Introduction to Analog Process Control and Sensors

A Process Control System, sometimes called Industrial Control Systems (ICS), are pieces of equipment
along the production line that can be supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA), programmable
logic controllers (PLC), or distributed control systems (DCS), that can gather and transmit data that is
obtained during the manufacturing process. The PCS can be a relatively simple item that can have a
sensor, often called a primary transducer that receives an input, a controller that processes the input, and
a receiver that processes an output.

A process control system monitors the manufacturing environment and electronically controls the process
or manufacturing flow based on the various set-points given by the user. Process control is extensively
used in industry and enables mass production of consistent products from continuously operated
processes such as oil refining, paper manufacturing, chemicals, power plants and many others. Process
control enables automation, by which a small staff of operating personnel can operate a complex process
from a central control room.

THE PROCESS CONTROL FLOW

The Figure shows basic elements of a feedback control system as represented by a block diagram.

The Logical Signal is an external signal applied to the summing point of the control system to cause the
plant to produce a specified action. This signal represents the desired value of a controlled variable and is
also called the setpoint.

The Signal Processing and Amplification is where the input signals where processing and amplified
enabling the signal to be transferred to the preceding elements of the process control flow.

The actuator sensor is a function of the output signal. It is sent to the summing point and algebraically
added to the reference input signal to obtain the actuating signal.

The mechanism block is where the control valves are located. These control valves used to control
conditions such as flow, pressure, temperature, and liquid level by fully or partially opening or closing in
response to signals received from controllers that compare a "setpoint" to a "process variable" whose
value is provided by sensors that monitor changes in such conditions.

Basic Process Control Components

An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving or controlling a mechanism or

system. It requires a control signal and a source of energy. The control signal is relatively low energy and
may be electric voltage or current, pneumatic or hydraulic pressure, or even human power. The supplied
main energy source may be electric current, hydraulic fluid pressure, or pneumatic pressure. When the
control signal is received, the actuator responds by converting the energy into mechanical motion.
 Control valves are valves used to control conditions such as flow, pressure, temperature, and liquid
level by fully or partially opening or closing in response to signals received from controllers that compare
a "setpoint" to a "process variable" whose value is provided by sensors that monitor changes in such
conditions. It is also termed as the Final Control Element.

Sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input from the physical environment. The
specific input could be light, heat, motion, moisture, pressure, or any one of a great number of other
environmental phenomena. Applications include manufacturing and machinery, airplanes and aerospace,
cars, medicine, robotics and many other aspects of our day-to-day life.

4. Transducers are voltage-output devices that can be used with simple signal conditioning but are more
sensitive to electromagnetic interference. Transducers are often employed at the boundaries
of automation, measurement, and control systems, where electrical signals are converted to and from
other physical quantities (energy, force, torque, light, motion, position, etc.).

5. Transmitters are current-output devices and may have two or three wires. Where two wires are used
to both receive power and transmit an output signal, significant cost savings can be made where long
cables are needed.

APCS APPLICATION

As an example for Analog Process Control system heres a shower flow diagram. The cold water and hot
water serves as the input signal on the control system. The valve signifies the use of control valves which
opens the outlet in the shower which opens or closes the shower valve. The actuator on this diagram is
the individual in the shower room which turns on or off the control valve.

Process Actuators and Output Devices

Actuators are the final elements in a control system. They receive a low power command signal and
energy input to amplify the command signal as appropriate to produce the required output. Applications
range from simple low power switches to high power hydraulic devices operating flaps and control
surfaces on aircraft; valves, car steering, process plant automation, etc. An Actuator converts the
command signal from controllers or higher-level components into physical adjustment in adjustable
process variable. Actuators drive motions in mechanical systems. Most often this is by converting
electrical energy into some form of mechanical motion. The type of energy flowing into the resource
(object) which are electrical, pneumatic, hydraulic and mechanical classifies actuators. Actuators are also
classified by the form of mechanical movement (shape of geometrical movement) that is applied from the
output of the actuator towards the input of driven equipment which are rotary actuators, linear actuators
and trajectional actuators with trajectory generators.

Hydraulic actuators consist of a cylinder or fluid motor that utilizes hydraulic power to facilitate
mechanical process. The mechanical motion gives an output in terms of linear, rotary or oscillatory
motion. Since liquids are nearly incompressible, they take longer to gain speed and power and also slow
back down, but they can exert great force. The hydraulic actuator also allows for very precise control of
the movement produced. In linear hydraulic actuators, a typical set-up is made up of a hollow cylinder that
contains a liquid, usually oil, and a piston that is inserted in it. When pressure is applied onto the piston,
objects can be moved by the force produced. Hydraulic actuators can be operated manually, such as a
hydraulic car jack, or they can be operated through a hydraulic pump, which can be seen in construction
equipment such as cranes or excavators.

Pneumatic actuators work on the same concept as hydraulic actuators except compressed gas is used
instead of liquid. Energy, in the form of compressed gas, is converted into linear or rotary motion,
depending on the type of actuator. Pneumatic energy is more desirable for main engine controls because
it can quickly respond in starting and stopping as the power source does not need to be stored in reserve
for operation. Also, pneumatic actuators are preferred in places where cleanliness is important, since the
fluid in hydraulic actuators might leak and contaminate the surroundings. However, pneumatic actuators
are still likely to leak, making them less efficient compared to mechanical actuators. Another downside is
that they take up a lot of space, create a lot of noise and are difficult to transport once installed in a place.

Electric actuators are devices powered by motors that convert electrical energy to mechanical torque.
The electrical energy is used to create motion in equipment that require multi-turn valves like gate or
globe valves. Since no oil is involved, electrical actuators are considered to be one of the cleanest and
readily available forms of actuators. Electric actuators are typically installed in engines, where they open
and close different valves. There are many designs of electric actuators and this depends on their
function in the engine that they are installed in.

Mechanical actuators function through converting rotary motion to linear motion.when a rotary motion.
Devices such as gears, rails, pulley, chain and others are used to help convert the motion. Some of the
simple mechanisms used to convert motion are screws, where the rotation of the actuator's nut causes
the screw shaft to move in a straight line, the wheel and axle, where the rotating motion of a wheel
causes a belt or something similar to move in a linear motion.

Industrial Actuators

Industrial actuators convert the industrial standard signal to action such as valve opening, power level,
displacement and etc.. Standard instrumentation signal levels and signal conversion transmitters are
used.

Solenoids

Solenoids are the most common actuator components. The basic principle of operation is that, there is a
moving ferrous core (a piston) that will move inside wire coil. Normally the piston is held outside the coil
by a spring. When a voltage is applied to the coil and current flows, the coil builds up a magnetic field that
attracts the piston and pulls it into the center of the coil. The piston can be used to supply a linear force.
Well known applications of these include in pneumatic values and car door openers.
Piston and Cylinder Actuators A cylinder uses pressurized fluid or air to create a linear force/motion. A
fluid is pumped into one side of the cylinder under pressure causing that side of the cylinder to expand,
and advancing the piston. The fluid on the other side of the piston must be allowed to escape freely - if
the incompressible fluid was trapped the cylinder could not advance. The force the cylinder can exert is
proportional to the cross-sectional area of the cylinder. Single acting cylinders apply force when extending
and typically use a spring to retract the cylinder. Double acting cylinders apply force in both directions.

Selection Criteria
Continuous power outputThe max force/torque attainable continuously without exceeding the
temperature limits
Range of motionThe range of linear/rotary motion
ResolutionThe minimum increment of force/torque attainable
AccuracyLinearity of the relationship between the input and output
Peak force/torqueThe force/torque at which the actuator stalls
Heat dissipationMaximum wattage of heat dissipation in continuous operation
Speed characteristicsForce/torque versus speed relationship
No load speedTypical operating speed/velocity with no external load
Frequency responserange of frequency over which the output follows the input faithfully, applicable
to linear actuators
Power requirementType of power (AC or DC), number of phases, voltage level, and current capacity

Types of Output Devices

Graphics (Visual) A digital image is a numeric representation of an image stored on a computer. They
don't have any physical size until they are displayed on a screen or printed on paper. Until that point, they
are just a collection of numbers on the computer's hard drive that describe the individual elements of a
picture and how they are arranged. Graphics are digital representations of non-text information such as
drawings, charts, photographs, and animation

Tactile A tactile feedback technology takes advantage of the sense of touch by applying forces,
vibrations, or motions to the user. Several printers and wax jet printers have the capability of producing
raised line drawings. There are also handheld devices that use an array of vibrating pins to present a
tactile outline of the characters or text under the viewing window of the device. Tactile output such as
raised line drawings may be useful for some individuals who are blind

Audio Speech output systems can be used to read screen text to computer users. Special software
programs called screen readers attempt to identify and interpret what is being displayed on the screen
and speech synthesizers convert data to vocalized sounds or text. Audio is music, speech, or any other
sound.

CONTROL VALVE

A control valve is a valve used to control fluid flow by varying the size of the flow passage as directed
by a signal from a controller. This enables the direct control of flow rate and the consequential control of
process quantities such as pressure, temperature, and liquid level.

It is a power-operated device used to modify the fluid or substance flow rate in a process system. The
control valve manipulates a flowing fluid, such as gas, steam, water, or chemical compounds, to
compensate for the load disturbance and keep the regulated process variable as close as possible to the
desired set point.

The functionality of the valve

Control: pressure / flow rate regulation.

Closure at over-speed flow. (I.e. immediate closure if downstream pipeline is broken by accident).
Overpressure protection.

Back flow prevention (check valve).

On/Off service.

CATEGORIES OF CONTROL VALVES

Rotary type Control Valve - Rotary type valves, often called quarter-turn valves, include plug
valves, ball valves and butterfly valves. All require a rotary motion to open and close, and can easily be
fitted with actuators.

Linear type Control Valve - Linear types include globe valves and slide valves

TYPES OF CONTROL VALVES

Globe Valves: Globe valves are most commonly used liner stem motion type
control valves. The flow control for this type of valves is achieved by motion of a plug as
shown in the following figure. The shape and type of the plus also determines the valve flow
characteristics

Gate valve: Gate valves use linear type of stem motion for opening and closing of valve.
These valves use discs as closure member, as can be seen in the following figure. The
faces of this disc can be either parallel or the disc can be wedge shaped.

Butterfly Valves: Butterfly valves are known for their compact size and low initial
costs, which is primarily due to the small wafer and body size of these valves and the
simplicity of this design. This valve belongs to the rotary stem motion type of valves.

Ball Valves: These valves use a spherical shaped closure member with
a cylindrical bore through the member for passage of flow. This spherical closure
member has to be rotated by 90 degrees to bring the valve from fully closed
position to fully open position. This type gets the name from the shape of the
closure member. If the diameter of the cylindrical bore is same as that of the
connecting pipe, the valve is known as full bore valve. If this diameter is less than
that of the connecting pipe, the valve is known venturi style valve. These valves rotary stem motion.

Plug Valves: The plug valve controls fluid flow through an internal plug, in either
a cylindrically or conically tapered shape which incorporates a straight-through opening.
Thee valve is operated by rotating the plug an stem a quarter turn to either allow a
straight-throu passage of fluid, block the fluid, or any angle in between. It is popular due
to its simple design and inexpensiveness
 Check Valves: the check valve is used to prevent flow reversal in a system. The two most
common design are swing check and lift check. These operate by allowing in one
predetermined direction through their body. A swing check valve consist of a hinged
disk that swings open when flow starts and closes due to either gravity or flow reversal.
When fully open, the swing check valve offers less resistance than the lift check valve.
The lift check valve s used when pressure drops are not as critical. Its flow path is very
similar to that of a globe valve, and is also opened when flow starts and closes due to
flow reversal/ Most Check valves are labeled with an arrow on the bodys exterior, which
indicates the direction of flow and assists with proper installation.

Matters in Selecting Control Valves

Capacity- The maximum flow rate through the flow system (pipes, valves, and process
equipment) must meet operating requirements. Guidelines are available for calculating the pipe diameter
for a desired flow rate, and guidelines are given here for the percentage of the system pressure drop
contributed by the valve.

Range- The range indicates the extent of flow values that the valve can reliably regulate; very
small and large flows cannot be maintained at desired values.

Pressure drop- The purpose of the valve is to create a variable pressure drop in the flow system.
However, a large pressure drop wastes energy. In some systems, the energy costs for pumping or
compressing can be very high, and the pressure drop introduced by the valve should be as small a
practically possible.

Precision- Ideally, the valve would move to exactly the position indicated by the signal to the
valve, which is usually a controller output. However, the valve is a real physical device that does not
perform ideally.

Dynamics- The valve is part of the feedback system, and any delay due to the valve slows the
feedback correction and degrades control performance. Therefore, the valve should achieve the desired
opening rapidly.

Cost- Engineers must always consider cost when making design and operations decisions.
Valves involve costs and when selected properly, provide benefits. These must be quantified and a
profitability analysis performed. In some cases, a valve can affect the operating costs of the process,
where the pumping (or compression) costs can be high, and the pressure drop occurring because of the
valve can significantly increase the pumping costs. In such situations, a valve with a low (non-
recoverable) pressure drop is selected.

INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SENSORS

Sensors play a major role in any control and automation system. There are like the eyes and ears of a
machine or equipment. Without sensors the apparatus is essentially running blind. The sensors convey
details of the status of the real world in a more detailed way than any human senses can. They exist to
cover most measurable quantities of the real world and include motion, temperature, proximity, light,
sound, moisture and many more. Control Sensors are used for process monitoring and for process
control. These are essential elements of safe and profitable plant operation that can be achieved only if
the proper sensors are selected and installed in the correct locations. While sensors differ greatly in their
physical principles, their selection can be guided by the analysis of a small set of issues. Many types of
sensors have been developed during the past several years. PROCESS CONTROL SENSORS plays a
significant role in improving productivity, qualitatively and quantitatively.

PARAMETERS

There are main parameters to be measured and controlled in industrial plants. Those are temperature,
displacement, force, pressure, fluid level, and flow. In addition, detectors for leakage of explosives or
combustible gases and oils are important for accident prevention. And, from these parameters different
types of sensors are being made.

Temperature - Temperature control is important for separation and reaction processes, and
temperature must be maintained within limits to ensure safe and reliable operation of process
equipment.

Pressure - Most liquid and all gaseous materials in the process industries are contained within
closed vessels. For the safety of plant personnel and protection of the vessel, pressure in the
vessel is controlled. In addition, pressured is controlled because it influences key process
operations like vapor-liquid equilibrium, chemical reaction rate, and fluid flow.

Flow - Flow measurement is critical to determine the amount of material purchased and sold,
and in these applications, very accurate flow measurement is required. In addition, flows
throughout the process should the regulated near their desired values with small variability; in
these applications, good reproducibility is usually sufficient. Flowing systems require energy,
typically provided by pumps and compressors, to produce a pressure difference as the driving
force, and flow sensors should introduce a small flow resistance, increasing the process energy
consumption as little as possible.

Level - Level of liquid in a vessel should be maintained above the exit pipe because if the vessel
empties the exit flow will become zero, a situation that would upset downstream processes and
could damage pumping equipment that requires liquid. Also, the level should not overflow an
open vessel nor should it exit through a vapor line of a closed vessel, which could disturb a
process designed for vapor.

Position - Displacement sensors measure the distance an object moves and they can also be
used to measure object height and width.

ISSUES
From the main parameters, the major issues in sensor selection are summarized in the following:

Accuracy - Accuracy is the degree of conformity of the measured value with the accepted standard
orideal value, which we can take as the true physical variable.

Repeatability The closeness of agreement among a number of consecutive measurements of the

same variable (value) under the same operating conditions, approaching in the same direction.

Reproducibility Reproducibility is the sensing systems ability to produce the same responses after
measurement conditions have been altered.

Range/Span - Most sensors have a limited range over which a process variable can be measured,
defined by the lower and upper range values.

Reliability Reliability is the probability that a device will adequately perform (as specified) for a period
of time under specified operating conditions.

Linearity - This is the closeness to a straight line of the relationship between the true process variable
and the measurement.

Maintenance - Sensors require occasional testing and replacement of selected components that can
wear. Engineers must know the maintenance requirements so that they can provide adequate spare parts
and personnel time.

Dynamics - The use of the sensor dictates the allowable delay in the sensor response. When the
measured value is used for control, sensor delays should be minimized, while sensors used for
monitoring longer-term trends can have some delay.

Safety - The sensor and transmitter often require electrical power. Since the sensor is located at the
process equipment, the environment could contain flammable gases, which could explode when a spark
occurs.

Cost - Engineers must always consider cost when making design and operations decisions. Sensors
involve costs and when selected properly, provide benefits. These must be quantified and a profitability
analysis performed.

The relative importance of each issue depends upon the specific application; for example, one application
might require excellent accuracy, while another might require only moderate accuracy, but high reliability.
Generally, we find that the greater the requirements for good performance, the higher the cost for
purchase and maintenance. Therefore, we must find the proper balance of performance and cost, rather
than always specify the best performing sensor.

Transmitter
A transmitter is also known as a radio transmitter. It is an electronic device used in telecommunications to
produce radio waves in order to transmit or send data with the aid of an antenna. Transmitters are
devices that are used to send out data, as radio waves in a specific band of the electromagnetic spectrum
in order to fulfill a specific communication need, be it for voice or for general data.

In order to do this, a transmitter takes energy from a power source and transforms this into a
radio frequency alternating current that changes direction millions to billions of times per second
depending on the band that the transmitter needs to send in. When this rapidly changing energy
is directed through a conductor, in this case an antenna, electromagnetic or radio waves are
radiated outwards to be received by another antenna that is connected to a receiver that reverses
the process to come up with the actual message or data.

A transmitter is composed of:

Power supply The energy source used to power the device and create the energy for
broadcasting
Electronic oscillator Generates a wave called the carrier wave where data is imposed and
carried through the air
Modulator Ads the actual data into the carrier wave by varying some aspect of the carrier wave
In an AM (amplitude modulation) transmitter the amplitude (strength) of the carrier wave is
varied in proportion to the modulation signal.
In an FM (frequency modulation) transmitter the frequency of the carrier is varied by the
modulation signal.
In an FSK (frequency-shift keying) transmitter, which transmits digital data, the frequency of
the carrier is shifted between two frequencies which represent the two binary digits, 0 and 1.
 RF amplifier Increases the power of the signal in order to increase the range where the waves
can reach
Antenna tuner or impedance matching circuit Matches the impedance of the transmitter to that
of the antenna in order for the transfer of power to the antenna to be efficient and prevent a
condition called standing waves, where power is reflected from the antenna back to the
transmitter, wasting power or damaging it.
There are many types of transmitters depending on
the standard being used and the type of device.
Transmitters are used in broadcasting applications
such as in a radio transmitter or TV transmitter. It can
also be found in electronic devices that communicate
by radio including cellular, wireless computer
networks, Bluetooth devices, etc.

Transducer
-It is a device that converts one form of energy to another. Usually a transducer converts a signal in one
form of energy to a signal in another. Transducers are often employed at the boundaries
of automation, measurement, and control systems, where electrical signals are converted to and from
other physical quantities (energy, force, torque, light, motion, position, etc.). The process of converting
one form of energy to another is known as transduction.
Classification of Transducers

1) Analog and Digital

Analog - converts input into output into continuous time function.
Digital converts input into output into form of time based pulses.

2) Primary and Secondary

Primary when signal is sensed by transducer and converts it into electrical signal directly.
Secondary when signal that serves as input is not a direct physical parameter, in other words came
from the primary transducer, it is classified as secondary.

3) Transducers and Inverse Transducers

Transducers Converts non-electrical quantity into an electrical quantity.
Inverse Converts an electrical quantity into a non-electrical quantity.

4) Active and Passive

Active If the transducer operates if and only if there is, a voltage source applied in the system.
Passive transducers that operates even without the use of voltage source.

Similarities and Differences of Transmitter and Transducer

Both transducers and transmitters convert energy from one form to another and give an output
signal. The signal is directed to any device that interprets it and uses it to display record or alter
the pressure in a system.
Transducers and transmitters are virtually the same thing, the main difference being the kind of electrical
signal each sends. A transducer sends a signal in volts (V) or millivolt (mV) and a transmitter sends a
signal in milliamps (mA). If the electrical connections in your process are short, such as in laboratory or
inside an electronics enclosure, a pressure transducer is more desirable as they tend to be smaller and
there are very few active electronic components that can be upset by electromagnetic interference.
There is also inverse transducer, which would read the electrical signals into a form desired by the user
as another energy type. Inverse transducers are often called indicators. Transmitters, on the other hand
serves as an indicator that reads electrical signal but forms into electrical signal capable of transmission.
This signal is then receive by a inverse transducer capable of decoding information and transform into
another energy form.

PROCESS SENSORS

TEMPERATURE SENSORS

A temperature sensor is a device that gathers data concerning the temperature from a source
and converts it to a form that can be understood either by an observer or another device. These sensors
come in many different forms and are used for a wide variety of purposes, from simple home use to
extremely accurate and precise scientific use. Many organisms, including humans and most animals,
have biological temperature sensors that serve essentially the same function as artificial ones: they
collect data and transfer it into an understandable form.

TYPES OF SENSORS

1. Mechanical Temperature Sensors

Thermometer
Bimetallic Strip
2. Electrical Temperature Sensors
Thermocouple
Thermistor
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

Thermometer An instrument used to measure temperature. There are many types of

thermometers, each of which makes use of a physical effect of temperature to indicate the
temperature of the medium being measured.

Bimetallic Strip is used to convert a temperature change into mechanical displacement.

 Thermocouple A temperature sensor formed by the junction of two dissimilar metals,
producing a voltage proportional to the difference in temperature between the hot junction and the
lead wire (cold) junction.

Thermistor A temperature-dependent resistor with a high temperature coefficient usually

composed of sintered semiconductor material.

RTD A device with significant temperature coefficient. It is used as a temperature device,

usually by passing a low-level current through it and measuring the voltage drop.

PRESSURE SENSORS

A pressure sensor is a device that senses and measures pressure. The pressure sensor in
electronic circuit is in the form of an integrated circuit that acts as a transducer, that is, it replicates the
signal it receives as a function of imposed pressure.

TYPES OF PRESSURE SENSORS

1. Electromechanical Pressure Sensors This is the type of pressure sensor that converts
applied pressure to an electrical signal.

2. Potentiometric Pressure Sensors This sensor works on the basis that pressure changes
causes the arm to move back and forth across a potentiometer. (.035 70MPa) (.07 .35MPa)

3. Capacitive Sensor The change of the capacitance is detected by an attached circuit which in
turn read the voltage in relationship to pressure change. (2.5MPa 70MPa) (.07MPa)
 4. Piezoelectric Sensors Piezoelectric sensors use a crystal sensor. (.021 100MPa) (.1MPa)

Reluctive Pressure Sensors When there is a change in pressure, the flexible elements reacts by
moving the ferromagnetic plate, which leads to a change in the magnetic flux of the circuit which can be
measured. (250Pa 70Mpa) (.35MPa)

What is a Flow Meter?

A flow meter is a device used to measure the flow rate or quantity of a gas or liquid moving through a
pipe. Flow measurement applications are very diverse and each situation has its own constraints and
engineering requirements.

Types of flow meters

1. Positive Displacement (Volumetric flow meter or PD flow meter)

2. Mass

3. Velocity
The output signal is directly related to the velocity passing through the meter.

Electromagnetic
Ultrasonic
Turbine
Sonar
Target
Variable Area or Rotameter
Orifice Plate

What is a Level Sensor?

Level sensors detect the level of liquids and other fluids and fluidized solids, including slurries,
granular materials, and powders that exhibit an upper free surface.

Classification of Level Sensor Measuring Systems

Liquids or Solids Level Measurement

Point or Continuous Level Measurement
Electromagnetic or Electromechanical Level Measurement
Contacting or Non-Contacting Level Measurement

Point/ Liquid Level Switch Measurement and Detection Systems

Point level measurement sensors are used for the purpose of marking a single liquid height or for
presetting a level condition. Usually, this sensor works as a high alarm that measures the overflow
conditions in tanks through liquid level sensors, or works as a marker to note down the low alarm
conditions.

1. Level Detection and Measurement by Using a Float Sensor

2. Level Detection and Measurement by Using Capacitance Sensor
3. Level Detection by Using Conductivity Probes

What is a Position Sensor?

A position sensor is any device that permits position measurement. It can either be an absolute
position sensor or a relative one (displacement sensor). Position sensors can be linear, angular, or multi-
axis.

Types of Position Sensor

Position sensors use different sensing principles to sense the displacement of a body. Depending upon
the different sensing principles used for position sensors, they can be classified as follows:

1. Resistance-based or Potentiometric Position sensors

2. Capacitive position sensors

3. Linear Voltage Differential Transformers

4. Magnetostrictive Linear Position Sensor

5. Eddy Current based position Sensor

6. Hall Effect based Magnetic Position Sensors

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