blocks right corner, thereby increasing the chance of tipping.
Indeed tipping occurs if the contacting surface is rough enough to hold the block from
slipping and the applied force P=Pt where x =

For impending motion, in cases where h is small, or the surfaces of contact are slippery,
the frictional force F may not be great enough to balance the magnitude of P and
consequently the block will tend to slip before it can tip. Close examination of the
contacting surfaces shows that each surface has many protuberances (irregularities)
that interlock preventing the tendency of the two surfaces slipping over each other, as
shown in the figure below. The larger W is, the more the depth of these protuberances
lock into each other. This increases the force P required to move the surfaces over each
other.

F

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 N R

A plot of friction force F and force P is shown below

F Impending motion

Static friction Kinetic friction

(No motion) (motion)

Fmax=sN FK=KN

F=P

42
s= coefficient of static friction k= coefficient of kinetic friction

Impending motion

As the magnitude of the pulling force P is slowly increased from zero, the magnitude of
friction force F increases until it attains a maximum value Fs called the limiting static
frictional force. When this value is reached, the body is in unstable equilibrium since
any further increase in P will cause motion.

Experimentally, it has been established that the magnitude of the limiting static force Fs
is directly proportional to the magnitude of the resultant normal force N.

Fs N OR Fs = SN S is the coefficient of static friction.

Motion

When P becomes greater than Fs the frictional force between the contacting surfaces
drops slightly to a smaller value Fk called the kinetic frictional force. When P>Fs the body
begins to slide with increasing speed.

Experiments have established that:

Fk N OR Fk = KN K is the coefficient of kinetic (or dynamic) friction.

The block will not be held in equilibrium (P>Fk) instead, it begins to slide with
increasing speed.

Typical values of K are approximately 25% smaller than S

Angle of friction

The frictional force acting at a contacting surface is determined from F k = K N only if

relative motion is occurring between the two surfaces. If two bodies are stationary, the
magnitude of the frictional force, F does not necessarily equal S N; instead, F must
satisfy the inequality F S N. Only when impending motion occurs does F reach the
upper limit F=Fs= S N. Consider the blocks shown below.

W W

P P

Fs Fk

S K

N Rs Rk
N
Impending motion Motion

43
For equilibrium, the normal force N and frictional force Fs combine to create resultant
Rs. The angle S that Rs makes with N is called the angle of static friction or the angle
of repose. From the figure:

If a body is not in motion, any horizontal force P <Fs causes a resultant R which has a
line of action directed at angle from the vertical such that < S.

If P creates motion of the body, then P>Fs (but P Fk). In this case, the resultant Rk has a
line of action defined by K. This angle is referred to as the angle of kinetic friction.

By comparison S>K.

If FSN, F must be determined from equations of equilibrium and its sense is

established after the equilibrium equations are solved.

Examples

The crate shown in the figure below has a mass of 20kg. Determine the force P such that
the crate is on the verge of moving up the plane. The coefficient of static friction is

y W=196.2N
0.8m 30
x

F=0.3Nc
0.2m P
0.2m x
P 0.2m 30 Nc

0.4m

The resultant Nc must act a distance x from the centerline of the crate to counteract the
tipping effect caused by P.

From the equations of friction and equilibrium

F= S N F=0.3N

Applying the eqns of equilibrium

FX=0 P-0.3Nc-196.2sin 30=0

FY=0 Nc-196.2cos30 =0

M0= 0 -Nc(x) +0.3Nc (0.2) =0

44
Solving for the three unknowns yields

Nc =169.9N, P=149.1N, x=0.06m

Since x is positive, then its direction was assumed correctly, however, x 0.4m, so the
crate will not tip over

Assignment

The homogenous block shown in the figure has a weight of 20N and rests on an incline
for which . Determine the largest angle of tilt , of the plane before the block
moves

Ans. = 26.6

4m

8m

The pipe shown in the figure is gripped between two levers that are held together at C. if
the coefficient of friction between the levers and the pipe is =0.3, determine the
maximum angle at which the pipe can be gripped without slipping. Neglect the weight
of the pipe. Ans. = 33.4

P
P
O

Attempt several questions

APPLICATION OF FRICTIONAL FORCE IN MACHINES

45
Frictional forces in flat belts

The impending slippage of flexible members such as belts and ropes is important in the
design of belt drives, band brakes and hoisting rigs.

Consider the drum shown below subjected to two belt tensions T1 and T2 and a torque
M necessary to prevent rotation, the bearing reaction R. For the direction shown, T2>T1.

Assuming either impending motion or motion of the belt, the magnitude of the frictional
force dF=dN. This force is to oppose the sliding motion of the belt and thereby
increases the magnitude of the tensile force acting in the belt by dT.

Fbd of a small section of the belt

n
P P t
d/2 d/2

d dN
P1 P2 T T+dT
dN

d
O r
R
M

T1 T2
O

For equilibrium (from fbd)

Ft= 0: (T+dT)cosd/2-Tcos d/2- S dN=0

Fn= 0: dN-(T+dT)sind/2-Tsind/2=0

For small angles cosd/21, then

(T+dT) T- dN= 0

dT= dN..Eqn 1

For small angles sin d/2 d/2

dN- (T+dT)d/2- Td/2 = 0

Neglecting 2nd order differential products yields

dN- T(d/2)- T.(d/2) = 0

OR dN = T(d)....Eqn 2

Combining eqn 1 and 2 yields

46
dT = T(d)

OR dT/T = (d)

OR ......Eqn 3

Where is the total angle of the belt in contact with the drum. For a belt or rope
wrapped N times around the drum =2N

Equation 3 applies also to belt drives where both the belt and pulley are rotating at
constant speed. In this case the equation describes the ratio of belt tensions for slipping
or impending slippage. At high rotational speeds, there is a tendency for the belt to
leave the rim leading to error in use of eqn 3.

Considering moments and Taking moments about the centre

-M-T1r+T2r=0

M=T1r(

Look at some examples

Wedges

Wedges are simple machines used to raise large stone blocks and any other heavy loads.
These loads may be raised by applying to the wedge a force usually considerably
smaller than the weight of the load. Because of friction existing between the surfaces in
contact, a wedge, if properly shaped will remain in place after being forced under a load.
Wedges may thus be used advantageously to make small adjustments in the position of
heavy pieces of machinery.

Wedges are largely dependent on friction. When sliding of a wedge is impending, the
resultant force on each sliding surface will be inclined from the normal to the surface by
an amount equal to the friction angle.

The component of the resultant along the surface is the frictional force which is always
in the direction to oppose the motion of the wedge relative to the mating surfaces.

Example

A wedge is used to adjust the position of a large mass M. the coefficient of friction for
each pair of surfaces is = tan. The force P required to start the wedge is found from
the equilibrium triangles of the forces on the load and on the wedge.

47
 R3

mg mg

R2
P

R3
R3 mg
R2
+
y mg

x

R2
R2

+
R1
P R2
P

R1 Forces to raise a load

Explanation

Fy=0: R2cos (+)-mg=0

R2=mg/cos(+)Eqn 1

Fx=0: R3-R2sin(+)=0

R3= R2sin(+)...Eqn 2

The fbds are shown with the reactions inclined at an angle from their respective
normals and are in one direction opposing motion. The mass of the wedge has been
neglected in the above analysis.

Using the sine and cosine rule, the unknowns in Eqns 1&2 can be found. R2 may be
found first from the equilibrium of mass M so that P can be calculated from the lower
figure. If P is removed, the wedge will remain in place so long as (angle of the wedge)
is less than (angle of friction). In this situation, the wedge is said to be self-locking.

48
If a wedge is self-locking and is to be withdrawn, a pull P must be applied on the wedge.
In this event, the reactions R1 and R2 would act on the opposite side of their normals to
oppose the impending motion as shown in the diagrams below.

R3

R3 mg
- R2
y mg

R2
R2

-
R2 R1
P
P

R1 Forces to lower a load

Assignment

Determine the minimum force P required to move wedge A to the right. The spring is
compressed a distance of 175mm. neglect the weight of A and B. the coefficient of static
friction for all contacting surfaces is S= 0.35. Neglect friction at the rollers. Spring
constant K= 15KN/m (Ans.2391.2N)

P
A
10

Read and make notes on screws, journal bearings, disk friction and rolling resistance

Attempt several questions

49
Virtual work
In engineering applications of statics, were usually concerned with the question of
equilibrium of a rigid body, or a system of connected rigid bodies, either completely or
partially constrained by various supports, or subjected to active forces. The equilibrium
of a body is analyzed by isolating it with a free body diagram and writing zero force and
zero moment summation equations. However, there are bodies composed of inter
connected members which can move relative to each other. Thus various equilibrium
configurations are possible, and must be examined. In this case, the force and moment
equilibrium equations, though valid and adequate, are not often the most direct and
convenient approach. The method of virtual work, which utilizes the concept of work
done by a force during a differential movement in members of a body of connected
members, is used.

Work
Work of a force is the product of the displacement and the force in the direction of the
displacement.

S
F cos

F- Force, S- displacement

Work, U = (F cos) S

F
S

S cos

cos
Work, U = F (S cos)

The same result is obtained if we multiply the magnitude of the force by the component
of the displacement in the direction of the force. Hence work is a scalar quantity because
the same result is obtained regardless of the direction the vectors are resolved.

Work is positive when the working component of the force is in the same direction as
the displacement. When the working component is in the direction opposite to the
displacement, work is negative.

F

S

Work, U = (F cos) S = - F cos S

50
If the direction of the displacement and magnitude and direction of the force are
variable, then;

dU = FdsEqn 1

To illustrate equation 1, the figure adjacent shows a force F acting on a body at a point A
which moves along the path shown from A1 to A2.

Point A is located by its position vector S measured

F A2
A from some arbitrary but convenient origin O. The
A
dS infinitesimal displacement in the motion curve from A
to A is given by the differential change dS of the
A1
position vector. The work done is defined in equation 1.
S S+dS dU = Fcosds

Or it can be represented or interpreted as:

O
F A2
dS
F cos

A1 dScos

Expressing F and S in rectangular components

dU =(iFx+jFy+kFz)(idx+jdy+kdz)

=Fxdx+Fydy+Fzdz

To obtain total work done by F during a finite movement of point A from A1 to A2,
integrate dU, between these two positions

U=

This integral can only be done if the relations between force components and their
respective coordinates or between F and S and between cos and S are known.

Work done by a couple

In figure A, the couple M acts on a body and changes its angular position by an amount
d. The work done by the couple is easily determined from the combined work of two
forces which constitute the couple. During the infinitesimal movement in the plane, line
AB moves to AB. The displacement of A is in two steps, first a displacement dSB equal to that of
B and second a displacement dS(A/B) due to a rotation about B. Thus the work done by F during
the displacement from A to A is equal and opposite in sign due to F acting through the
displacement from B to B. Therefore no work is done by a couple during a translation.

During the rotation however, F does work equal to F.dS(A/B)=Fbd, where dS(A/B)=bd
and where d is the infinitesimal angle of rotation in radians. Since M=Fb.

51
Then dU=Md

d
A dSA A dS(A/B) A
F
M

b
d

Fig A
F dSB
B B

The work of a couple is positive if M has the same sense as d.

The total work of a couple during a finite rotation in its plane becomes;

U=

Proof

F
F r/2
d
r
r/2d

dU=Fdistance

=F(r/2d) + F(r/2d)

=Frd but Fr =M

dU=Md

U=

Virtual work

Consider a particle whose static equilibrium position is determined by the forces which
act on it.

Any assumed and arbitrary small distance away from the equilibrium position of a body,
consistent with the system constraints is called virtual displacement

52
The term virtual denotes that the displacement does not exist in reality but is only
assumed in order to compare various possible equilibrium positions in the process of
selecting the correct one

For a virtual displacement dS, the virtual work done is;

U=FS

=FcosS or U=M

Where is the angle between F and S

Equilibrium of a rigid body

To use the method of virtual work to solve problems of equilibrium, we assume ideal
systems where there is no friction between moving surfaces. There are however real
systems when sliding friction is present but the method of virtual work will find limited
use.

For an ideal system, the principle of virtual work states that:

A system of connected rigid bodies is in equilibrium provided that the virtual work
done by all the external forces and couples acting on the system is zero for each
independent virtual displacement of the system. i.e U=0, for all forces and couples.

For the rigid body, find the reaction R under the roller of negligible weight due to force
P.

Solution

Assume a virtual rotation about O and a virtual work done by the ideal system, U=0

Work done by P= -P(a)

Work done by R= R(b)

From the principle of equilibrium, virtual work=0

53
-P (a) + R (b) =0

Or R= which is simply the moment equilibrium about O.

Hence nothing is gained by using the virtual work principle for a single rigid body. The
principle is however advantageous for interconnected bodies.

There are three types of forces which act on a mechanical system

i. Active forces: these are external forces capable of doing virtual work during
possible virtual displacements

B P

O
F
P and F are active forces

ii. Reactive forces: these act at positions of fixed points where no virtual
displacements in the direction of the forces takes place

B
Fb

Fo O
Fb and Fo are reactive forces

iii. Internal forces: are forces in connections between members during any
possible movement of the system or its parts. The net work done by the internal
forces at the connections is zero. This is so because the external forces always
exist in pairs of equal and opposite forces

-F

Advantages of virtual work method

a. Relations between active forces can be established without having to dismember the
system
b. The relations between active forces can be established without reference to reactive
forces at all

In isolating a body for virtual work analysis, only active forces need to be shown. The
diagram drawn is thus termed the active force diagram

54
Degrees of freedom
Degree of freedom is defined as the number of independent coordinates needed to
specify completely the configuration of a mechanical system. The coordinate can be a
distance or an angle.
The principle of virtual work may be applied as many times as there are degrees of
freedom. With each application of the principle of virtual work, allow only one
independent coordinate to change while holding others constant.

The link and sliding block arrangement is an example of a single degree of freedom. The
independent coordinate is sufficient to specify the location of the two connecting links

a b

The double link below has 2 degrees of freedom. To specify the location of each link, 1
and 2 must be known since the rotation of one link is independent of the rotation of the
other

L1

2
L2
P

Example 1
Determine the angle for equilibrium of the two member linkage. Each member has a
mass of 10Kg.

A B F=25N

1m 1m

55
 Active force diagram

XB
A -XB B
Ax F=25N
y
Ay By

y
W W

W
D

When undergoes a small positive (clockwise) virtual rotation, the two weights W and
F do work. Reactive forces Ax and Ay are fixed. By does not move along its line of action,
therefore does no work in the vertical direction.

Virtual displacements
Establish origin at fixed support A
The location of F and W may be specified by the position coordinates XB and Y
respectively. These coordinates are in the same direction as the lines of action of
their associated forces.
i.e. XB= 2(1cos) m
XB= -2sin (partial derivative).i
y= 0.5(1sin)
y= 0.5cos.ii
Principle of virtual work U=0;
W.y+ W.y+F.XB=0iii
From equations i,ii,andiii
98.1(0.5 cos) +98.1(0.5 cos) + 25(-2sin) =0
(98.1cos-50sin) =0
=tan-1(98.1/50) = 63 and 0

Summary of procedure of analysis

i. Draw the active force diagram of the entire system of connected bodies and define
the independent coordinate.
a) Sketch the deflected position of the system on the active force diagram, when the
system undergoes a deflection
b) On the diagram, indicate the forces/couples that do virtual work
ii. Virtual displacements
a) Indicate position coordinates Si measured from a fixed point to each of the active
forces and couples
b) Each coordinate axis should be in the same direction as the line of action of the
active forces and couples
c) Relate each position coordinate to the independent coordinate, then differentiate
these expressions in order to get virtual displacements (y, x, e.t.c)
iii. Virtual work equation

56
 Write the virtual work equation expressing the work of each active force and couple
in terms of a single independent virtual displacement. From this equation, the
unknown can be solved for.

Example 2
Using the principle of virtual work, determine the equilibrium position of the two bar
linkage shown. Neglect the weight of the links

Solution
Note that the system has 2 degrees of freedom, since the independent coordinates 1
and 2 must be known to locate the positions of both links

1
M
L

2 M
P
L

Active force diagram when 1 is kept constant

Oy
Fig 1
Ox

1
M

2
2
M P
L XB2
XB

The position coordinate XB is measured from a fixed point O is used to specify the
location of P.

If 1 is held constant and 2 let to vary, then:

U=0;

P(XB) 2 - M2 = 0.i

57
The virtual work done by M is negative since 2 is opposite to the direction of action of
M in the figure 1

From figure 2:

P(XB) 1 M1- M1 = 0.ii

To obtain the variation of XB in terms of 2 it is necessary to take the partial

derivative of XB with respect to 2 since XB is a function of both 2 and 1.

But X B= (Lsin 1+Lsin 2)iii

From equation iii:

(XB) 2 = Lcos 2 2.iv

Active force diagram when 2 is kept constant

Oy
Fig 2
Ox

1 1

L M 2

2
M P
L XB1
XB

From equation iv and equation i

PLcos 22- M2= 0

Or

Also

(XB) 1 = Lcos 1 1...........................................................v

(PLcos 1-2M) 1=0

Or

Attempt several questions

58
Challenge

The three mass suspension system shown in the figure is idealized of three identical
masses with identical suspension lengths, and is brought to equilibrium position by a
horizontal force P. It is then set into motion by removing the force P. Find the
equilibrium configuration.

Ans. 1= , 2= , 3=

L1 L
1
m1 m

L2 2 L
m
m2
L
L3 3 m
P
m3

Energy and stability

Elastic potential energy

Work done on an elastic member is stored in the member as elastic potential energy, Ve.
This energy can be released by allowing the elastic member to return to its original
undisturbed position.

For a linear elastic spring, force F needed to depress or extend, it is proportional to the
deflection x i.e. Fx ORF=kx. k is the spring constant.

Work Ve= , which is the area under the F versus x diagram.

59
 F

F=kx
F2

F1 Ve=kxx

x
X1 X2
x x

For a spring being extended from x1 to x2 the work done is

Ve= or

Note that work/ energy equal to -Ve is dissipated when the spring is released.

Gravitational potential energy (PE)

Potential energy of a body (referred to as Vg) is the work done on a body by a force
equal and opposite to the weight in bringing the body to a position from some datum
where PE is considered zero.

The PE is the negative of the work done by the weight in moving between the two
positions.

PE= Vg= mgh

PE is independent of the path followed in arriving at a particular height. When a body is

below the datum position, the potential energy is negative.

The virtual change in Vg is Vg=mgh, where h is the upward virtual displacement of

the mass centre of the body. If h is downwards, then Vg is negative.

Energy equations

The virtual work equation when applied to systems involving springs and change in
potential energy may be written as:

U=Vg+ Ve

OR U=V where V= (Vg+ Ve) which is the total potential energy of the system

Thus for a mechanical system with elastic members and members that undergo change
in position, the principle of work can be restated as:

60
 The virtual work done by external active forces on a mechanical system in equilibrium
equals the corresponding change in the total elastic and gravitational potential energy
of the system for any and all virtual displacements consistent with the constraints

Stability of equilibrium

Since the principle of virtual work states that U=0, then;

U=Vg+ Ve= V=0

This equation expresses the requirement that the equilibrium configuration of a

mechanical system is one for which the total potential energy V of the system has a
stationary value.

For a system of one degree of freedom where PE and its derivatives are continuous
functions of a single variable, say x that describes the configuration, the equilibrium
condition, V=0.

.Eqn 1

This equation states that a mechanical system is in equilibrium when the derivative of
its PE is zero. For systems with several degrees of freedom, the partial derivative of V
with respect to each coordinate in turn must be zero for equilibrium.

There are 3 conditions under which equation 1 applies namely;

i. When total PE is minimum (stable equilibrium)

ii. When total PE is maximum (unstable equilibrium)
iii. When PE is constant (Neutral equilibrium)

Unstable Neutral Stable

Unstable equilibrium occurs when a small displacement causes the system to move
farther away from the original position. In this case the original PE of the system is a
maximum.

Neutral equilibrium occurs when a small displacement of the system causes the system
to remain in its displaced state. The PE of the system remains constant.

Stable equilibrium occurs when a small displacement of the system causes the system to
return to its original position. In this case the original PE of the system is a minimum.

The type of equilibrium can be checked by getting the second derivative function.

Thus for a body of one degree of freedom;

For equilibrium

61
 For stable equilibrium

For unstable equilibrium

Procedure for analysis

Potential energy function: formulate the potential energy function V= Vg+ Ve for the
system. To do this, sketch the system so that it is located at some arbitrary position,
specified by the independent coordinate q. A horizontal datum is established through a
fixed point and the gravitational potential energy, Vg is expressed in-terms of the weight
W for each member and its vertical distance y from the datum. Vg = Wy. The elastic
potential energy Ve of the system is expressed in terms of the stretch or compression x
of any connecting spring and the springs stiffness, k, Ve= once V has been
established, express the position coordinates x and y in terms of the independent
coordinate q.

Equilibrium position: the equilibrium position is determined by taking the first

derivative of V and setting it equal to zero, V=0

Stability: stability at the equilibrium position is determined by evaluating the second or

higher derivates of V.

Example

The uniform link shown has a mass of 10Kg. the spring is un-stretched when =0.
Determine the angle for equilibrium and investigate the stability at the equilibrium
position.

K=200N/m
(A)
A

L=0.6m

Solution

Potential energy function: The datum is established at the top of the link when the
spring is unstretched.

62
 When the spring is located at the arbitrary position , it has increased potential energy
by stretching and the weight W decreases its potential energy by falling through a
height y.

Position a- the spring is unstretched

Position b- the spring is stretched

Hence,

V= Vg+ Ve Where; V total potential energy Veelastic potential energy, Vg

gravitational potential energy

The difference in W from the datum between positions a and b is equal to

Or distance y

From position a to b, W loses potential energy equal to Wy

=W [ ]

V= kx2-Wy

V= kx2- W [ ]

Since L= x+2( or x=L(1-

cos), then
K
(B )
V=
Datum
F=Kx x .eqn i

Equilibrium positions

For equilibriumV=0
y

L W
W

Since 0, then

a b

This equation is satisfied provided =0

= = = 53.8

Therefore =0 or 53.8
63
Investigate nature of stability

Computing the second derivative of V gives

= (From sin2=cos2-cos2)

Substituting values for the constants with =0 or 53.8 yields

For =0 = -29.4<0 (unstable equilibrium)

For =53.8= 46.9> 0 (stable equilibrium)

Attempt several questions

64