I.

Objective, purposes and utility

An objective of topography is to determine the position of

any feature or more generally any point in terms of both a
horizontal coordinate system such as latitude, longitude,
and altitude. Identifying (naming) features, and recognizing
typical landform patterns are also part of the field.

A topographic study may be made for a variety of reasons:

military planning and geological exploration have been primary
motivators to start survey programs, but detailed information
about terrain and surface features is essential for
the planning and construction of any major civil
engineering, public works, or reclamation projects.
Topography is the study of the shape and features of
the surface of the Earth and other observable astronomical
objects including planets, moons, and asteroids. The topography
of an area could refer to the surface shapes and features
themselves, or a description (especially their depiction in maps).

This field of geoscience and planetary science is concerned with

local detail in general, including not only relief but
also natural and artificial features, and even local
history and culture.

Topography in a narrow sense involves the recording of relief

or terrain, the three-dimensional quality of the surface, and the
identification of specific landforms. This is also known
as geomorphometry. In modern usage, this involves generation
of elevation data in digital form (DEM). It is often considered to
include the graphic representation of the landform on a map by
a variety of techniques, including contour lines, hypsometric
tints, and relief shading.

II. Characteristics of the contours:

1. Two contours of different elevation do not cross each other

with only exception in the contours of a overhanging cliff.
2. Contours of different elevations do not combine or overlap
to each other with exception in the contours of a vertical
cliff.
3. When contours are drawn closer to each other, it shows a
steep slope on the ground and when they are far apart it
shows the gentle slope on the ground.
 4. When contours are equally spaced they represent a
uniform slope, and when they are parallel straight and
equivalent they represent a plane surface.
5. A contour is perpendicular to a line of the steepest slope.
6. A contour must close itself in the map or must go out of
the boundaries of the map.
7. A set of ring contours with higher values of contour inside
and lower values outside represents a hill and if the higher
values are outside and lower values inside then it
represents a depression like a pond.
8. When contours cross a ridge they form a V- shape across
them. While if they cross a valley they form a u-shape or
may a V shape also difference being, the concavity of the
contour lines lies towards the lower contours in case of
valley while it is convexity lying towards the another lower
value in case of contours of a ridge.

III. Terminologies

Spot Height - A spot height is an exact point on a map with

an elevation recorded beside it that represents its height above
a given datum.[1] In the UKthis is the Ordnance Datum. Unlike
a bench-mark, which is marked by a disc or plate, there is no
official indication of a spot height on the ground although, in
open country, spot heights may sometimes be marked by cairns.

Hachure - Hachures are an older mode of representing relief.

They show orientation of slope, and by their thickness and
overall density they provide a general sense of steepness. Being
non-numeric, they are less useful to a scientific survey than
contours, but can successfully communicate quite specific
shapes of terrain. They are a form of shading, although different
from the one used in shaded maps.

Form Lines - Lines resembling contours, but representing no

actual elevations, which have been sketched from visual
observation of from inadequate or unreliable map sources, to
show collectively the configuration of the terrain.

Contour Line - A contour line of a functionof two variables is

a curve along which the function has a constant value, so that
the curve joins points of equal value. It is a cross-section of
the three-dimensional graph of the function f(x, y) parallel to
the x, y plane. In cartography, a contour line (often just called a
"contour") joins points of equal elevation (height) above a given
level, such as mean sea level. A contour map is a map illustrated
with contour lines, for example a topographic map, which thus
shows valleys and hills, and the steepness or gentleness of
slopes. The contour interval of a contour map is the difference in
elevation between successive contour lines.

Shading - Shading is used in drawing for depicting levels of

darkness on paper by applying media more densely or with a
darker shade for darker areas, and less densely or with a lighter
shade for lighter areas. There are various techniques of shading
including cross hatching where perpendicular lines of varying
closeness are drawn in a grid pattern to shade an area. The
closer the lines are together, the darker the area appears.
Likewise, the farther apart the lines are, the lighter the area
appears.

IV. Types of Ground Formation

Depression - A depression in geology is a landform sunken or

depressed below the surrounding area. Depressions form by
various mechanisms.
Summit of Hill - The term "summit" is generally used only for
a mountain peak with some significant amount of topographic
prominence (height above the lowest point en route to the
nearest higher peak) or topographic isolation (distance from the
nearest point of higher elevation); for example, a bouldernext to
the main summit of a mountain is not considered a summit.
Summits near a higher peak, with some prominence or isolation,
but not reaching a certain cutoff value for the quantities, are
often considered subsummits (or subpeaks) of the higher peak,
and are considered as part of the same mountain.

Ridge - A ridge or mountain ridge is a geological feature

consisting of a chain of mountains or hills that form a
continuous elevated crest for some distance. Ridges are usually
termed hills or mountains as well, depending on size.

Valley - A valley in its broadest geographic sense is also known

as a dale. A valley through which a river runs may also be
referred to as a vale. A small, secluded, and often wooded valley
is known as a dell or in Scotland as a glen. A wide, flat valley
through which a river runs is known in Scotland as a strath.
A mountain cove is a small valley, closed at one or both ends, in
the central or southern Appalachian Mountains which
sometimes results from the erosion of a geologic window. A
small valley surrounded by mountains or ridges is sometimes
known as a hollow. A deep, narrow valley is known as
a cwm(also spelled combe or coombe). Similar geological
structures, such as canyons, ravines, gorges, gullies, chines and
kloofs, are not usually referred to as valleys. A valley formed
by erosion is called an erosional valley; a valley formed by
geologic events such as drop faults or the rise of highlands is
called a structural valley.

Saddle - The saddle between two hills (or mountains) is the

region surrounding the highest point of the lowest point on the
line tracing the drainage divide (the col) connecting the peaks.
When, and if, the saddle is navigable, even if only on foot, the
saddle of a (optimal) pass between the two massifs, is the area
generally found around the lowest route on which one could
pass between the two summits, which includes that point which
is a mathematically when graphed a relative high along one axis,
and a relative low in the athwart axis, simultaneously; that point
being by definition the col of the saddle.
Spur - A spur is a lateral ridge or tongue of land descending
from a hill, mountain or main crest of a ridge. Sometimes the
term is used in sense of subpeak.

Sink Hole - Sinkholes may capture surface drainage from

running or standing water, but may also form in high and dry
places in specific locations. Sinkholes that capture drainage can
hold it in large limestone caves. These caves may drain into
tributaries of larger rivers.The formation of sinkholes involves
natural processes of erosion or gradual removal of slightly
soluble bedrock (such as limestone) by percolating water,
the collapse of a cave roof, or a lowering of the water table.
Sinkholes often form through the process of suffosion. For
example, groundwater may dissolve the carbonate cement
holding the sandstone particles together and then carry away
the lax particles, gradually forming a void.

V. Types of Contour

Index - Index contour lines are accented with a heavier mark, so

that these lines will be the first thing to catch your eye when you
look at a topographical map. Like all contour lines, they form in
concentric circles or shapes and each index contour line is
evenly spaced from one line to the next. Typical intervals
between contour lines might be 100 or 200 feet although
greater or lesser numbers are possible. Index contour lines are
marked with the elevation above sea level and they are usually
figured in intervals, such as every 100 or 200 feet. By looking at
all three types of contour lines, it is possible to determine the
relief of the land that the topographical map represents.

Intermediate - Between each pair of contour lines, there exists a

set of intermediate contour lines. The intermediate contour lines
usually come in sets and each intermediate contour line
represents an equal amount of elevation change between each
line. Also important is the fact that the elevation change
between one index contour line and an adjacent intermediate
contour line will also be the same value as the change between
two intermediate contour lines that are located next to each
other.

Supplementary - Supplementary contour lines are expressed as

a dashed line. These lines are drawn at all one elevation, but
they differ from the previous two types of lines in that their
spacing or change in elevation that they represent is different.
They almost always represent half the elevation change that is
found between intermediate and index contour lines. Therefore,
these lines are only used on topography maps where the overall
change in elevation is very gradual or slight.
Depression - A contour that indicates a hole and is represented
by a "hachured" brown line. Adepression is a point inside
a contour that is lower than the contour; a point outside
the depression contour is higher than the contour.
Approximate - A contour line of doubtful accuracy used in
stereo compilation to indicate uncertainty of location.
Contour Intervals - Contour lines can be drawn for any
elevation, but to simplify things, only lines for certain elevations
are drawn on a topographic map. These elevations are chosen
to be evenly spaced vertically. This vertical spacing is referred to
as the contour interval. For example the maps on the previous
page used a 10 ft contour interval. Each the contour lines was a
multiple of 10 ft.( i.e. 0, 10, 20, 30). Other common intervals seen
on topographic maps are 20 ft (0, 20, 40, 60, etc), 40 ft (0, 40,
80, 120, etc), 80 ft (0, 80, 160, 220, etc), and 100ft (0, 100, 200,
300, etc). The contour interval chosen for a map depends on
the topography in the mapped area. In areas with high relief
the contour interval is usually larger to prevent the map from
having too many contour lines, which would makes the map
difficult to read.

VI. Methods of Obtaining Contour

Direct

It consists in finding vertical and horizontal controls of the

points which lie on the selected contour line. For vertical control
levelling instrument is commonly used. A level is set on a
commanding position in the area after taking fly levels from the
nearby bench mark. The plane of collimation/height of
instrument is found and the required staff reading for a contour
line is calculated. The instrument man asks staff man to move up
and down in the area till the required staff reading is found. A
surveyor establishes the horizontal control of that point using his
instruments. After that instrument man directs the staff man to
another point where the same staff reading can be found. It is
followed by establishing horizontal control. Thus several points
are established on a contour line on one or two contour lines
and suitably noted down. Plane table survey is ideally suited for
this work. After required points are established from the
instrument setting, the instrument is shifted to another point to
cover more area. The level and survey instrument need not be
shifted at the same time. It is better if both are nearby so as to
communicate easily. For getting speed in levelling sometimes
hand level and Abney levels are also used. This method is slow,
tedious but accurate. It is suitable for small areas.
Indirect

In this method, some guide points are selected along a

system lines and their elevations are found. The points are then
plotted and contours are drawn by interpolation. These guide
points are not, except by coincidence, points on the contours to
be located. While interpolating, it is assumed that the slope
between any two adjacent guide points is uniform.

Coordinate - The method is used when the area to be surveyed

is small and the ground is not very much undulating. The area to
surveyed is divided into a number of squares. The size of the
square may vary from 5 to 20 m depending upon the nature of
the contour and contour interval. The elevations of the corners
of the square are then determined by means of of a level and a
staff. The contour lines may then be drawn by interpolation. It is
not necessary that the squares may be of the same size.
Sometimes, rectangles are also used in place of squares. When
there are appreciable breaks in the surface between corners,
guide points in addition to those at corners may also be used.
The squares should be as long as practicable, yet small enough
to conform to the inequalities of the ground and to the accuracy
required. The method is also known as spot levelling.
Cross Profile - In this methoed, cross-sections are run traverse to
the centre line of a road, railway or canal etc. The method is
most suitable for railway route surveys. The spacing of the cross-
section depends upon the character of the terrain, the contour
interval and the purpose of the survey. The cross-sections
should be more closely spaced where the contours curve
abruptly, as in ravines or on spurs. The cross-section and the
points can be plotted and the elevation of each point is marked.
The contour lines are interpolated on the assumption that there
is uniform slope between two points of the two adjacent
contours. The same method may also be used in the direct
method of contouring with a slight modification. In this method
described, points are taken almost at regular intervals on a
cross-section. However, the contour points can be located
directly on the cross-section as in direct method. For example, if
the height of the instrument is 101.80 and if it is required to trace
a contour of 100 m on the ground, the levelling staff is placed
on several guide points on the cross-section so that the staff
readings on all such points are 1.80 m, and all these points will
be on 100m contour. The guide points of different contours are
determined first on one cross-line and then on another instead
of first on one contour and then on another, as in the direct
method.
If there are irregularities in the surface between two cross-lines,
additional guide points may be located on intermediate cross-
lines. If required, some of the cross-lines may also be chosen at
any inclination other than 90 degrees to the main line.

Photogrammetry - is the science of making measurements from

photographs, especially for recovering the exact positions of
surface points. Photogrammetry is as old as
modern photography, dating to the mid-19th century and in the
simplest example, the distance between two points that lie on a
plane parallel to the photographic image plane, can be
determined by measuring their distance on the image, if
the scale (s) of the image is known.
Tacheometry - is the branch of Surveying in which we determine
the horizontal and vertical distances with the angular
measurements with an instrument , Tachometer. It is not so
accurate method of finding the horizontal distances as the
Chaining is, but it is most suitable for carrying out the surveys to
find the distances in the hilly area where other methods are
quite difficult being carried out. It is generally used to locate
contours, hydrographic surveys and laying out routes of
highways, railways etc.
Digital - A digital elevation model (DEM) is a digital model or 3D
representation of a terrain's surface commonly for a planet
(including Earth), moon, or asteroid created from
terrain elevation data.

Point controls - It is possible to assign a size for each point. Any

point with an individual size will be displayed as a 3D sphere of
this radius, even if the object type is not scattered points. The
units are pixels in the image file, i.e., unbinned pixels if images
are loaded in binned. Points without a size will still be displayed
at the size specified for the object as a whole. You can change a
size either by typing a number into the text box or by using the
slider. If a point has no size, the text box displays the global
point size for the object and "-Default".

Trace - Trace Contour looks at relative brightness levels rather

than the usual contrast edges, and surrounds similar areas with
a one-pixel-wide line. For a good example of the filter in action,
try running it on a simple black-to-white gradient. When you
move the Threshold slider, you can clearly see the difference it
makes, moving from the dark areas at a low Threshold value to
light areas at higher Threshold values. As with Find Edges and
Glowing Edges, its best to immediately follow this filter by
modifying the blending mode and opacity.