Unit I The Scientific Approach in Education

A. Sources of Knowledge
The sources of knowledge may be categorized under five headings:
i. Experience
ii. Authority
iii. Deductive Reasoning
iv. Inductive Reasoning
v. The Scientific Approach

Experience
a familiar and well-used source of knowledge
much of wisdom passed from generation to generation is a result of experience
ability to learn from experience is prime characteristic of intelligent behavior
limitations as a source of truth
o two individuals have different experiences in same situation
o one frequently needs to know things that one as an individual cannot learn by experience

Authority
seeks the answers to questions from someone who has the experience with the problem or has some
other source of expertise
accept as truth the word of those who are recognized as authorities
not relying on an individual as an authority merely because of position or rank
inclined to accept the assertions of an authority only when that authority bases its assertions on
experience or other recognized sources of knowledge
custom and tradition are closely related (however both must be appraised before one accepts them as
truth)
has shortcomings
o authorities can be wrong; they have no claim to infallibility
o authorities may be in disagreement among themselves on issues indicating that their authoritative
statements are often more personal opinion than fact

Deductive Reasoning
thinking process in which one proceeds from general to specific statements using prescribed rules of
logic
system for organizing known facts in order to reach a conclusion which is done through the use of
logical arguments
argument consists of a number of statements standing in relation to one another
the final statement is the conclusion; the rest, called premises, comprise supporting evidence
one major kind of deductive reasoning is syllogism
syllogism consists of a major premise and a minor premise followed by a conclusion
if the premises are true, the conclusion is necessarily true
enables one to organize premises into patterns that provide conclusive evidence for the validity of a
conclusion
is useful in the research process
provides a means for linking theory and observation
enables researchers to deduce from existing theory what phenomena should be observed

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 deductions from theory can provide hypotheses, which are vital part of scientific inquiry
has limitations
o one must begin with true premises in order to arrive at true conclusions
o the conclusion of a syllogism can never exceed the content of the premises
o since deductive conclusions are necessarily elaborations on previously existing knowledge,
scientific inquiry cannot be conducted through deductive reasoning alone because of the difficulty
involved in establishing the universal truth of many statements dealing with scientific phenomena
o can organize what is already known and can point up new relationships as one proceeds from the
general to the specific, but is not sufficient as a source of new truth

Inductive Reasoning
a conclusion is reached by observing examples and generalizing from the examples to the whole class
to be absolutely certain of an inductive conclusion, the investigator must observe all examples
inductive conclusions can be absolute only when the group about which they are asserted is small
since one can make perfect inductions only on small groups, we commonly use imperfect induction, a
system in which one observes a sample of a group and infers from the sample what is characteristic
of the entire group
imperfect induction does not lead to infallible conclusions
imperfect induction can provide reliable information upon which one can make reasonable decisions
one makes observations first and then organizes the information gained

The Scientific Approach

a process in which investigators move inductively from their observations to hypotheses and then
deductively from the hypotheses to the logical implications of the hypotheses
investigators deduce the consequences that would follow if a hypothesized relationship is true
if these deduced implications are compatible with the organized body of accepted knowledge, they
are further tested by the gathering of empirical data
on the basis of the evidence, the hypotheses are accepted or rejected
the use of the hypothesis is a principal difference between the scientific approach and inductive
reasoning
one reasons what one would find if a hypothesis is true and then makes systematic observations in
order to confirm or fail to confirm the hypothesis

Five Steps in Scientific Inquiry

1. Identification of the Problem: The first step is realization that a problem exists. The problem may
involve a question about something, a discrepancy in findings, or a gap in knowledge.
2. Statement of the Problem: The next step is the clarification of the problem. The investigator states
more precisely the nature and scope of the problem that has been identified.
3. Formulation of the Hypothesis: The investigator formulates hypotheses about possible solution of
the problem.
4. Prediction of Consequences: The investigator next predicts the consequences of each hypothesis;
that is, what results should be observed if the hypothesis is correct.
5. Testing of Hypothesis: The researcher gathers objective data in order to evaluate the adequacy of
each hypothesis that was formulated. If the data support the hypothesis, it is accepted as a reasonable
explanation. If the data do not support the hypothesis, it is rejected.

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B. The Nature of Science
The term science may be thought of as an approach to the gathering of knowledge rather than a
field or subject matter.
Science consists of two primary functions:
1. the development of theory and
2. the testing of substantive hypotheses that are deduced from theory
Limitations of the Scientific Approach in the Social Sciences
o Complexity of Subject Matter: Many variables, acting independently and in interaction,
must be considered in any attempt to understand complex human behavior. Each
individual is unique in the way he or she develops, in mental ability, in social and
emotional behavior, and in total personality. The behavior of humans in groups and the
influence of the behavior of group members on an individual must also be dealt with by
social scientists.
o Difficulties in Observation: more frequently involves interpretation on the part of the
observers. Motives, values, and attitudes are not open to inspection. Social scientists own
values and attitudes may influence both what they choose to observe and their assessment
of the findings on which they base their conclusions.
o Difficulties in Replication: much more difficult to achieve. Social phenomena are
singular events and cannot be repeated for purposes of observations.
o Interaction of Observer and Subjects: mere observation of social phenomena may
produce changes that might not have occurred otherwise. Researchers may think that X
cause Y when in fact it may be their observation of X causes Y.
o Difficulties in Control: the range of possibilities for controlled experiments on human
subjects is much more limited than in the natural sciences. The complexity involved in
research on human subjects presents problems in control that are unparalleled in the
natural sciences. Researchers try to identify and control as many variables as possible.
o Problems of Measurement: Tools for measurement in the social sciences are much less
perfect and precise than the tools of the natural sciences. Multivariate statistical devices
for analyzing data in the social sciences take care of relatively few of the factors that
obviously are interacting. Social science is complicated by the complexity and difficulty
of observation, replication, and measurement.

C. The Nature of Research

Scientific research is the application of the scientific approach to the study of a problem
When the scientific approach is applied to the study of educational problems, educational
research is the result.
The goal of educational research is to discover general principles or interpretations of behavior
that can be used to explain, predict, and control events in educational situationsin other words,
to formulate scientific theory.
Types of Educational Research: these four categories are not meant to imply that a study cannot
include more than one category
o Quantitative (Descriptive) Research: uses quantitative methods to describe what is,
describing, recording, analyzing, and interpreting conditions that exits. It involves some
type of comparison or contrast and attempts to discover relationships between existing
nonmanipulated variables. Some for of statistical analysis is used to describe the results of
the study.
o Qualitative Research: uses nonquantitative methods to describe what is. Uses systematic
procedures to discover nonquantifiable relationships between existing variables. Seeks to
understand a situation by focusing on the total picture rather than breaking it down into
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 variables. The goal is a holistic picture and depth of understanding, rather than a
numerical analysis of data.
Ethnography: refers to the collection of data about a situation or a cultural group
through extensive interviews and observation.
Case Studies: typically involves an in-depth examination of one individual, in
which the research attempts to describe the subjects entire range of behavior and
the relationship of these behaviors to the subjects history and environment.
Content Analyses: research of this type focuses on an analysis of the content of a
written document
o Historical Research: describes what was. The process involves investigating, recording,
analyzing, and interpreting the events of the past for the purpose of discovering
generalizations that are helpful in understanding the past and the present and, to a limited
extent, in anticipating the future.
o Experimental Research: describes what will be when certain variables are carefully
controlled or manipulated. The focus is on variable relationships. As defined here,
deliberate manipulation is always a part of the experimental method.

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