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Edited by: This short review will summarize the current knowledge on the uptake, storage, and export
Anthony R. White, The University of of copper ions by astrocytes and will address the potential roles of astrocytes in copper
Melbourne, Australia
homeostasis in the normal and diseased brain. Astrocytes in culture efficiently accumulate
Reviewed by:
copper by processes that include both the copper transporter Ctr1 and Ctr1-independent
Alexej Verkhratsky, University of
Manchester, UK mechanisms. Exposure of astrocytes to copper induces an increase in cellular glutathione
Bogdan O. Popescu, University (GSH) content as well as synthesis of metallothioneins, suggesting that excess of
Hospital Bucharest, Romania copper is stored as complex with GSH and in metallothioneins. Furthermore, exposure of
*Correspondence: astrocytes to copper accelerates the release of GSH and glycolytically generated lactate.
Ralf Dringen, Center for
Astrocytes are able to export copper and express the Menkes protein ATP7A. This protein
Biomolecular Interactions Bremen,
University of Bremen, PO Box undergoes reversible, copper-dependent trafficking between the trans-Golgi network and
330440, D-28334 Bremen, vesicular structures. The ability of astrocytes to efficiently take up, store and export copper
Germany. suggests that astrocytes play a key role in the supply of neurons with copper and that
e-mail: ralf.dringen@uni-bremen.de
astrocytes should be considered as target for therapeutic interventions that aim to correct
disturbances in brain copper homeostasis.
Keywords: ATP7A, astroglia, copper export, Ctr1, metallothioneins, oxidative stress, toxicity, transport
INTRODUCTION 2008; Scheiber and Dringen, 2013). Thus, these cells appear to
Astrocytes have many important functions in the brain, includ- be equipped with the machinery to deal well with even large
ing the maintenance of extracellular ion homeostasis, the mod- amounts of copper. This short review will summarize the current
ulation of synaptic transmission and plasticity, the supply of knowledge on the uptake, storage and export of copper in cul-
metabolites, and the defense of the brain against oxidative stress tured astrocytes and will describe alterations of basal metabolic
and toxins (Parpura et al., 2012; Schmidt and Dringen, 2012). pathways of astrocytes after exposure to copper. Finally, we will
In addition, astrocytes are considered as key regulators of the address the potential roles that astrocytes may play in the cop-
homeostasis of the redox-active metals iron and copper in the per homeostasis of the normal brain and in the dysregulation of
brain (Dringen et al., 2007; Tiffany-Castiglioni et al., 2011; copper homeostasis that has been connected with a number of
Scheiber and Dringen, 2013). Copper is essential for brain cells human diseases.
as a cofactor and structural component of various enzymes that
are involved in important biochemical pathways such as the res- UPTAKE STORAGE AND EXPORT OF COPPER
piratory chain, the antioxidative defense and the iron metabolism COPPER UPTAKE
(Scheiber and Dringen, 2013). However, excess of copper in Several groups have reported that cultured astrocytes efficiently
cells is harmful, since copper in redox-active form can catalyze accumulate copper (Brown, 2004; Scheiber et al., 2010a,b, 2012;
the production of hydroxyl radicals in a Fenton-like reaction, Qian et al., 2012). The apparent KM value for copper uptake
thereby inducing oxidative stress and cell damage (Halliwell and of about 10 M as well as the expression of the copper trans-
Gutteridge, 2007). Thus, a tight regulation of cellular copper porter receptor 1 (Ctr1) in cultured astrocytes (Scheiber et al.,
metabolism is required in order to ensure sufficient availability 2010a) suggest that this transporter is responsible for the high
of copper for essential enzymes without concomitant copper- affinity copper uptake into astrocytes (Figure 1). However, the
induced oxidative damage. inhibition of copper accumulation in astrocytes by zinc (Scheiber
The presence of many copper-containing enzymes in astro- et al., 2010a,b) suggests that Ctr1-independent transport pro-
cytes (Scheiber and Dringen, 2013) demonstrates that brain astro- cesses also contribute to the astrocytic copper accumulation.
cytes require copper as essential element. Histochemical staining Transporters that could mediate Ctr1-independent copper uptake
of brain sections revealed that copper is present in astrocytes in into astrocytes include the divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1)
normal brain (Szerdahelyi and Kasa, 1986). Elevated astrocytic and members of the Zrt/IRT-like protein (ZIP) family (Scheiber
copper levels have been found in the brains of North Ronaldsay et al., 2010a; Scheiber and Dringen, 2013). Since Cu+ has been
sheep, an animal model for copper toxicosis (Haywood et al., reported to be the copper species transported by both Ctr1
2008). Astrocytes have been reported to be remarkably resistant and DMT1 (Lee et al., 2002; Arredondo et al., 2003), an ecto-
against copper-induced toxicity (Chen et al., 2008; Reddy et al., cuprireductase on the plasma membrane of astrocytes and/or
FIGURE 1 | Copper metabolism of astrocytes. Copper is taken up into specific cellular target, by the copper chaperones CCS to superoxide
astrocytes by the copper transporter receptor 1 (Ctr1) and also by dismutase 1 (SOD1), by Cox17 to Sco1/2 and Cox11 for subsequent
Ctr1-independent mechanisms which may include the divalent metal incorporation into cytochrome c oxidase and by antioxidant protein
transporter 1 (DMT1) or members of the ZIP family of metal 1 (Atox1) to ATP7A. ATP7A transports copper into the trans-Golgi
transporters. An ecto-cuprireductase and/or extracellular ascorbate will network for subsequent incorporation into copper-dependent enzymes.
provide the reduced copper species for astrocytic uptake by Ctr1 or When the cellular copper level rises above a certain threshold, ATP7A
DMT1. Accumulated copper is stored in astrocytes as complex with translocates reversibly via vesicles to the plasma membrane to export
GSH or in metallothioneins (MT). In addition, copper is shuttled to its copper.
astrocyte-derived ascorbate (Scheiber and Dringen, 2013) may cytochrome c oxidase, respectively, has not been reported so far
be involved in reducing extracellular Cu2+ to the Cu+ that for astrocytes. However, as astrocytes express functional ATP7A
is subsequently taken up into astrocytes (Figure 1). An addi- (Scheiber et al., 2012) and cytochrome c oxidase (Bolaos and
tional protein that has been suggested to contribute to the Heales, 2010), Atox1 and Cox17 are likely to be expressed in
astrocytic copper uptake or export is the prion protein (Brown, these cells.
2004).
EXPORT OF COPPER
STORAGE AND INTRACELLULAR TRAFFICKING OF COPPER Cellular export of copper is mediated by the copper ATPases
Despite of their efficient accumulation of exogenous copper, ATP7A and ATP7B which are mutated in the human disor-
astrocytes have been reported to be remarkably resistant to ders Menkes disease and Wilsons disease, respectively (Huster,
copper-induced toxicity (Chen et al., 2008; Reddy et al., 2008; 2010; Kaler, 2011). Cultured astrocytes have recently been shown
Scheiber and Dringen, 2013). The most likely reason for this resis- to export copper in a time-, concentration- and temperature-
tance is that astrocytes have a high capacity to store excess copper dependent manner (Scheiber et al., 2012). This copper export
as complex with glutathione (GSH) and in metallothioneins (MT; is most likely mediated by ATP7A (Figure 1) as this protein is
Figures 1, 2) which keep the excess copper bound in a non-toxic expressed in astrocytes in culture and in brain (Barnes et al., 2005;
form. When exposed to copper cultured astrocytes elevate their Niciu et al., 2007; Scheiber et al., 2012). The copper-dependent
cellular levels of GSH (Scheiber and Dringen, 2011a) and MT trafficking of ATP7A between the trans-Golgi network and sites
(Scheiber and Dringen, 2013), thereby increasing their storage close to the plasma membrane (Scheiber et al., 2012) strongly
capacity for copper. suggests a contribution of ATP7A in copper export from astro-
For incorporation into copper-dependent enzymes, copper cytes. This view is also supported by the marked accumulation
is shuttled to its target proteins by specific copper chap- of copper in astrocytes derived from the macular mouse model
erones (Robinson and Winge, 2010). The copper chaperone of Menkes disease (Kodama et al., 1991). The potential of astro-
for Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (CCS) that delivers cop- cytes to export copper suggests that these cells can supply other
per to Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase is expressed in astro- types of brain cells with copper and that impaired copper supply
cytes (Rothstein et al., 1999). In contrast, expression of from astrocytes contributes to the neuronal copper deficiency in
Atox1 and Cox17, which deliver copper to ATP7A and to Menkes disease (Figure 2).
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