Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
DOI 10.1007/s00170-010-2631-5
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Received: 19 October 2009 / Accepted: 16 March 2010 / Published online: 29 April 2010
# Springer-Verlag London Limited 2010
Table 1 Composition of studied alloy: austenitic stainless steel AISI 316 L (percentage in weight)
C Si Mn P S Cr Mo N Ni
to obtain the optimum process parameters for each of these Different mechanical tests have been performed and their
manufacturing orientations. In the following tests, process corresponding testing samples have been manufactured by
parameters have been the same: 200 W of power laser, means of AM by SLM. Here follows a short description:
50 m of layer thickness and 50 cm3h-1 of building rate. In
all the experimental tests included in this study, only the 5.1 Ultimate tensile strength
manufacturing orientation of samples growth has changed.
AM by selective laser melting means that components Tensile tests have been done following ASTM standards. In
manufactured by this kind of technology are obtained by a Fig. 3, dimension and geometry of the testing samples are
succession of molten layers in a direction, so this could shown. All samples are grown in the z axis of the SLM
equipment working area; the difference, in each case, is in In this case, it has to be considered that melting angle is
which plane and direction is contained the base geometry of different in the calibrated zone, depending on the scanning
the sample as may be seen in Fig. 3. angle (Fig. 4). Samples have been manufactured at 0, 30,
45, and 90 with respect to X axis.
Case A: Samples manufactured with base geometry
Manufactured samples by SLM may be observed in Fig. 5.
in XY machine plane (with different rotation
angles). Case B: Samples manufactured with base geometry
in ZX to ZY plane (with different rotation
Table 2 Tensile tests results for samples with base geometry in XY
plane, case A Table 3 Results of tensile tests in samples manufactured in case B
Rm tensile strength, Re yield strength, E elongation Rm tensile strength, Re yield strength, E elongation
644 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2010) 51:639647
Table 4 Results of tensile tests in samples manufactured in case C main axis of the sample bowed with respect to
Angle with regard 0 Z direction.
to the horizontal
Rm (MPa) Re (MPa) E (%) In order to obtain better properties on components made
1 586 544 43 in vertical position (case C), a strategy of growing the
2 608 577 43 components/samples with some inclination with respect to
3 581 551 40 Z axis has been proposed. The need of supports depends on
Average 591 557 42 the angle of fabrication (with respect to the horizontal
Standard deviation 11.7 14.1 1.6 plane): as much as this angle is larger (sample closer to
Angle with regard 30 vertical axis), the less is the need for these supports. In the
to the horizontal pictures corresponding to Fig. 8, some of these manufactured
Rm (MPa) Re (MPa) E (%)
samples are shown; the supports may be observed as well as
1 590 544 43
a detail of the surface of these supports. In the case of 30
2 580 534 43 and 45, the supports are needed in all the length of the
3 568 508 43 samples, while for the case of 60, these supports is only
Average 579 529 43 needed at the beginning of the angles.
Standard deviation 8.9 15.2 0
Angle with regard 45 5.2 Notch impact (Charpy) tests
to the horizontal
Rm (MPa) Re (MPa) E (%)
1 578 536 47
The same criteria have been followed for the notch impact
2 573 517 47
tests (Charpy). In this case, samples have been manufac-
tured by SLM, too. Batches of three standardized samples
3 555 529 40
of 101055 mm have been produced in two orientations
Average 568.6 527.5 44.4
corresponding to the ones with best and worst tensile
Standard deviation 9.8 7.8 2.8
results (case A, 30 in the XY plane and case C, 0 with z
Angle with regard 90
to the horizontal axis). Samples are shown in Fig. 9. Supports of 1.5 mm
Rm (MPa) Re (MPa) E (%) high have been used to ease the extraction of samples from
1 608 548 47 the base platform. It should be noted that residual stresses
2 583 549 43 have been produced in the first layer and have distorted the
3 579 537 43 corners of it, modifying locally the geometry of the sample
Average 590 545 44 (Fig. 9).
Standard deviation 13.1 5.8 1.6 The sides of the samples with higher roughness have
been shot-peened with corindon and polished.
Rm tensile strength, Re yield strength, E elongation
angles) and main axis of the sample in XY 6 Obtained results and discussion
plane.
As it has been already explained, different mechanical tests
To avoid the use of supports from samples to the
have been performed, and their corresponding testing
platform, samples have been manufactured with prismatic
samples have been manufactured by means of AM by
geometry and then slightly machined to the final geometry
SLM. These samples have been manufactured with differ-
(Fig. 6).
ent orientation strategies (cases A to D). Most important
Case C: Samples made with base geometry in the ZX/Y part of mechanical testing has been ultimate tensile strength
plane (with different rotation angle) and main tests, but resilience and microhardness tests have been
axis of the sample in Z direction. performed, too.
Samples have been also obtained with a prismatic
6.1 Ultimate tensile strength tests
geometry and then slightly machined to final geometry
(Fig. 7). This is the worst case (from the tensile properties
It should be noticed the high relation Re/Rm in all cases, with
point of view) as the layers have been produced one after
minimum values of Re higher than 525 MPa (it must be
another in the tensile test direction.
underlined that in wrought products these values are lower than
Case D: Samples made with base geometry in the ZX 300 MPa), but keeping high elongation values (in most cases
to ZY plane (with different rotation angle) and above 30%, which meansindirectlyhigh cold ductility).
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2010) 51:639647 645
Here are detailed the obtained results: Results obtained in tensile tests in these samples are
collected in Table 4 (Rm and Rp in Mega Pascal (MPa);
Case A: Samples manufactured with base geometry
elongation in percentage).
in XY plane (with different rotation angles).
Best results of strength have been obtained with 0. Best
Results obtained in these samples are detailed in Table 2 results for elongation both with 45 and 90. As it was
(Rm and Re in Mega Pascal (MPa); elongation in percentage). expected, this is the worst case for resistance properties,
As it may be observed in Table 2, best results have been but, on the other hand, it shows the best elongations values.
obtained for 30, but the homogeneity for all angles of
Case D: Samples made with base geometry in the ZX
manufacturing is high.
to ZY plane (with different rotation angle) and
Case B: Samples manufactured with base geometry main axis of the sample bowed with respect to
in ZX to ZY plane (with different rotation Z direction.
angles) and main axis of the sample in XY plane.
Results obtained in tensile tests in these samples are In this case, tensile tests have been done, too. In Table 5 are
collected in Table 3 (Rm and Re in Mega Pascal (MPa); detailed the results (Rm and Rp in Mega Pascal (MPa);
elongation in percentage). In this case, similar values have elongation in percentage). In this case, an important increase
been obtained for all angles. in tensile properties with respect to case C is observed:
In this case, the best strength properties are observed at 45,
Case C: Samples made with base geometry in the ZX/Y while the best ductility is obtained at 30. Taking into account
plane (with different rotation angle) and main
axis of the sample in Z direction.
Table 7 Results of Charpy tests at room temperature
average values, the strength is increased by 80 MPa with depend not only in the composition of the alloy, but in its
respect to case C; so, if the piece is going to suffer strength in manufacturing route, i.e., its final microstructure. The
the Z axis in service, it would be necessary to find a solution microstructure obtained when processing this alloy by SLM
of compromise, assessing both, the necessary strength and the is a succession of fine layers (<50 m) composed of very fine
supports needed to manufacture the component (this in case grains of austenite.
that case A is not possible).
With respect to all cases studied in this paper, it is clear that, 6.2 Notch impact (Charpy) tests
from the point of view of strength, the best option is the
building strategy of case A (with maximum values of medium Obtained results in Charpy tests at room temperature (20
Rm and Re of 691 and 678 MPa, respectively). On the other 25C), are the following (Table 7):
hand, best ductility values (elongation) are measured for case The average value is 56.8 J, which is a value lower than
C (with medium values higher than 44%). expected. Reference value was 75 J. Anyway, this value is
also high enough for a large variety of applications. The
6.1.1 Tensile tests in wrought material study of mechanical properties for SLM-manufactured
components has to be done for each application taking into
In order to be able to compare the obtained properties with account (besides alloy) design and building strategy and
those obtained by conventional ways of manufacturing costs. Analyzing the fracture surface, a ductile fracture
(in this case, rolling), tensile test properties for rolled sheet morphology has been observed; porosity previous to
of the 1.4404 (AISI 316 L) steel are collected in Table 6 rupture has not been observed, and joining between layers
(standard EN 10083). has not been visible (pictures of Fig. 10 show the fracture
As it may be appreciated, properties for strength obtained surface and a detail of the final contact area).
with SLM technology are comparable to those of wrought
products; in all cases, the results for strength properties are 6.3 Vickers microhardness tests
higher in components obtained by SLM. Tensile strength is, in
all cases, in the range, and, in case A, above this range. Yield Vickers hardness tests have been done across the section of
strength in selective laser melting is always clearly above the each sample, every 0.4 mm. In Fig. 11, a representative
values of this property for wrought products. Elongation hardness distribution is showed. The mean value obtained
values are lower but with high enough values for most of 235 HVis in consonance with the values expected for this
applications. Special mention is for the obtained yield
strengths, which are significantly higher of those for wrought
Hardness Measurements
products but, as it has been mentioned, maintaining high 260
elongation values. Usually, for metallic alloys an increase in 255
250
the ratio Re/Rm means severe decrease of elongation (Re/Rm
Hardness (HV)
245
for this wrought alloy is usually is around 0.4, while for this 240
235
SLM-processed alloy, it has been usually higher than 0.9).
230
This means that besides the design freedom given by the RM 225
process, additional material savings and weight reductions 220
215
may be achieved with this manufacturing technology. 210
The study with this material has included a metallographic 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Distance (mm)
analysis which, due to space limitations, is not included in this
paper. As it has been stated before, mechanical properties Fig. 11 Obtained Vickers hardness distribution in AISI 316 L alloy
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2010) 51:639647 647
material. Obtained hardness values have been very similar in Resilience tests (Charpy) In this case, results also show
all of the four cases. anisotropy, and values are slightly lower to those specified
to wrought products (average values among 63 and 50 J at
room temperature, 25C).
7 Conclusions
Hardness tests (Vickers) Results are homogeneous and
Results collected in this paper are focused in the AISI 316 L similar to those found in wrought products of this alloy.
austenitic stainless steel after being processed by selective As a concluding remark, it may be said that, in the case of
laser melting as an additive manufacturing technology. In this the AISI 316 L steel, the technology of RM by SLM has
paper, previous published results are complemented, as the proven to befrom the point of view of mechanical
mechanical tests have been performed in all the possible propertiesa very challenging technology for manufacturing
directions of manufacturing by SLM and not only in two main demanding products.
directions. The goal of this study has been to know the
mechanical properties of the mentioned steel after being
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