Personality and Individual Dierences 39 (2005) 913923

www.elsevier.com/locate/paid

Emotional and cognitive consequences of adult

attachment: The mediating eect of the self
Youngmee Kim *

Behavioral Research Center, American Cancer Society, 1599 Clifton Road, NE, Atlanta, GA 30329-4251, United States

Received 2 August 2004; received in revised form 1 March 2005; accepted 3 March 2005
Available online 31 May 2005

Abstract

The present study examined the relations between adult attachment orientations and both emotional
intelligence and cognitive fragmentation. Authentic self, which refers to a genuine sense of the self, was pro-
posed as a mediator of such relations. One hundred and fteen undergraduate students participated in the
study. Applying Structural Equation Modeling, the results showed that degree of authentic self mediated
the relations between attachment dimensions and either emotional intelligence or cognitive fragmentation.
Specically, a higher score on the secure attachment dimension was associated with a greater degree of
authentic self, which in turn, was associated with greater levels of emotional intelligence and having fewer
fragmented cognitive concepts about the self and romantic relationships. On the other hand, a higher score
on the anxious-ambivalent attachment dimension was associated with lower degree of authentic self, which
in turn, was associated with a lower level of emotional intelligence and having more fragmented cognitive
concepts about the self and romantic relationships. Findings highlight the importance of the self for clearly
understanding how the internal working models of attachment are manifested emotionally and cognitively.
2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Adult attachment; The self; Emotional intelligence; Fragmented cognitive concepts

*
Tel.: +1 404 329 7626; fax: +1 404 320 6262.
E-mail address: youngmee.kim@cancer.org

0191-8869/$ - see front matter 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.03.010
914 Y. Kim / Personality and Individual Dierences 39 (2005) 913923

1. Introduction

Attachment theory posits that dierent internal working models of the self and signicant
others that individuals have constructed are manifested by distinguishable patterns of emotions
and cognitions, and this theory has been supported by numerous empirical studies (e.g., Hazan
& Shaver, 1987; Shaver, Collins, & Clark, 1996). The present study aims to test this proposition
with relatively newly developed constructs, emotional intelligence and cognitive fragmentation, as
emotional and cognitive correlates of adult attachment orientation. Furthermore, the present
study aims to clarify the role of the self in adulthood as a function of the internal working models
of attachment orientations.

1.1. Adult attachment and emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence refers to the extent to which individuals identify their feelings and the
feelings of others, regulate these feelings, and use the information provided by their feelings to
motivate adaptive behavior (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000; Salovey, Woolery, & Mayer,
2001). Emotional intelligence has been associated with lower levels of depression, faster mood
recovery following disturbing experiences, personality traits such as empathy, emotional control,
low anxiety, and low neuroticism, adequate emotional problem solving, and negatively associated
with diculty in describing feelings (see Mayer et al., 2000).
Given this array of ndings, emotional intelligence appears to be a good indicator of the emo-
tional correlates of dierent attachment orientations: secure, avoidant, and anxious-ambivalent.
The secure attachment orientation has been associated with exible and appropriate adjustment
to emotional experiences by acknowledging distress and tolerating stressful events without being
overwhelmed by them (Cooper, Shaver, & Collins, 1998). The avoidant orientation, on the other
hand, has been associated with guarding an emotional distance from others or distancing the self
from confrontation with distress (Hazan & Shaver, 1987; Mikulincer, Orbach, & Iavnieli, 1998).
The anxious-ambivalent orientation has been related to emotional volatility in social interaction
(Simpson, 1990) and hyper-vigilance to the source of distress (Mikulincer et al., 1998). Thus, it is
hypothesized in the present study that the secure attachment orientation will be positively associ-
ated with emotional intelligence; both the avoidant and anxious-ambivalent attachment orienta-
tions will be negatively associated with emotional intelligence.

1.2. Adult attachment and cognitive fragmentation

An individuals cognitive structures for the self and others have been found to be dierentiated
into multiple aspects that reect ones varied social roles (Mikulincer, 1995). When the various
aspects of an individuals self-concept are compartmentalized or lack harmonious connections
to one another, the individuals cognitive self-concepts are considered to be fragmented (e.g.,
Gergen, 1971). In such a case, the individuals cognitive aspects of the self within a certain social
role in which he/she engages are too distinctive, lacking assimilation with other self concepts. As a
result, the degree to which an individuals cognitive concepts are fragmented has been associated
with depression and emotional distress (Donahue, Robins, Roberts, & John, 1993; Sheldon,
Ryan, Rawsthorne, & Ilardi, 1997). In addition, the cognitive fragmentation has been specically
 Y. Kim / Personality and Individual Dierences 39 (2005) 913923 915

associated with dierent attachment orientations. For example, the self concepts of individuals
high in the avoidant attachment orientation have been highly dierentiated or compartmentalized
across dierent social roles, whereas those of anxious-ambivalent people have been less dieren-
tiated or compartmentalized (Mikulincer, 1995). In contrast, the self concepts of individuals high
in secure attachment orientation have been not only dierentiated by selecting various distinctive
cognitive aspects to describe themselves but also integrated by making harmonious connections
among these dierentiated aspects (Donahue et al., 1993; Mikulincer, 1995). These ndings sug-
gest that the degree to which an individuals concept of the self has been fragmented is a cognitive
correlate of the individuals attachment orientation.
These dierential associations in the fragmentation of the self and the individuals attachment
orientation may also be the case with the individuals cognitive fragmentation of relationships,
particularly romantic relationships. For example, one woman might see her boyfriend as caring
and honest as a friend, but as possessive and uncertain as a romantic partner. In contrast, another
woman might see her boyfriend as caring and honest as a friend and romantic partner. The former
woman has a more dierentiated relationship-concept, and if the perception of the relationship
roles lacks coherence, the relationship-concept can be considered fragmented. Thus, with regard
to an individuals cognitive fragmentation of relationships, based on the ndings with the self, it
is hypothesized in the present study that the secure attachment orientation will be negatively asso-
ciated with fragmented relationship-concepts, whereas insecure attachment orientations (i.e.,
avoidant and anxious-ambivalent) will be positively associated with fragmented relationship-
concepts.

1.3. A mediator: The self

Attachment theory contends that internal working models serve to lter the interpretation of
relationship-relevant events and thereby shape an individuals view of his or her social world.
Although this contention has been widely supported (for review, see Shaver et al., 1996), specic
mechanisms by which the internal working models operate on emotional and cognitive well-being
remain unclear (Mikulincer, 1995).
The two-dimensional approach of attachment suggests that quality of the self may be the
underlying mechanism (Bartholomew & Shaver, 1998; Brennan, Clark, & Shaver, 1998). The
rst dimension, secure, as dened by comfort with closeness and interdependence, includes
the constructs of self-reliance, intimacy, and closeness. On the secure end of this continuum,
these features are balanced and coherent in the self structure (Mikulincer, 1995), while on
the avoidant end, self-reliance serves as a mask to distance ones self from others (Mikulincer
et al., 1998). The second dimension, anxiety, reects, on the upper end, a heightened desire
for intimacy along with insecurity about others responses, and is characterized by a preoccupa-
tion with attachment, jealousy, and fear of rejection (Brennan et al., 1998), with feelings of the
self being a pawn in relationships to others. The lower end of the anxiety dimension reects less
of these concerns.
Notions of the self are critical to both of these dimensions, implying the benet of taking a clo-
ser look at the dierent underlying qualities or content of the self in adulthood. The nature of the
self of insecurely attached individuals has been characterized as if-then self worth (e.g., Im
nothing if a person I care about doesnt love me: from Roberts, Gotlib, & Kassel, 1996,
916 Y. Kim / Personality and Individual Dierences 39 (2005) 913923

p. 312). Such an if-then self is a defensively avoidant and pawn-like self (Mikulincer, 1995). In
contrast, the nature of the self of securely attached individuals has been characterized as a true,
genuine self (Mikulincer, 1995). No studies to date, however, have examined the role of the con-
tent of the self, compared to global self-esteem, in the link between attachment orientations and
their emotional and cognitive correlates.
Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2002) appears to provide a relevant theoretical frame-
work for understanding the quality and content of the self. This theory posits that the self devel-
ops in the context of the t between an individuals psychological needs and environmental
supports. When an individuals psychological needs and environmental support are optimally
matched, he or she is more likely to develop the authentic self. The authentic self refers to a set
of motivational processes representing intrinsic growth tendencies toward an integration of ones
own experience and behavior with ones sense of relatedness to others. The authentic self is not a
mere reection of social forces, such as just conforming to parents expectations or social norms
(Deci & Ryan, 2002). The authentic self is conceptualized in the present study as the experience
of choice in behaviors, lively energy in daily life, and sense of genuine self-contact. In contrast,
a sense of self that develops in a non-supportive environment may lead to a non-true or hetero-
nomous self and one with a defensively avoidant or pawn-like stance (Deci & Ryan, 2002;
Mikulincer, 1995), which may result in a lack of genuineness and satisfaction.
Specically, according to the self-determination theory, secure attachment may be related to an
authentic self through an optimal t between innate relatedness needs and important others avail-
ability (Deci & Ryan, 2002). Conversely, if adult interpersonal relationships are inconsistent, con-
tingent, or unavailable to meet organismic needs (Deci & Ryan, 2002), the self of individuals with
an anxious or avoidant attachment orientation may become heteronomous, resulting in condi-
tional self-worth. These qualitative dierences are presumed to have diering emotional and cog-
nitive correlates. Thus, the authentic self in the present study is hypothesized as a prerequisite for
an optimal working model of attachment, which is thought to be a necessary aspect of individuals
emotional and cognitive well-being.
In the present study, the secure end of the secure attachment dimension is hypothesized to be
positively associated with the authentic self, and in turn, positively related to levels of emotional
intelligence and negatively related to cognitive fragmentation. The upper end of the anxious-
ambivalent attachment dimension is hypothesized to be negatively associated with the authentic
self, and in turn, negatively related to levels of emotional intelligence and positively related to cog-
nitive fragmentation.

2. Method

2.1. Participants and procedure

One hundred and fteen undergraduate students from the University of Rochester (49 men, 66
women) participated in the study. The median age was 19 years old (ranged 1722). They received
partial course credit for their participation. They were asked to ll out questionnaires in small
groups of up to 20. The questionnaire consisted of measures of attachment orientation, authen-
tic self, emotional intelligence, and fragmented self- and romantic relationship-concepts, with
 Y. Kim / Personality and Individual Dierences 39 (2005) 913923 917

instructions for self-administration. Participants were debriefed following participation. Among

participants, 40% were currently involved in a romantic relationship. The status of current rela-
tionship involvement was not signicantly related to any study variables (ps > .29).

2.2. Measures

The following manifest variables were used to derive the ve latent variables depicted in Fig. 1.

2.2.1. The two attachment orientation dimensions

Hazan and Shavers (1987) prototypical descriptions of feelings and cognitions regarding the
three attachment orientations were captured by a 15-item scale including ve statements that
describe each of the three prototypic attachment patterns (Simpson, 1990), using a 7-point Lik-
ert scale. Following the dimensional approach proposed by Bartholomew and Shaver (1998)
and described above, a higher score on secure items (e.g., I nd it relatively easy to get close
to others.) and a lower score on avoidant attachment items (e.g., I nd it dicult to allow
myself to depend on others.) were indicators of the latent variable for the secure attachment
dimension, while the ve anxious-ambivalent attachment items (e.g., I often worry that my
partner wont stay with me.) were divided into two groups (two or three items per group: Anx-
iety_1 and Anxiety_2) to serve as multiple indicators of the latent variable for the anxious-
ambivalent attachment dimension (Hoyle, 1995), in the structural equation model that will be
described later.

attention
.34
secure .55
.51*
.63
Secure Emotional clarity
-.78 .36* .54* Intelligence
.57
avoidant
-.09 Authentic Self
repair

.70 .33 -.51*

-.27*
.67
anxiety_1 -.08 .39 FSC
.66
choice self-contact vitality
Anxious- Fragmented
Ambivalent Cognitive Concepts
.09 .48
.98
FRC
anxiety_2

Fig. 1. The Full Study Model: The mediating eect of the authentic self in the relation between attachment and
emotional intelligence and fragmented cognitive concepts. Note: * p < .05; Choice = Choicefulness; FSC = Fragmented
Self Concept; FRC = Fragmented Relationship Concept; all factor loadings on each correspondent latent variable were
signicant at ps < .001.
918 Y. Kim / Personality and Individual Dierences 39 (2005) 913923

2.2.2. Authentic self

The Self-Determination Scale (Sheldon & Deci, 1996) and the Vitality Scale (Ryan & Frederick,
1997) were utilized to assess the individuals authentic self. The Self-Determination Scale is a 10-
item scale which assesses a general sense of both self-contact and choicefulness, using a 9-point
Likert scale. Example items are I feel like I am always completely myself for the self-contact
and I am free to do whatever I decide to do for the choicefulness. The validity of the self-deter-
mination scale has been documented such that individuals higher in self-determination have been
found to be more concordant in implicit and self-attributed need for achievement (Thrash &
Elliot, 2002).
A 7-item Vitality Scale (Ryan & Frederick, 1997) assessed feelings of liveliness and vigor (e.g.,
I feel alive and vital), using a 7-point Likert scale. The validity of the vitality scale has been
documented by showing the positive association with self-actualization and personality integra-
tion (Ryan & Frederick, 1997).
In order to validate the role of the authentic self in the proposed model of this study, a measure of
global self-esteem, using the widely accepted 10-item Rosenberg Self-Esteem Inventory (Rosenberg,
1965) in a 5-point Likert response format, was included (e.g., On the whole, I am satised with
myself). Global self-esteem was positively associated with measures of authentic self in the present
study (.24 < r < .35, ps < .01).

2.2.3. Emotional intelligence

The Trait Meta-Mood Scale (Salovey, Mayer, Goldman, Turvey, & Palfai, 1995) measures the
extent to which individuals attend to moods, clarify their experiences of mood, and regulate their
moods to repair negative moods in order to motivate adaptive social behaviors (Mayer et al.,
2000; Salovey et al., 2001). The short version of the TMMS consists of 24 items that measure indi-
vidual dierences in attention to mood (Attention: e.g., I am often aware of my feelings on a
matter), clarity in discriminating among feelings (Clarity: e.g., I am usually very clear about
my feelings), and beliefs about maintaining positive moods and repairing negative moods (Re-
pair: e.g., Although I am sometimes sad, I have a mostly optimistic outlook), in a 5-point Likert
response format.

2.2.4. Fragmented cognitive concepts

Fragmented Self Concept (FSC): Participants rated themselves on 33 self traits (Linville, 1985)
ve times for each of ve social roles: student, friend, romantic partner, son or daughter, and
worker (Donahue et al., 1993). Each role was presented on a separate page, and participants were
not permitted to refer back to prior ratings. The 33 attributes were presented in a dierent order
for each role. To compute the FSC score, Donahue et al. (1993) proposed using factor analysis to
assess the proportion of variance in the role-identity ratings not shared across roles. Higher
percentages indicate more independence among self-attributes across roles and more fragmented
self-concepts.
Fragmented Relationship Concept (FRC): The same procedure was followed to rate roles and
attributes of romantic relationships, using four romantic partner roles (i.e., companion/playmate,
condant/supporter, friend, and sexual partner) and 32 attributes of romantic relationships (e.g.,
warm, jealous, and attractive) (Kim, in press). Participants were asked to think about their current
or past romantic partner when they rate the attributes of romantic relationships within each role
 Y. Kim / Personality and Individual Dierences 39 (2005) 913923 919

as a romantic partner. FSC and FRC could range from 0% to 100% and actual ranges were 42.7
74.4% (M = 60.78%, SD = 6.14) for FSC and 41.771.2% (M = 57.16%, SD = 5.00) for FRC.

3. Results

Means and standard deviations of study variables are reported in Table 1. The two study inqui-
ries were tested using structural equation modeling (AMOS 5.0: Arbuckle & Wothke, 2003). Each
latent variable was signicantly measured by multiple observed variables as shown in Fig. 1
(ps < .05).
First, the study inquiry with regard to the associations between attachment dimensions and
emotional intelligence or fragmented cognitive concepts was tested (partial study model). At this
point, the assumption of multivariate normality was found to be violated, multivariate kurto-
sis = 5.39, p < .05. Thus, the BollenStine (BS) bootstrap (Bollen & Stine, 1993) was implemented
for correcting chi-square. The following ve model t indices were used in the present study: the
SRMR, the AGFI, the CFI, the TLI, and the RMSEA. For the SRMR, values of <.08, for the
CFI and TLI, values of >.95, for the RMSEA measure, values of <.06 (Hu & Bentler, 1999),
and for AGFI, values of >.90 (Joreskog & Sorbom, 1984), reect adequate ts of a specied
model to the data. This partial study model t to the data satisfactorily (see Table 2 under the
partial study model column). A higher score on the secure attachment dimension was signicantly
related to a higher score on emotional intelligence and marginally signicantly related to lower
scores on fragmented cognitive concepts. Other paths were not signicant.

Table 1
Descriptives of study variables
M SD
Secure Attachment
Secure 4.58 1.07
Avoidant 3.12 1.94
Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment
Anxiety_1 3.03 1.33
Anxiety_2 3.49 1.55
Authentic Self
Choice 6.21 1.50
Self-contact 6.97 1.22
Vitality 4.96 1.08
Emotional Intelligence
Attention 3.87 0.52
Clarity 3.29 0.58
Repair 3.52 0.59
Fragmented Cognitive Concepts
Fragmented Self Concept (FSC) 60.78 6.14
Fragmented Relationship Concept (FRC) 57.16 5.00
920 Y. Kim / Personality and Individual Dierences 39 (2005) 913923

Table 2
Model comparison
Partial Full Global Parallel
Study Study Self Model
Model Model Model
Secure Attachment ! Emotional Intelligence .76** .51* .55* .56*
Secure Attachment ! FCC .33+ .09 .05 .16
Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment ! Emotional Intelligence .19 .08 .10 .13
Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment ! FCC .22 .09 .09 .14
Secure Attachment ! Authentic Self .36* .49**
Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment ! Authentic Self .27* .26*
Authentic Self ! Emotional Intelligence .54* .40+ .68*
Authentic Self ! FCC .51* .40 .55*
Secure Attachment ! GSE .35**
Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment ! GSE .14
GSE ! Emotional Intelligence .13
GSE ! FCC .25
Authentic Self ! Secure Attachment
Authentic Self ! Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment
v2 29.00 55.80 111.23 86.10
df 25 47 79 50
BS p .40 .39 .12 .04
SRMR .07 .07 .09 .10
AGFI .90 .88 .83 .83
CFI .97 .96 .92 .84
TLI .96 .95 .90 .79
RMSEA .04 .04 .06 .08
Note: Numbers are standardized regression coecients; Global Self Model and Parallel Model were supplementary
models for comparing with the full study model (see text for model specication); FCC = Fragmented Cognitive
Concepts; GSE = Global Self-Esteem.
+
p < .10.
*
p < .05.
**
p < .01.

Second, the hypothesized mediating eect of the authentic self was tested (see Fig. 1). This full
study model continued to provide a satisfactory t to the data (see Table 2 under the full study
model column). The magnitude of the association between the secure attachment dimension
and emotional intelligence or fragmented cognitive concepts became smaller, although the former
association remained signicant while the latter one became non-signicant. In addition to these
direct associations, a higher score on the secure attachment dimension was related to a higher
score on the authentic self, which in turn, was related to a higher score on emotional intelligence
and lower scores on fragmented cognitive concepts. On the other hand, the direct association
between the anxious-ambivalent attachment dimension and emotional intelligence or fragmented
cognitive concepts was not signicant but the indirect associations via the authentic self were sig-
nicant. A higher score on the anxious-ambivalent attachment was associated with a lower score
on the authentic self, which in turn, was related to a lower score on emotional intelligence and
higher scores on fragmented cognitive concepts.
 Y. Kim / Personality and Individual Dierences 39 (2005) 913923 921

Because these results were based on a cross-sectional assessment, two alternative models were
considered. First, in order to validate the role of the authentic self in the proposed study model, a
global self-esteem latent variable was included as another mediating variable (see Table 2 under
the global self model column). The t of this model was less than acceptable and did not make a
signicant improvement of the t compared to the full study model, v2diff 32 55.4, ns. The sig-
nicant paths in the full study model remained signicant, except that the path between the
authentic self and emotional intelligence became marginally signicant and the path between
the authentic self and fragmented cognitive concepts became non-signicant. Among new paths
associated with global self-esteem, only the path between the secure attachment dimension and
global self-esteem was signicant. The results of this model indicate that the signicant mediating
eect of the authentic self in the relations between the attachment dimensions and emotional intel-
ligence were independent of the eects of global self-esteem.
Secondly, it might be argued that both the authentic self and the attachment dimensions are
equally inuential on emotional intelligence and cognitive fragmentation. Thus, a model with
both the authentic self and attachment dimensions as exogenous variables and both emotional
intelligence and fragmented cognitive concepts as endogenous variables was examined (see Table
2 under the parallel model column). This parallel model did not t the data satisfactorily and was
signicantly worse compared to the full study model, v2diff 3 30.3, p < .001. In this parallel
model, paths between the secure attachment dimension and emotional intelligence, between the
authentic self and emotional intelligence, and between the authentic self and fragmented cognitive
concepts were signicant. The results of this supplementary analysis suggest that the more critical
predictor of emotional and cognitive correlates is the authentic self in conjunction with the inter-
nal attachment working model, rather than the dimensions of attachment per se.

4. Discussion

The main purpose of the present study was to examine the hypothesized mediating eect of the
authentic self in the relations between adult attachment dimensions and emotional intelligence
and cognitive fragmentation. The present study provides the rst demonstration in the literature
that emotional intelligence and cognitive fragmentation are emotional and cognitive correlates of
attachment. Furthermore, the ndings in the present study are consistent with the contention of
attachment theory that internal working models of the self inuence emotional and cognitive out-
comes (e.g., Shaver et al., 1996). The current ndings indicate that the secure attachment orien-
tation was associated with the authentic self model, whereas both the avoidant (the opposite
end of the secure attachment dimension) and anxious-ambivalent attachment orientations are
associated with the heteronomous self model. These data clearly suggest that this relationship can-
not be explained by global self esteem but by the authentic self.
This nding is particularly important because it clearly demonstrates that the precise mecha-
nism of attachment working models in emotional regulation and cognitive structure is the par-
ticular qualities of self, genuine self-worth grounded on lively and choiceful self-contact,
independent of apparent global self-esteem. This nding contributes to adult attachment literature
by expanding the knowledge of the internal working model. This distinct self model may provide
the underlying mechanism of insecure individuals inadequacy in social situations (Davila,
922 Y. Kim / Personality and Individual Dierences 39 (2005) 913923

Hammen, Dorli, & Daley, 1996; Roberts et al., 1996). Insecure peoples heteronomous self, the
self with a defensively avoidant or pawn-like stance, is more likely to be developed when their gen-
uine relatedness needs have not been met in non-supportive social contexts. Such a self may result
in inadequate emotional regulation and cognitive disorganization, which are manifested in adult
relationship contexts. The role of the authentic self in working models of attachment deserves fur-
ther examination with other outcome variables. For example, chronic experiences of distress and
anxiety in interpersonal relationships may lead to physical illnesses through a dysfunctional het-
eronomous self.
Continuity of attachment (in)security across the life span should be conceptualized as a com-
bination of the internalization of early relationship experiences and conrmation of the internal-
ized working models in current relationships (Roberts et al., 1996). Thus, speculation here about
the developmental or causal sequence in the relationship among attachment dimensions, the
authentic self, and emotional and cognitive correlates should carry a special caveat with the
cross-sectional nature of the current data. Longitudinal studies are needed to verify the causal
links suggested by this study. In addition, the current ndings should be replicated with older
non-student samples that include detailed information about their relationship histories.
Despite the limitations, the present study dealt with conceptually important questions about the
role of the self in adult attachment and examined the mechanisms of emotional and cognitive cor-
relates within the working models of attachment. Together the ndings in the present study reveal
the unique contribution of the authentic self for a better understanding of emotional and cognitive
aspects of adult attachment. The current study model is useful for clarifying attachment processes
and for developing a theoretically sound mediational model through which internal working
models of attachment relate to emotional and cognitive well-being.

Acknowledgments

The author thanks Harry Reis and Roger Baumgarte for their helpful comments on an earlier
version of this article and Human Motivation Research Group members at University of Roches-
ter for their valuable comments.

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