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PRODUCTION OF PROPENE
1
TABLE OF CONTENT
2
1.0 INTRODUCTION
At room temperature and atmospheric pressure, propene is a gas, and as with many other
alkenes, it is also colorless with a weak but unpleasant smell. Propene has a higher density
and boiling point than ethylene due to its greater mass. It has a slightly lower boiling point
than propane and is thus more volatile. It lacks strongly polar bonds, yet the molecule has a
small dipole moment due to its reduced symmetry (its point group is Cs). Propene has the
same empirical formula as cyclopropane but their atoms are connected in different ways,
making these molecules structural isomers.
Propene is produced from fossil fuels which are petroleum, natural gas, and, to a much
lesser extent, coal. Propene is a by-product of oil refining and natural gas processing. During
oil refining, ethylene, propene, and other compounds are produced as a result of cracking
larger hydrocarbon molecules to produce hydrocarbons more in demand. A major source of
propene is naphtha cracking intended to produce ethylene, but it also results from refinery
cracking producing other products. Propene can be separated by fractional distillation from
hydrocarbon mixtures obtained from cracking and other refining processes; refinery-grade
propene is about 50 to 70%.
Propene reacts violently with oxide of nitrogen and also a number of other substances and
condition. Essentially all of the propylene produced for chemical purposes is consumed as a
chemical intermediate in other chemical manufacturing processes. This hydrocarbon is
widely used in the manufacture of cumene, resins, fibres, elastomers and other chemicals
which enable the manufacture of many chemicals and plastics. In addition to its use as a
chemical intermediate, propylene is produced and consumed in refinery operations for the
production of gasoline components
The raw material that is utilized in this process is liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). The term
LPG actually encompasses more than one variety of gaseous fuel. There are a number of
hydrocarbon gases that fall into the classif classification of LPG. Their common
distinguishing characteristic is that they can be compressed into liquid at relatively low
pressures. LPG is stored under pressure, as a liquid.
3
Propane dehydrogenation (PDH) is used to produce polymer-grade propylene from
propane. The productions of dehydrogenation process normally consist of isobutylene, n-
butenes, or propylene from isobutane, n-butane, or propane respectively. The process
consists of a reactor section, product recovery section and catalyst regeneration section.
Hydrocarbon feed is mixed with hydrogen-rich recycle gas and is fed into a heater to be
heated to over 540C (1000F) and then enters the reactors to be converted at high mono-
olefin selectivity. Several inter-stage heaters are used to maintain the reaction through
supplying heat continuously, since the reaction is endothermic. This process converts
propane to propylene on a fixed-bed of chromia-alumina catalyst in order to recycle the
unconverted propane and leave propylene as the net product. The chemical reaction occurs
during the gaseous phase at high temperatures (ranging from 540 to 820 degrees C) that
causes an endothermic equilibrium reaction. Conversion rates depend on the
thermodynamic limits from specific partial pressures and the actual temperature used in the
immediate process. Low partial pressures of the hydrocarbons eventually create the
dehydration reaction as well as the high temperatures. The propane through the catalytic
dehydration is processed in dehydrating reactors to create the by-products and compressors
separate these substances later on.
4
The dominant outlet
for propylene is polypropylene (PP),
accounting for nearly two-thirds of global
propylene consumption. Second largest sales
market for propylene is the production
of propylene oxide, followed by the
manufacturing of acrylonitrile, butyraldehyde,
cumene, and acrylic acid. The derivatives of
propylene oxide are needed as raw materials
for the manufacturing of products
like polyurethane (PUR), lacquers and adhesives, polyester resins, cooling agents,
antifreeze, and solvents. In addition to the production of the engineering plastic acrylonitrile
butadiene styrene (ABS), acrylonitrile is also used to produce acrylic fibers that are then
processed into textiles. Butyraldehyde is an intermediate in the production of butanol and 2-
ethylhexanol. Cumene is primarily used to produce phenol and acetone. Acrylic acid is used
in the production of acrylic esters for superabsorbers (superabsorbent polymers, SAP)
Global on-purpose propylene production grows from 14% to 30% of supply over the
next five years as the wave of new propane dehydrogenation (PDH) and coal-to-olefin (CTO)
5
projects start production. The majority of the new on-purpose propylene capacity is being
built in China via both CTO and PDH.
Based on the recent article, in the Global Propylene Market 2016 stated that
propylene is the second most important product of the olefin market (PR Newswire). In 2014,
about 90 million tonnes of propylene were processed worldwide and it was estimated the
demand to rise to 130 million tonnes worldwide by year 2024 according to the latest data
from HIS Chemical North American Propylene Supply Study. Some of the largest demands
countries in propylene production are India, China and Japan which together accounted for
about 55% of global consumption in 2014. It is anticipated that China will grow its propylene
capacity at the fastest pace of any country in the world over the next five years and the
market will exhibit significant growth and account for about 76% of the total increase in propylene
demand.
Figure 2.1: Graph of propylene supply and demand from year 2009 to 2024
7
1.2 Location
Scoring method
Human Capital
Labor availability 5 5 3 10
Skill levels
Source of Raw
4 4 3 20
Materials
Market Target 5 3 3 10
Infrastructure 5 3 4 10
Politics 4 2 3 15
Weather 3 4 4 5
Landscape 4 4 4 20
Total Score 435 350 375 100
Rank 1 3 2
Site Location
This plant located at Pudong, Shanghai, China where these locations are the most nearer
to the supplier of raw material which is propane from Shanghai Hynote Import & Export,
which take only 20 min to reach. This location also strategic where the products produce can
be easily import and export by shipping at Shanghai Port which are huge port in China.
Lastly labour cost also low compared to other country which supplied raw material.
8
1.3 Process Selection
MTO process
The MTO process converts crude methanol to olefins, which results in savings for a
methanol purification section. The reaction takes place on a zeolite catalyst in a fluidized-bed
reactor and MTO can use crude methanol. The catalyst is deactivated over time by the
building of coke, which is why a portion of the spent catalyst is continuously removed from
the reactor to a regeneration reactor. Air or oxygen is introduced to that regeneration reactor
so that the catalyst can be regenerated by building carbon oxides. The product stream
leaving the reactor is fed to a separation section to remove water and to recover non-reacted
dimethyl ether (DME). The olefin rich stream is then passed to a fractionation section that
separates the mixture into the desired ethylene and propylene streams as well as a fuel gas
stream and a stream that consists of medium boiling hydrocarbons.
The MTO uses a fluidized-bed reactor, which is favourable with respect to the
exothermic reaction so that the released heat can be removed faster. Moreover, the spent
catalyst can be regenerated easily by continuously removing a part of the catalyst from the
reactor and reroute it back after regeneration. However, the fluidized-bed implies the
presence of a stable catalyst, which had to be developed for these special conditions.
According to the needs, the ratio between propylene and ethylene produced by the reaction
can be adjusted in a range of about 1.3 to 1.8. The heavier hydrocarbon stream leaving
fractionation is fed into a cracking zone to provide another source for ethylene and propylene
9
production. The product stream of the cracking section is separated into high boiling
hydrocarbons, which are removed from the process and an olefin rich stream which is re-
routed to fractionation.
The metathesis of ethylene and butane to propylene is carried on a metal oxide catalyst and
is operated with excess ethylene. The process consists of a reaction section and product
recovery section. Fresh ethylene and butane are fed to a treater before it is sent to the
heater to be heated to the operating temperature of 453K. Here the feed reacts to form
propylene and other byproducts. Both propylene and unreacted ethylene travels to a
depropylenizer column and deethylenizer column to be separated. The Propylene is
harvested and unreacted ethylene is sent back to the feed treater to be mixed with fresh
feed for higher conversion. Theoretically, if 1-butene was used it will have a 100% selectivity
for propylene
10
Process 3 (Dehydrogenation of Propane)
Propane dehydrogenation
Propane dehydrogenation (PDH) is used to produce polymer-grade propylene from
propane. The productions of dehydrogenation process normally consist of isobutylene, n-
butenes, or propylene from isobutane, n-butane, or propane respectively. The process
consists of a reactor section, product recovery section and catalyst regeneration section.
Hydrocarbon feed is mixed with hydrogen-rich recycle gas and is fed into a heater to be
heated to over 540C (1000F) and then enters the reactors to be converted at high mono-
olefin selectivity. Several inter-stage heaters are used to maintain the reaction through
supplying heat continuously, since the reaction is endothermic. This process converts
propane to propylene on a fixed-bed of chromia-alumina catalyst in order to recycle the
unconverted propane and leave propylene as the net product. The chemical reaction occurs
during the gaseous phase at high temperatures (ranging from 540 to 820 degrees C) that
causes an endothermic equilibrium reaction. Conversion rates depend on the
thermodynamic limits from specific partial pressures and the actual temperature used in the
immediate process. Low partial pressures of the hydrocarbons eventually create the
dehydration reaction as well as the high temperatures. The propane through the catalytic
dehydration is processed in dehydrating reactors to create the by-products and compressors
separate these substances later on.
11
Catalyst activity is maintained by the continuous catalyst regenerator (CCR) or by
shutting down reactors one by one and regenerating the reactor by using regeneration air. In
the continuous catalyst regenerator, catalyst is continuously withdrawn from the reactor,
regenerated, and then fed back into the reactor bed. The reactor effluent is compressed,
dried and sent to a cryogenic separator where hydrogen is recovered. The olefin product is
sent to a selective hydrogenation process (SHP) where dienes and acetylenes are saturated
to mono-olefins. The propylene stream goes to a deethanizer where light-ends are removed
prior to the propane-propylene (P-P) splitter. Unconverted feedstock is recycled back to the
depropanizer where it combines with fresh feed before being sent back to the reactor
section.
SCREENING
Processes
Criteria MTO Metathesis Dehydrogenation Standard
Capital Cost 0 + - 0
Cost of + 0 + 0
Reactants
Environmental + 0 0 0
Impact
Total 2 1 0 0
Advantages Disadvantages
Cheap material cost Reaction is highly endothermic
12
1.4 Process Modification
13
2.0 MASS BALANCE
Temperature = 500C
Pressure = 1 Bar
F lb/hr C3H8
R lb/hr C3H8
C2H8 C3H6 H2
Stoichiometry 1 1 1
Mass
m1 m2 = 110 000 m3
Flowrate(lb/hr)
Molecular
Weight (lb/lb 44.10 42.08 2.01
mol)
n2, (lbmole/hr) 2614.07 2614.07 2614.07
Conversion, X = 0.84
14
Mass flowrate of recycle, R
1
= 1
1 0.84
= 115 280.42
0.84
= 21 903.28
15
2.2 Mass Balance For Separation Unit 1
2
D1=126 920.68 lb/hr
0.910 Propane
0.007 Butane
0.002 Pentane
S-1
1
F1=145 587.87 lb/hr
0.79 Propane
0.18 Butane
0.03 Pentane 3
B1=18 666.99 lb/hr
0.87 Butane
0.13 Pentane
TOTAL F1=145 587.87 lb/hr D1=126 920.68 lb/hr B1=18 666.99 lb/hr
16
2.3 Mass Balance For Mixer
2 M-1 3
D1=126 920.68 lb/hr F =148 828.19 lb/hr
0.91 Propane A1 Propane
TOTAL D1=126 920.68 lb/hr F=148 828.19 lb/hr R=21 907.51 lb/hr
17
2.4 Mass Balance For Reactor Unit 1 (R-1)
R-1
4 5
W= 148 828.19 lb/hr Y= 148 828.19 lb/hr
N4 Propene
N5 Butene
N6 Hydorgen
Stream 4 Stream 5
No Component
Mole Mass Flowrate Mole Mass Flowrate
Fraction (lb/hr) Fraction (lb/hr)
1 Propane 0.92 136 921.93 N1=0.15 21 907.51
18
2.5 Mass Balance For Separation Unit 2
9
D2 = 143 573.91 lb/hr
1.0 Hydrogen
S-2
7
F2=148 828.19 lb/hr
0.15 Propane
0.006 Butane
0.02 Pentane 8
B2 = 5 254.28 lb/hr
0.74 Propene
0.15 Propane
0.052 Butene
0.006 Butane
0.035 Hydrogen
0.021 Pentane
0.77 Propene
0.054 Butene
19
2.6 Mass Balance For Separation Unit 3
11
D3 = 131 907.51 lb/hr
0.166 Propane
0.834 Propene
S-3
10
F3 = 143 573.91 lb/hr
0.15 Propane
0.006 Butane
0.021 Pentane 12
B3 = 11 666.4 lb/hr
0.77 Propene 0.08 Butane
0.054 Butene 0.26 Pentane
0 Hydrogen 0.67 Butene
6 Hydrogen 0 0 - - - -
20
2.7 Mass Balance For Separation Unit 4
20
D4= 110 000 lb/hr
1.0 Propene
S-4
15
F4= 131 907.51 lb/hr
0.166 Propane
0.834 Propene
17
B4 = 21 907.51lb/hr
1.0 Propane
TOTAL F4= 131 907.51 lb/hr D4= 110 000lb/hr B421 907.51lb/hr
21
3.0 ENERGY BALANCE
Cp=A+B*T+C*T^-2+D*T^-3
Average Cp
Molecular Hv
Compound Hf for liquid
Weight Kj/mol
KJ/(mol.K)
A*10^3 B*10^5 C*10^8 D*10^12
Cp=A+B*T+C*T^-2+D*T^-3
22
Butene 56.1 1.17 21.916 82.88 25.64 -17.27 50.50 0.09396
Formula
= = + +
1. ,
=0
2. , = 0
3. , = 0
= =
= +
23
=
H3 H6
Propane (liq) 1 182 354.66 H1 =-625 702.09 1182354.66 H4=3 378 791.27
24
H=-78 522.71 H=4 257 308.74
2 Stream outlet
(vap)
H9 T=320.15K
H10
H11
S-1
Stream inlet 1
(liq)
T=325.15K H4
H5
H8
REFERENCE (LIQ,298.15K)
25
Inlet stream Outlet stream
Component
n (mol/hr) H (kJ/mol) n (mol/hr) H (kJ/mol)
Butane (liq) 204520.26 H5=754 698.17 134 825.80 H7=1 544 499.51
Pentane (liq) 27460.48 H6=123 819.30 8 745.26 H8=125 161.29
Propane (vap) - - 1 183 254.66 H9=26 554 956.1
Butane (vap) - - 69 689.93 H10=1 854 086.65
Pentane (vap) - - 18 715.22 H11=558 741.02
H=4257308.74 H=30 637 444.57
3 4 Stream outlet
Stream inlet (vap)
(vap) H9 T=873.15
T=320.15K H12
H10 H13
H11 H14
REFERENCE (LIQ, 298,15K)
26
3.4 Reactor Unit 1 (R-1)
R-1
H13 H16
H14 H17
H18
H19
H20
27
C4H10 ---- C4H8 + H2 125.87
Extent reaction (mol/hr) 1 183 204.77
295 895 848.90 kJ/hr
Stream outlet
Stream inlet 6 7 (liq)
(vap) T=136.05K
T=873.15K H21
H15
H22
H16
H23
H17
H24
H18
H25
H19
H26
H20
28
n (mol/hr) H (kJ/mol) n (mol/hr) H (kJ/mol)
Propane (vap) 225 430.87 H15=25 129 004.51 - -
Butane (vap) 6 967.18 H16=989 304.72 - -
Pentane (vap) 18 715.22 H17=3 215 057.64 - -
Propene (vap) 1 185 722.21 H18=109 892 734.40 - -
Butane (vap) 63 040.27 H19=8 061 337.57 - -
Hydrogen (vap) 1 182 193.26 H20=21 580 937.96 - -
Propane (liq) - - 225 430.87 H21= -3 868 393.73
Butane (liq) - - 6 967.18 H22=-150 976.62
Pentane (liq) - - 18 715.22 H23=-506 621.0
Propene (liq) - - 1 185 722.21 H24=-23 050 439.76
Butane (liq) - - 63 040.27 H25=-960 161.06
Hydrogen (liq) 1 182 193.26 H26=-5 520 842.52
H=168 868 376.80 H=-34 057 434.69
Q= -202 925 810.80 kJ/hr
9 Stream outlet
(vap)
H27 T=136.05K
Stream inlet
(liq) S-2
7
T=136.05K
H21
H22
Stream outlet
H23 8
(liq)
H24 T=136.05K
H21
H25
H22
H26
H23
29 H24
H25
REFERENCE (LIQ, 298,15K)
Stream outlet
Stream inlet 9(i) 10 (liq)
(liq) T=315.15K
T=136.06K H21 H28
H22 H29
H23 H30
H24 H31
H25 H32
30
Propane (liq) 225 430.87 H21=-3 868 393.73 225 430.87 H28=405 550.14
Butane (liq) 6 967.18 H22=-150 976.62 6 967.18 H29=15 815.50
Pentane (liq) 18 715.22 H23=-506 621.0 18 715.22 H30=53 132.51
Propene (liq) 1 185 722.21 H24=-23 050 439.76 1 185 722.21 H31=2 416 501.86
Butane (liq) 63 040.27 H25=-960 161.06 63 040.27 H32=100 675.31
H=-28 536 592.17 H=2 991 675.32
Q= 31 528 267.49 kJ/hr
11
Stream outlet
(vap)
T=315.15K
H33
H34
S-3
Stream inlet 10
(liq)
T=315.15K H28
H29
H32
31
REFERENCE (LIQ, 298,15K)
E-15 15
Stream inlet Stream outlet
11
(vap) (liq)
T=315.15K H33 H35 T=313.15K
H34 H36
32
Propene (vap) 1 185 722.21 H34=22 188 419.72 - -
Propane (liq) - - 225 430.87 H35=357 894.05
Propene (liq) - - 1 185 722.21 H36=2 132 521.395
H=27 261 389.89 H=2 490 415.45
Q= -25 130 974.44 kJ/hr
20 Stream outlet
(vap)
T=313.15K
H37
S-4
Stream inlet 15
(vap)
T=313.15K H35
H36
17 Stream outlet
(liq)
H35 T=313.15K
33
Inlet stream Outlet stream
Component
n (mol/hr) H (kJ/mol) n (mol/hr) H (kJ/mol)
Propane (liq) 225 430.87 H35=357 894.05 225 430.87 H35=357 894.05
Propene (liq) 1 185 722.21 H36=2 132 521.395 - -
Propene (vap) - - 1 185 722.21 H37=34 361 043.92
H=2 490 415.45 H=34 718 937.97
Q= 32 228 522.52 kJ/hr
T = 10 K
Cp FCp
Stream Type F (kg/s) Tsupply (K) Ttarget (K) Q (kW)
(KJ/kg.K) (kW/K)
H1 Hot 18.75 0.331 6.21 873.15 683.15 1 179.19
H2 Hot 18.75 0.331 6.21 683.15 493.15 1 179.19
H3 Hot 18.75 0.331 6.21 493.15 349.10 958.19
H4 Hot 18.75 0.331 6.21 349.10 136.05 1 258.07
C1 Cold 26.65 0.557 14.84 320.15 399.57 1 179.19
C2 Cold 11.27 4.187 47.19 300.15 325.15 1 179.19
C3 Cold 18.09 0.296 5.35 136.05 315.15 958.19
Cold Utility
Cold 24.42 0.919 18.50 70 126.05 1 258.07
(Oxygen)
34
Stream H1 H2 H3 H4 C1 C2 C3 CU
FCp
6.21 6.21 6.21 6.21 14.84 47.19 5.35 24.42
(kW/K)
873.15
683.15
493.15
399.57
349.10
325.15
320.15
303.15
300.15
136.05
126.05
70
35
Heat Integration PFD
36
5.0 COST CALCULATION
Parameter SI
Volumetric Flowrate, Q 3812.78 ft3/hr
Retention time (half-full), t 5 min
Reactor Volume, V 635.46 ft3
Vessel Inside Diameter, Di 7.40 ft
Vessel Length, L 14.8 ft
Design Type Vertical
Material of Construction Low- Alloy Steel
1 ft3
Q=137 183.84 35.98
Q = 3812.78 ft3/hr
5 min1
Volume, V = (3812.78 ft3/hr) ( 60
2)
0.0283 3
= 635.46 ft3 ( 1ft3
)
=18 m3
Assume L/ D = 2
V = (D/2)2L = (D3)/2
D = (2V/ )1/3 = [2(635.46)/ ] 1/3 = 7.40 ft
L= 2D = 14.8 ft
Bare-Module cost
From Table A.7
37
= 0
587
(2016) = $236 742.98 ( ) = $350 045.67
397
38
DISTILLATION COLUMN
Parameters S1
Parameters S1
39
Sizing and costing of the condenser:
Parameters S1
Parameters S1
Length of tube
3.22m
Type of HE u-tube
Total cost:
Total 291,755.49
40
Calculation:
Vessel
Bare module cost:
The operating pressure: 320 barg.
( + 1)
+ 0.00315
2[850 0.6( + 1)]
, , =
0.0063
(320 + 1)0.4785
+ 0.00315
2[850 0.6(320 + 1)]
=
0.0063
=19.04
= 1
Purchased cost for the equipment can be calculated as follow in which A is the equipment
size:
10 = 1 + 2 10 () + 3 [10 ()]2
= 2 /4 = (0.4785 )2 /4 = 0.1798 3
10 = 2.8821
= 762.31
Constant values for bare module factor of vertical process tower is 1 = 2.25, 2 = 1.82,
(2001) = (2001)[1 + 2 ]
(2001) = $3 102.611
Annual index for the year 2001 and 2016 are 397 and 587,
587
(2016) = $3102.611 ( )
397
41
(2016) = $4587.49 4.43 = $ .
Reflux Drum
The pressure factor can be obtained from the following formula:
10 = 1 2 10 () + 3 [10 ()]2
1 = 2 = 3 = 0
10 = 0
= 1
= 1
Purchased cost for the equipment can be calculated as follow in which A is the equipment
size:
10 = 1 + 2 10 () + 3 [10 ()]2
= 2 /4 = (2 )2 /4 = 3.142 3
10 = 3.32
= 2065
Constant values for bare module factor of vertical process tower is 1 = 2.25, 2 = 1.82,
(2001) = (2001)[1 + 2 ]
(2001) = $8921
Annual index for the year 2001 and 2016 are 397 and 587,
42
587
(2016) = $8921 ( )
397
Condenser
The operating pressure is 17.5 barg.
10 = 1 2 10 () + 3 [10 ()]2
10 = 0.025
= 1.06
= 1
Purchased cost for the equipment can be calculated as follow in which A is the equipment
size:
10 = 1 + 2 10 () + 3 [10 ()]2
= 58.75 2
10 = 4.30
= 19954
Constant values for bare module factor of u-tube reboiler is 1 = 1.63 , 2 = 1.66,
(2001) = (2001)[1 + 2 ]
(2001) = $67636
Annual index for the year 2001 and 2016 are 397 and 587,
43
587
(2016) = $67636 ( )
397
Reboiler
The operating pressure is 17.5 barg.
10 = 1 2 10 () + 3 [10 ()]2
10 = 0.025
= 1.06
= 1
Purchased cost for the equipment can be calculated as follow in which A is the equipment
size:
10 = 1 + 2 10 () + 3 [10 ()]2
= 188.53 2
10 = 4.64
= 43740
Constant values for bare module factor of u-tube reboiler is 1 = 1.63 , 2 = 1.66,
(2001) = (2001)[1 + 2 ]
44
(2001) = $117660.60
Annual index for the year 2001 and 2016 are 397 and 587,
587
(2016) = $117660.60 ( )
397
45
PUMP
Parameters Pump
Pump Type Positive Displacement
Material of Construction Stainless steel
Inlet Pressure, PI 145 psi
Outlet Pressure, PO 253.8 psi
Assumptions:
Supplies power shaft at 7 bar = 162 kW
Thus, P = 7.5 bar (109 psi) = 174 kW
CBM = Cp FBM
Since the unit does not operate at the near-ambient pressure, hence the condition for this
equipment is non-base-case.
log Cp = 3.4771 + 0.1350 log (174 kW) + 0.1438 [ log (174 kW)]2 = 4.5
Cp = $31 729
FBM = B1 + B2FMFP
B1=1.89
B2=1.35
46
From Table A.3, for compressor with steam turbine, the identification number to be used with
Figure A.18 is 34
FM = 2.6
Hence,
CBM (2016) = CBM (2001) (587/397) = $31 279 (587/397) = $46 249
47
COMPRESSOR
The function of a compressor is to increase the pressure and corresponding saturation
temperature (boiling point) of the refrigerant vapor to high enough level so the refrigerant can
condense by rejecting its heat through the condenser.
Parameters Compressor
Compressor Type Centrifugal
Drive Type Steam turbine
Material of Construction Stainless steel
Inlet Volumetric Flow Rate, QI 3812.78 ft3/min
Inlet Pressure, PI 14.5 psi
Outlet Pressure, PO 145.04 psi
Specific Heat Ratio, k 1.10
Assumptions:
Supplies power shaft at 7 bar = 162 kW
Thus, at P = 9 bar (145.04 psi) = 208 kW
log Cp = 2.2897 + 1.3604 log (208 kW) - 0.1027 [ log (208 kW)]2 = 4.9
Cp = $77 865
From Table A.6, for compressor with steam turbine, the identification number to be used with
Figure A.19 is 2
FBM = 5.8
CBM (2001) = CpoFBM = 77 865 x 5.8 = $451 618
CBM (2016) = CBM (2001) (587/397) = $451 618 (587/397) = $667 757
48
HEAT EXCHANGER
3412.14
= 1179.2
= 4.02 106
T1 T2
=
T
log(T1 )
2
Where T1 T2 =
1179
= = = 48.20 2
0.45 . 54.11
2
Costing
log 0 = 1 + 2 (log ) + 3 [log()]2 = 4.3247 0.3030 log 48.20 + 0.1634 (log 48.20)2
0 = $ 18 949.22
1 = 1.63, 2 = 1.66
log 0 = 1 + 2 (log ) + 3 [log()]2 = 0.00164 0.00627 (log 10) 0.0123 (log 10)2
0 = 0.95
49
= 1
According to the Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index, 2016 has a cost index of 587
therefore
587
(2016) = $1 094 986.69 ( ) = $1 619 035.74
397
50
5.2 Fixed Capital Investment
The fixed capital investment can be determined by the Grass Roots cost
= $1 910 462.17
= $2 719 980.04
Nnp = Equipment
P 0
Nnp 17
NOL (no. of operators required per shift) = (6.29 + 31.7(0)2 + 0.23(17))0.5 = 3.19
Based on eligible sources, the number of operators needed to provide this number of shifts
is [(1095 shifts/y)/(245 shifts/operators/y)] or approximately 4.5 operators.
51
Operating Labour = (4.5)(3.19) = 14.36 = 14 operators
From the data obtained from the Bureau of Labour Statistics, they give the hourly
miscellaneous plant and system operators at $8012.28 for a year.
0.57 1
= (24 ) (365 ) (52169.66 ) ($ ) ( ) (0.92) = $239,654,062.60/.
1
(24 ) (365 ) (52169.66 ) (0.92)
= = 420,445.72/
1000
0.1 1
= (24 ) (365 ) (1981.13 ) ($ ) ( ) (0.92) = $1,596,632.29/.
1
(24 ) (365 ) (1981.13 ) (0.92)
= = 15,966.32/
1000
0.135 1
= (24 ) (365 ) (11886.76 ) ($ ) ( ) (0.92) = $12,928,347.82/.
1
52
(24 ) (365 ) (11886.76 ) (0.92)
= = 95,797.78/
1000
UTILITIES COST
Furnace
365
Yearly cost = 69 162.56kW x 0.567/kWh x 0.92 x 24 hr x
1
= $ 45 568 215.72
Reactor
1m3 = 0.2015kW
53
= $2 833.45
Distillation Column
Reboiler duty is 5.3 GJ.
Total consumption power of tower = 280 309.05 CNY + 269 731.35 CNY
= 550 040.40 CNY x 4 tower (consider same)
= 2 200 161.6
= $317 227.29
Pump
Shaft work = 174kW
Efficiency = 0.86 (interpolation from efficiency of reciprocating pump based on shaft work
from heuristic)
Shaft power 174 kW
Electric Power = = = 200kW
0.86
Compressor
Shaft work = 208kW
Efficiency = 0.93 (from figure 8.7 (Turton et, al, 2013) )
54
Shaft power 174 kW
Electric Power = = = 223.7 kW
0.93
Heat Exchanger
365
Yearly cost = 1 179.2kW x 0.567/kWh x 0.92 x 24 hr x
1
= $2 330 771.36
= 0.18($2 719 980.04) + 2.73($112 172) + 1.23($48 495 381.20 + $254 179 042.70)
The cost of waste treatment is not available with reason that the by-product is not
considered waste and can be sold to other manufacturing companies.
55
5.4 Revenue
0.958 1
= (24 ) (365 ) (49895.16 ) ($ )( ) (0.92) = $385,226,240.40/
1
Our plant will be based in Pudong, Shanghai. The cost for 5 hectares of land is $500 000 per
5 hectares
56
6.1 Non-discounted Profitability
Payback Period
We observe from table that the working capital was recovered between year 3 and 4
therefore
57
= 4.5 > 1
= 1.73
50,000,000.00
40,000,000.00
30,000,000.00
20,000,000.00
10,000,000.00
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-10,000,000.00
-20,000,000.00
-30,000,000.00
58
6.2 Discounted Profitability
= 2.28 > 1
59
End of Cash Flow NPV NPV NPV NPV
Year (Discounted) (i = 0) (i = 0.1) (i = 0.2) (i = 0.28)
= 20 + 7.4 = 27.4%
60
Discounted Cumulative Cash Flow
10,000,000.00
5,000,000.00
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
-5,000,000.00
-10,000,000.00
-15,000,000.00
-20,000,000.00
61
7.0 SAFETY ANALYSIS
Material Safety Data Sheet Safety handling and storage
Propylene
Propylene is extremely flammable. It may explode when heated. It may explode at high
temperatures and pressure (955 atm; 327C).
Safety handling Ground and bond all lines and equipment associated with
product system.
All equipment should be non-sparking and explosion
proof. Remove all sources of ignition. Ensure adequate
ventilation. "NO SMOKING" signs should be posted in
storage and use areas.
Safety storage Outside or detached storage is preferred.
Protect from physical damage.
Cylinders should be stored upright with valve protection
cap in place and firmly secured to prevent falling.
Store in cool, dry, well-ventilated area of non-combustible
construction away from heavily trafficked areas and
emergency exits.
Keep at temperatures below 52C / 125F.
Propane
Pentane
Safety handling Keep away from heat. Keep away from sources of
ignition. Ground all equipment containing material. Do not
ingest.
Do not breathe gas/fumes/vapour/spray.
Wear suitable protective clothing. In case of insufficient
ventilation, wear suitable respiratory equipment.
If ingested, seek medical advice immediately and show
the container or the label. Avoid contact with skin and
eyes.
Keep away from incompatibles such as oxidizing agents.
Safety storage Store in a segregated and approved area.
Keep container in a cool, well-ventilated area. Keep
container tightly closed and sealed until ready for use.
62
Avoid all possible sources of ignition (spark or flame). Do
not store above 25C (77F).
Butane
Butene
It is flammable in air. Butene will rapidly or completely vaporize at normal pressure and
temperature, or is readily dispersed in air and will burn readily.
Safety handling Earth-ground and bond all lines and equipment
associated with the butene system. Electrical equipment
should be non-sparking or explosion proof.
Compressed gas cylinders should not be refilled except
by qualified producers of compressed gases.
Safety storage Store only where temperature will not exceed 125F
(52C).
Post No Smoking or Open Flames signs in storage and
use areas. There must be no sources of ignition
Cylinders should be stored and used in dry, cool, well
ventilated areas away from sources of heat or ignition. Do
not store with oxidizers
Hydrogen
Safety handling Keep away from heat, hot surfaces, sparks, open flames
and other ignition sources. No smoking. Use only non-
sparking tools. Use only explosion-proof equipment.
Safety storage Keep away from heat, hot surfaces, sparks, open flames
and other ignition sources. No smoking. Use only non-
sparking tools. Use only explosion-proof equipment.
This gas is heavier than air and in an enclosed space
tends to accumulate near the floor, displacing air and
pushing it upward. This creates an oxygen-deficient
atmosphere near the floor. Ventilate space before entry.
Verify sufficient oxygen concentration.
When handling product under pressure, use piping and
equipment adequately designed to withstand the
pressures to be encountered.
Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOP)
63
HAZOP for CSTR Reactor
The reaction in this reaction is exothermic, and a cooling system is provided to remove
the excess energy of reaction. If the cooling flow is interrupted, the reactor temperature
increases, leading to an increase in the reaction rate and the heat generation rate.
This situation may cause a runaway reaction with a subsequent increase in the vessel
pressure possibly leading to a rupture of the vessel. The temperature within the reactor
is measured and is used to control the cooling water flow rate by a control valve.
The HAZOP analysis which can be adapted are in the plant for potential process
modifications are:
1. Installation of a cooling water flow meter and low flow alarm to provide an immediate
indication of cooling loss.
2. Installation of a high temperature alarm to alert the operator in the event of cooling
function loss.
3. Installation of a high temperature shutdown system that would automatically shut
down the process in the event of a high reactor temperature. The shutdown
temperature would be higher than the alarm temperature to provide the operator with
the opportunity to restore cooling before the reactor is shutdown.
4. Installation of a check valve in the cooling line to prevent reverse flow. A check valve
could be installed both before and after the reactor to prevent the reactor contents
from flowing upstream and to prevent the backflow in the event of a leak in the coils.
5. Periodic inspections and maintenance of the cooling coil to insure its integrity.
6. Evaluation of the cooling water source to consider any possible interruption and
contamination of the supply.
64
Possible hazard that may happen during handling reactor:
1. Explosions from uncontrolled chemical reactions due to overpressure or due to
release of energy from exothermal reactions (a result of mechanical damage or
corrosion).
2. Exposure to carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic substances present in the
reactor, or released from the reactor during cleaning and maintenance work.
3. Exposure to high temperatures and heat-stress from chemical reactors.
65
8.0 WASTE MANAGEMENT
The sequencing batch reactor (SBR) as in Figure 1 is a fill-and draw activated sludge
system for wastewater treatment. In this system, wastewater is added to a single "batch"
reactor, treated to remove undesirable components, and then discharged. Equalization,
aeration, and clarification can all be achieved using a single batch reactor. To optimize the
performance of the system, two or more batch reactors are used in a predetermined
sequence of operations. SBR treatment process is as stated:
The Influent is made to pass through the screens to remove bigger objects before
entering the equalisation tank. The Screened Influent is collected and equalized in this
tank. Coarse bubble diffusers are provided to keep the Influent in suspension and to give
mobility to the liquid in the equalization tank.
A specially designed tank is used for the processes of BOD removal, nitrification/de-
nitrification, phosphorus removal and sludge separation which are achieved continuously
and the process operates on the batch inflow and batch outflow principle. The phases of
aeration, settling, decantation occur sequentially and are controlled by an automation
system.
The aeration is through micro fine bubble diffusion and here are the details:
1. Disinfection; to ensure that the treated water is free from bacteria, disinfectant is
dosed.
2. Pressure sand filter; suspended particles in the treated water are removed by
passing through the Sand Filter Vessel. The vessel system has backwash provision.
3. Activated carbon filter; the treated water is passed through this media in order to
remove bad odour and colour if any.
66
Besides, SBR process advantages over conventional treatment process such as no settling
tank and return sludge pumps, the state-of-the-art PLC control system provides a completely
automatic operation of plant, the automatic operation results in minimal supervision
requirements, contributing to lower operating and maintenance costs, and lastly, low F/M
ratios result in significantly less waste sludge and due to its complete stabilization, sludge
can be directly disposed into environment without further treatment.
67
REFERENCES
68
15. Zong, L., Ramanathan, S., Chen, C.C. (2012). System and method of modeling
monoglycerides, di-glycerides and triglycerides in biodiesel feedstock. Patent
EP2425363 A2.
16. Zhang, Y., Dube, M.A., McLean, D.D., Kates, M. (2003). Journal of Bioresource
Technology: Biodiesel production from waste cooking oil: 1. Process design and
technological assessment. Vol. 89, pp. 1-16. Ottawa, Canada.
17. National Biodiesel Board. Methyl Ester Formula and Molecular Weight. Retrieved
from: http://biodiesel.org/docs/ffs-performace_usage/chemical-weight-
formula.pdf?sfvrsn=4.
18. Retrieved 15th December 2016, Hazard Analysis and Risk Assessment from
http://www.processoperations.com/HazIDRA/HZ_Chp01e09.htm
19. Retrieved 15th December 2016, International Hazard Datasheets on Occupation from
http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---
safework/documents/publication/wcms_185861.pdf
20. Enzotech (2013). SBR Technology. Retrieved from
http://enzotech.co.in/sbr_product.aspx
21. Abreu L. H. (n.d.). Sequencing Batch Reactors: An Efficient Alternative to
Wastewaster Treatment. Retrieved from http://www.rpi.edu/dept/chem-eng/Biotech-
Environ/Environmental/Steps/EnvSysSBR.html
22. US. Environmental Protection Agency (1999). Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet
Sequencing Batch Reactors. EPA 932-F-99-0773
23. Amr M. Abdel-Kader. Journal of Comparison Study between SBR and AS by Using
Simulation Mathematical Model. Hurghala, Egypt (2009). 639-701.
24.
69