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Bellah

returntoArticlesandChapters

CivilReligioninAmerica

by

RobertN.Bellah

Acknowledgement:
ReprintedbypermissionofDdalus,JournaloftheAmericanAcademyofArtsandSciences,fromthe
issueentitled,"ReligioninAmerica,"Winter1967,Vol.96,No.1,pp.121.

Atthebeginningofareprintofthisessay(RobertN.Bellah,BeyondBelief:EssaysonReligionina
PostTraditionalistWorld.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1991,p.168),theauthorwrote:

ThischapterwaswrittenforaDdalusconferenceonAmericanReligioninMay1966.Itwasreprinted
withcommentsandarejoinderinTheReligiousSituation:1968,whereIdefendmyselfagainstthe
accusationofsupportinganidolatrousworshipoftheAmericannation.Ithinkitshouldbeclearfrom
thetextthatIconceiveofthecentraltraditionoftheAmericancivilreligionnotasaformofnational
selfworshipbutasthesubordinationofthenationtoethicalprinciplesthattranscenditintermsof
whichitshouldbejudged.Iamconvincedthateverynationandeverypeoplecometosomeformor
religiousselfunderstandingwhetherthecriticslikeitornot.Ratherthansimplydenouncewhatseems
inanycaseinevitable,itseemsmoreresponsibletoseekwithinthecivilreligioustraditionforthose
criticalprincipleswhichundercuttheeverpresentdangerofnationalselfidolization.

WhilesomehavearguedthatChristianityisthenationalfaith,andothersthatchurchandsynagogue
celebrateonlythegeneralizedreligionof"theAmericanWayofLife,"fewhaverealizedthatthere
actuallyexistsalongsideofandratherclearlydifferentiatedfromthechurchesanelaborateandwell
institutionalizedcivilreligioninAmerica.Thisarticlearguesnotonlythatthereissuchathing,but
alsothatthisreligionorperhapsbetter,thisreligiousdimensionhasitsownseriousnessandintegrity
andrequiresthesamecareinunderstandingthatanyotherreligiondoes.[i]

TheKennedyInaugural

JohnF.Kennedy'sinauguraladdressofJanuary20,1961,servesasanexampleandacluewithwhich
tointroducethiscomplexsubject.Thataddressbegan:

Weobservetodaynotavictoryofpartybutacelebrationoffreedomsymbolizingan
endaswellasabeginningsignifyingrenewalaswellaschange.ForIhavesworn
beforeyouandAlmightyGodthesamesolemnoathourforebearsprescribednearlya
centuryandthreequartersago.

Theworldisverydifferentnow.Formanholdsinhismortalhandsthepowertoabolish
allformsofhumanpovertyandtoabolishallformsofhumanlife.Andyetthesame
revolutionarybeliefsforwhichourforbearsfoughtarestillatissuearoundtheglobethe
beliefthattherightsofmancomenotfromthegenerosityofthestatebutfromthe
handofGod.

Anditconcluded:

Finally,whetheryouarecitizensofAmericaoroftheworld,askofusthesamehigh
standardsofstrengthandsacrificethatweshallaskofyou.Withagoodconscienceour
onlysurereward,withhistorythefinaljudgeofourdeeds,letusgoforthtoleadtheland
welove,askingHisblessingandHishelp,butknowingthathereonearthGod'sworkmust
trulybeourown.

ThesearethethreeplacesinthisbriefaddressinwhichKennedymentionedthenameofGod.Ifwe
couldunderstandwhyhementionedGod,thewayinwhichhedid,andwhathemeanttosayinthose
threereferences,wewouldunderstandmuchaboutAmericancivilreligion.Butthisisnotasimpleor
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obvioustask,andAmericanstudentsofreligionwouldprobablydifferwidelyintheirinterpretationof
thesepassages.

Letusconsiderfirsttheplacingofthethreereferences.Theyoccurinthetwoopeningparagraphsand
intheclosingparagraph,thusprovidingasortofframeformoreconcreteremarksthatformthe
middlepartofthespeech.Lookingbeyondthisparticularspeech,wewouldfindthatsimilarreferences
toGodarealmostinvariablytobefoundinthepronouncementsofAmericanpresidentsonsolemn
occasions,thoughusuallynotintheworkingmessagesthatthePresidentsendstoCongressonvarious
concreteissues.How,then,arewetointerpretthisplacingofreferencestoGod?

Itmightbearguedthatthepassagesquotedrevealtheessentiallyirrelevantroleofreligioninthe
verysecularsocietythatisAmerica.Theplacingofthereferencesinthisspeechaswellasinpublic
lifegenerallyindicatesthatreligion"hasonlyaceremonialsignificance"itgetsonlyasentimental
nodthatserveslargelytoplacatethemoreunenlightenedmembersofthecommunitybeforea
discussionofthereallyseriousbusinesswithwhichreligionhasnothingwhatevertodo.Acynical
observermightevensaythatanAmericanPresidenthastomentionGodorrisklosingvotes.A
semblanceofpietyismerelyoneoftheunwrittenqualificationsfortheoffice,abitmoretraditional
thanbutnotessentiallydifferentfromthepresentdayrequirementofapleasingtelevision
personality.

Butweknowenoughaboutthefunctionofceremonialandritualinvarioussocietiestomakeus
suspiciousofdismissingsomethingasunimportantbecauseitis"onlyaritual."Whatpeoplesayon
solemnoccasionsneednotbetakenatfacevalue,butitisoftenindicativeofdeepseatedvaluesand
commitmentsthatarenotmadeexplicitinthecourseofeverydaylife.Followingthislineofargument,
itisworthconsideringwhethertheveryspecialplacingofthereferencestoGodinKennedy'saddress
maynotrevealsomethingratherimportantandseriousaboutreligioninAmericanlife.

ItmightbecounteredthattheverywayinwhichKennedymadehisreferencesrevealstheessentially
vestigialplaceofreligiontoday.Hedidnotrefertoanyreligioninparticular.HedidnotrefertoJesus
Christ,ortoMoses,ortotheChristianchurchcertainlyhedidnotrefertotheCatholicchurch.Infact,
hisonlyreferencewastotheconceptofGod,awordthatalmostallAmericanscanacceptbutthat
meanssomanydifferentthingstosomanydifferentpeoplethatitisalmostanemptysign.Isthisnot
justanotherindicationthatinAmericareligionisconsideredvaguelytobeagoodthing,butthat
peoplecaresolittleaboutitthatithaslostanycontentwhatever?Isn'tDwightEisenhowerreportedto
havesaid"OurgovernmentmakesnosenseunlessitisfoundedinadeeplyfeltreligiousfaithandI
don'tcarewhatitis,"[ii]andisn'tthatacompletenegationofanyrealreligion?

Thesequestionsareworthpursuingbecausetheyraisetheissueofhowcivilreligionrelatestothe
politicalsocietyontheonehandandtoprivatereligiousorganizationontheother.PresidentKennedy
wasaChristian,morespecificallyaCatholicChristian.ThushisgeneralreferencestoGoddonotmean
thathelackedaspecificreligiouscommitment.Butwhy,then,didhenotincludesomeremarktothe
effectthatChrististheLordoftheworldorsomeindicationofrespectfortheCatholicchurch?Hedid
notbecausethesearemattersofhisownprivatereligiousbeliefandofhisownparticularchurchthey
arenotmattersrelevantinanydirectwaytotheconductofhispublicoffice.Otherswithdifferent
religiousviewsandcommitmentstodifferentchurchesordenominationsareequallyqualified
participantsinthepoliticalprocess.Theprincipleofseparationofchurchandstateguaranteesthe
freedomofreligiousbeliefandassociation,butatthesametimeclearlysegregatesthereligious
sphere,whichisconsideredtobeessentiallyprivate,fromthepoliticalone.

Consideringtheseparationofchurchandstate,howisapresidentjustifiedinusingtheword"God"at
all?Theansweristhattheseparationofchurchandstatehasnotdeniedthepoliticalrealmareligious
dimension.Althoughmattersofpersonalreligiousbelief,worship,andassociationareconsideredtobe
strictlyprivateaffairs,thereare,atthesametime,certaincommonelementsofreligiousorientation
thatthegreatmajorityofAmericansshare.Thesehaveplayedacrucialroleinthedevelopmentof
AmericaninstitutionsandstillprovideareligiousdimensionforthewholefabricofAmericanlife,
includingthepoliticalsphere.Thispublicreligiousdimensionisexpressedinasetofbeliefs,symbols,
andritualsthatIamcallingAmericancivilreligion.Theinaugurationofapresidentisanimportant
ceremonialeventinthisreligion.Itreaffirms,amongotherthings,thereligiouslegitimationofthe
highestpoliticalauthority.

LetuslookmorecloselyatwhatKennedyactuallysaid.First,hesaid,"Ihaveswornbeforeyouand
AlmightyGodthesamesolemnoathourforbearsprescribednearlyacenturyandthreequartersago."
Theoathistheoathofoffice,includingtheacceptanceoftheobligationtoupholdtheConstitution.He
swearsitbeforethepeople(you)andGod.BeyondtheConstitution,then,thepresident'sobligation
extendsnotonlytothepeoplebuttoGod.InAmericanpoliticaltheory,sovereigntyrests,ofcourse,
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withthepeople,butimplicitly,andoftenexplicitly,theultimatesovereigntyhasbeenattributedto
God.Thisisthemeaningofthemotto,"InGodwetrust,"aswellastheinclusionofthephrase"under
God"inthepledgetotheflag.WhatdifferencedoesitmakethatsovereigntybelongstoGod?Though
thewillofthepeopleasexpressedinthemajorityvoteiscarefullyinstitutionalizedastheoperative
sourceofpoliticalauthority,itisdeprivedofanultimatesignificance.Thewillofthepeopleisnot
itselfthecriterionofrightandwrong.Thereisahighercriterionintermsofwhichthiswillcanbe
judgeditispossiblethatthepeoplemaybewrong.Thepresident'sobligationextendstothehigher
criterion.

WhenKennedysaysthat"therightsofmancomenotfromthegenerosityofthestatebutfromthe
handofGod,"heisstressingthispointagain.Itdoesnotmatterwhetherthestateistheexpressionof
thewillofanautocraticmonarchorofthe"people"therightsofmanaremorebasicthanany
politicalstructureandprovideapointofrevolutionaryleveragefromwhichanystatestructuremaybe
radicallyaltered.ThatisthebasisforhisreassertionoftherevolutionarysignificanceofAmerica.

ButthereligiousdimensionofpoliticallifeasrecognizedbyKennedynotonlyprovidesagroundingfor
therightsofmanthatmakesanyformofpoliticalabsolutismillegitimate,italsoprovidesa
transcendentgoalforthepoliticalprocess.Thisisimpliedinhisfinalwordsthat"hereonearthGod's
workmusttrulybeourown."Whathemeanshereis,Ithink,moreclearlyspelledoutinaprevious
paragraph,thewordingofwhich,incidentally,hasadistinctlybiblicalring:

Nowthetrumpetsummonsusagainnotasacalltobeararms,thougharmsweneednot
asacalltobattle,thoughembattledwearebutacalltobeartheburdenofalongtwilight
struggle,yearinandyearout,"rejoicinginhope,patientintribulation"astruggleagainst
thecommonenemiesofman:tyranny,poverty,diseaseandwaritself.

Thewholeaddresscanbeunderstoodasonlythemostrecentstatementofathemethatliesvery
deepintheAmericantradition,namelytheobligation,bothcollectiveandindividual,tocarryoutGod's
willonearth.ThiswasthemotivatingspiritofthosewhofoundedAmerica,andithasbeenpresentin
everygenerationsince.JustbelowthesurfacethroughoutKennedy'sinauguraladdress,itbecomes
explicitintheclosingstatementthatGod'sworkmustbeourown.Thatthisveryactivistand
noncontemplativeconceptionofthefundamentalreligiousobligation,whichhasbeenhistorically
associatedwiththeProtestantposition,shouldbeenunciatedsoclearlyinthefirstmajorstatementof
thefirstCatholicpresidentseemstounderlinehowdeeplyestablisheditisintheAmericanoutlook.
LetusnowconsidertheformandhistoryofthecivilreligioustraditioninwhichKennedywas
speaking.

TheIdeaofaCivilReligion

Thephrase"civilreligion"is,ofcourse,Rousseau's.Inchapter8,book4ofTheSocialContract,he
outlinesthesimpledogmasofthecivilreligion:theexistenceofGod,thelifetocome,therewardof
virtueandthepunishmentofvice,andtheexclusionofreligiousintolerance.Allotherreligious
opinionsareoutsidethecognizanceofthestateandmaybefreelyheldbycitizens.Whilethephrase
"civilreligion"wasnotused,tothebestofmyknowledge,bythefoundingfathers,andIamcertainly
notarguingfortheparticularinfluenceofRousseau,itisclearthatsimilarideas,aspartofthe
culturalclimateofthelateeighteenthcentury,weretobefoundamongtheAmericans.Forexample,
BenjaminFranklinwritesinhisautobiography,

Ineverwaswithoutsomereligiousprinciples.Ineverdoubted,forinstance,theexistence
oftheDeitythathemadetheworldandgovern'ditbyhisProvidencethatthemost
acceptableserviceofGodwasthedoingofgoodtomenthatoursoulsareimmortaland
thatallcrimewillbepunished,andvirtuerewardedeitherhereorhereafter.TheseI
esteemedtheessentialsofeveryreligionand,beingtobefoundinallthereligionswe
hadinourcountry,Irespectedthemall,tho'withdifferentdegreesofrespect,asIfound
themmoreorlessmix'dwithotherarticles,which,withoutanytendencytoinspire,
promoteorconfirmmorality,serv'dprincipallydodivideus,andmakeusunfriendlyto
oneanother.

Itiseasytodisposeofthissortofpositionasessentiallyutilitarianinrelationtoreligion.In
Washington'sFarewellAddress(thoughthewordsmaybeHamilton's)theutilitarianaspectisquite
explicit:

Ofallthedispositionsandhabitswhichleadtopoliticalprosperity,ReligionandMorality
areindispensablesupports.InvainwouldthatmanclaimthetributeofPatriotism,who
shouldlabourtosubvertthesegreatPillarsofhumanhappiness,thesefirmestpropsofthe
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dutiesofmenandcitizens.Themerepolitician,equallywiththepiousmanoughtto
cherishandrespectthem.Avolumecouldnottracealltheirconnectionswithprivateand
publicfelicity.Letitsimplybeaskedwhereisthesecurityforproperty,forreputation,for
life,ifthesenseofreligiousobligationdeserttheoaths,whicharetheinstrumentsof
investigationinCourtsofJustice?Andletuswithcautionindulgethesupposition,that
moralitycanbemaintainedwithoutreligion.Whatevermaybeconcededtotheinfluenceof
refinededucationonmindsofpeculiarstructure,reasonandexperiencebothforbidusto
expectthatNationalmoralitycanprevailinexclusionofreligiousprinciple.

Butthereiseveryreasontobelievethatreligion,particularlytheideaofGod,playedaconstitutive
roleinthethoughtoftheearlyAmericanstatesmen.

Kennedy'sinauguralpointedtothereligiousaspectoftheDeclarationofIndependence,anditmightbe
welltolookathatdocumentabitmoreclosely.TherearefourreferencestoGod.Thefirstspeaksof
the"LawsofNatureandofNature'sGod"thatentitleanypeopletobeindependent.Thesecondisthe
famousstatementthatallmen"areendowedbytheirCreatorwithcertaininalienableRights."Here
Jeffersonislocatingthefundamentallegitimacyofthenewnationinaconceptionof"higherlaw"that
isitselfbasedonbothclassicalnaturallawandbiblicalreligion.Thethirdisanappealto"theSupreme
Judgeoftheworldfortherectitudeofourintentions,"andthelastindicates"afirmrelianceonthe
protectionofdivineProvidence."Intheselasttworeferences,abiblicalGodofhistorywhostandsin
judgmentovertheworldisindicated.

Theintimaterelationofthesereligiousnotionswiththeselfconceptionofthenewrepublicisindicated
bythefrequencyoftheirappearanceinearlyofficialdocuments.Forexample,wefindinWashington's
firstinauguraladdressofApril30,1789:

Itwouldbepeculiarlyimpropertoomitinthisfirstofficialactmyferventsupplications
tothatAlmightyBeingwhorulesovertheuniverse,whopresidesinthecouncilsof
nations,andwhoseprovidentialaidscansupplyeverydefect,thatHisbenedictionmay
consecratetothelibertiesandhappinessofthepeopleoftheUnitedStatesa
Governmentinstitutedbythemselvesfortheseessentialpurposes,andmayenable
everyinstrumentemployedinitsadministrationtoexecutewithsuccessthefunctions
allottedtohischarge.
NopeoplecanbeboundtoacknowledgeandadoretheInvisibleHandwhichconductsthe
affairsofmanmorethanthoseoftheUnitedStates.Everystepbywhichwehave
advancedtothecharacterofanindependentnationseemstohavebeendistinguishedby
sometokenprovidentialagency..

ThepropitioussmilesofHeavencanneverbeexpectedonanationthatdisregardsthe
eternalrulesoforderandrightwhichHeavenitselfhasordained..Thepreservationof
thesacredfireoflibertyandthedestinyoftherepublicanmodelofgovernmentare
justlyconsidered,perhaps,asdeeply,asfinally,stakedontheexperimentintrustedto
thehandsoftheAmericanpeople.

NordidthesereligioussentimentsremainmerelythepersonalexpressionofthePresident.Atthe
requestofbothHousesofCongress,WashingtonproclaimedonOctober3ofthatsamefirstyearas
PresidentthatNovember26shouldbe"adayofpublicthanksgivingandprayer,"thefirstThanksgiving
DayundertheConstitution.

Thewordsandactsofthefoundingfathers,especiallythefirstfewpresidents,shapedtheformand
toneofthecivilreligionasithasbeenmaintainedeversince.Thoughmuchisselectivelyderivedfrom
Christianity,thisreligionisclearlynotitselfChristianity.Foronething,neitherWashingtonnorAdams
norJeffersonmentionsChristinhisinauguraladdressnordoanyofthesubsequentpresidents,
althoughnotoneofthemfailstomentionGod.[iii]TheGodofthecivilreligionisnotonlyrather
"unitarian,"heisalsoontheaustereside,muchmorerelatedtoorder,law,andrightthantosalvation
andlove.Eventhoughheissomewhatdeistincast,heisbynomeanssimplyawatchmakerGod.He
isactivelyinterestedandinvolvedinhistory,withaspecialconcernforAmerica.Heretheanalogyhas
muchlesstodowithnaturallawthanwithancientIsraeltheequationofAmericawithIsraelinthe
ideaofthe"AmericanIsrael"isnotinfrequent.[iv]WhatwasimplicitinthewordsofWashington
alreadyquotedbecomesexplicitinJefferson'ssecondinauguralwhenhesaid:"Ishallneed,too,the
favorofthatBeinginwhosehandsweare,wholedourfathers,asIsraelofold,fromtheirnativeland
andplantedtheminacountryflowingwithallthenecessariesandcomfortsoflife."EuropeisEgypt
America,thepromisedland.Godhasledhispeopletoestablishanewsortofsocialorderthatshallbe
alightuntoallthenations.[v]Thistheme,too,hasbeenacontinuousoneinthecivilreligion.We

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havealreadyalludedtoitinthecaseoftheKennedyinaugural.WefinditagaininPresidentJohnson's
inauguraladdress:

Theycamealreadyheretheexileandthestranger,bravebutfrightenedtofindaplace
whereamancouldbehisownman.Theymadeacovenantwiththisland.Conceivedin
justice,writteninliberty,boundinunion,itwasmeantonedaytoinspirethehopesofall
mankindanditbindsusstill.Ifwekeepitsterms,weshallflourish.

Whatwehave,then,fromtheearliestyearsoftherepublicisacollectionofbeliefs,symbols,and
ritualswithrespecttosacredthingsandinstitutionalizedinacollectivity.Thisreligionthereseemsno
otherwordforitwhilenotantitheticaltoandindeedsharingmuchincommonwithChristianity,was
neithersectariannorinanyspecificsenseChristian.Atatimewhenthesocietywasoverwhelmingly
Christian,itseemsunlikelythatthislackofChristianreferencewasmeanttosparethefeelingsofthe
tinynonChristianminority.Rather,thecivilreligionexpressedwhatthosewhosettheprecedentsfelt
wasappropriateunderthecircumstances.Itreflectedtheirprivateaswellaspublicviews.Norwas
thecivilreligionsimply"religioningeneral."Whilegeneralitywasundoubtedlyseenasavirtueby
some,asinthequotationfromFranklinabove,thecivilreligionwasspecificenoughwhenitcameto
thetopicofAmerica.Preciselybecauseofthisspecificity,thecivilreligionwassavedfromempty
formalismandservedasagenuinevehicleofnationalreligiousselfunderstanding.

Butthecivilreligionwasnot,inthemindsofFranklin,Washington,Jefferson,orotherleaders,with
theexceptionofafewradicalslikeTomPaine,everfelttobeasubstituteforChristianity.Therewas
animplicitbutquitecleardivisionoffunctionbetweenthecivilreligionandChristianity.Underthe
doctrineofreligiousliberty,anexceptionallywidesphereofpersonalpietyandvoluntarysocialaction
waslefttothechurches.Butthechurcheswereneithertocontrolthestatenortobecontrolledbyit.
Thenationalmagistrate,whateverhisprivatereligiousviews,operatesundertherubricsofthecivil
religionaslongasheisinhisofficialcapacity,aswehavealreadyseeninthecaseofKennedy.This
accommodationwasundoubtedlytheproductofaparticularhistoricalmomentandofacultural
backgrounddominatedbyProtestantismofseveralvarietiesandbytheEnlightenment,butithas
surviveddespitesubsequentchangesintheculturalandreligiousclimate.

CivilWarandCivilReligion

UntiltheCivilWar,theAmericancivilreligionfocusedaboveallontheeventoftheRevolution,which
wasseenasthefinalactoftheExodusfromtheoldlandsacrossthewaters.TheDeclarationof
IndependenceandtheConstitutionwerethesacredscripturesandWashingtonthedivinelyappointed
Moseswholedhispeopleoutofthehandsoftyranny.TheCivilWar,whichSidneyMeadcalls"the
centerofAmericanhistory,"[vi]wasthesecondgreateventthatinvolvedthenationalself
understandingsodeeplyastorequireexpressionincivilreligion.In1835,AlexisdeTocquevillewrote
thattheAmericanrepublichasneverreallybeentriedandthatvictoryintheRevolutionaryWarwas
moretheresultofBritishpreoccupationelsewhereandthepresenceofapowerfulallythanofany
greatmilitarysuccessoftheAmericans.Butin1861thetimeoftestinghadindeedcome.Notonlydid
theCivilWarhavethetragicintensityoffratricidalstrife,butitwasoneofthebloodiestwarsofthe
nineteenthcenturythelossoflifewasfargreaterthananypreviouslysufferedbyAmericans.

TheCivilWarraisedthedeepestquestionsofnationalmeaning.Themanwhonotonlyformulatedbut
inhisownpersonembodieditsmeaningforAmericanswasAbrahamLincoln.Forhimtheissuewas
notinthefirstinstanceslaverybut"whetherthatnation,oranynationsoconceived,andsodedicated,
canlongendure."HehadsaidinIndependenceHallinPhiladelphiaonFebruary22,1861:

AllthepoliticalsentimentsIentertainhavebeendrawn,sofarasIhavebeenableto
drawthem,fromthesentimentswhichoriginatedinandweregiventotheworldfrom
thisHall.Ihaveneverhadafeeling,politically,thatdidnotspringfromthesentiments
embodiedintheDeclarationofIndependence.[vii]

ThephrasesofJeffersonconstantlyechoinLincoln'sspeeches.Histaskwas,firstofall,tosavethe
UnionnotforAmericaalonebutforthemeaningofAmericatothewholeworldsounforgettably
etchedinthelastphraseoftheGettysburgAddress.

Butinevitablytheissueofslaveryasthedeepercauseoftheconflicthadtobefaced.Inhissecond
inaugural,Lincolnrelatedslaveryandthewarinanultimateperspective:

IfweshallsupposethatAmericanslaveryisoneofthoseoffenseswhich,intheprovidence
ofGod,mustneedscome,butwhich,havingcontinuedthroughHisappointedtime,Henow
willstoremove,andthatHegivestobothNorthandSouththisterriblewarasthewoe
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duetothosebywhomtheoffensecame,shallwediscernthereinanydeparturefrom
thosedivineattributeswhichthebelieversinalivingGodalwaysascribetoHim?Fondly
dowehope,ferventlydowepray,thatthismightyscourgeofwarmayspeedilypass
away.Yet,ifGodwillsthatitcontinueuntilallthewealthpiledbythebondsman'stwo
hundredandfiftyyearsofunrequitedtoilshallbesunk,anduntileverydropofblood
drawnwiththelashshallbepaidbyanotherdrawnwiththesword,aswassaidthree
thousandyearsago,sostillitmustbesaid"thejudgementsoftheLordaretrueand
righteousaltogether."

Butheclosesonanoteifnotofredemptionthenofreconciliation"Withmalicetowardnone,with
charityforall."

WiththeCivilWar,anewthemeofdeath,sacrifice,andrebirthentersthenewcivilreligion.Itis
symbolizedinthelifeanddeathofLincoln.NowhereisitstatedmorevividlythanintheGettysburg
Address,itselfpartoftheLincolnian"NewTestament"amongthecivilscriptures.RobertLowellhas
recentlypointedoutthe"insistentuseofbirthimages"inthisspeechexplicitlydevotedto"these
honoreddead":"broughtforth,""conceived,""created,""anewbirthoffreedom."Hegoesontosay:

TheGettysburgAddressisasymbolicandsacramentalact.Itsverbalqualityisresonance
combinedwithalogical,matteroffact,prosaicbrevity..Inhiswords,Lincolnsymbolically
died,justastheUnionsoldiersreallydiedandashehimselfwassoonreallytodie.Byhis
words,hegavethefieldofbattleasymbolicsignificancethatithaslacked.Forusandour
country,heleftJefferson'sidealsoffreedomandequalityjoinedtotheChristiansacrificial
actofdeathandrebirth.Ibelievethisisthemeaningthatgoesbeyondsectorreligionand
beyondpeaceandwar,andisnowpartofourlivesasachallenge,obstacleandhope.[viii]

LowelliscertainlyrightinpointingouttheChristianqualityofthesymbolismhere,butheisalsoright
inquicklydisavowinganysectarianimplication.Theearliersymbolismofthecivilreligionhadbeen
HebraicwithoutanyspecificsenseofbeingJewish.TheGettysburgsymbolism(".thosewhohere
gavetheirlives,thatthatnationmightlive")isChristianwithouthavinganythingtodowiththe
Christianchurch.

ThesymbolicequationofLincolnwithJesuswasmaderelativelyearly.W.H.Herndon,whohadbeen
Lincoln'slawpartner,wrote:

ForfiftyyearsGodrolledAbrahamLincolnthroughhisfieryfurnace.Hedidittotry
Abrahamandtopurifyhimforhispurposes.ThismadeMr.Lincolnhumble,tender,
forbearing,sympathetictosuffering,kind,sensitive,tolerantbroadening,deepening
andwideninghiswholenaturemakinghimthenoblestandloveliestcharactersince
JesusChrist..IbelievethatLincolnwasGod'schosenone.[ix]

WiththeChristianarchetypeinthebackground,Lincoln,"ourmartyredpresident,"waslinkedtothe
wardead,thosewho"gavethelastfullmeasureofdevotion."Thethemeofsacrificewasindelibly
writtenintothecivilreligion.

Thenewsymbolismsoonfoundbothphysicalandritualisticexpression.Thegreatnumberofthewar
deadrequiredtheestablishmentofanumberofnationalcemeteries.Ofthese,GettysburgNational
Cemetery,whichLincoln'sfamousaddressservedtodedicate,hasbeenovershadowedonlybythe
ArlingtonNationalCemetery.BegunsomewhatvindictivelyontheLeeestateacrosstheriverfrom
Washington,partlywiththeendthattheLeefamilycouldneverreclaimit,[x]ithassubsequently
becomethemosthallowedmonumentofthecivilreligion.Notonlywasasectionsetasideforthe
confederatedead,butithasreceivedthedeadofeachsucceedingAmericanwar.Itisthesiteofthe
oneimportantnewsymboltocomeoutofWorldWarI,theTomboftheUnknownSoldiermore
recentlyithasbecomethesiteofthetombofanothermartyredPresidentanditssymboliceternal
flame.

MemorialDay,whichgrewoutoftheCivilWar,gaveritualexpressiontothethemeswehavebeen
discussing.AsLloydWarnerhassobrilliantlyanalyzedit,theMemorialDayobservance,especiallyin
thetownsandsmallercitiesofAmerica,isamajoreventforthewholecommunityinvolvinga
rededicationtothemartyreddead,tothespiritofsacrifice,andtotheAmericanvision.[xi]Justas
ThanksgivingDay,whichincidentallywassecurelyinstitutionalizedasanannualnationalholidayonly
underthepresidencyofLincoln,servestointegratethefamilyintothecivilreligion,soMemorialDay
hasactedtointegratethelocalcommunityintothenationalcult.Togetherwiththelessovertly
religiousFourthofJulyandthemoreminorcelebrationsofVeteransDayandthebirthdaysof
WashingtonandLincoln,thesetwoholidaysprovideanannualritualcalendarforthecivilreligion.The
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publicschoolsystemservesasaparticularlyimportantcontextfortheculticcelebrationofthecivil
rituals.

TheCivilReligionToday

Inreifyingandgivinganametosomethingthat,thoughpervasiveenoughwhenyoulookatit,has
goneononlysemiconsciously,thereisriskofseverelydistortingthedata.Butthereificationandthe
naminghavealreadybegun.Thereligiouscriticsof"religioningeneral,"orofthe"religionofthe
'AmericanWayofLife,'"orof"AmericanShinto"havereallybeentalkingaboutthecivilreligion.As
usualinreligiouspolemic,theytakeascriteriathebestintheirownreligioustraditionandastypical
theworstinthetraditionofthecivilreligion.Againstthesecritics,Iwouldarguethatthecivilreligion
atitsbestisagenuineapprehensionofuniversalandtranscendentreligiousrealityasseeninor,one
couldalmostsay,asrevealedthroughtheexperienceoftheAmericanpeople.Likeallreligions,ithas
sufferedvariousdeformationsanddemonicdistortions.Atitsbest,ithasneitherbeensogeneralthat
ithaslackedincisiverelevancetotheAmericanscenenorsoparticularthatithasplacedAmerican
societyaboveuniversalhumanvalues.Iamnotatallconvincedthattheleadersofthechurcheshave
consistentlyrepresentedahigherlevelofreligiousinsightthanthespokesmenofthecivilreligion.
ReinholdNiebuhrhasthistosayofLincoln,whoneverjoinedachurchandwhocertainlyrepresents
civilreligionatitsbest:

AnanalysisofthereligionofAbrahamLincolninthecontextofthetraditionalreligionof
histimeandplaceandofitspolemicaluseontheslaveryissue,whichcorrupted
religiouslifeinthedaysbeforeandduringtheCivilWar,mustleadtotheconclusion
thatLincoln'sreligiousconvictionsweresuperiorindepthandpuritytothose,notonlyof
thepoliticalleadersofhisday,butofthereligiousleadersoftheera.[xii]

Perhapstherealanimusofthereligiouscriticshasbeennotsomuchagainstthecivilreligioninitself
butagainstitspervasiveanddominatinginfluencewithinthesphereofchurchreligion.AsS.M.Lipset
hasrecentlyshown,Americanreligionatleastsincetheearlynineteenthcenturyhasbeen
predominantlyactivist,moralistic,andsocialratherthancontemplative,theological,orinnerly
spiritual.[xiii]DeTocquevillespokeofAmericanchurchreligionas"apoliticalinstitutionwhich
powerfullycontributestothemaintenanceofademocraticrepublicamongtheAmericans"[xiv]by
supplyingastrongmoralconsensusamidstcontinuouspoliticalchange.HenryBargyin1902spokeof
Americanchurchreligionas"laposieducivisme."[xv]

ItiscertainlytruethattherelationbetweenreligionandpoliticsinAmericahasbeensingularly
smooth.Thisisinlargepartduetothedominanttradition.AsdeTocquevillewrote:

ThegreatestpartofBritishAmericawaspeopledbymenwho,afterhavingshakenoff
theauthorityofthePope,acknowledgednootherreligioussupremacy:theybrought
withthemintotheNewWorldaformofChristianitywhichIcannotbetterdescribethan
bystylingitademocraticandrepublicanreligion.[xvi]

ThechurchesopposedneithertheRevolutionnortheestablishmentofdemocraticinstitutions.Even
whensomeofthemopposedthefullinstitutionalizationofreligiousliberty,theyacceptedthefinal
outcomewithgoodgraceandwithoutnostalgiafortheancienrgime.

TheAmericancivilreligionwasneveranticlericalormilitantlysecular.Onthecontrary,itborrowed
selectivelyfromthereligioustraditioninsuchawaythattheaverageAmericansawnoconflict
betweenthetwo.Inthisway,thecivilreligionwasabletobuildupwithoutanybitterstrugglewiththe
churchpowerfulsymbolsofnationalsolidarityandtomobilizedeeplevelsofpersonalmotivationfor
theattainmentofnationalgoals.

Suchanachievementisbynomeanstobetakenforgranted.Itwouldseemthattheproblemofacivil
religionisquitegeneralinmodernsocietiesandthatthewayitissolvedornotsolvedwillhave
repercussionsinmanyspheres.OneneedonlytothinkofFrancetoseehowdifferentlythingscango.
TheFrenchRevolutionwasanticlericaltothecoreandattemptedtosetupanantiChristiancivil
religion.ThroughoutmodernFrenchhistory,thechasmbetweentraditionalCatholicsymbolsandthe
symbolismof1789hasbeenimmense.

Americancivilreligionisstillverymuchalive.Justthreeyearsagoweparticipatedinavivid
reenactmentofthesacrificethemeinconnectionwiththefuneralofourassassinatedPresident.The
AmericanIsraelthemeisclearlybehindbothKennedy'sNewFrontierandJohnson'sGreatSociety.Let
megivejustonerecentillustrationofhowthecivilreligionservestomobilizesupportforthe

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attainmentofnationalgoals.OnMarch15,1965,PresidentJohnsonwentbeforeCongresstoaskfora
strongvotingrightsbill.Earlyinthespeechhesaid:

Rarelyarewemetwiththechallenge,nottoourgrowthorabundance,orourwelfareor
oursocietybutrathertothevaluesandthepurposesandthemeaningofourbeloved
nation.

TheissueofequalrightsforAmericanNegroesissuchanissue.Andshouldwedoubleour
wealthandconquerthestarsandstillbeunequaltothisissue,thenwewillhavefailedas
apeopleandasanation.

Forwithacountryaswithaperson,"Whatisamanprofited,ifheshallgainthewhole
world,andlosehisownsoul."

Andinconclusionhesaid:

AbovethepyramidonthegreatsealoftheUnitedStatesitsaysinLatin,"Godhasfavored
ourundertaking."

Godwillnotfavoreverythingthatwedo.Itisratherourdutytodivinehiswill.Icannot
helpbutbelievethatHetrulyunderstandsandthatHereallyfavorstheundertakingthat
webeginheretonight.[xvii]

Thecivilreligionhasnotalwaysbeeninvokedinfavorofworthycauses.Onthedomesticscene,an
AmericanLegiontypeofideologythatfusesGod,country,andflaghasbeenusedtoattack
nonconformistandliberalideasandgroupsofallkinds.Still,ithasbeendifficulttousethewordsof
JeffersonandLincolntosupportspecialinterestsandunderminepersonalfreedom.Thedefendersof
slaverybeforetheCivilWarcametorejectthethinkingoftheDeclarationofIndependence.Someof
themostconsistentofthemturnedagainstnotonlyJeffersoniandemocracybutReformationreligion
theydreamedofaSouthdominatedbymedievalchivalryanddivinerightmonarchy.[xviii]Forallthe
overtreligiosityoftheradicalrighttoday,theirrelationtothecivilreligiousconsensusistenuous,as
whentheJohnBirchSocietyattacksthecentralAmericansymbolofDemocracyitself.

WithrespecttoAmerica'sroleintheworld,thedangersofdistortionaregreaterandthebuiltin
safeguardsofthetraditionweaker.ThethemeoftheAmericanIsraelwasused,almostfromthe
beginning,asajustificationfortheshamefultreatmentoftheIndianssocharacteristicofourhistory.
Itcanbeovertlyorimplicitlylinkedtotheidealofmanifestdestinythathasbeenusedtolegitimate
severaladventuresinimperialismsincetheearlynineteenthcentury.Neverhasthedangerbeen
greaterthantoday.Theissueisnotsomuchoneofimperialexpansion,ofwhichweareaccused,as
ofthetendencytoassimilateallgovernmentsorpartiesintheworldthatsupportourimmediate
policiesorcalluponourhelpbyinvokingthenotionoffreeinstitutionsanddemocraticvalues.Those
nationsthatareforthemoment"onourside"become"thefreeworld."Arepressiveandunstable
militarydictatorshipinSouthVietnambecomes"thefreepeopleofSouthVietnamandtheir
government."ItisthenpartoftheroleofAmericaastheNewJerusalemand"thelastbesthopeof
earth"todefendsuchgovernmentswithtreasureandeventuallywithblood.Whenoursoldiersare
actuallydying,itbecomespossibletoconsecratethestrugglefurtherbyinvokingthegreatthemeof
sacrifice.ForthemajorityoftheAmericanpeoplewhoareunabletojudgewhetherthepeopleinSouth
Vietnam(orwherever)are"freelikeus,"suchargumentsareconvincing.FortunatelyPresident
Johnsonhasbeenlessreadytoassertthat"Godhasfavoredourundertaking"inthecaseofVietnam
thanwithrespecttocivilrights.Butothersarenotsohesitant.Thecivilreligionhasexercisedlong
termpressureforthehumanesolutionofourgreatestdomesticproblem,thetreatmentoftheNegro
American.Itremainstobeseenhowrelevantitcanbecomeforourroleintheworldatlarge,and
whetherwecaneffectuallystandfor"therevolutionarybeliefsforwhichourforbearsfought,"inJohn
F.Kennedy'swords.

Thecivilreligionisobviouslyinvolvedinthemostpressingmoralandpoliticalissuesoftheday.Butit
isalsocaughtinanotherkindofcrisis,theoreticalandtheological,ofwhichitisatthemomentlargely
unaware."God"hasclearlybeenacentralsymbolinthecivilreligionfromthebeginningandremains
sotoday.ThissymbolisjustascentraltothecivilreligionasitistoJudaismorChristianity.Inthe
lateeighteenthcenturythisposednoproblemevenTomPaine,contrarytohisdetractors,wasnotan
atheist.Fromlefttorightandregardlessofchurchorsect,allcouldaccepttheideaofGod.Buttoday,
asevenTimehasrecognized,themeaningof"God"isbynomeanssoclearorsoobvious.Thereis
noformalcreedinthecivilreligion.WehavehadaCatholicPresidentitisconceivablethatwecould
haveaJewishone.Butcouldwehaveanagnosticpresident?Couldamanwithconscientiousscruples
aboutusingtheword"God"thewayKennedyandJohnsonhaveuseditbeelectedchiefmagistrateof
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ourcountry?IfthewholeGodsymbolismrequiresreformulation,therewillbeobviousconsequences
forthecivilreligion,consequencesperhapsofliberalalienationandoffundamentalistossificationthat
havenotsofarbeenprominentinthisrealm.Thecivilreligionhasbeenapointofarticulation
betweentheprofoundestcommitmentsofWesternreligiousandphilosophicaltraditionandthe
commonbeliefsofordinaryAmericans.Itisnottoosoontoconsiderhowthedeepeningtheological
crisismayaffectthefutureofthisarticulation.

TheThirdTimeofTrial

Inconclusionitmaybeworthwhiletorelatethecivilreligiontothemostserioussituationthatweas
Americansnowface,whatIcallthethirdtimeoftrial.Thefirsttimeoftrialhadtodowiththe
questionofindependence,whetherweshouldorcouldrunourownaffairsinourownway.Thesecond
timeoftrialwasovertheissueofslavery,whichinturnwasonlythemostsalientaspectofthemore
generalproblemofthefullinstitutionalizationofdemocracywithinourcountry.Thissecondproblem
wearestillfarfromsolvingthoughwehavesomenotablesuccessestoourcredit.Butwehavebeen
overtakenbyathirdgreatproblemthathasledtoathirdgreatcrisis,inthemidstofwhichwestand.
Thisistheproblemofresponsibleactioninarevolutionaryworld,aworldseekingtoattainmanyof
thethings,materialandspiritual,thatwehavealreadyattained.Americanshave,fromthebeginning,
beenawareoftheresponsibilityandthesignificanceourrepublicanexperimenthasforthewhole
world.Thefirstinternalpoliticalpolarizationinthenewnationhadtodowithourattitudetowardthe
FrenchRevolution.Butweweresmallandweakthen,and"foreignentanglements"seemedtothreaten
ourverysurvival.Duringthelastcentury,ourrelevancefortheworldwasnotforgotten,butourrole
wasseenaspurelyexemplary.Ourdemocraticrepublicrebukedtyrannybymerelyexisting.Justafter
WorldWarIwewereonthebrinkoftakingadifferentroleintheworld,butonceagainweturnedour
backs.

SinceWorldWarIItheoldpatternhasbecomeimpossible.EverypresidentsinceFranklinRoosevelt
hasbeengropingtowardanewpatternofactionintheworld,onethatwouldbeconsonantwithour
powerandourresponsibilities.ForTrumanandfortheperioddominatedbyJohnFosterDullesthat
patternwasseentobethegreatManicheanconfrontationofEastandWest,theconfrontationof
democracyand"thefalsephilosophyofCommunism"thatprovidedthestructureofTruman'sinaugural
address.ButwiththelastyearsofEisenhowerandwiththesuccessivetwopresidents,thepattern
begantoshift.Thegreatproblemscametobeseenascausednotsolelybytheevilintentofanyone
groupofmen.ForKennedyitwasnotsomuchastruggleagainstparticularmenasagainst"the
commonenemiesofman:tyranny,poverty,diseaseandwaritself."

Butinthemidstofthistrendtowardalessprimitiveconceptionofourselvesandourworld,wehave
somehow,withoutanyonereallyintendingit,stumbledintoamilitaryconfrontationwherewehave
cometofeelthatourhonorisatstake.Wehaveinamomentofuncertaintybeentemptedtorelyon
ouroverwhelmingphysicalpowerratherthanonourintelligence,andwehave,inpart,succumbedto
thistemptation.Bewilderedandunnervedwhenourterriblepowerfailstobringimmediatesuccess,
weareattheedgeofachasmthedepthofwhichnomanknows.

IcannothelpbutthinkofRobinsonJeffers,whosepoetryseemsmoreaptnowthanwhenitwas
written,whenhesaid:

Unhappycountry,whatwingsyouhave!.
Weep(itisfrequentinhumanaffairs),weepfor
theterriblemagnificenceofthemeans,
Theridiculousincompetenceofthereasons,the
bloodyandshabby
Pathosoftheresult.

Butassooftenbeforeinsimilartimes,wehaveamanofpropheticstature,withoutthebitternessor
misanthropyofJeffers,who,asLincolnbeforehim,callsthisnationtoitsjudgment:

Whenanationisverypowerfulbutlackinginselfconfidence,itislikelytobehaveina
mannerthatisdangerousbothtoitselfandtoothers.

Graduallybutunmistakably,Americaissuccumbingtothatarroganceofpowerwhichhasafflicted,
weakenedandinsomecasesdestroyedgreatnationsinthepast.

Ifthewargoesonandexpands,ifthatfatalprocesscontinuestoaccelerateuntil
Americabecomeswhatitisnotnowandneverhasbeen,aseekerafterunlimitedpower

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andempire,thenVietnamwillhavehadamightyandtragicfalloutindeed.
Idonotbelievethatwillhappen.IamveryapprehensivebutIstillremainhopeful,and
evenconfident,thatAmerica,withitshumaneanddemocratictraditions,willfindthe
wisdomtomatchitspower.[xix]

Withoutanawarenessthatournationstandsunderhigherjudgment,thetraditionofthecivilreligion
wouldbedangerousindeed.Fortunately,thepropheticvoiceshaveneverbeenlacking.Ourpresent
situationbringstomindtheMexicanAmericanwarthatLincoln,amongsomanyothers,opposed.The
spiritofcivildisobediencethatisalivetodayinthecivilrightsmovementandtheoppositiontothe
VietnamWarwasalreadyclearlyoutlinedbyHenryDavidThoreauwhenhewrote,"Ifthelawisof
suchanaturethatitrequiresyoutobeanagentofinjusticetoanother,thenIsay,breakthelaw.
Thoreau'swords,"Iwouldremindmycountrymenthattheyaremenfirst,andAmericansatalateand
convenienthour,"[xx]provideanessentialstandardforanyadequatethoughtandactioninourthird
timeoftrial.AsAmericans,wehavebeenwellfavoredintheworld,butitisasmenthatwewillbe
judged.

Outofthefirstandsecondtimesoftrialhavecome,aswehaveseen,themajorsymbolsofthe
Americancivilreligion.Thereseemslittledoubtthatasuccessfulnegotiationofthisthirdtimeoftrial
theattainmentofsomekindofviableandcoherentworldorderwouldprecipitateamajornewsetof
symbolicforms.SofartheflickeringflameoftheUnitedNationsburnstoolowtobethefocusofa
cult,buttheemergenceofagenuinetransnationalsovereigntywouldcertainlychangethis.Itwould
necessitatetheincorporationofvitalinternationalsymbolismintoourcivilreligion,or,perhapsa
betterwayofputtingit,itwouldresultinAmericancivilreligionbecomingsimplyonepartofanew
civilreligionoftheworld.Itisuselesstospeculateontheformsuchacivilreligionmighttake,though
itobviouslywoulddrawonreligioustraditionsbeyondthesphereofbiblicalreligionalone.Fortunately,
sincetheAmericancivilreligionisnottheworshipoftheAmericannationbutanunderstandingofthe
Americanexperienceinthelightofultimateanduniversalreality,thereorganizationentailedbysuch
anewsituationneednotdisrupttheAmericancivilreligion'scontinuity.Aworldcivilreligioncouldbe
acceptedasafulfillmentandnotasadenialofAmericancivilreligion.Indeed,suchanoutcomehas
beentheeschatologicalhopeofAmericancivilreligionfromthebeginning.Todenysuchanoutcome
wouldbetodenythemeaningofAmericaitself.

Behindthecivilreligionateverypointliebiblicalarchetypes:Exodus,ChosenPeople,PromisedLand,
NewJerusalem,andSacrificialDeathandRebirth.ButitisalsogenuinelyAmericanandgenuinely
new.Ithasitsownprophetsanditsownmartyrs,itsownsacredeventsandsacredplaces,itsown
solemnritualsandsymbols.ItisconcernedthatAmericabeasocietyasperfectlyinaccordwiththe
willofGodasmencanmakeit,andalighttoallnations.

Ithasoftenbeenusedandisbeingusedtodayasacloakforpettyinterestsanduglypassions.Itisin
needasanylivingfaithofcontinualreformation,ofbeingmeasuredbyuniversalstandards.Butitis
notevidentthatitisincapableofgrowthandnewinsight.

Itdoesnotmakeanydecisionsforus.Itdoesnotremoveusfrommoralambiguity,frombeing,in
Lincoln'sfinephrase,an"almostchosenpeople."Butitisaheritageofmoralandreligiousexperience
fromwhichwestillhavemuchtolearnasweformulatethedecisionsthatlieahead.

Endnotes

[i]Whysomethingsoobviousshouldhaveescapedseriousanalyticalattentionisitselfaninteresting
problem.Partofthereasonisprobablythecontroversialnatureofthesubject.Fromtheearliestyears
ofthenineteenthcentury,conservativereligiousandpoliticalgroupshavearguedthatChristianityis,
infact,thenationalreligion.Someofthemfromtimetotimeandasrecentlyasthe1950sproposed
constitutionalamendmentsthatwouldexplicitlyrecognizethesovereigntyofChrist.Indefendingthe
doctrineofseparationofchurchandstate,opponentsofsuchgroupshavedeniedthatthenational
polityhas,intrinsically,anythingtodowithreligionatall.Themoderatesonthisissuehaveinsisted
thattheAmericanstatehastakenapermissiveandindeedsupportiveattitudetowardreligiousgroups
(taxexemptions,etcetera),thusfavoringreligionbutstillmissingthepositiveinstitutionalizationwith
whichIamconcerned.Butpartofthereasonthisissuehasbeenleftinobscurityiscertainlydueto
thepeculiarlyWesternconceptof"religion"asdenotingasingletypeofcollectivityofwhichan
individualcanbeamemberofoneandonlyoneatatime.TheDurkheimiannotionthateverygroup
hasareligiousdimension,whichwouldbeseenasobviousinsouthernoreasternAsia,isforeignto
us.Thisobscurestherecognitionofsuchdimensionsinoursociety.

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[ii]DwightD.Eisenhower,inWillHerberg,ProtestantCatholicJew(GardenCity,N.Y.:Doubleday&
Co.,1955),p.97.

[iii]GodismentionedorreferredtoinallinauguraladdressesbutWashington'ssecond,whichisa
verybrief(twoparagraphs)andperfunctoryacknowledgement.Itisnotwithoutinterestthatthe
actualword"God"doesnotappearuntilMonroe'ssecondinaugural,March5,1821.Inhisfirst
inaugural,WashingtonreferstoGodas"thatAlmightyBeingwhorulestheuniverse,""GreatAuthorof
everypublicandprivategood,""InvisibleHand,"and"benignParentoftheHumanRace."JohnAdams
referstoGodas"Providence,""Beingwhoissupremeoverall,""PatronofOrder,""Fountainof
Justice,"and"Protectorinallagesoftheworldofvirtuousliberty."Jeffersonspeaksof"thatInfinite
Powerwhichrulesthedestiniesoftheuniverse,"and"thatBeinginwhosehandsweare."Madison
speaksof"thatAlmightyBeingwhosepowerregulatesthedestinyofnations,"and"Heaven."Monroe
uses"Providence"and"theAlmighty"inhisfirstinauguralandfinally"AlmightyGod"inhissecond.
SeeInauguralAddressesofthePresidentsoftheUnitedStatesfromGeorgeWashington1789toHarry
S.Truman1949,82dCongress,2dSession,HouseDocumentNo.540,1952.

[iv]Forexample,AbielAbbot,pastoroftheFirstChurchinHaverhill,Massachusetts,delivereda
Thanksgivingsermonin1799,TraitsofResemblanceinthePeopleoftheUnitedStatesofAmericato
AncientIsrael,inwhichhesaid,"IthasbeenoftenremarkedthatthepeopleoftheUnitedStatescome
nearertoaparallelwithAncientIsrael,thananyothernationupontheglobe.Hence'OurAmerican
Israel'isatermfrequentlyusedandcommonconsentallowsitaptandproper."InHansKohn,The
IdeaofNationalism(NewYork:MacmillanCo.,1961),p.665.

[v]ThattheMosaicanalogywaspresentinthemindsofleadersattheverymomentofthebirthofthe
republicisindicatedinthedesignsproposedbyFranklinandJeffersonforthesealoftheUnitedStates
ofAmerica.TogetherwithAdams,theyformedacommitteeofthreedelegatedbytheContinental
CongressonJuly4,1776,todrawupthenewdevice."FranklinproposedasthedeviceMosesliftingup
hiswandanddividingtheRedSeawhilePharaohwasoverwhelmedbyitswaters,withthemotto
'RebelliontotyrantsisobediencetoGod.'JeffersonproposedthechildrenofIsraelinthewilderness
'ledbyacloudbydayandapillaroffireatnight.'"AnsonPhelpsStokes,ChurchandStateinthe
UnitedStates,vol.1(NewYork:Harper&Co.,1950),pp.46768.

[vi]SidneyE.Mead,TheLivelyExperiment(NewYork:Harper&Row,1963),p.12.

[vii]AbrahamLincoln,inAllanNevins,ed.,LincolnandtheGettysburgAddress(Urbana,Ill.:Univ.of
Ill.Press,1964),p.39.

[viii]RobertLowell,inibid.,"OntheGettysburgAddress,"pp.8889.

[ix]WilliamHenryHerndon,inSherwoodEddy,TheKingdomofGodandtheAmericanDream(New
York:Harper&Row,1941),p.162.

[x]KarlDeckerandAngusMcSween,HistoricArlington(Washington,D.C.,1892),pp.6067.

[xi]HowextensivetheactivityassociatedwithMemorialDaycanbeisindicatedbyWarner:"The
sacredsymbolicbehaviorofMemorialDay,inwhichscoresofthetown'sorganizationsareinvolved,is
ordinarilydividedintofourperiods.Duringtheyearseparateritualsareheldbymanyofthe
associationsfortheirdead,andmanyoftheseactivitiesareconnectedwithlaterMemorialDay
events.Inthesecondphase,preparationsaremadeduringthelastthreeorfourweeksforthe
ceremonyitself,andsomeoftheassociationsperformpublicrituals.Thethirdphaseconsistsof
scoresofritualsheldinallthecemeteries,churches,andhallsoftheassociations.Theserituals
consistofspeechesandhighlyritualizedbehavior.Theylastfortwodaysandareclimaxedbythe
fourthandlastphase,inwhichalltheseparatecelebrantsgatherinthecenterofthebusinessdistrict
ontheafternoonofMemorialDay.Theseparateorganizations,withtheirmembersinuniformorwith
fittinginsignia,marchthroughthetown,visittheshrinesandmonumentsoftheherodead,and,
finally,enterthecemetery.Heredozensofceremoniesareheld,mostofthemhighlysymbolicand
formalized."DuringthesevariousceremoniesLincolniscontinuallyreferredtoandtheGettysburg
Addressrecitedmanytimes.W.LloydWarner,AmericanLife(Chicago:Univ.ofChicagoPress,1962),
pp.89.

[xii]ReinholdNiebuhr,"TheReligionofAbrahamLincoln,"inNevins,ed.,op.cit.,p.72.WilliamJ.
WolfeoftheEpiscopalTheologicalSchoolinCambridge,Massachusetts,haswritten:"Lincolnisoneof
thegreatesttheologiansofAmericanotinthetechnicalmeaningofproducingasystemofdoctrine,
certainlynotasadefenderofsomeonedenomination,butinthesenseofseeingthehandofGod
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certainlynotasadefenderofsomeonedenomination,butinthesenseofseeingthehandofGod
intimatelyintheaffairsofnations.JustsotheprophetsofIsraelcriticizedtheeventsoftheirdayfrom
theperspectiveoftheGodwhoisconcernedforhistory,andwhorevealsHiswillwithinit.Lincolnnow
standsamongGod'slatterdayprophets."TheReligionofAbrahamLincoln(NewYork,1963),p.24.

[xiii]SeymourMartinLipset,"ReligionandAmericanValuesinTheFirstNewNation(NewYork:Basic
Books,1964),chap.4.

[xiv]AlexisdeTocqueville,DemocracyinAmerica,vol.1(GardenCity,N.Y.:Doubleday&Co.,Anchor
Books,1954),p.310.

[xv]HenryBargy,LaReligiondanslaSocitauxtatsUnis(Paris,1902),p.31.

[xvi]DeTocqueville,op.cit.,p.311.Laterhesays,"IntheUnitedStateseventhereligionofmostof
thecitizensisrepublican,sinceitsubmitsthetruthsoftheotherworldtoprivatejudgment,asin
politicsthecareoftheirtemporalinterestsisabandonedtothegoodsenseofthepeople.Thusevery
manisallowedfreelytotakethatroadwhichhethinkswillleadhimtoheaven,justasthelaw
permitseverycitizentohavetherightofchoosinghisowngovernment"(p.436).

[xvii]LyndonB.Johnson,inU.S.,CongressionalRecord,House,March15,1965,pp.4924,4926.

[xviii]SeeLouisHartz,"TheFeudalDreamoftheSouth,"pt.4,TheLiberalTraditioninAmerica(New
York:Harcourt,Brace&Co.,1955).

[xix]SenatorJ.WilliamFullbright,speechofApril28,1966,asreportedinTheNewYorkTimes,April
29,1966.

[xx]HenryDavidThoreau,InYehoshuaArieli,IndividualismandNationalisminAmericanIdeology
(Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniv.Press,1964),p.274.

returntoArticlesandChapters

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