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Topic One:
Religion and Belief Systems in
Australia post-1945
Contemporary Aboriginal
Spiritualities
Aboriginal spirituality as determined by the Dreaming
Aboriginal spirituality as determined by the Dreaming
Fundamental to Ab. Spirituality. the Dreaming involves all knowledge and
understanding in Aboriginal societies, and hence incorporates all beliefs and practices of
Aboriginal communities.
Encompasses physical and spiritual aspects of Ab. Life.
Symbolic of creation phase- believe land created in present shape by journeys
of ancestor spirits.
Dreaming is LAW- governs Ab. behaviour, sets out structure for society, rules
for moral actions, instructions for religious ceremonies/rituals etc.
Acts as guide for Ab. Person throughout life.
Concept of time is cyclical, not linear- meaning dreaming is past, present and
future.
origins of the universe & inextricably connected to the land
Transcendent: ultimate reality is beyond the limits of the physical earth
Immanent: reality resides in the sacred places and the stores of my country
In an Aboriginal way of being, everything is connected; land, people and spirit.
Country is a word used to describe an area of land in which a number of Aboriginal
families live
The Dreaming is reflected by the whole environment. Humans are unified with
the environment.
Dreaming is embedded in all aspects of Aboriginal life.

Aboriginal spirituality and its inextricable connection with the land

Kinship
system of belonging and responsibilities within a clan
Significance: Kinship ties also assign the responsibility to transmit the
knowledge of the Dreaming from elders to the younger generation. People are initiated
into the Dreaming by different degrees according to their age and position in the
community. This process of learning the Dreaming is a life long pursuit.
Obligations to the land and people
Land is the physical medium through which the Dreaming is lived and
communicated.

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Dwelling place for ancestral spirit beings.

Identity & acknowledgement of the traditional owners

Sacred sites
Sacred sites or ritual estate have a special significance connected with
particular events in the Dreaming. Aboriginal people have special ritual responsibilities to
take care of, and to learn from these sacred sites which are off-limits and hidden from the
non-initiated.
Stories
The Dreaming is primarily expressed through stories
Way of teaching Aboriginal children about right and wrong behaviour in
society.
Rituals
Reliving of the story in a powerfully sacred way.
Totems
Totems are the embodiment of each individual in his or her primordial state
Ceremonial responsibilities commonly known as balance rites.

Issues for Aboriginal spiritualities in relation to

POLICY OF ASSIMILATION
half caste assimilates them into the white community
forget their cultural identity
Separation of Aboriginal children from families
Prohibition of traditional Aboriginal practices
Ban on the use of traditional Aboriginal languages
STOLEN GENERATION
Aboriginal children who were removed from their homes between 1900 and 1972 by the
Government and church missionaries in an attempt to assimilate these children into White
Australian society
Aboriginal race could be bred out of existence.
Maltreatment, sexual exploitation and humiliation severing Aboriginal children's ties with
the Dreaming. The removal of these children from their traditional lands means that they
could no longer learn or fulfil their ritual responsibilities

The effect of dispossession: separation from the land, separation from Kinship groups and Stolen
Generation
The impact of dispossession for Aboriginal people has been enormous
and overwhelmingly detrimental
Government policies of protection and assimilation are the dark
episodes of the Stolen Generation.
Separation from land
Loss of identity
Ever-present burden of not being able to fulfil ritual responsibilities.
Separation from kinship groups, results in the loss of language
Destruction of the kinship system
Removal of large numbers of children from their families meant that
these children were unable to maintain their cultural identity
Restriction on the practice of the kinship system, totems and ceremonial
rituals

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Dislocation of Aboriginal people from the land caused a loss of

Aboriginal cultural identity as the people of the Dreaming are
inextricably connected to the land

The Land Rights Movement: Native Title, Mabo, Wik

Importance of land rights movement.

Land rights are of critical importance in relation to Aboriginal spirituality,

because the Dreaming is inextricably connected with the land.
The land is the resting place for ancestral spirit beings.
Each Aboriginal is connected with the land through their totem.
Specific areas have important spiritual meaning for particular groups of
Aboriginal people - these are known as sacred sites.
There are special responsibilities attached to sacred sites
The identity of an Aboriginal person is inextricably linked to the land and hence
the land is like a mother for the people.

Native Title
The beginnings of the modern land rights movement is usually attributed to the
Wave Hill Mob who went on strike for better conditions on a Northern Territory cattle
station at Wave Hill.
Eventually after a protracted dispute the Whitlam Federal Government passed
the first land rights legislation in 1975.
Land rights legislation benefits a very small percentage of Aboriginal people.
Native title refers to communal or individual rights or interests of Aboriginal
people or Torres Strait Islanders in relation to land or waters.

Mabo
In June 1992 the High Court of Australia ruled in favour of an action brought by
Eddie Mabo on behalf of the Murray Island people.
The court ruled that Australia was indeed an occupied land at the time of
British settlement and that the notion of terra nullius - "land belonging to no one" - was
false in regard to the situation in Australia.
It further ruled that under certain circumstances a form of title known as
"Native Title" existed under Australian law.
In order to claim Native Title it had to be proved that continuous links with the
land had been maintained since before 1788 and that the Native Title had not been
extinguished as with freehold title.
Native Title could only be claimed on a very small percentage of Australian
land.
The Wik case and the Native Title Amendment Act
In 1996 the High Court ruled in favour of the Wik people who claimed that
Leasehold Title may not automatically extinguish Native Title.
The High Court ruled that in certain circumstances Native Title and Leasehold
Title could co-exist and that in areas of dispute the interests of the Leasehold Title holder
would prevail.
In response to pressure from investors in rural Australia the Howard Federal
Government prepared legislation to amend the Native Title Act and prevent any
uncertainty.

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The legislation was called the Native Title Amendment Act and was commonly
referred to as the 10 Point Plan.
The main feature of the legislation was to transfer from the Federal
Government to the various State Governments the power to upgrade the title from
Leasehold Title to Freehold Title thus extinguishing Native Title.

Religious Expression in Australia

1945 to Present
The religious landscape from 1945 to the present in relation
to: changing patterns of religious adherence and current religious
landscape

changing patterns of religious adherence

There have been significant declines in the number of Christians regularly

attending religious services.
This decline is most evident in the Anglican Church, the Presbyterian
Church and the Uniting Church.
The drop in the figures for these three denominations represents both a
decrease in the percentage of those who are affiliated with that denomination as well
as a decline in actual numbers over the last decade.
The proportion of Orthodox Christians in Australia grew rapidly after the
Second World War and has remained quite constant over the past decade.
Roman Catholics have continued to increase both numerically and as a
percentage of the population, and have overtaken Anglicans as the largest
denomination in Australia.
Pentecostal figures have demonstrated strong growth both numerically
and as a percentage of the population since the 1960s.
In the last ten years however, this steep ascent appears to have slowed
down and reached a plateau.
The significant drop in the numbers of people regularly attending religious
services should be read in conjunction with the substantial trend in the increasing
numbers of people writing "No Religion" or "Religion Not Stated" in the census .
The figure for religions other than Christianity, on the whole, appears to be
steadily increasing from a fairly small base.
Buddhist figures have grown at a steady rate from 1972 onwards and is
now the largest religion other than Christianity in Australia
Hinduism has maintained steady growth.
The numbers of Muslims in Australia have also increased dramatically
since 1945.
In 2001 the proportion of Jews was similar to that recorded in 1947.

present religious landscape in Australia

Christianity as the major religious tradition

The significant decline in the number of Christians regularly attending

religious services, especially in the Anglican, Uniting Church and Presbyterian

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denominations, can be attributed to the aging population, the lack of migrant intake
and the general dissatisfaction impacting on other mainstream Christian groups.
Roman Catholics are continuing to increase numerically, though not at the
rate of the population because of its younger membership and substantial migrant
intake.
The significant increases in the Pentecostal figures can be attributed to
factors such as the lively nature of its worship, its emphasis on contemporary music,
the strong sense of community and spiritual support it provides, the charismatic
leaders which lead the congregation and the clear cut answers it provides for times
of uncertainty.
Pentecostalism is an evangelical (fundamentalist and focused on
conversion) and charismatic (a strong emphasis on the gifts of the Holy Spirit) strand
of the Christian religion.
The slow down in the increase of Pentecostal figures in the last 10 years
can be attributed to the 'revolving door syndrome' which recognises that large
numbers of Pentecostals remain with the Church for a relatively short period of time
and because many Pentecostals were encouraged by their leaders to write
"Australian Christian Church" rather than "Pentecostal" on the 2001 census.

Immigration

Changed Australia from being mono-cultural, mono-faith to multi-cultural,

multi-faith.
Since World War 2 and the lifting of the White Australia policy there has
been much more diversity in migration and an accompanying increase in the
diversity of religious groupings.
Migration after World War 2 led to increased number of Catholics from
countries such as Italy, Malta etc.
This also increased numbers of Orthodox Christians from Greece and
Eastern Europe.
After the ending of the White Australian policy in 1972 migration
developed from a larger range of countries bringing a wider range of religions.
Migration has led to significant increases in the numbers of people who
are Buddhist, Muslims, Hindus and Jews.
Buddhists came from Indo-Chinese countries - Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia -
and in more recent times Malaysia, Hong Kong and China.
Muslims came from countries such as Indonesia, Lebanon, Iran and Iraq,
Bosnia.
Increases have also occurred in Christian denominations where there is a
large non-Anglo population - Orthodox (Eastern Europe) and Catholic churches (from
predominantly Irish to include Mediterranean, Eastern European, Asian, South
American, African members).
Increased presence of a variety of religious groups has also led to a
greater appreciation of this diversity.

Denominational switching

The vast majority of people affiliated with religious groups in Australia

were born into that religion.

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The phenomena of swapping between denominations or groups of the

same religious tradition is known as denominational switching.
Denominational switching is more common in Protestant Churches than in
the Catholic Church.
The majority of Pentecostals have moved from another Protestant
denomination to join the Pentecostal group.
Pentecostal is the term used to describe Christian denominations which
have a strong emphasis on the gifts of the Holy Spirit (speaking in tongues, healing,
prophecy etc).
They are often relatively small groups which provide for more personal
interaction, they also have lively worship.
Pentecostalism is the fastest growing Christian group.
Most Pentecostals have switched to the group from another Christian
denomination. Many leave again after about 2 years - this is known as the 'revolving
door syndrome'.

Rise of New Age religions

Census figures show a considerable level of dissatisfaction with traditional

religious groups.
Alongside this dissatisfaction is an indication of a strong and growing
longing for a spiritual dimension to life.
"New Age" is an umbrella term which refers to a range of alternative
and/or pseudo-religious groups that people are attracted to.
New Age religions are characterised by their adoption of elements of
Eastern religions and their subsequent rejection of traditional Western views, and the
fact that it favours creation centred spirituality.
Some examples of new age religions are feng shui, yoga, tai chi,
astrology, tarot cards, numerology etc.
Many people uphold traditional religious beliefs and practices but
supplement them with new age elements.

Secularism

Secularism is the belief that religion should not interfere with or be

integrated into the public affairs of a society.
There are multiple factors which have contributed to the decline of
religion's relevance for the integration and legitimation of modern life.
The increasing pluralism and materialism of society alongside society's
increasing individualism and dissatisfaction with traditional religions are major
reasons for secularisation.
This trend is most evident in the significant increase in the number of
people responding "No religion" in the census alongside an overall decline in the
Christian figures recorded in the census.

Describe the impact of Christian ecumenical movements in Australia

Ecumenism refers to the movement towards religious unity amongst

Christian denominations.
Ecumenical movements have made an impact on various levels.

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At the highest level, joint commissions such as the Anglican Roman

Catholic International Commission (ARCIC) make statements about official church
teachings.
Cooperation on social/political issues and in times of crisis or tragedy.
Theological initiatives such as Sydney College of Divinity.
Grass roots initiatives such as parish prayer groups etc.
The formation of the Uniting Church in 1977, through a merger of three
existing Churches - Methodist, Presbyterian and Congregational.
The reorganisation of the Australian Council of Churches in 1994 to
become the National Council of Churches in Australia.
The reorganisation of the structure of the NSW Ecumenical Council to
accommodate the Catholic dioceses within NSW and the Australian Capital Territory .

Importance of interfaith dialogue in multi-faith Australia

Interfaith dialogue is a movement aimed towards promoting understanding

between different religious traditions.
In the current political environment the need for religious leaders around
the world to express the commonalities which bind the religious world views have
become even more important in light of these cultural and political divisions.
The dignity of the human person and the sanctity of human life is a prime
example of one fundamental element which runs throughout all world religions.
In response to tragedies such as the Boxing Day Tsunami, the Bali
Bombings, etc religious groups provided support through inter-faith memorials.
Cooperation on social justice issues such as indigenous rights, opposition
to GST, unemployment, poverty, land mines, nuclear testing and asylum seekers.

Relationship between Aboriginal spiritualities and religious traditions in the process of

Reconciliation

Many Christian groups strongly support reconciliation, and the issues.

associated with it such as land rights, native title and the need for a formal apology
to the Stolen Generation.
Historically, Christian groups have been intimately involved with the
process of reconciliation for example by advocating Aboriginal land rights and
citizenship, supporting the Mabo and Wik decisions and opposing the Ten Point Plan.
Australians for Native Title and Reconciliation (ANTaR) is an example of a
prominent church based organisation advocating indigenous rights.
There is interfaith support for the process of reconciliation.
Various Jewish groups also opposed the Ten Point Plan and every year
they hold a week of prayer for reconciliation.
Islamic and Buddhist groups have also made public statements supporting
reconciliation, and issues such as native title, a formal apology to the Stolen
Generation and land rights.
The support that traditions other than Christianity lend to reconciliation is
less noticeable compared to the work of Christian groups because of their smaller
affiliation.

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Topic Two:
Depth Study One: Christianity
SIGNIFICANT PERSON AND IDEAS: MARY MAGDALENE
Background:
- a Galilean from Magdala, always named first
- healed by Jesus
- witnessed the resurrection and crucifixion
- Mary is continually mentioned in the gospels as the leading woman disciple in Jesus company
- The Gnostic tradition continued this high estimate of her role by making her the exemplar of
womans apostolic authority and the disciple closest to Jesus
- Gospel of John emphasizes the close relationship of Jesus and Mary Magdalene by developing a
special scene in which he appears to her
- Mary is faced with growing up in her faith, believing in Jesus beyond the tomb
- This powerful role of MM, as beloved disciple and apostle to the apostles threatened to sanction
leadership for women in a later patriarchal Christianity.
- So MM is demoted in the tradition converted prostitute

Contribution of MM to the development and expression of Christianity:

1. Apostle to the Apostle:

- Direct commissioning by Jesus JN 20:17
- By St. Pauls own definition of apostle someone who has had a direct experience of Risen
Christ
- MM announcement is receiving and believed in the community as when Jesus appears again, he
does not repeat what MM had told them he presumes they know it

2. Disciple:
- presented as a faithful and ideal disciple
- MM followed Jesus; she left her home which illustrates her wholehearted dedication to Jesus and
his mission.
- Her dedication is shown when she goes to anoint the body of Jesus at the tomb. (Jn20:14-18)
Gnostic gospel of Philip states MM role as a disciple. there were three who walked with the Lord:
His mother Mary, her sister and Magdalene.
- Two elements of discipleship: 1. Following Jesus even at the risk of ones life (Mk 8:34-38).
- 2. Becoming a servant of all (Mk 9.35. 10:42-45). In Mk 15:40-41 MMs name is mentioned as a
disciple and following these elements.

3. Deacon:
- MM is woman who becomes the first woman minister.

4. Evangeliser:

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- Jn 20:18 MM is one of Jesus primary proclaimers.

- MM was chosen to talk to the disciples about his resurrection
- At the time womens witness had no value or meaning-Jesus chose her.
- Taught the community about will of God and about Christianity.

5. Leader
- Both to women and men.
- In all gospels MM is portrayed as a leader of the company of women who remain faithful to Jesus
at the cross when the male disciples ran away.
- Leadership role evident in Gnostic gospels writings-gospel of Mary where the rivalry, between peter
and MM is quite explicit.
- Levi...replied to peter peter, you are always angry. Now look you are treating this woman as you
would treat the enemy. If the Lord has made her worthy, who are you to reject her?

6. Witness to the Resurrection:

- All gospels state that MM was the only person (first women) to witness Jesus resurrection and
presenting the message to the community. Mk16:9-11, Mt 28:1-10, Lk 24:1-12, Jn 20:1-18.
- At the tomb Jesus calls MM by her name.

Impact of MM on Christianity:
1. Conclusion:
- In all four accounts MM saw first the resurrection
- The role of MM in the mission of Christ and the Early Christian community cannot be overlooked or
underestimated
- It is her many roles that note her presences
- MM emerges as a model of a faithful, devoted follower of the Lord
- Strong, independent leader.

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SIGNIFICANT PRACTICE IN THE LIFE OF ADHERENTS: MARRIAGE

Background:
-The time: couple should be over 18yrs of age
-the place: church-important to make solemn promises in Gods house
-The participants: rite of marriage=public ceremony-couple is required to make their vows in public.
Two witnesses, families and friends a priest of minister is required.
-The Charter: Orthodox, Roman, Catholic and some protestant Christians regard marriage as a
sacrament-this means it is a special means by which God acts in peoples lives.
-The set form: opening song, bridal procession, giving bride away, reading from the bible, etc.
Varies between different denominations
-The symbol system: recitation of vows, exchange of rings, drinking from the cup of wine, joining
hand whilst marriage vows are made, signing the marriage contract, bride wear white.
-The hierarchical and role relations: couple move from being children of a family to an equal level
with their parents. Most have children themselves and become parents. The relationship between a
man and a woman in a Christian marriage is expected to be equal.
-The transformation: couple were single and from two different families. Marriage unites the couple
together as well as the family.

How does marriage expresses the significant beliefs of Christianity:

OT-marriage as a mirror of Gods Covenant:
- The Book of Hosea symbolises the covenantal relationship between a man and woman
and their relationship to God.
- Songs of Solomon describes the nature between God and the Chosen People. The voice
of my beloved; look he comes, leaping upon the mountains, bounding over the hills. My beloved is
like a gazelle or a young stag...my beloved speaks to me and says to me: Arise, my love, my fair
one, and come away; (Song 2:8-10).
- And so I do no take my sister for any lustful motive; I do it in singleness of heart. Be kind
enough to have pity on her and on me and bring us to old age together (Tob 8:7)
- faithful steadfast and forgiving love
- Bible as the picture of the relationship between God and the chosen people

NT-the teaching of Jesus.

- But from the beginning of creation, God made them male and female. For this reason a man shall
leave his father and mother and be joined to his wife, and the two shall become one flesh.
Therefore what God has joined together, let no one separate. (Mk10:6-9)
- He answered anyone who divorces his wife and marries another woman commits adultery
against her. And if she divorces her husband and marries another man she commits adultery.
(Mk10:11-12)
- Paul also makes references to marriage. The husband should give to his wife her conjugal rights,
and likewise the wife to her husband. For the wife does not have authority over her own body, but
the husband does; likewise the husband does not have authority over his own body, but the wife
does (1 Cor 7:3-4)

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- love is patient, love is kind; love is not envious or boastful or arrogant or rude. It does not insist on
its own way; it is not irritable or resentful; it does not rejoice in wrong doing, but rejoices in the truth.
It bears all things, believes all things, hopes all things, and endures all things. (1 Cor 13:4-7)
- To love, to forgive, to suffer and to heal
- Marriage a significant Christian practice it confirms the beliefs of the group, encourages group
cohesion and teaches moral lessons.

Significance for the Individual:

- Elevates the mundane to the supernatural: the couples relationship should demonstrate and reflect
the love of Christ, has for his church, so that even the mundane events of life, the love the couple
has for each other deepens their relationship with God.
- Structures the live of the couple: prior to marriage=single with responsibility for themselves.
Marriage=share the same home and they have an ongoing responsibility for each other and for
their children
- A way of holiness: marriage is sacred and life-long union. Their love should reflect everlasting love.
Through marriage the couple express their love and service of god through each other.

Significance for the Community:

- A means of identification with the community of believers: a marriage in the Catholic Church, or the
baptism ceremony of the couples children is passing on traditions
- Strengthens the community of believers: this happens through prayers that the congregation say
for the couple about to be married. They affirm their Christian beliefs, and central beliefs about
marriage are made clear through the rite itself.
- A means of reflection for all couples present: on the couples participation within the Christianity
and their ultimate purpose as human beings, to grow in holiness through their relationships.
- acknowledges supports and encourages the human conditions of suffering, joy and bereavement:
this is clear in the marriage vows for better for worse, for richer for poorer, in sickness and in
health, to love and to cherish, til death do us part

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ETHICAL TEACHINGS: BIOETHICS

Authority for Christian Ethics:
- Scriptures (The Bible)
- Experience (inspiration from the Holy Spirit)
- Tradition (Authority of leaders)
- Logic (Reason)

Natural Law:
- The belief is that God created everything perfectly so if we study the way life works and learn the
laws of Nature, we will learn how to behave

Catholic Church:
- Based on Gods revelation through the bible and natural law, the churchs tradition and the exercise
of reason
- Donum Vitae (Gift of Life) asserts that the life of every human being is to be respected in an
absolute way from the very instant of the commencement of his or her existence until death
- Abortion is therefore seen by Catholics as against natural law and Gods law
- Genetic testing of unborn babies is permissible if the aim is to benefit the child
- Donum Vitae (Gift of Life) use embryos as the object of instrument of experimentation
constitutes a crime against their dignity as human beings
- The CC is strongly opposed to voluntary euthanasia
- The document also argues that the natural method of conception is sexual relationships within
marriage the use of donor sperm, surrogate motherhood and artificial insemination = no

Evangelical:
- Rely on Gods revelation of himself through the bible
- The Anglican Archbishop life begins at conception abortion and stem cell research on
embryos are wrong life in the womb begins w/ conception it would be arbitrary to chose any
other point at which the child develops value
- Reject the concept of surrogacy

Liberal:
- Many see the bible as a pre-scientific book
- The best person to make the decision to proceed with an abortion is the pregnant woman, after
consultation with her family, friends and trusted advisers.
- Voluntary euthanasia might be an appropriate thing

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Topic Three:
Depth Study Two: Islam
SIGNIFICANT PERSON AND IDEAS: AISHA BINT ABU BAKAR
Background:
- 3rd (and favourite)wife of Prophet Muhammad for 10 years
- Born into Quraysh tribe to family of wealth, fame, status father Abu Bakr is the 1st Caliph
- Parents embraced teachings of Islam in its early years this developed a firm faith, revulsion for
infidelity and pagan ways
- Betrothed and married very early, according to custom inspired by Allah
- Relationship with Muhammad is very close Anas: the first expression of live in Islam was the
love of the prophet towards his wife Aisha!

Contribution of Aisha to the development and expression of Islam:

1. Theology:
- Deemed Mother of Believers for her extensive contribution to Islamic theological writing and
thought
- Muhammads wife for 10 years and constant companion witnesses several revelations (only wife
to see angel Jibreel), unrivalled position from which to recall Hadith (words and deeds of
Muhammad) remembered over 2000
- Clarified context of Muhammads words, an expert in sacred saying and law
- Early faith, independent thought, probing curiosity, fierce intelligence Aisha wields deep
knowledge and understanding of Islamic beliefs and law
- Authoritative source of clarification and wording of sacred texts, development of Fiqh (jurisdiction),
Ijma (consensus of scholars), Tafsir (commentary on Quran and extraction of meaning from it)
- Muhammad refers to Aisha as final resource in theological matters this endorsement by the
Prophet promotes/assists Aishas religious authority and role in Islam after Muhammads death
- Muhammad Draw half of your religion from this ruddy-faced woman

2. Politics:
- Strong personality and unshakable faith natural leader in political issues of Caliphate
- Supports and protects reputation of Abu Bakr (1st Caliph and her father)
- Destabilises Uthman (3rd Caliph) refuses to assist him when besieged by rebels
- Stood up against injustice, unfairness ,falsity courageously defended what she believed was
true and in accordance with Islamic beliefs this included criticism of Caliphs
- Accompanied Muhammad to war, but later leads armies herself
- Rebels against 4th caliph Ali ibn abi Talib obtains support, men, weapons in Basra by publicly
explaining the logic of her opposition in the mosques
- Culminates in Battle of the Camel near Basra against Ali (4th Caliph) criticises him for not
avenging the murder (which he was possibly complicit in) of Uthman defeated and taken
prisoner military escort

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- Withdrew from public life after imprisonment

- Commands enormous respect from people because of her loyalty to the revelations of the Prophet
and courageous defence of her faith
- Sunni-Shia split loyalty to Abu Bakr (Sunni) rather than Ali (Shia) uses oratory skills to speak
out against criticism of Abu Bakr, including rendering opponents to silence this schism lasts
from 632 CE to today

3. Society:
- Develops, explains, and clarifies faraid (daily duties and rituals of Muslim)
- Belief in inherent justice of Islam draws concern to issues of social justice
- Educational reform for women (especially in laws and teachings of Islam), translating roles into
more active societal dimension, fights for roles and status reflecting her own treatment by
Muhammad.
- Charity to poor and needy dedicated to care of orphans and destitute lived ascetic life
- Epitomises the ideals of sura 33:35,and indeed whole Quran believing, obedient, truthful,
patient, humble, charitable, pious, giving, and remembering Allah

Impact of Aisha on Islam:

1. Active participation in Islamic community and efforts in womens roles = idea of just
Islam
- Instigator and example of increased participation champions equality in teachings and action
- Promotes womens education
- Vocally challenges patriarchy and potentially marginalising statements (i.e. women invalidate
prayer)
- Assertive and forceful how dare you compare us women with dogs and donkeys!
- Participation in Janazah prayers
- Female public example inspires and promotes this idea
- Accompanies M to battle fields and later her own campaign against Ali
- But today in Saudi Arabia and indeed in much of the Muslim world, gender inequality remains

2. Contribution to early theological/interpretative development

- Intimacy with M and events of life = source of authority
- Contributes to compilation of Hadiths (over 2000 verses attributed to her transmission)
- Knowledge is of unrivalled status
- Knowledge of law rebuked for visiting her brothers grave in Makkah b/c Allah forbids women to
visit Aisha replies that the Prophet forbid both men and women, but later lifted this ban this
amendment does not only apply to men
- Iijma, Fiqh
- Questioned Prophet Aisha follows Muhammad to graveyard (for prayer) she asks if a devil
follows each person M: yes A: does one follow you? M: yes, but he has become a
Muslim.
- Public sphere critical intellect public opinion and strong corrective voice
- Intellect allows her to apply knowledge to justify arguments and show action to be inconsistent
with Islam
- Advice relied upon by prominent individuals (Umar and Abu Bakr)
- Teaches in mosques and mentored a number of pupils also in history, Arabic, medicine
- Graduates of teaching Abd Allah, Qasim, Urwah, Umrah bint Abd al-Rahman al-Ansariyyah
- Future generations benefit from scriptural and interpretative aspect of Islam and in own context

3. Political influence and significance:

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- Strong personality and unshakable faith natural leader in political issues of Caliphate
- Supports and protects reputation of Abu Bakr (1st Caliph and her father)
- Destabilises Uthman (3rd Caliph) refuses to assist him when besieged by rebels
- Stood up against injustice, unfairness ,falsity courageously defended what she believed was
true and in accordance with Islamic beliefs this included criticism of Caliphs
- Accompanied Muhammad to war, but later leads armies herself
- Rebels against 4th caliph Ali ibn abi Talib obtains support, men, weapons in Basra by publicly
explaining the logic of her opposition in the mosques
- Culminates in Battle of the Camel near Basra against Ali (4 th Caliph) criticises him for not
avenging the murder (which he was possibly complicit in) of Uthman defeated and taken
prisoner
- Withdrew from public life after imprisonment
- Commands enormous respect from people because of her loyalty to the revelations of the Prophet
and courageous defence of her faith
- Sunni-Shia split loyalty to Abu Bakr (Sunni) rather than Ali (Shia) uses oratory skills to speak
out against criticism of Abu Bakr, including rendering opponents to silence this schism lasts
from 632 CE to today

4. Development and perception of Islam benefits from her exemplification of the values
associated with the ideal Muslim life
- Unmaterialistic familial wealth and political standing ascetic life - tattered clothes, minimal
living, simplicity
- Goodwill and selflessness devoted wealth to poor Urwah (a scholar taught by Aisha) I
saw Aisha giving away 70 000 dirhams in charity while she was wearing a garment which had so
many patches on it!
- Assertive falsely accused of adultery stands firmly with faith in Allah a surah revealed to
attest to her purity praised for honour and trust in Allah
- Humility despite contribution insists unworthy to be buried beside Muhammad b/c of
misjudgement of Ali
- Stands up for beliefs knowledge makes her responsible to challenge unjust, incorrect, unethical
policies
- Deep humility wages war against Ali , planned to exact justice upon Uthman but misjudged
and later regretted this said b/c of this she was less worthy of being buried beside Prophet
- Important social figure who exemplified what it meant to be a Muslim

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SIGNIFICANT PRACTICE IN THE LIFE OF ADHERENTS: THE HAJJ

Background:
- Largest annual religious gathering in the world, an ancient practice of utmost spiritual significance
- Hajj week long pilgrimage to Mecca (modern Saudi Arabia) undertaken exactly 2 months and
10 days after holy month of Ramadan, in DhulHijjah (12th month of Islamic calendar)
- Around 2.5 million each year logistical nightmare which huge physical danger
- Exhaustion, heatstroke, cardio-respiratory problems, most advised to write a will before pilgrimage,
in 2006, 362 pilgrims are killed via stampede
- Millions flock from around to globe to express submission to Allah, walk in footsteps of Prophet
Muhammad, fulfil the fifth pillar of Islam
- Hajj is fard (obligation) required of every Muslim at least once in his/her lifetime
- Limitations must be physically able, mentally responsible, debt-free last criterion prevents
many from performing Hajj only 1/10 manage

Key Quotes:
- It is the duty of all men towards God to come to the House a pilgrim, if he is able to make his way
there (Quran 3:93)
- O lordsave us from the punishment of the Hell fire when reach the Rukn Al Yamani
- Pilgrimage to the House is incumbent upon men for the sake of Allah, upon everyone who is able
to undertake the journey to it 3:96
- The Prophet said: Islam does not allow for failure to perform the Hajj Hadith Abu Daud
- If you are prevented from completing it send an offering of sacrifice, such as you may find, and do
not shave your heads until the offering reaches the place of sacrifice (Surah 2:196)
- And proclaim unto mankind the HajjThat they may witness things that are of benefit to them
(Sura 22:27-8)
- And proclaim the Pilgrimage among men: they will come to you on foot and on every kind of
camelthrough deep and distant mountain highways (22:27)
- Hajj is Arafat (Hadiths)

Proceedings of the Hajj:

- Arrival in Mecca for Miquat (recitation of talbiyah, donning of ihram, ghusl (full ritual washing of the
body with water alone to be pure for the prayer), tawaf before greater Hajj
- Mecca Mina (prayers and encampment)
- 9th Mina to Arafat to Muzdalifa
- 10th Muzdalifa to Mina (Jamra, Nahr, shave hair, removal of ihram) Mina to Kaaaba (Tawaf
al-Ifadha, say between Safa and Marwa)
- 10th 13th Tashriq days at Mina (stoning, farewell Tawaf)
- Departure from Makkah
- Talbiya pronouncement which pilgrims declare to Allah during Hajj
- Tawaf circling of the Holy Kabbah

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How the Hajj expresses the beliefs of Islam:

- Fundamental Islamic beliefs experienced symbolically by individuals through various rites of

pilgrimage
- 1st pillar/Shahada public and detailed declaration of faith before Islamic community (Hajj itself
and numerous ritual verses uttered i.e. when entering holy mosque express belief)
demonstrates tangible commitment to Allah and belief in Muhammad as Prophet
- Islam as chosen religion recognised by day spent at Arafat (where M expressed this idea in his
last public act)
- Arafat human need for forgiveness as believers offer prayers repenting sins and asking for
Allahs mercy
- Jamra belief in Satan, efforts to draw the individual away from Allahs will, and need to resist evil
Ibrahim stoned devil when tempted by Satan
- Eid-al-Adha also recalls story of Ibrahim individual should be willing to sacrifice in name of
Allah and subsequent reward Ibrahim is provided with a ram
- Ihram equality before Allah worn in death highlights mortality judgement according to
deeds (not wealth or status) belief in salvation via acts and judgement
- Angels circumnutation of Kaaba (angels surrounding heavenly throne)
- Afterlife verses affirming its reality O lordsave us from the punishment of the Hell fire
when pilgrims reach the Rukn Al Yamani
- Saay search/need for salvation
- 3rd pillar - Zakat last day of sacrifice where meat is shared with poor

Significance for the Islamic individual:

- Moving spiritual experience and fundamental religious duty fundamental significance for
individual Muslim adherent
- Fulfils fifth pillar subsequent favour on Day of Judgement possibility of forgiveness
- Fulfils fard and brings spiritual development and renewal
- Connects individual to rich historical foundation of Islam extensive prayer and meditation,
reinforces key concepts, provides opportunity to focus solely on devotion to Allah
- Journey helps to focus priorities on submission to Allahs will, develop spiritual consciousness and
understanding of what it means to live as a Muslim. Prioritise my life even reinforces the
importance of our final goal. We re-focus our attention on our destination (so to speak) and
ensure we are walking on a path that will take us there

Significance for the Islamic community:

- Promotes and preserves unity of umma via shared faith and devotion
- Collective nature dissolves barriers of race, language, wealth, gender, and age with ihram and
universal use of Arabic for all rites
- Results in strong sense of fellowship and encourages both cohesion and the preservation of
Islamic traditions
- Made me appreciate I was part of a much bigger community that well beyond the borders of
Australia MH
- Spiritual impact is contagious it rubs off on the other members of their family and wider
communityMH

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ETHICAL TEACHINGS: BIOETHICS

Main sources of ethical teachings:

- Quran universal source of ethics and guide to life practice halal/haram

- Sunnah practices of Muhammad and model for life
- Hadiths (arguably part of Sunnah) what M taught and approved of, often translated by
companions
- Iijma consensus of Islamic scholars
- Qiyas legal precedent from analogy and reasoning

Other sources:

- Sharia haram/halal
- Fitra natural inclination toward virtue
- 5 Pillars
- Ijtihad independent judgment on matters not outlined

Different ethical views:

- Umma is geographically and culturally diverse variety of ethical views

- Different schools of jurisprudence Hanafi, Shafei, Malekilead to different decisions
- Shia/Sunni different interpretation of what constitutes Sunnah Sunnis base on Sharia, ijma,
qiyas, taqlid (follow someone or imitate on an expert on Islamic jurisprudence, worship, or personal
matters) Shia base on Mujtahid and person interpretation
- Mujtahid scholar who uses reason for the purpose of forming an opinion or judgement on issues
of theology or law
- Moderate to fundamentalist observance of principles

Teachings associated with Islamic Bioethics:

- Human life has been made sacred by Allah and mankind has been honoured above other
creatures a strong reverence for life expressed in Quran
- Muslims are obligated to preserve and protect life because of this
- Allah provides and determines life and lifes necessities
- Helping the sick is an act of charity and compassion which demonstrates real submission to Allah
- Can remove life support from medically brain-dead person Islamic Law Council of Muslim World
League 1987
- Otherwise, no euthanasia b/c Allah is the source and determiner of life
- Abortion is not permitted unless pregnancy endangers life of mother
- IVF and artificial insemination are permitted if ovum and sperm belong to the married couple
- Organ donation, transfusion are permitted (not sex organs or from cadavers) form of charity
whoever saves the life of one person it is as if he saved the life of all mankind 5:32
- Hadith stresses sanctity of body both in life and death(Commentary of Sahih Muslim by Nawawi),
Qiya states that cutting divine creation is forbidden in Sharia this limits on organ transplants etc.
- Contraception permitted if for a valid reason but faith in Allahs provision means the adherent
should not worry about family planning
- Necessity makes possible what is forbidden 2:173 so sometimes stem cell research etc could
be justified

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Key quotes:

- Whoever saves the life of one person it is as if he saved the life of all mankind (5:32)
- Necessity makes possible what is forbidden (2:173)
- Take not life, which God has made sacred (6:151)
- Kill not you offspring for fear of poverty, it is we who provide for them and for you (17:32)
- Allah Most High Says: It is He who has created for you all things that are on earth (Surah al-
Bagarah 2.29)
- And verily we have honoured the children of Adam (Sura al-Isra v.70)
- To protect human life in all stages and under al circumstance (Oath of the Muslim Doctor 1981)
Ethical teachings on Abortion:

- List main sources and lesser-known sources

- Note lack of ethical teachings for religious application to contemporary issues and subsequent
need to derive guidance from other sources

Abortion
- Long-standing practice which has particularly become prominent issue in modern years
- Teachings fail to address explicitly/specifically but through alternate sources, if a definitive
position is to be reached abortion is morally wrong
- Result of Iijma and Qiyas with analogous teachings, so open to debate for complexity
- Rejects abortion as morally wrong
- Sanctity of life Allahs creation, in all stages should be protected
- Oath of the Muslim Doctor 1981 to protect human life in all stages and under all circumstance
- Take not life, which God has made sacred 6:151
- Whoever saves the life of one person it is as if he saved the life of all mankind 5:32

- What constitutes human life is debated most say 120 days or 40

- Foetus is human = rights and values
- However, it is universally agreed that after ensoulement (point of reaching full human life with
attendant rights), abortion should be strictly prohibited
- Sometimes punishable by diya (blood money) if it is aborted whilst alive, less severe fine if
unwilling

- Ethical approach toward abortion is by no means without exception abortion becomes

permissible (though still not ethically right) if it is performed to save the life of the mother
- Where medical issues (i.e. chemotherapy) may cause miscarriage or severe abnormality,
termination is acceptable
- Abortion permitted before ensoulement if supported by adequate medical/judicial reasons
- Ethically wrong unless more than 1 life threatened no flexibility or tolerance for less justification
(i.e. an inability to provide for a child kill not you offspring for fear of poverty, it is we who
provide for them and for you 17:32)

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