Who are Actors in International Relations?

Actors are any person or entity which plays a role that is attributable in international relations. Actors can be
defined as the entities which have the following 3 features:
1. They should have autonomous capacity to determine their own purpose and interests
2. They should have capacity to mobilize human & material resources to achieve those purpose and
interests
3. Their actions should be significant enough to influence state to state relations or the behaviour of other
non state actors in the global system.

On the basis of these features, there are two kinds of actors in the world of International Relations.
1. States actors
2. Non-state actors
States actors: States actors are those who are directly involved in international politics such as every individual
citizen, leader of state, opposition leader of state, UN government , bureaucrat the most important actors in IR.
The most important political figure in a state is state leader and these figures are key individual actor in IR
regardless of whether these leaders democratically elected or dictators. The state actor also includes
bureaucratic organizations (such as foreign ministers) that act in the name of state. every individual is state actor
because they contribute to total economy(GDP) .states differs tremendously in the size of their total annual
economic activities Gross Domestic Product(GDP).from the $12 trillion US economy to economies of tiny
states such as the Pacific Island of Vanuatu ($600 million) a large portion revenue come from GDP.
Non-State Actors in International Relations: The international arena is not only populated by states, but also
by non-governmental organizations, multinational corporations and multilateral organizations. Non-state actors
(NSA) are entities that participate or act in international relations. They are organizations with sufficient power
to influence and cause a change even though they do not belong to any established institution of a state.
Types of Non-state Actors and Their Roles:
Sub-state Actors:
Sub-state actors are groups of people or individuals with similar interests not beyond the states that are able to
effect the states foreign policy. They are also known as domestic actors or local NGOs. An example of sub-
state actors is the automobile industry and the tobacco industry in America. These industries have unmistakable
interests in the American foreign economic policy. Some examples of sub-state actors are the trade union
(British English) /labour union (Canadian English) labor union (American English). Trade union is an
organization of workers who have banded together to achieve common goals such as protecting the integrity of
its trade, achieving higher pay, increasing the number of employees an employer hires, and better working
conditions. They are able to influence the decisions made regarding their states laws in order to protect the
rights of employees.
Transnational Actors:
Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs)
States often take actions through, within or in the context of Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs). IGOs are
organizations whose members consist of three or more nations-states. IGOs fulfill variety of functions and vary
in size from just a few states to virtually the whole UN membership. IGOs are created and joined by states to
solve shared problems which give them authority to make collective decisions to manage problems on the
global agenda. In these organizations, the states representatives gather to discuss issues that are of mutual
interests to the member states. The organization of petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC),the World Trade
Organization (WTO),military alliances such as NATO, and political groupings such as the African Union (AU)
are all IGOs.
Some examples of IGOs and their purposes:
IGO Purposes
United Nations (UN) Maintain international peace and security.
Develop friendly relations among nations.
Achieve international cooperation in solving international problems.
Function as a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations.
 World Trade Organization Manage disputes arising from trading partners.
(WTO) Monitoring trade in agriculture and manufacture commodities.
The Association of Promote regional economic, social and culture cooperation among the
Southeast Asian Nations state in Southeast Asia.
(ASEAN)
North Atlantic Treaty Military alliance.
Organization (NATO) A system of collective defence where its member states agree to mutual
defence in response to an attack by any external party.

Transnational actors are actors that function below the state level but functioning across the state borders. There
are two types of transnational actors which are multinational corporations (MNCs) and the nongovernmental
organizations (NGOs).

Multinational Corporations (MNCs)

Multinational corporations (MNCs) are companies that have headquarter in one state but invest and operate
extensively in other states. MNCs are based in one state but have branches or subsidiaries operating in other
states. In other words, MNC is a large corporation operating on a worldwide basis in many countries at the same
time, with fixed facilities and employees in each.

The types of MNCs are:

Industrial corporations makes goods in factories in many countries and sell them to business and
consumers in various countries such as MNCs are automobile, oil, and electronic industries like Sony,
Honda, Toyota, PETRONAS and more.
Financial corporations such as Overseas-Chinese Banking Corporation Limited (OCBC Bank) and
others who operate multinationally with more restrictions than industrial corporations.
Services such as McDonalds fast-food chain, international airlines like MAS, Asiana Airlines and more,
Hilton Hotels & Resorts and many others.

MNCs are increasingly powerful as independent actors. Many of the industrial MNCs have annual sales of tens
of billions of dollars each.
International Nongovernmental Organizations (INGOs)
NGOs are private international actors whose members are not states, but are volunteers from populations of 2 or
more states who have formed organizations to promote their shared interests and ideals in order to influence the
policies of state governments and intergovernmental organizations (IGOs). NGOs are increasingly being
recognized as legitimate actors along with states but are not equal to them. Some of the groups have a political
purpose, some a humanitarian one, some an economic or a technical one. By joining NGOs, many people found
that they could participate in the global system and lobby to influence international organizations.
Some examples of NGOs:
One of the NGOs that fight for human rights is Amnesty International. Some others are protection of civilians,
basic welfare of children, LGBT rights, rights of people with AIDS, women's rights, disability rights, human
impact of pollution and environmental degradation, freedom of the press , AIESEC (which links students
worldwide), World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF which works on issues regarding the conservation, research
and restoration of the environment) and many more
Conclusion
Although states remain as the most important actors in the global system, the non-state actors in todays world
have an increasing influence and power in IR. One of the largest MNCs has revenues that even surpasses some
of the poorer states shows their increasing influences.
What is Hegemony? Discuss US as hegemony/US ambiguity as a world hegemon?
Hegemony is one states holding a preponderance of power in the international system, allowing it to single-
handedly dominate the rules and arrangements by which international political and economic relations are
conducted. Such a state is called a hegemon.
The Italian Marxist theorist Antonio Gramsci used the term to refer to the complex of ideas that rulers use to
gain consent for their legitimacy and keep subjects in line, reducing the need to use force to accomplish the
same goal. By extension, such a meaning in IR refers to the hegemony of ideas such as democracy and
capitalism, and to the global predominance of U.S. culture. Most studies of hegemony point to two examples:
Britain in the 19th century and the United States after World War II. Britains predominance followed the defeat
of its archrival France in the Napoleonic Wars.

Hegemonic stability theory holds that hegemony has some responsibility similar to central government in the
international system: such as;
1. ensuring peace by reducing anarchy and deterring aggression,
2. work for development by promoting free trade, and
3. Providing a hard currency that can be used as a world standard.
Hegemony also can help to resolve or at least keep in check conflicts among middle powers or small states.
Hegemony also provides both the ability and the motivation to provide a stable political framework for free
international trade .When one states power dominates the world, that state can enforce rules and norms
unilaterally, avoiding the collective goods problem. In particular, hegemony can maintain global free trade and
promote world economic growth, in this view. But this theory is not, however, accepted all IR scholars.

From the perspective of less powerful states, of course, hegemony may seem an intrusion of state sovereignty,
and the order it creates may seem unjust or illegitimate. For instance, China chafed under U.S.-imposed
economic sanctions for 20 years after 1949, at the height of U.S. power, when China was encircled by U.S.
military bases and hostile alliances led by the United States. To this day, Chinese leaders use the term
hegemony as an insult, and the theory of hegemonic stability does not impress them.
The United States is the worlds most powerful single actor. Its ability and willingness to resume a role as
hegemonas after World War IIare important factors that will shape world order, but the U.S role is still
uncertain. In the United States there is considerable ambivalence about U.S. hegemony. US foreign policy has
historically alternated between internationalist and isolationist moods.After World War I, US refused to join the
League of Nations and totally denied to contribute of all performance in league of nation to keep the nations in
order. U.S. isolationism peaked in the 1930s.being an isolationist; US had to face the gruesomeness of Second
World War alone and fail to prevent or avoid World War II. Subsequently it realizes that in order to gain worlds
support it has to play role as an internationalist. U.S. leaders after that war feared Soviet (and then Chinese)
communism and pushed U.S. public opinion toward a strong internationalism during the Cold War. The United
States became an activist, global superpower.

A second area of U.S. ambivalence is unilateralism versus multilateralism when the United States does engage
internationally. Multilateral approachesworking through international institutionsaugment U.S. power and
reduce costs, but they limit U.S. freedom of action. In 2001, the George W. Bush administration declined to
participate in such international efforts as a treaty on global warming, a conference on racism, and an
International Criminal Court. The international communitys united front against terrorism pushed these
disputes to the backburner, but they soon reemerged. The2003 U.S.-led war in Iraq, with few allies and no UN
stamp of approval marked the peak of U.S. unilateralism. The Osama administration, however, has taken a more
multilateral approach in these issue areas.

A third aspect of ambivelence US hegemony is that of morality versus realism.realist had the tendency to
dominant by their power .they claim that they are always there ,whrere people need US help.accualy the creat
the crisis for poeple than pretants as they are helping them.for such activities they claim themselves as humanist
,but in reality they are excercising realism in the mask of humanism or morality.
Elements of Power in IR
Power in International Relations may be defined as a state's tools to control or at least influence, other states or
outcome of event. National power may, therefore, be regarded as a mix of elements such as population, size,
territory, natural resources, economic strength, military force, and social stability, etc. There is classification of
power:
1. tangible element
2. Intangible power.

Tangibles Elements: Tangible power is elements of power which touchable and countable such as military,
industry, company etc.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

The economic factor is becoming more and more relevant to the modern world and may be considered one of
the most important elements. Economic growth is measured in terms of an increase in the size of a nation's
economic output, that is, Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is a measure of
the total value of goods and services produced in a specific country during a set time period. The GDP is the
broadest indicator of economic performance. Its change over time reflects the pace of economic growth or
economic performance. Countries seek to increase their GDP in order to increase their standard of living which
is a factor of power.

Military force
Military strength, since ages, has been the most obvious and visible symbol of a countrys national power. The
proverb might is right is definitely right in international relations. The unchecked and unjustifiable show of
force by the U.S. (supported by its Western allies) in countries across the globe is a clear manifestation of the
importance of this element of national power. Military strength does not only mean possession of weapons and
sensors to fight a war. It is dependent on a whole lot of factors which include material factors such as economy,
industrial development, technology, resources, number of men available to fight, etc., as well as non - material
factors such as leadership, quality of the fighting force and their training. Because of the overwhelming
influence of military on national policies, countries tend to lose balance and spend disproportionately on their
military establishment, causing harm to other sectors. However, every sovereign nation requires a balanced
military force strong enough to defend its territorial integrity and, preferably, deter potential aggressors.

Technology
The importance of technology in raising and maintaining a potent military cannot be overemphasized.
Countries that fail to keep pace with modern technology can only do so at their own peril, and they become
totally dependent on other countries for provision of latest military hardware and software. Technological
innovations have often been the difference between the victor and the loser. Beyond doubt, the current U.S.
mastery of the world has only been possible because of its overwhelming superiority in technology. The
expansion and variations in technology has a direct impact on importance of raw materials. In todays world,
some minerals such as Uranium and Plutonium have become important because of their use in nuclear industry.
Whereas others such as quartz, cobalt, chromium, manganese and platinum are considered classic strategic
minerals for a host of military, medical, scientific and commercial uses.

Natural resources
The availability of natural resources, in the form of food, minerals, energy, waterfall and fertility of soil etc,
plays an extremely important role in the relative power structure of nations. Large amounts of natural resources
are essential for a modern nation to wage war, to operate an industrial base, and to reward other international
actors through trade and aid. Moreover, as in the case of the geopolitical ownership of strategic places, the
physical possession of natural resources is not necessarily a source of power unless a nation can also develop
those resources and maintain political control over their disposition.
The dependence of nations on crucial resources can severely restrict their national power and influence.
Conversely, the dependence of others on a resource held by a particular country or countries can add to the
latters influence and power. The dependence of the world on oil supplies from the Gulf has exalted the
geostrategic importance of this region and hence provided these states with an instrument of power, which they
amply demonstrated in the oil crisis of the 1970s to the detriment of the West. The almost complete dependence
of Japan on raw materials is a critical issue in the survival calculations of the Japanese. The UK and USA
became great powers because they had iron and coal, the two most important raw materials of the time, and the
technology to exploit these. The UK and the rest of Europe started losing their strengths to USA and USSR
which were rich in oil resource, besides other elements of power. Japan has become vulnerable due to its
dependence on imported oil.

Intangibles Elements:
Intangible power means elements of power which is uncountable and untouchable, such as policy, attitude of
government, values etc. There are certain unquantifiable factors in the makeup of national power which play an
equal, or sometimes more important, role in the application or manifestation of a countrys power, than the
more visible and measurable elements.

Nationality
Another very important factor which relates to and has enormous influence on all the intangible factors
mentioned above is nationalism. Unlike religion or ethnicity, nationalism has no sects or factions and is
therefore the most effective binding force. Nationalism is the only force which can effectively bring people of
different colors and creeds together. Once a nation is truly united, it finds its own ways to development and
progress. Such a country need not fear an adversary or adversity because the bond of nationhood motivates
people to stand by each other and also give strength to the representative government.

Strategy
A key aspect of strategy is choosing the kinds of capabilities to develop, given limited resources, in order to
maximize international influence. Strategies also shape policies for when a state is willing to use its power
capabilities. The will of a nation or leader is hard to estimate. Even if leaders make explicit their intention to
fight over an issue, they might be bluffing .the strategic actions of China in recent years exemplify the concept
of strategy as rational deployment of power capabilities. Chinas central foreign policy goal is to prevent the
independence of Taiwan, which China considers an integral part of its territory. China may not have the military
power to invade Taiwan successfully, but it has declared repeatedly that it will go to war if Taiwan declares
independence. So far, even though such a war might be irrational on Chinas part, the threat has deterred
Taiwan from formally declaring independence. China also breaks diplomatic relations with countries that
recognize Taiwan. Chinese strategies mobilize various capabilities, including missiles, diplomats, and industrial
corporations etc. Strategy thus amplifies Chinas power. The strategy of deterrence uses a threat to punish
another actor; its effects are almost invisible; its success is measured in attacks that did not occur.

Alliances
Alliances play a key role in the balance of power. Building up ones own capabilities against a rival is a form of
power balancing, but forming an alliance against a threatening state is often quicker, cheaper, and more
effective. Most alliances are formalized in written treaties, concern a common threat and related issues of
international security, and endure across a range of issues and a period of time. If actors purposes in banding
together were shorter-term, less formal, or more issue- specific, the association might be called a coalition
rather than an alliance. Sometimes Two countries may have a formal alliance and yet be bitter enemies, as are
Greece and Turkey. Or, two countries may create the practical equivalent of an alliance without a formal treaty
.Sometimes a particular state deliberately becomes a balancer (in its region or the world), shifting its support to
oppose whatever state or alliance is strongest at the moment. Britain played this role on the European continent
for centuries, and China played it in the Cold War .For smaller states, alliances can be their most important
power element, and for great powers the structure of alliances shapes the configuration of power in the system.
Of all the elements of power, none can change as quickly and decisively as alliances.

Conclusion
Power is the ability of an individual or state to influence or control the behavior of others. Power occupies an
important place in international. Power can be used in different ways ranging from persuasion to punishment.

Feminism
Feminist approaches to international relations became popular in the early 1990s. Such approaches emphasize that
women's experiences continue to be excluded from the study of international relations.Feminists who argue that gender
relations are integral to international relations focus on the role of women in IRespecially in issues relating to war
and international security.

difference feminism argues there are real differences in the way men and women approach world politics. difference
feminism, focuses on valorizing the femininethat is, valuing the unique contributions of women as women.
Difference feminists do not think women do all things as well as men or vice versa. Because of their greater
experience with nurturing and human relations, women are seen as potentially more effective than men (on
average) in conflict resolution as well as in group decision making. Difference feminists believe there are real
differences between the genders that are not just social constructions and cultural indoctrination (although these
contribute to gender roles, too). Some difference feminists believe there is a core biological essence to being male
or female (sometimes called essentialism ), but the majority think womens difference is more culturally than bio-
logically determined. In either case, feminine perspectives create a standpoint from which to observe, analyze, and
criticize the traditional perspectives on IR. 2

Liberal Feminism intends to empower women and give them an equal role in society, especially in politics and at work.
Its goal is to insure complete Gender equality between men and women without changing completely the way the
society works or girls' and boys' socialization. The French Philosopher Simone de Beauvoir can be seen as one of them.
This theory was also one of the first to be expressed in 18th-century Europe by the leading French feminist thinker
Olympe de Gourges and its British follower Wollstonecraft. This theory focus on gender equality at work and in politics,
promoting policies to insure parity in Parliament or in boards of directors. It has extended the concept of "Glass ceiling"
to gender issues. In IR, liberal feminists look at women in international politics and international economics.

Another strand, liberal feminism, rejects these claims as being based on stereotyped gender roles. Liberal
feminists see the essential differences in mens and womens abilities or perspectives as trivial or
nonexistentmen and women are equal. They deplore the exclusion of women from positions of power in IR
but do not believe that including women would change the nature of the international system. Liberal feminists
seek to include women more often as subjects of studysuch as women state leaders, women soldiers, and
other women operating outside the traditional gender roles in IR. Liberal feminism argues that women and men
will behave generally the same when they reach the pinnacle of power (such scholars cite Margaret Thatcher, Hillary
Clinton, and other assertive female leaders to debunk the notion that having women in charge would somehow make
the world a more peaceful or understanding place). Liberal feminism

, this is a classic feminism, which are fighting for and standing againstthe prevent factors of women equality. What they demand
for everybody, want for women too. The liberal feminism is against all discrimination of gender. They believe,that women
will represent in bureaucracy and for power structuring in internationalorganizations.
4
Moreover, the feminists have their position about the war, crises and peace. They think all wars are created by men,
because the women use non-violent tools, techniques andstrategies. In security, war and peace context have the feminists
three different positions;
First,
they say women can more provide the peace in IR with her female character.The
second
group rejects the share of the military under men. They say military is alsodivided by women. The
third
are totally against the military. They see the bad factors of military wars - more for women and children.In short, while
IR has made someand in some ways quite significantaccommodations for womens participation and feminist additions, it
has missed themost exciting and transformative elements of feminist
theories
. I n s t e a d , f e m i n i s m within IR is narrowly conceived and feminist theoretical insights remain invisible tothe
mainstream. I believe that the disciplines resistance to self-reflection and systemic,transformative critique has
impoverished the development of IR theory. In contrast,feminist theories beyond IR continue to develop, even flourish,
and to have significanteffects on social theory
as
practice

A third approach combines feminism with postmodernism. Postmodern feminism tends to reject the assumptions
about gender made by both difference and liberal feminists. Where difference feminists consider gender differ-
ences to be important and fixed, and liberal feminists consider those differences to be trivial, postmodern feminists
find them important but arbitrary and flexible.

To some extent the divergent views of feminist strandsdifference, liberal, and post- modernoverlap with the
general themes of conservative, liberal, and revolutionary world views, respectively. But these parallels are only
rough.
 A broad approach to scholarship that pays special attention to texts and to discourses (how people talk
and write about their subjects)
Central idea:
Postmodernists seek to deconstruct such constructions as states, the international system, and the
associated stories and arguments with which realists portray the nature of international relations.