LessonsInElectricCircuitsVolumeIII

Chapter3
DIODESANDRECTIFIERS
Introduction
Metercheckofadiode
Dioderatings
Rectifiercircuits
Peakdetector
Clippercircuits
Clampercircuits
Voltagemultipliers
Inductorcommutatingcircuits
Diodeswitchingcircuits
Logic
Analogswitch
Zenerdiodes
Specialpurposediodes
Schottkydiodes
Tunneldiodes
Lightemittingdiodes
Laserdiodes
Photodiodes
Solarcells
Varicaporvaractordiodes
Snapdiode
PINdiodes
IMPATTdiode
Gunndiode
Shockleydiode
Constantcurrentdiodes
Otherdiodetechnologies
SiCdiodes
Polymerdiode
SPICEmodels
Contributors
Bibliography

Introduction
Adiodeisanelectricaldeviceallowingcurrenttomovethroughitinonedirectionwithfargreatereasethanin
theother.Themostcommonkindofdiodeinmoderncircuitdesignisthesemiconductordiode,althoughother
diodetechnologiesexist.SemiconductordiodesaresymbolizedinschematicdiagramssuchasFigurebelow.
Thetermdiodeiscustomarilyreservedforsmallsignaldevices,I1A.Thetermrectifierisusedforpower
devices,I>1A.
Semiconductordiodeschematicsymbol:Arrowsindicatethedirectionofelectroncurrentflow.

Whenplacedinasimplebatterylampcircuit,thediodewilleitheralloworpreventcurrentthroughthelamp,
dependingonthepolarityoftheappliedvoltage.(Figurebelow)

Diodeoperation:(a)Currentflowispermittedthediodeisforwardbiased.(b)Currentflowisprohibitedthe
diodeisreversedbiased.

Whenthepolarityofthebatteryissuchthatelectronsareallowedtoflowthroughthediode,thediodeissaidto
beforwardbiased.Conversely,whenthebatteryisbackwardandthediodeblockscurrent,thediodeissaidto
bereversebiased.Adiodemaybethoughtofaslikeaswitch:closedwhenforwardbiasedandopenwhen
reversebiased.

Oddlyenough,thedirectionofthediodesymbol'sarrowheadpointsagainstthedirectionofelectronflow.
Thisisbecausethediodesymbolwasinventedbyengineers,whopredominantlyuseconventionalflownotation
intheirschematics,showingcurrentasaflowofchargefromthepositive(+)sideofthevoltagesourcetothe
negative().Thisconventionholdstrueforallsemiconductorsymbolspossessingarrowheads:thearrow
pointsinthepermitteddirectionofconventionalflow,andagainstthepermitteddirectionofelectronflow.

Diodebehaviorisanalogoustothebehaviorofahydraulicdevicecalledacheckvalve.Acheckvalveallows
fluidflowthroughitinonlyonedirectionasinFigurebelow.

Hydrauliccheckvalveanalogy:(a)Electroncurrentflowpermitted.(b)Currentflowprohibited.

Checkvalvesareessentiallypressureoperateddevices:theyopenandallowflowifthepressureacrossthemis
ofthecorrectpolaritytoopenthegate(intheanalogyshown,greaterfluidpressureontherightthanonthe
left).Ifthepressureisoftheoppositepolarity,thepressuredifferenceacrossthecheckvalvewillcloseand
holdthegatesothatnoflowoccurs.

Likecheckvalves,diodesareessentiallypressureoperated(voltageoperated)devices.Theessential
differencebetweenforwardbiasandreversebiasisthepolarityofthevoltagedroppedacrossthediode.Let's
takeacloserlookatthesimplebatterydiodelampcircuitshownearlier,thistimeinvestigatingvoltagedrops
acrossthevariouscomponentsinFigurebelow.
Diodecircuitvoltagemeasurements:(a)Forwardbiased.(b)Reversebiased.

Aforwardbiaseddiodeconductscurrentanddropsasmallvoltageacrossit,leavingmostofthebatteryvoltage
droppedacrossthelamp.Ifthebattery'spolarityisreversed,thediodebecomesreversebiased,anddropsallof
thebattery'svoltageleavingnoneforthelamp.Ifweconsiderthediodetobeaselfactuatingswitch(closedin
theforwardbiasmodeandopeninthereversebiasmode),thisbehaviormakessense.Themostsubstantial
differenceisthatthediodedropsalotmorevoltagewhenconductingthantheaveragemechanicalswitch(0.7
voltsversustensofmillivolts).

Thisforwardbiasvoltagedropexhibitedbythediodeisduetotheactionofthedepletionregionformedbythe
PNjunctionundertheinfluenceofanappliedvoltage.Ifnovoltageappliedisacrossasemiconductordiode,a
thindepletionregionexistsaroundtheregionofthePNjunction,preventingcurrentflow.(Figurebelow(a))
Thedepletionregionisalmostdevoidofavailablechargecarriers,andactsasaninsulator:

Dioderepresentations:PNjunctionmodel,schematicsymbol,physicalpart.

TheschematicsymbolofthediodeisshowninFigureabove(b)suchthattheanode(pointingend)corresponds
tothePtypesemiconductorat(a).Thecathodebar,nonpointingend,at(b)correspondstotheNtypematerial
at(a).Alsonotethatthecathodestripeonthephysicalpart(c)correspondstothecathodeonthesymbol.

IfareversebiasingvoltageisappliedacrossthePNjunction,thisdepletionregionexpands,furtherresisting
anycurrentthroughit.(Figurebelow)
Depletionregionexpandswithreversebias.

Conversely,ifaforwardbiasingvoltageisappliedacrossthePNjunction,thedepletionregioncollapses
becomingthinner.Thediodebecomeslessresistivetocurrentthroughit.Inorderforasustainedcurrenttogo
throughthediodethough,thedepletionregionmustbefullycollapsedbytheappliedvoltage.Thistakesa
certainminimumvoltagetoaccomplish,calledtheforwardvoltageasillustratedinFigurebelow.

Inceasingforwardbiasfrom(a)to(b)decreasesdepletionregionthickness.

Forsilicondiodes,thetypicalforwardvoltageis0.7volts,nominal.Forgermaniumdiodes,theforwardvoltage
isonly0.3volts.ThechemicalconstituencyofthePNjunctioncomprisingthediodeaccountsforitsnominal
forwardvoltagefigure,whichiswhysiliconandgermaniumdiodeshavesuchdifferentforwardvoltages.
Forwardvoltagedropremainsapproximatelyconstantforawiderangeofdiodecurrents,meaningthatdiode
voltagedropisnotlikethatofaresistororevenanormal(closed)switch.Formostsimplifiedcircuitanalysis,
thevoltagedropacrossaconductingdiodemaybeconsideredconstantatthenominalfigureandnotrelatedto
theamountofcurrent.

Actually,forwardvoltagedropismorecomplex.Anequationdescribestheexactcurrentthroughadiode,given
thevoltagedroppedacrossthejunction,thetemperatureofthejunction,andseveralphysicalconstants.Itis
commonlyknownasthediodeequation:
ThetermkT/qdescribesthevoltageproducedwithinthePNjunctionduetotheactionoftemperature,andis
calledthethermalvoltage,orVtofthejunction.Atroomtemperature,thisisabout26millivolts.Knowingthis,
andassuminganonidealitycoefficientof1,wemaysimplifythediodeequationandrewriteitassuch:

Youneednotbefamiliarwiththediodeequationtoanalyzesimplediodecircuits.Justunderstandthatthe
voltagedroppedacrossacurrentconductingdiodedoeschangewiththeamountofcurrentgoingthroughit,but
thatthischangeisfairlysmalloverawiderangeofcurrents.Thisiswhymanytextbookssimplysaythevoltage
dropacrossaconducting,semiconductordioderemainsconstantat0.7voltsforsiliconand0.3voltsfor
germanium.However,somecircuitsintentionallymakeuseofthePNjunction'sinherentexponential
current/voltagerelationshipandthuscanonlybeunderstoodinthecontextofthisequation.Also,since
temperatureisafactorinthediodeequation,aforwardbiasedPNjunctionmayalsobeusedasatemperature
sensingdevice,andthuscanonlybeunderstoodifonehasaconceptualgrasponthismathematicalrelationship.

Areversebiaseddiodepreventscurrentfromgoingthroughit,duetotheexpandeddepletionregion.In
actuality,averysmallamountofcurrentcananddoesgothroughareversebiaseddiode,calledtheleakage
current,butitcanbeignoredformostpurposes.Theabilityofadiodetowithstandreversebiasvoltagesis
limited,asitisforanyinsulator.Iftheappliedreversebiasvoltagebecomestoogreat,thediodewillexperience
aconditionknownasbreakdown(Figurebelow),whichisusuallydestructive.Adiode'smaximumreversebias
voltageratingisknownasthePeakInverseVoltage,orPIV,andmaybeobtainedfromthemanufacturer.Like
forwardvoltage,thePIVratingofadiodevarieswithtemperature,exceptthatPIVincreaseswithincreased
temperatureanddecreasesasthediodebecomescoolerexactlyoppositethatofforwardvoltage.

Diodecurve:showingkneeat0.7VforwardbiasforSi,andreversebreakdown.

Typically,thePIVratingofagenericrectifierdiodeisatleast50voltsatroomtemperature.DiodeswithPIV
ratingsinthemanythousandsofvoltsareavailableformodestprices.

REVIEW:
Adiodeisanelectricalcomponentactingasaonewayvalveforcurrent.
Whenvoltageisappliedacrossadiodeinsuchawaythatthediodeallowscurrent,thediodeissaidto
beforwardbiased.
Whenvoltageisappliedacrossadiodeinsuchawaythatthediodeprohibitscurrent,thediodeissaidto
bereversebiased.
Thevoltagedroppedacrossaconducting,forwardbiaseddiodeiscalledtheforwardvoltage.Forward
voltageforadiodevariesonlyslightlyforchangesinforwardcurrentandtemperature,andisfixedbythe
chemicalcompositionofthePNjunction.
Silicondiodeshaveaforwardvoltageofapproximately0.7volts.
Germaniumdiodeshaveaforwardvoltageofapproximately0.3volts.
ThemaximumreversebiasvoltagethatadiodecanwithstandwithoutbreakingdowniscalledthePeak
InverseVoltage,orPIVrating.

Metercheckofadiode
Beingabletodeterminethepolarity(cathodeversusanode)andbasicfunctionalityofadiodeisavery
importantskillfortheelectronicshobbyistortechniciantohave.Sinceweknowthatadiodeisessentially
nothingmorethanaonewayvalveforelectricity,itmakessenseweshouldbeabletoverifyitsonewaynature
usingaDC(batterypowered)ohmmeterasinFigurebelow.Connectedonewayacrossthediode,themeter
shouldshowaverylowresistanceat(a).Connectedtheotherwayacrossthediode,itshouldshowaveryhigh
resistanceat(b)(OLonsomedigitalmetermodels).
Determinationofdiodepolarity:(a)Lowresistanceindicatesforwardbias,blackleadiscathodeandredlead
anode(formostmeters)(b)Reversingleadsshowshighresistanceindicatingreversebias.

Ofcourse,todeterminewhichendofthediodeisthecathodeandwhichistheanode,youmustknowwith
certaintywhichtestleadofthemeterispositive(+)andwhichisnegative()whensettotheresistanceor
function.WithmostdigitalmultimetersI'veseen,theredleadbecomespositiveandtheblackleadnegative
whensettomeasureresistance,inaccordancewithstandardelectronicscolorcodeconvention.However,thisis
notguaranteedforallmeters.Manyanalogmultimeters,forexample,actuallymaketheirblackleadspositive
(+)andtheirredleadsnegative()whenswitchedtotheresistancefunction,becauseitiseasierto
manufactureitthatway!

Oneproblemwithusinganohmmetertocheckadiodeisthatthereadingsobtainedonlyhavequalitativevalue,
notquantitative.Inotherwords,anohmmeteronlytellsyouwhichwaythediodeconductsthelowvalue
resistanceindicationobtainedwhileconductingisuseless.Ifanohmmetershowsavalueof1.73ohmswhile
forwardbiasingadiode,thatfigureof1.73doesn'trepresentanyrealworldquantityusefultousas
techniciansorcircuitdesigners.Itneitherrepresentstheforwardvoltagedropnoranybulkresistanceinthe
semiconductormaterialofthediodeitself,butratherisafiguredependentuponbothquantitiesandwillvary
substantiallywiththeparticularohmmeterusedtotakethereading.

Forthisreason,somedigitalmultimetermanufacturersequiptheirmeterswithaspecialdiodecheckfunction
whichdisplaystheactualforwardvoltagedropofthediodeinvolts,ratherthanaresistancefigureinohms.
Thesemetersworkbyforcingasmallcurrentthroughthediodeandmeasuringthevoltagedroppedbetweenthe
twotestleads.(Figurebelow)
MeterwithaDiodecheckfunctiondisplaystheforwardvoltagedropof0.548voltsinsteadofalow
resistance.

Theforwardvoltagereadingobtainedwithsuchameterwilltypicallybelessthanthenormaldropof0.7
voltsforsiliconand0.3voltsforgermanium,becausethecurrentprovidedbythemeterisoftrivialproportions.
Ifamultimeterwithdiodecheckfunctionisn'tavailable,oryouwouldliketomeasureadiode'sforwardvoltage
dropatsomenontrivialcurrent,thecircuitofFigurebelowmaybeconstructedusingabattery,resistor,and
voltmeter

Measuringforwardvoltageofadiodewithoutdiodecheckmeterfunction:(a)Schematicdiagram.(b)
Pictorialdiagram.

Connectingthediodebackwardstothistestingcircuitwillsimplyresultinthevoltmeterindicatingthefull
voltageofthebattery.

Ifthiscircuitweredesignedtoprovideaconstantornearlyconstantcurrentthroughthediodedespitechangesin
forwardvoltagedrop,itcouldbeusedasthebasisofatemperaturemeasurementinstrument,thevoltage
measuredacrossthediodebeinginverselyproportionaltodiodejunctiontemperature.Ofcourse,diodecurrent
shouldbekepttoaminimumtoavoidselfheating(thediodedissipatingsubstantialamountsofheatenergy),
whichwouldinterferewithtemperaturemeasurement.

Bewarethatsomedigitalmultimetersequippedwithadiodecheckfunctionmayoutputaverylowtest
voltage(lessthan0.3volts)whensettotheregularresistance()function:toolowtofullycollapsethe
depletionregionofaPNjunction.Thephilosophyhereisthatthediodecheckfunctionistobeusedfor
testingsemiconductordevices,andtheresistancefunctionforanythingelse.Byusingaverylowtestvoltage
tomeasureresistance,itiseasierforatechniciantomeasuretheresistanceofnonsemiconductorcomponents
connectedtosemiconductorcomponents,sincethesemiconductorcomponentjunctionswillnotbecome
forwardbiasedwithsuchlowvoltages.

Considertheexampleofaresistoranddiodeconnectedinparallel,solderedinplaceonaprintedcircuitboard
(PCB).Normally,onewouldhavetounsoldertheresistorfromthecircuit(disconnectitfromallother
components)beforemeasuringitsresistance,otherwiseanyparallelconnectedcomponentswouldaffectthe
readingobtained.Whenusingamultimeterwhichoutputsaverylowtestvoltagetotheprobesinthe
resistancefunctionmode,thediode'sPNjunctionwillnothaveenoughvoltageimpressedacrossittobecome
forwardbiased,andwillonlypassnegligiblecurrent.Consequently,themeterseesthediodeasanopen(no
continuity),andonlyregisterstheresistor'sresistance.(Figurebelow)
Ohmmeterequippedwithalowtestvoltage(<0.7V)doesnotseediodesallowingittomeasureparallel
resistors.

Ifsuchanohmmeterwereusedtotestadiode,itwouldindicateaveryhighresistance(manymegaohms)even
ifconnectedtothediodeinthecorrect(forwardbiased)direction.(Figurebelow)

Ohmmeterequippedwithalowtestvoltage,toolowtoforwardbiasdiodes,doesnotseediodes.

Reversevoltagestrengthofadiodeisnotaseasilytested,becauseexceedinganormaldiode'sPIVusually
resultsindestructionofthediode.Specialtypesofdiodes,though,whicharedesignedtobreakdownin
reversebiasmodewithoutdamage(calledzenerdiodes),whicharetestedwiththesamevoltagesource/resistor
/voltmetercircuit,providedthatthevoltagesourceisofhighenoughvaluetoforcethediodeintoitsbreakdown
region.Moreonthissubjectinalatersectionofthischapter.

REVIEW:
Anohmmetermaybeusedtoqualitativelycheckdiodefunction.Thereshouldbelowresistancemeasured
onewayandveryhighresistancemeasuredtheotherway.Whenusinganohmmeterforthispurpose,be
sureyouknowwhichtestleadispositiveandwhichisnegative!Theactualpolaritymaynotfollowthe
colorsoftheleadsasyoumightexpect,dependingontheparticulardesignofmeter.
Somemultimetersprovideadiodecheckfunctionthatdisplaystheactualforwardvoltageofthediode
whenitsconductingcurrent.Suchmeterstypicallyindicateaslightlylowerforwardvoltagethanwhatis
nominalforadiode,duetotheverysmallamountofcurrentusedduringthecheck.

Dioderatings
Inadditiontoforwardvoltagedrop(Vf)andpeakinversevoltage(PIV),therearemanyotherratingsofdiodes
importanttocircuitdesignandcomponentselection.Semiconductormanufacturersprovidedetailed
specificationsontheirproductsdiodesincludedinpublicationsknownasdatasheets.Datasheetsforawide
varietyofsemiconductorcomponentsmaybefoundinreferencebooksandontheinternet.Iprefertheinternet
asasourceofcomponentspecificationsbecauseallthedataobtainedfrommanufacturerwebsitesareupto
date.

Atypicaldiodedatasheetwillcontainfiguresforthefollowingparameters:

Maximumrepetitivereversevoltage=VRRM,themaximumamountofvoltagethediodecanwithstandin
reversebiasmode,inrepeatedpulses.Ideally,thisfigurewouldbeinfinite.

MaximumDCreversevoltage=VRorVDC,themaximumamountofvoltagethediodecanwithstandin
reversebiasmodeonacontinualbasis.Ideally,thisfigurewouldbeinfinite.

Maximumforwardvoltage=VF,usuallyspecifiedatthediode'sratedforwardcurrent.Ideally,thisfigurewould
bezero:thediodeprovidingnooppositionwhatsoevertoforwardcurrent.Inreality,theforwardvoltageis
describedbythediodeequation.

Maximum(average)forwardcurrent=IF(AV),themaximumaverageamountofcurrentthediodeisableto
conductinforwardbiasmode.Thisisfundamentallyathermallimitation:howmuchheatcanthePNjunction
handle,giventhatdissipationpowerisequaltocurrent(I)multipliedbyvoltage(VorE)andforwardvoltageis
dependentuponbothcurrentandjunctiontemperature.Ideally,thisfigurewouldbeinfinite.

Maximum(peakorsurge)forwardcurrent=IFSMorif(surge),themaximumpeakamountofcurrentthediodeis
abletoconductinforwardbiasmode.Again,thisratingislimitedbythediodejunction'sthermalcapacity,and
isusuallymuchhigherthantheaveragecurrentratingduetothermalinertia(thefactthatittakesafiniteamount
oftimeforthediodetoreachmaximumtemperatureforagivencurrent).Ideally,thisfigurewouldbeinfinite.

Maximumtotaldissipation=PD,theamountofpower(inwatts)allowableforthediodetodissipate,giventhe
dissipation(P=IE)ofdiodecurrentmultipliedbydiodevoltagedrop,andalsothedissipation(P=I2R)ofdiode
currentsquaredmultipliedbybulkresistance.Fundamentallylimitedbythediode'sthermalcapacity(abilityto
toleratehightemperatures).

Operatingjunctiontemperature=TJ,themaximumallowabletemperatureforthediode'sPNjunction,usually
givenindegreesCelsius(oC).HeatistheAchilles'heelofsemiconductordevices:theymustbekeptcoolto
functionproperlyandgivelongservicelife.

Storagetemperaturerange=TSTG,therangeofallowabletemperaturesforstoringadiode(unpowered).
Sometimesgiveninconjunctionwithoperatingjunctiontemperature(TJ),becausethemaximumstorage
temperatureandthemaximumoperatingtemperatureratingsareoftenidentical.Ifanything,though,maximum
storagetemperatureratingwillbegreaterthanthemaximumoperatingtemperaturerating.

Thermalresistance=R(),thetemperaturedifferencebetweenjunctionandoutsideair(R()JA)orbetween
junctionandleads(R()JL)foragivenpowerdissipation.ExpressedinunitsofdegreesCelsiusperwatt
(oC/W).Ideally,thisfigurewouldbezero,meaningthatthediodepackagewasaperfectthermalconductorand
radiator,abletotransferallheatenergyfromthejunctiontotheoutsideair(ortotheleads)withnodifferencein
temperatureacrossthethicknessofthediodepackage.Ahighthermalresistancemeansthatthediodewillbuild
upexcessivetemperatureatthejunction(whereitscritical)despitebesteffortsatcoolingtheoutsideofthe
diode,andthuswilllimititsmaximumpowerdissipation.
Maximumreversecurrent=IR,theamountofcurrentthroughthediodeinreversebiasoperation,withthe
maximumratedinversevoltageapplied(VDC).Sometimesreferredtoasleakagecurrent.Ideally,thisfigure
wouldbezero,asaperfectdiodewouldblockallcurrentwhenreversebiased.Inreality,itisverysmall
comparedtothemaximumforwardcurrent.

Typicaljunctioncapacitance=CJ,thetypicalamountofcapacitanceintrinsictothejunction,duetothe
depletionregionactingasadielectricseparatingtheanodeandcathodeconnections.Thisisusuallyaverysmall
figure,measuredintherangeofpicofarads(pF).

Reverserecoverytime=trr,theamountoftimeittakesforadiodetoturnoffwhenthevoltageacrossit
alternatesfromforwardbiastoreversebiaspolarity.Ideally,thisfigurewouldbezero:thediodehalting
conductionimmediatelyuponpolarityreversal.Foratypicalrectifierdiode,reverserecoverytimeisintherange
oftensofmicrosecondsforafastswitchingdiode,itmayonlybeafewnanoseconds.

Mostoftheseparametersvarywithtemperatureorotheroperatingconditions,andsoasinglefigurefailstofully
describeanygivenrating.Therefore,manufacturersprovidegraphsofcomponentratingsplottedagainstother
variables(suchastemperature),sothatthecircuitdesignerhasabetterideaofwhatthedeviceiscapableof.

Rectifiercircuits
Nowwecometothemostpopularapplicationofthediode:rectification.Simplydefined,rectificationisthe
conversionofalternatingcurrent(AC)todirectcurrent(DC).Thisinvolvesadevicethatonlyallowsoneway
flowofelectrons.Aswehaveseen,thisisexactlywhatasemiconductordiodedoes.Thesimplestkindof
rectifiercircuitisthehalfwaverectifier.ItonlyallowsonehalfofanACwaveformtopassthroughtotheload.
(Figurebelow)

Halfwaverectifiercircuit.

Formostpowerapplications,halfwaverectificationisinsufficientforthetask.Theharmoniccontentofthe
rectifier'soutputwaveformisverylargeandconsequentlydifficulttofilter.Furthermore,theACpowersource
onlysuppliespowertotheloadonehalfeveryfullcycle,meaningthathalfofitscapacityisunused.Halfwave
rectificationis,however,averysimplewaytoreducepowertoaresistiveload.Sometwopositionlampdimmer
switchesapplyfullACpowertothelampfilamentforfullbrightnessandthenhalfwaverectifyitforalesser
lightoutput.(Figurebelow)

Halfwaverectifierapplication:Twolevellampdimmer.
IntheDimswitchposition,theincandescentlampreceivesapproximatelyonehalfthepoweritwould
normallyreceiveoperatingonfullwaveAC.Becausethehalfwaverectifiedpowerpulsesfarmorerapidlythan
thefilamenthastimetoheatupandcooldown,thelampdoesnotblink.Instead,itsfilamentmerelyoperatesat
alessertemperaturethannormal,providinglesslightoutput.Thisprincipleofpulsingpowerrapidlytoa
slowrespondingloaddevicetocontroltheelectricalpowersenttoitiscommonintheworldofindustrial
electronics.Sincethecontrollingdevice(thediode,inthiscase)iseitherfullyconductingorfully
nonconductingatanygiventime,itdissipateslittleheatenergywhilecontrollingloadpower,makingthis
methodofpowercontrolveryenergyefficient.Thiscircuitisperhapsthecrudestpossiblemethodofpulsing
powertoaload,butitsufficesasaproofofconceptapplication.

IfweneedtorectifyACpowertoobtainthefulluseofbothhalfcyclesofthesinewave,adifferentrectifier
circuitconfigurationmustbeused.Suchacircuitiscalledafullwaverectifier.Onekindoffullwaverectifier,
calledthecentertapdesign,usesatransformerwithacentertappedsecondarywindingandtwodiodes,asin
Figurebelow.

Fullwaverectifier,centertappeddesign.

Thiscircuit'soperationiseasilyunderstoodonehalfcycleatatime.Considerthefirsthalfcycle,whenthe
sourcevoltagepolarityispositive(+)ontopandnegative()onbottom.Atthistime,onlythetopdiodeis
conductingthebottomdiodeisblockingcurrent,andtheloadseesthefirsthalfofthesinewave,positiveon
topandnegativeonbottom.Onlythetophalfofthetransformer'ssecondarywindingcarriescurrentduringthis
halfcycleasinFigurebelow.

Fullwavecentertaprectifier:Tophalfofsecondarywindingconductsduringpositivehalfcycleofinput,
deliveringpositivehalfcycletoload..

Duringthenexthalfcycle,theACpolarityreverses.Now,theotherdiodeandtheotherhalfofthetransformer's
secondarywindingcarrycurrentwhiletheportionsofthecircuitformerlycarryingcurrentduringthelasthalf
cyclesitidle.Theloadstillseeshalfofasinewave,ofthesamepolarityasbefore:positiveontopand
negativeonbottom.(Figurebelow)
Fullwavecentertaprectifier:Duringnegativeinputhalfcycle,bottomhalfofsecondarywindingconducts,
deliveringapositivehalfcycletotheload.

Onedisadvantageofthisfullwaverectifierdesignisthenecessityofatransformerwithacentertapped
secondarywinding.Ifthecircuitinquestionisoneofhighpower,thesizeandexpenseofasuitabletransformer
issignificant.Consequently,thecentertaprectifierdesignisonlyseeninlowpowerapplications.

Thefullwavecentertappedrectifierpolarityattheloadmaybereversedbychangingthedirectionofthe
diodes.Furthermore,thereverseddiodescanbeparalleledwithanexistingpositiveoutputrectifier.Theresultis
dualpolarityfullwavecentertappedrectifierinFigurebelow.Notethattheconnectivityofthediodes
themselvesisthesameconfigurationasabridge.

Dualpolarityfullwavecentertaprectifier

Another,morepopularfullwaverectifierdesignexists,anditisbuiltaroundafourdiodebridgeconfiguration.
Forobviousreasons,thisdesigniscalledafullwavebridge.(Figurebelow)

Fullwavebridgerectifier.

CurrentdirectionsforthefullwavebridgerectifiercircuitareasshowninFigurebelowforpositivehalfcycle
andFigurebelowfornegativehalfcyclesoftheACsourcewaveform.Notethatregardlessofthepolarityofthe
input,thecurrentflowsinthesamedirectionthroughtheload.Thatis,thenegativehalfcycleofsourceisa
positivehalfcycleattheload.Thecurrentflowisthroughtwodiodesinseriesforbothpolarities.Thus,two
diodedropsofthesourcevoltagearelost(0.72=1.4VforSi)inthediodes.Thisisadisadvantagecompared
withafullwavecentertapdesign.Thisdisadvantageisonlyaprobleminverylowvoltagepowersupplies.
Fullwavebridgerectifier:Electronflowforpositivehalfcycles.

Fullwavebridgerectifier:Electronflowfornegativehalf=cycles.

Rememberingtheproperlayoutofdiodesinafullwavebridgerectifiercircuitcanoftenbefrustratingtothe
newstudentofelectronics.I'vefoundthatanalternativerepresentationofthiscircuitiseasierbothtoremember
andtocomprehend.It'stheexactsamecircuit,exceptalldiodesaredrawninahorizontalattitude,allpointing
thesamedirection.(Figurebelow)

AlternativelayoutstyleforFullwavebridgerectifier.

Oneadvantageofrememberingthislayoutforabridgerectifiercircuitisthatitexpandseasilyintoapolyphase
versioninFigurebelow.
Threephasefullwavebridgerectifiercircuit.

Eachthreephaselineconnectsbetweenapairofdiodes:onetoroutepowertothepositive(+)sideoftheload,
andtheothertoroutepowertothenegative()sideoftheload.Polyphasesystemswithmorethanthreephases
areeasilyaccommodatedintoabridgerectifierscheme.Takeforinstancethesixphasebridgerectifiercircuitin
Figurebelow.

Sixphasefullwavebridgerectifiercircuit.

WhenpolyphaseACisrectified,thephaseshiftedpulsesoverlapeachothertoproduceaDCoutputthatis
muchsmoother(haslessACcontent)thanthatproducedbytherectificationofsinglephaseAC.Thisisa
decidedadvantageinhighpowerrectifiercircuits,wherethesheerphysicalsizeoffilteringcomponentswould
beprohibitivebutlownoiseDCpowermustbeobtained.ThediagraminFigurebelowshowsthefullwave
rectificationofthreephaseAC.
ThreephaseACand3phasefullwaverectifieroutput.

InanycaseofrectificationsinglephaseorpolyphasetheamountofACvoltagemixedwiththerectifier's
DCoutputiscalledripplevoltage.Inmostcases,sincepureDCisthedesiredgoal,ripplevoltageis
undesirable.Ifthepowerlevelsarenottoogreat,filteringnetworksmaybeemployedtoreducetheamountof
rippleintheoutputvoltage.

Sometimes,themethodofrectificationisreferredtobycountingthenumberofDCpulsesoutputforevery
360oofelectricalrotation.Asinglephase,halfwaverectifiercircuit,then,wouldbecalleda1pulserectifier,
becauseitproducesasinglepulseduringthetimeofonecompletecycle(360o)oftheACwaveform.Asingle
phase,fullwaverectifier(regardlessofdesign,centertaporbridge)wouldbecalleda2pulserectifier,because
itoutputstwopulsesofDCduringoneACcycle'sworthoftime.Athreephasefullwaverectifierwouldbe
calleda6pulseunit.

Modernelectricalengineeringconventionfurtherdescribesthefunctionofarectifiercircuitbyusingathree
fieldnotationofphases,ways,andnumberofpulses.Asinglephase,halfwaverectifiercircuitisgiventhe
somewhatcrypticdesignationof1Ph1W1P(1phase,1way,1pulse),meaningthattheACsupplyvoltageis
singlephase,thatcurrentoneachphaseoftheACsupplylinesmovesinonlyonedirection(way),andthatthere
isasinglepulseofDCproducedforevery360oofelectricalrotation.Asinglephase,fullwave,centertap
rectifiercircuitwouldbedesignatedas1Ph1W2Pinthisnotationalsystem:1phase,1wayordirectionof
currentineachwindinghalf,and2pulsesoroutputvoltagepercycle.Asinglephase,fullwave,bridgerectifier
wouldbedesignatedas1Ph2W2P:thesameasforthecentertapdesign,exceptcurrentcangobothways
throughtheAClinesinsteadofjustoneway.Thethreephasebridgerectifiercircuitshownearlierwouldbe
calleda3Ph2W6Prectifier.

Isitpossibletoobtainmorepulsesthantwicethenumberofphasesinarectifiercircuit?Theanswertothis
questionisyes:especiallyinpolyphasecircuits.Throughthecreativeuseoftransformers,setsoffullwave
rectifiersmaybeparalleledinsuchawaythatmorethansixpulsesofDCareproducedforthreephasesofAC.
A30ophaseshiftisintroducedfromprimarytosecondaryofathreephasetransformerwhenthewinding
configurationsarenotofthesametype.Inotherwords,atransformerconnectedeitherYorYwillexhibit
this30ophaseshift,whileatransformerconnectedYYorwillnot.Thisphenomenonmaybeexploitedby
havingonetransformerconnectedYYfeedabridgerectifier,andhaveanothertransformerconnectedYfeed
asecondbridgerectifier,thenparalleltheDCoutputsofbothrectifiers.(Figurebelow)Sincetheripplevoltage
waveformsofthetworectifiers'outputsarephaseshifted30ofromoneanother,theirsuperpositionresultsin
lessripplethaneitherrectifieroutputconsideredseparately:12pulsesper360oinsteadofjustsix:
Polyphaserectifiercircuit:3phase2way12pulse(3Ph2W12P)

REVIEW:
Rectificationistheconversionofalternatingcurrent(AC)todirectcurrent(DC).
AhalfwaverectifierisacircuitthatallowsonlyonehalfcycleoftheACvoltagewaveformtobeapplied
totheload,resultinginonenonalternatingpolarityacrossit.TheresultingDCdeliveredtotheload
pulsatessignificantly.
AfullwaverectifierisacircuitthatconvertsbothhalfcyclesoftheACvoltagewaveformtoanunbroken
seriesofvoltagepulsesofthesamepolarity.TheresultingDCdeliveredtotheloaddoesn'tpulsateas
much.
Polyphasealternatingcurrent,whenrectified,givesamuchsmootherDCwaveform
(lessripplevoltage)thanrectifiedsinglephaseAC.

Peakdetector
ApeakdetectorisaseriesconnectionofadiodeandacapacitoroutputtingaDCvoltageequaltothepeakvalue
oftheappliedACsignal.ThecircuitisshowninFigurebelowwiththecorrespondingSPICEnetlist.AnAC
voltagesourceappliedtothepeakdetector,chargesthecapacitortothepeakoftheinput.Thediodeconducts
positivehalfcycles,chargingthecapacitortothewaveformpeak.Whentheinputwaveformfallsbelowthe
DCpeakstoredonthecapacitor,thediodeisreversebiased,blockingcurrentflowfromcapacitorbacktothe
source.Thus,thecapacitorretainsthepeakvalueevenasthewaveformdropstozero.Anotherviewofthepeak
detectoristhatitisthesameasahalfwaverectifierwithafiltercapacitoraddedtotheoutput.

*SPICE03441.eps
C1200.1u
R1131.0k
V110SIN(051k)
D132diode
.modeldioded
.tran0.01m50mm
.end

Peakdetector:Diodeconductsonpositivehalfcycleschargingcapacitortothepeakvoltage(lessdiode
forwarddrop).
IttakesafewcyclesforthecapacitortochargetothepeakasinFigurebelowduetotheseriesresistance(RC
timeconstant).Whydoesthecapacitornotchargeallthewayto5V?Itwouldchargeto5Vifanideal
diodewereobtainable.However,thesilicondiodehasaforwardvoltagedropof0.7Vwhichsubtractsfrom
the5Vpeakoftheinput.

Peakdetector:Capacitorchargestopeakwithinafewcycles.

ThecircuitinFigureabovecouldrepresentaDCpowersupplybasedonahalfwaverectifier.Theresistance
wouldbeafewOhmsinsteadof1kduetoatransformersecondarywindingreplacingthevoltagesourceand
resistor.Alargerfiltercapacitorwouldbeused.Apowersupplybasedona60Hzsourcewithafilterofafew
hundredFcouldsupplyupto100mA.Halfwavesuppliesseldomsupplymoreduetothedifficultyoffiltering
ahalfwave.

Thepeakdetectormaybecombinedwithothercomponentstobuildacrystalradio03442.png.

Clippercircuits
Acircuitwhichremovesthepeakofawaveformisknownasaclipper.Anegativeclipperisshownin
Figurebelow.ThisschematicdiagramwasproducedwithXcircuitschematiccaptureprogram.Xcircuit
producedtheSPICEnetlistFigurebelow,exceptforthesecond,andnexttolastpairoflineswhichwere
insertedwithatexteditor.

*SPICE03437.eps
*AKModelName
D102diode
R1211.0k
V110SIN(051k)
.modeldioded
.tran.05m3m
.end

Clipper:clipsnegativepeakat0.7V.

Duringthepositivehalfcycleofthe5Vpeakinput,thediodeisreversedbiased.Thediodedoesnotconduct.It
isasifthediodewerenotthere.ThepositivehalfcycleisunchangedattheoutputV(2)inFigurebelow.Since
theoutputpositivepeaksactuallyoverlaystheinputsinewaveV(1),theinputhasbeenshiftedupwardintheplot
forclarity.InNutmeg,theSPICEdisplaymodule,thecommandplotv(1)+1)accomplishesthis.

V(1)+1isactuallyV(1),a10Vptpsinewave,offsetby1Vfordisplayclarity.V(2)outputisclippedat0.7V,by
diodeD1.

DuringthenegativehalfcycleofsinewaveinputofFigureabove,thediodeisforwardbiased,thatis,
conducting.Thenegativehalfcycleofthesinewaveisshortedout.ThenegativehalfcycleofV(2)wouldbe
clippedat0Vforanidealdiode.Thewaveformisclippedat0.7Vduetotheforwardvoltagedropofthe
silicondiode.Thespicemodeldefaultsto0.7Vunlessparametersinthemodelstatementspecifyotherwise.
GermaniumorSchottkydiodesclipatlowervoltages.

Closerexaminationofthenegativeclippedpeak(Figureabove)revealsthatitfollowstheinputforaslight
periodoftimewhilethesinewaveismovingtoward0.7V.Theclippingactionisonlyeffectiveaftertheinput
sinewaveexceeds0.7V.Thediodeisnotconductingforthecompletehalfcycle,though,duringmostofit.

TheadditionofanantiparalleldiodetotheexistingdiodeinFigureaboveyieldsthesymmetricalclipper
inFigurebelow.

*SPICE03438.eps
D102diode
D220diode
R1211.0k
V110SIN(051k)
.modeldioded
.tran0.05m3m
.end

Symmetricalclipper:Antiparalleldiodesclipbothpositiveandnegativepeak,leavinga0.7Voutput.

DiodeD1clipsthenegativepeakat0.7Vasbefore.TheadditionaldiodeD2conductsforpositivehalfcycles
ofthesinewaveasitexceeds0.7V,theforwarddiodedrop.Theremainderofthevoltagedropsacrosstheseries
resistor.Thus,bothpeaksoftheinputsinewaveareclippedinFigurebelow.ThenetlistisinFigureabove
DiodeD1clipsat0.7Vasitconductsduringnegativepeaks.D2conductsforpositivepeaks,clippingat0.7V.

ThemostgeneralformofthediodeclipperisshowninFigurebelow.Foranidealdiode,theclippingoccursat
theleveloftheclippingvoltage,V1andV2.However,thevoltagesourceshavebeenadjustedtoaccountforthe
0.7Vforwarddropoftherealsilicondiodes.D1clipsat1.3V+0.7V=2.0Vwhenthediodebeginstoconduct.
D2clipsat2.3V0.7V=3.0VwhenD2conducts.

*SPICE03439.eps
V1301.3
V2402.3
D123diode
D242diode
R1211.0k
V310SIN(051k)
.modeldioded
.tran0.05m3m
.end

D1clipstheinputsinewaveat2V.D2clipsat3V.

TheclipperinFigureabovedoesnothavetoclipbothlevels.Toclipatonelevelwithonediodeandonevoltage
source,removetheotherdiodeandsource.

ThenetlistisinFigureabove.ThewaveformsinFigurebelowshowtheclippingofv(1)atoutputv(2).
D1clipsthesinewaveat2V.D2clipsat3V.

ThereisalsoazenerdiodeclippercircuitintheZenerdiodesection.Azenerdiodereplacesboththediode
andtheDCvoltagesource.

Apracticalapplicationofaclipperistopreventanamplifiedspeechsignalfromoverdrivingaradiotransmitter
inFigurebelow.Overdrivingthetransmittergeneratesspuriousradiosignalswhichcausesinterferencewith
otherstations.Theclipperisaprotectivemeasure.

Clipperpreventsoverdrivingradiotransmitterbyvoicepeaks.

Asinewavemaybesquaredupbyoverdrivingaclipper.Anotherclipperapplicationistheprotectionofexposed
inputsofintegratedcircuits.TheinputoftheICisconnectedtoapairofdiodesasatnode2ofFigureabove.
ThevoltagesourcesarereplacedbythepowersupplyrailsoftheIC.Forexample,CMOSIC'suse0Vand+5V.
Analogamplifiersmightuse12VfortheV1andV2sources.

REVIEW
AresistoranddiodedrivenbyanACvoltagesourceclipsthesignalobservedacrossthediode.
ApairofantiparallelSidiodesclipsymmetricallyat0.7V
Thegroundedendofaclipperdiode(s)canbedisconnectedandwiredtoaDCvoltagetoclipatan
arbitrarylevel.
Aclippercanserveasaprotectivemeasure,preventingasignalfromexceedingthecliplimits.

Clampercircuits
ThecircuitsinFigurebelowareknownasclampersorDCrestorers.Thecorrespondingnetlistisin
Figurebelow.ThesecircuitsclampapeakofawaveformtoaspecificDClevelcomparedwithacapacitively
coupledsignalwhichswingsaboutitsaverageDClevel(usually0V).Ifthediodeisremovedfromtheclamper,
itdefaultstoasimplecouplingcapacitornoclamping.

Whatistheclampvoltage?And,whichpeakgetsclamped?InFigurebelow(a)theclampvoltageis0V
ignoringdiodedrop,(moreexactly0.7VwithSidiodedrop).InFigurebelow,thepositivepeakofV(1)is
clampedtothe0V(0.7V)clamplevel.Whyisthis?Onthefirstpositivehalfcycle,thediodeconducts
chargingthecapacitorleftendto+5V(4.3V).Thisis5V(4.3V)ontherightendatV(1,4).Notethepolarity
markedonthecapacitorinFigurebelow(a).Therightendofthecapacitoris5VDC(4.3V)withrespectto
ground.ItalsohasanAC5VpeaksinewavecoupledacrossitfromsourceV(4)tonode1.Thesumofthetwo
isa5Vpeaksineridingona5VDC(4.3V)level.Thediodeonlyconductsonsuccessivepositive
excursionsofsourceV(4)ifthepeakV(4)exceedsthechargeonthecapacitor.Thisonlyhappensifthecharge
onthecapacitordrainedoffduetoaload,notshown.Thechargeonthecapacitorisequaltothepositivepeakof
V(4)(less0.7diodedrop).TheACridingonthenegativeend,rightend,isshifteddown.Thepositivepeakof
thewaveformisclampedto0V(0.7V)becausethediodeconductsonthepositivepeak.

Clampers:(a)Positivepeakclampedto0V.(b)Negativepeakclampedto0V.(c)Negativepeakclampedto5V.

*SPICE03443.eps
V1605
D163diode
C1431000p
D202diode
C2421000p
C3411000p
D310diode
V240SIN(051k)
.modeldioded
.tran0.01m5m
.end

V(4)sourcevoltage5Vpeakusedinallclampers.V(1)clamperoutputfromFigureabove(a).V(1,4)DC
voltageoncapacitorinFigure(a).V(2)clamperoutputfromFigure(b).V(3)clamperoutputfromFigure(c).

SupposethepolarityofthediodeisreversedasinFigureabove(b)?Thediodeconductsonthenegativepeakof
sourceV(4).Thenegativepeakisclampedto0V(0.7V).SeeV(2)inFigureabove.
ThemostgeneralrealizationoftheclamperisshowninFigureabove(c)withthediodeconnectedtoaDC
reference.Thecapacitorstillchargesduringthenegativepeakofthesource.NotethatthepolaritiesoftheAC
sourceandtheDCreferenceareseriesaiding.Thus,thecapacitorchargestothesumtothetwo,10VDC(9.3
V).Couplingthe5VpeaksinewaveacrossthecapacitoryieldsFigureaboveV(3),thesumofthechargeonthe
capacitorandthesinewave.Thenegativepeakappearstobeclampedto5VDC(4.3V),thevalueoftheDC
clampreference(lessdiodedrop).

DescribethewaveformiftheDCclampreferenceischangedfrom5Vto10V.Theclampedwaveformwill
shiftup.Thenegativepeakwillbeclampedto10V(9.3).Supposethattheamplitudeofthesinewavesourceis
increasedfrom5Vto7V?Thenegativepeakclamplevelwillremainunchanged.Though,theamplitudeofthe
sinewaveoutputwillincrease.

AnapplicationoftheclampercircuitisasaDCrestorerincompositevideocircuitryinbothtelevision
transmittersandreceivers.AnNTSC(USvideostandard)videosignalwhitelevelcorrespondstominimum
(12.5%)transmittedpower.Thevideoblacklevelcorrespondstoahighlevel(75%oftransmitterpower.
Thereisablackerthanblacklevelcorrespondingto100%transmittedpowerassignedtosynchronization
signals.TheNTSCsignalcontainsbothvideoandsynchronizationpulses.Theproblemwiththecomposite
videoisthatitsaverageDClevelvarieswiththescene,darkvslight.Thevideoitselfissupposedtovary.
However,thesyncmustalwayspeakat100%.Topreventthesyncsignalsfromdriftingwithchangingscenes,a
DCrestorerclampsthetopofthesyncpulsestoavoltagecorrespondingto100%transmitter
modulation.[ATCO]

REVIEW:
AcapacitivelycoupledsignalalternatesaboutitsaverageDClevel(0V).
ThesignaloutofaclamperappearsthehaveonepeakclampedtoaDCvoltage.Example:Thenegative
peakisclampedto0VDC,thewaveformappearstobeshiftedupward.Thepolarityofthediode
determineswhichpeakisclamped.
Anapplicationofaclamper,orDCrestorer,isinclampingthesyncpulsesofcompositevideotoavoltage
correspondingto100%oftransmitterpower.

Voltagemultipliers
Avoltagemultiplierisaspecializedrectifiercircuitproducinganoutputwhichistheoreticallyanintegertimes
theACpeakinput,forexample,2,3,or4timestheACpeakinput.Thus,itispossibletoget200VDCfroma
100VpeakACsourceusingadoubler,400VDCfromaquadrupler.Anyloadinapracticalcircuitwilllower
thesevoltages.

AvoltagedoublerapplicationisaDCpowersupplycapableofusingeithera240VACor120VACsource.The
supplyusesaswitchselectedfullwavebridgetoproduceabout300VDCfroma240VACsource.The120V
positionoftheswitchrewiresthebridgeasadoublerproducingabout300VDCfromthe120VAC.Inboth
cases,300VDCisproduced.Thisistheinputtoaswitchingregulatorproducinglowervoltagesforpowering,
say,apersonalcomputer.

ThehalfwavevoltagedoublerinFigurebelow(a)iscomposedoftwocircuits:aclamperat(b)andpeak
detector(halfwaverectifier)inFigureprior,whichisshowninmodifiedforminFigurebelow(c).C2hasbeen
addedtoapeakdetector(halfwaverectifier).
Halfwavevoltagedoubler(a)iscomposedof(b)aclamperand(c)ahalfwaverectifier.

ReferringtoFigureabove(b),C2chargesto5V(4.3Vconsideringthediodedrop)onthenegativehalfcycleof
ACinput.TherightendisgroundedbytheconductingD2.Theleftendischargedatthenegativepeakofthe
ACinput.Thisistheoperationoftheclamper.

Duringthepositivehalfcycle,thehalfwaverectifiercomesintoplayatFigureabove(c).DiodeD2isoutofthe
circuitsinceitisreversebiased.C2isnowinserieswiththevoltagesource.Notethepolaritiesofthegenerator
andC2,seriesaiding.Thus,rectifierD1seesatotalof10Vatthepeakofthesinewave,5Vfromgeneratorand
5VfromC2.D1conductswaveformv(1)(Figurebelow),chargingC1tothepeakofthesinewaveridingon5
VDC(Figurebelowv(2)).Waveformv(2)istheoutputofthedoubler,whichstabilizesat10V(8.6Vwith
diodedrops)afterafewcyclesofsinewaveinput.

*SPICE03255.eps
C1201000p
D112diode
C2411000p
D201diode
V140SIN(051k)
.modeldioded
.tran0.01m5m
.end

Voltagedoubler:v(4)input.v(1)clamperstage.v(2)halfwaverectifierstage,whichisthedoubleroutput.

Thefullwavevoltagedoubleriscomposedofapairofseriesstackedhalfwaverectifiers.(Figurebelow)The
correspondingnetlistisinFigurebelow.ThebottomrectifierchargesC1onthenegativehalfcycleofinput.The
toprectifierchargesC2onthepositivehalfcycle.Eachcapacitortakesonachargeof5V(4.3Vconsidering
diodedrop).Theoutputatnode5istheseriestotalofC1+C2or10V(8.6Vwithdiodedrops).

*SPICE03273.eps
*R130100k
*R253100k
D102diode
D225diode
C1301000p
C2531000p
V123SIN(051k)
.modeldioded
 .tran0.01m5m
.end

Fullwavevoltagedoublerconsistsoftwohalfwaverectifiersoperatingonalternatingpolarities.

Notethattheoutputv(5)Figurebelowreachesfullvaluewithinonecycleoftheinputv(2)excursion.

Fullwavevoltagedoubler:v(2)input,v(3)voltageatmidpoint,v(5)voltageatoutput

Figurebelowillustratesthederivationofthefullwavedoublerfromapairofoppositepolarityhalfwave
rectifiers(a).Thenegativerectifierofthepairisredrawnforclarity(b).Botharecombinedat(c)sharingthe
sameground.At(d)thenegativerectifierisrewiredtoshareonevoltagesourcewiththepositiverectifier.This
yieldsa5V(4.3Vwithdiodedrop)powersupplythough,10Vismeasurablebetweenthetwooutputs.The
groundreferencepointismovedsothat+10Visavailablewithrespecttoground.
Fullwavedoubler:(a)Pairofdoublers,(b)redrawn,(c)sharingtheground,(d)sharethesamevoltagesource.
(e)movethegroundpoint.

Avoltagetripler(Figurebelow)isbuiltfromacombinationofadoublerandahalfwaverectifier(C3,D3).The
halfwaverectifierproduces5V(4.3V)atnode3.Thedoublerprovidesanother10V(8.4V)betweennodes2
and3.foratotalof15V(12.9V)attheoutputnode2withrespecttoground.ThenetlistisinFigurebelow.

Voltagetriplercomposedofdoublerstackedatopasinglestagerectifier.

NotethatV(3)inFigurebelowrisesto5V(4.3V)onthefirstnegativehalfcycle.Inputv(4)isshiftedupward
by5V(4.3V)dueto5Vfromthehalfwaverectifier.And5Vmoreatv(1)duetotheclamper(C2,D2).D1
chargesC1(waveformv(2))tothepeakvalueofv(1).

*SPICE03283.eps
C3301000p
D304diode
C1231000p
D112diode
C2411000p
D231diode
V143SIN(051k)
.modeldioded
.tran0.01m5m
.end

Voltagetripler:v(3)halfwaverectifier,v(4)input+5V,v(1)clamper,v(2)finaloutput.

AvoltagequadruplerisastackedcombinationoftwodoublersshowninFigurebelow.Eachdoublerprovides
10V(8.6V)foraseriestotalatnode2withrespecttogroundof20V(17.2V).ThenetlistisinFigurebelow.
Voltagequadrupler,composedoftwodoublersstackedinseries,withoutputatnode2.

ThewaveformsofthequadruplerareshowninFigurebelow.TwoDCoutputsareavailable:v(3),thedoubler
output,andv(2)thequadrupleroutput.Someoftheintermediatevoltagesatclampersillustratethattheinput
sinewave(notshown),whichswingsby5V,issuccessivelyclampedathigherlevels:atv(5),v(4)andv(1).
Strictlyv(4)isnotaclamperoutput.ItissimplytheACvoltagesourceinserieswiththev(3)thedoubler
output.Nonetheless,v(1)isaclampedversionofv(4)

*SPICE03441.eps
*SPICE03286.eps
C22451000p
C11301000p
D1105diode
D2253diode
C1231000p
D112diode
C2411000p
D231diode
V143SIN(051k)
.modeldioded
.tran0.01m5m
.end

Voltagequadrupler:DCvoltageavailableatv(3)andv(2).Intermediatewaveforms:Clampers:v(5),v(4),v(1).

Somenotesonvoltagemultipliersareinorderatthispoint.Thecircuitparametersusedintheexamples(V=5
V1kHz,C=1000pf)donotprovidemuchcurrent,microamps.Furthermore,loadresistorshavebeenomitted.
Loadingreducesthevoltagesfromthoseshown.IfthecircuitsaretobedrivenbyakHzsourceatlowvoltage,
asintheexamples,thecapacitorsareusually0.1to1.0Fsothatmilliampsofcurrentareavailableatthe
output.Ifthemultipliersaredrivenfrom50/60Hz,thecapacitorareafewhundredtoafewthousand
microfaradstoprovidehundredsofmilliampsofoutputcurrent.Ifdrivenfromlinevoltage,payattentiontothe
polarityandvoltageratingsofthecapacitors.

Finally,anydirectlinedrivenpowersupply(notransformer)isdangeroustotheexperimenterandlineoperated
testequipment.Commercialdirectdrivensuppliesaresafebecausethehazardouscircuitryisinanenclosureto
protecttheuser.Whenbreadboardingthesecircuitswithelectrolyticcapacitorsofanyvoltage,thecapacitors
willexplodeifthepolarityisreversed.Suchcircuitsshouldbepoweredupbehindasafetyshield.

AvoltagemultiplierofcascadedhalfwavedoublersofarbitrarylengthisknownasaCockcroft
WaltonmultiplierasshowninFigurebelow.Thismultiplierisusedwhenahighvoltageatlowcurrentis
required.Theadvantageoveraconventionalsupplyisthatanexpensivehighvoltagetransformerisnot
requiredatleastnotashighastheoutput.

CockcroftWaltonx8voltagemultiplieroutputatv(8).

Thepairofdiodesandcapacitorstotheleftofnodes1and2inFigureaboveconstituteahalfwavedoubler.
Rotatingthediodesby45ocounterclockwise,andthebottomcapacitorby90omakesitlook
likeFigureprior(a).Fourofthedoublersectionsarecascadedtotherightforatheoreticalx8multiplication
factor.Node1hasaclamperwaveform(notshown),asinewaveshiftedupby1x(5V).Theotheroddnumbered
nodesaresinewavesclampedtosuccessivelyhighervoltages.Node2,theoutputofthefirstdoubler,isa2xDC
voltagev(2)inFigurebelow.Successiveevennumberednodeschargetosuccessivelyhighervoltages:v(4),
v(6),v(8)

D178diode
C1861000p
D267diode
C2571000p
D356diode
C3461000p
D445diode
C4351000p
D534diode
C5241000p
D623diode
D712diode
C6131000p
C7201000p
C89911000p
D801diode
V1990SIN(051k)
.modeldioded
.tran0.01m50m
.end

CockcroftWalton(x8)waveforms.Outputisv(8).

Withoutdiodedrops,eachdoubleryields2Vinor10V,consideringtwodiodedrops(101.4)=8.6Visrealistic.
Foratotalof4doublersoneexpects48.6=34.4Voutof40V.ConsultingFigureabove,v(2)isabout
righthowever,v(8)is<30Vinsteadoftheanticipated34.4V.ThebaneoftheCockcroftWaltonmultiplieris
thateachadditionalstageaddslessthanthepreviousstage.Thus,apracticallimittothenumberofstagesexist.
Itispossibletoovercomethislimitationwithamodificationtothebasiccircuit.[ABR]Alsonotethetimescale
of40mseccomparedwith5msforpreviouscircuits.Itrequired40msecforthevoltagestorisetoaterminal
valueforthiscircuit.ThenetlistinFigureabovehasa.tran0.010m50mcommandtoextendthesimulation
timeto50msecthough,only40msecisplotted.

TheCockcroftWaltonmultiplierservesasamoreefficienthighvoltagesourceforphotomultipliertubes
requiringupto2000V.[ABR]Moreover,thetubehasnumerousdynodes,terminalsrequiringconnectiontothe
lowervoltageevennumberednodes.Theseriesstringofmultipliertapsreplacesaheatgeneratingresistive
voltagedividerofpreviousdesigns.

AnAClineoperatedCockcroftWaltonmultiplierprovideshighvoltagetoiongeneratorsforneutralizing
electrostaticchargeandforairpurifiers.

REVIEW:
AvoltagemultiplierproducesaDCmultiple(2,3,4,etc)oftheACpeakinputvoltage.
Themostbasicmultiplierisahalfwavedoubler.
Thefullwavedoubleisasuperiorcircuitasadoubler.
Atriplerisahalfwavedoublerandaconventionalrectifierstage(peakdetector).
Aquadruplerisapairofhalfwavedoublers
AlongstringofhalfwavedoublersisknownasaCockcroftWaltonmultiplier.

Inductorcommutatingcircuits
Apopularuseofdiodesisforthemitigationofinductivekickback:thepulsesofhighvoltageproducedwhen
directcurrentthroughaninductorisinterrupted.Take,forexample,thissimplecircuitinFigurebelowwithno
protectionagainstinductivekickback.

Inductivekickback:(a)Switchopen.(b)Switchclosed,electroncurrentflowsfrombatterythroughcoilwhich
haspolaritymatchingbattery.Magneticfieldstoresenergy.(c)Switchopen,Currentstillflowsincoildueto
collapsingmagneticfield.Notepolaritychangeoncoil.(d)Coilvoltagevstime.

Whenthepushbuttonswitchisactuated,currentgoesthroughtheinductor,producingamagneticfieldaroundit.
Whentheswitchisdeactuated,itscontactsopen,interruptingcurrentthroughtheinductor,andcausingthe
magneticfieldtorapidlycollapse.Becausethevoltageinducedinacoilofwireisdirectlyproportionalto
therateofchangeovertimeofmagneticflux(Faraday'sLaw:e=Nd/dt),thisrapidcollapseofmagnetism
aroundthecoilproducesahighvoltagespike.

Iftheinductorinquestionisanelectromagnetcoil,suchasinasolenoidorrelay(constructedforthepurposeof
creatingaphysicalforceviaitsmagneticfieldwhenenergized),theeffectofinductivekickbackservesno
usefulpurposeatall.Infact,itisquitedetrimentaltotheswitch,asitcausesexcessivearcingatthecontacts,
greatlyreducingtheirservicelife.Ofthepracticalmethodsformitigatingthehighvoltagetransientcreated
whentheswitchisopened,nonesosimpleasthesocalledcommutatingdiodeinFigurebelow.
Inductivekickbackwithprotection:(a)Switchopen.(b)Switchclosed,storingenergyinmagneticfield.(c)
Switchopen,inductivekickbackisshortedbydiode.

Inthiscircuit,thediodeisplacedinparallelwiththecoil,suchthatitwillbereversebiasedwhenDCvoltageis
appliedtothecoilthroughtheswitch.Thus,whenthecoilisenergized,thediodeconductsnocurrentin
Figureabove(b).

However,whentheswitchisopened,thecoil'sinductancerespondstothedecreaseincurrentbyinducinga
voltageofreversepolarity,inanefforttomaintaincurrentatthesamemagnitudeandinthesamedirection.This
suddenreversalofvoltagepolarityacrossthecoilforwardbiasesthediode,andthediodeprovidesacurrent
pathfortheinductor'scurrent,sothatitsstoredenergyisdissipatedslowlyratherthansuddenlyin
Figureabove(c).

Asaresult,thevoltageinducedinthecoilbyitscollapsingmagneticfieldisquitelow:merelytheforward
voltagedropofthediode,ratherthanhundredsofvoltsasbefore.Thus,theswitchcontactsexperienceavoltage
dropequaltothebatteryvoltageplusabout0.7volts(ifthediodeissilicon)duringthisdischargetime.

Inelectronicsparlance,commutationreferstothereversalofvoltagepolarityorcurrentdirection.Thus,the
purposeofacommutatingdiodeistoactwhenevervoltagereversespolarity,forexample,onaninductorcoil
whencurrentthroughitisinterrupted.Alessformaltermforacommutatingdiodeissnubber,becauseit
snubsorsquelchestheinductivekickback.

Anoteworthydisadvantageofthismethodistheextratimeitimpartstothecoil'sdischarge.Becausethe
inducedvoltageisclampedtoaverylowvalue,itsrateofmagneticfluxchangeovertimeiscomparatively
slow.RememberthatFaraday'sLawdescribesthemagneticfluxrateofchange(d/dt)asbeingproportionalto
theinduced,instantaneousvoltage(eorv).Iftheinstantaneousvoltageislimitedtosomelowfigure,thenthe
rateofchangeofmagneticfluxovertimewilllikewisebelimitedtoalow(slow)figure.

Ifanelectromagnetcoilissnubbedwithacommutatingdiode,themagneticfieldwilldissipateatarelatively
slowratecomparedtotheoriginalscenario(nodiode)wherethefielddisappearedalmostinstantlyuponswitch
release.Theamountoftimeinquestionwillmostlikelybelessthanonesecond,butitwillbemeasurably
slowerthanwithoutacommutatingdiodeinplace.Thismaybeanintolerableconsequenceifthecoilisusedto
actuateanelectromechanicalrelay,becausetherelaywillpossessanaturaltimedelayuponcoilde
energization,andanunwanteddelayofevenafractionofasecondmaywreakhavocinsomecircuits.

Unfortunately,onecannoteliminatethehighvoltagetransientofinductivekickbackandmaintainfastde
magnetizationofthecoil:Faraday'sLawwillnotbeviolated.However,ifslowdemagnetizationis
unacceptable,acompromisemaybestruckbetweentransientvoltageandtimebyallowingthecoil'svoltageto
risetosomehigherlevel(butnotsohighaswithoutacommutatingdiodeinplace).Theschematicin
Figurebelowshowshowthiscanbedone.

(a)Commutatingdiodewithseriesresistor.(b)Voltagewaveform.(c)Levelwithnodiode.(d)Levelwithdiode,
noresistor.(e)Compromiselevelwithdiodeandresistor.
Aresistorplacedinserieswiththecommutatingdiodeallowsthecoil'sinducedvoltagetorisetoalevelgreater
thanthediode'sforwardvoltagedrop,thushasteningtheprocessofdemagnetization.This,ofcourse,willplace
theswitchcontactsundergreaterstress,andsotheresistormustbesizedtolimitthattransientvoltageatan
acceptablemaximumlevel.

Diodeswitchingcircuits
Diodescanperformswitchinganddigitallogicoperations.Forwardandreversebiasswitchadiodebetweenthe
lowandhighimpedancestates,respectively.Thus,itservesasaswitch.

Logic
Diodescanperformdigitallogicfunctions:AND,andOR.Diodelogicwasusedinearlydigitalcomputers.It
onlyfindslimitedapplicationtoday.Sometimesitisconvenienttofashionasinglelogicgatefromafewdiodes.

DiodeANDgate

AnANDgateisshowninFigureabove.Logicgateshaveinputsandanoutput(Y)whichisafunctionofthe
inputs.Theinputstothegatearehigh(logic1),say10V,orlow,0V(logic0).Inthefigure,thelogiclevelsare
generatedbyswitches.Ifaswitchisup,theinputiseffectivelyhigh(1).Iftheswitchisdown,itconnectsa
diodecathodetoground,whichislow(0).TheoutputdependsonthecombinationofinputsatAandB.The
inputsandoutputarecustomarilyrecordedinatruthtableat(c)todescribethelogicofagate.At(a)all
inputsarehigh(1).Thisisrecordedinthelastlineofthetruthtableat(c).Theoutput,Y,ishigh(1)duetothe
V+ onthetopoftheresistor.Itisunaffectedbyopenswitches.At(b)switchApullsthecathodeofthe
connecteddiodelow,pullingoutputYlow(0.7V).Thisisrecordedinthethirdlineofthetruthtable.The
secondlineofthetruthtabledescribestheoutputwiththeswitchesreversedfrom(b).SwitchBpullsthediode
andoutputlow.ThefirstlineofthetruthtablerecordestheOutput=0forbothinputlow(0).Thetruthtable
describesalogicalANDfunction.Summary:bothinputsAandBhighyieldsahigh(1)out.

AtwoinputORgatecomposedofapairofdiodesisshowninFigurebelow.Ifbothinputsarelogiclowat(a)
assimulatedbybothswitchesdownward,theoutputYispulledlowbytheresistor.Thislogiczerois
recordedinthefirstlineofthetruthtableat(c).Ifoneoftheinputsishighasat(b),ortheotherinputishigh,or
bothinputshigh,thediode(s)conduct(s),pullingtheoutputYhigh.Theseresultsarereorderedinthesecond
throughfourthlinesofthetruthtable.Summary:anyinputhighisahighoutatY.
ORgate:(a)Firstline,truthtable(TT).(b)ThirdlineTT.(d)LogicalORofpowerlinesupplyandbackup
battery.

AbackupbatterymaybeORwiredwithalineoperatedDCpowersupplyinFigureabove(d)topoweraload,
evenduringapowerfailure.WithACpowerpresent,thelinesupplypowerstheload,assumingthatitisa
highervoltagethanthebattery.Intheeventofapowerfailure,thelinesupplyvoltagedropsto0Vthebattery
powerstheload.Thediodesmustbeinserieswiththepowersourcestopreventafailedlinesupplyfrom
drainingthebattery,andtopreventitfromoverchargingthebatterywhenlinepowerisavailable.DoesyourPC
computerretainitsBIOSsettingwhenpoweredoff?DoesyourVCR(videocassetterecorder)retaintheclock
settingafterapowerfailure?(PCYes,oldVCRno,newVCRyes.)

Analogswitch
Diodescanswitchanalogsignals.Areversebiaseddiodeappearstobeanopencircuit.Aforwardbiaseddiode
isalowresistanceconductor.TheonlyproblemisisolatingtheACsignalbeingswitchedfromtheDCcontrol
signal.ThecircuitinFigurebelowisaparallelresonantnetwork:resonanttuninginductorparalleledbyone(or
more)oftheswitchedresonatorcapacitors.ThisparallelLCresonantcircuitcouldbeapreselectorfilterfora
radioreceiver.Itcouldbethefrequencydeterminingnetworkofanoscillator(notshown).Thedigitalcontrol
linesmaybedrivenbyamicroprocessorinterface.

Diodeswitch:Adigitalcontrolsignal(low)selectsaresonatorcapacitorbyforwardbiasingtheswitching
diode.

ThelargevalueDCblockingcapacitorgroundstheresonanttuninginductorforACwhileblockingDC.It
wouldhavealowreactancecomparedtotheparallelLCreactances.ThispreventstheanodeDCvoltagefrom
beingshortedtogroundbytheresonanttuninginductor.Aswitchedresonatorcapacitorisselectedbypulling
thecorrespondingdigitalcontrollow.Thisforwardbiasestheswitchingdiode.TheDCcurrentpathisfrom+5
VthroughanRFchoke(RFC),aswitchingdiode,andanRFCtogroundviathedigitalcontrol.Thepurposeof
theRFCatthe+5VistokeepACoutofthe+5Vsupply.TheRFCinserieswiththedigitalcontrolistokeep
ACoutoftheexternalcontrolline.ThedecouplingcapacitorshortsthelittleACleakingthroughtheRFCto
ground,bypassingtheexternaldigitalcontrolline.

Withallthreedigitalcontrollineshigh(+5V),noswitchedresonatorcapacitorsareselectedduetodiode
reversebias.Pullingoneormorelineslow,selectsoneormoreswitchedresonatorcapacitors,respectively.As
morecapacitorsareswitchedinparallelwiththeresonanttuninginductor,theresonantfrequencydecreases.

Thereversebiaseddiodecapacitancemaybesubstantialcomparedwithveryhighfrequencyorultrahigh
frequencycircuits.PINdiodesmaybeusedasswitchesforlowercapacitance.

Zenerdiodes
IfweconnectadiodeandresistorinserieswithaDCvoltagesourcesothatthediodeisforwardbiased,the
voltagedropacrossthediodewillremainfairlyconstantoverawiderangeofpowersupplyvoltagesasin
Figurebelow(a).

Accordingtothediodeequationhere,thecurrentthroughaforwardbiasedPNjunctionisproportional
toeraisedtothepoweroftheforwardvoltagedrop.Becausethisisanexponentialfunction,currentrisesquite
rapidlyformodestincreasesinvoltagedrop.Anotherwayofconsideringthisistosaythatvoltagedropped
acrossaforwardbiaseddiodechangeslittleforlargevariationsindiodecurrent.Inthecircuitshownin
Figurebelow(a),diodecurrentislimitedbythevoltageofthepowersupply,theseriesresistor,andthediode's
voltagedrop,whichasweknowdoesn'tvarymuchfrom0.7volts.Ifthepowersupplyvoltageweretobe
increased,theresistor'svoltagedropwouldincreasealmostthesameamount,andthediode'svoltagedropjusta
little.Conversely,adecreaseinpowersupplyvoltagewouldresultinanalmostequaldecreaseinresistor
voltagedrop,withjustalittledecreaseindiodevoltagedrop.Inaword,wecouldsummarizethisbehaviorby
sayingthatthediodeisregulatingthevoltagedropatapproximately0.7volts.

Voltageregulationisausefuldiodepropertytoexploit.Supposewewerebuildingsomekindofcircuitwhich
couldnottoleratevariationsinpowersupplyvoltage,butneededtobepoweredbyachemicalbattery,whose
voltagechangesoveritslifetime.Wecouldformacircuitasshownandconnectthecircuitrequiringsteady
voltageacrossthediode,whereitwouldreceiveanunchanging0.7volts.

Thiswouldcertainlywork,butmostpracticalcircuitsofanykindrequireapowersupplyvoltageinexcessof
0.7voltstoproperlyfunction.Onewaywecouldincreaseourvoltageregulationpointwouldbetoconnect
multiplediodesinseries,sothattheirindividualforwardvoltagedropsof0.7voltseachwouldaddtocreatea
largertotal.Forinstance,ifwehadtendiodesinseries,theregulatedvoltagewouldbetentimes0.7,or7volts
inFigurebelow(b).

ForwardbiasedSireference:(a)singlediode,0.7V,(b)10diodesinseries7.0V.

Solongasthebatteryvoltageneversaggedbelow7volts,therewouldalwaysbeabout7voltsdroppedacross
thetendiodestack.
Iflargerregulatedvoltagesarerequired,wecouldeitherusemorediodesinseries(aninelegantoption,inmy
opinion),ortryafundamentallydifferentapproach.Weknowthatdiodeforwardvoltageisafairlyconstant
figureunderawiderangeofconditions,butsoisreversebreakdownvoltage,andbreakdownvoltageistypically
much,muchgreaterthanforwardvoltage.Ifwereversedthepolarityofthediodeinoursingledioderegulator
circuitandincreasedthepowersupplyvoltagetothepointwherethediodebrokedown(couldnolonger
withstandthereversebiasvoltageimpressedacrossit),thediodewouldsimilarlyregulatethevoltageatthat
breakdownpoint,notallowingittoincreasefurtherasinFigurebelow(a).

(a)ReversebiasedSismallsignaldiodebreaksdownatabout100V.(b)SymbolforZenerdiode.

Unfortunately,whennormalrectifyingdiodesbreakdown,theyusuallydosodestructively.However,itis
possibletobuildaspecialtypeofdiodethatcanhandlebreakdownwithoutfailingcompletely.Thistypeof
diodeiscalledazenerdiode,anditssymbollookslikeFigureabove(b).

Whenforwardbiased,zenerdiodesbehavemuchthesameasstandardrectifyingdiodes:theyhaveaforward
voltagedropwhichfollowsthediodeequationandisabout0.7volts.Inreversebiasmode,theydonot
conductuntiltheappliedvoltagereachesorexceedsthesocalledzenervoltage,atwhichpointthediodeisable
toconductsubstantialcurrent,andindoingsowilltrytolimitthevoltagedroppedacrossittothatzenervoltage
point.Solongasthepowerdissipatedbythisreversecurrentdoesnotexceedthediode'sthermallimits,the
diodewillnotbeharmed.

Zenerdiodesaremanufacturedwithzenervoltagesranginganywherefromafewvoltstohundredsofvolts.
Thiszenervoltagechangesslightlywithtemperature,andlikecommoncarboncompositionresistorvalues,may
beanywherefrom5percentto10percentinerrorfromthemanufacturer'sspecifications.However,thisstability
andaccuracyisgenerallygoodenoughforthezenerdiodetobeusedasavoltageregulatordeviceincommon
powersupplycircuitinFigurebelow.

Zenerdioderegulatorcircuit,Zenervoltage=12.6V).

Pleasetakenoteofthezenerdiode'sorientationintheabovecircuit:thediodeisreversebiased,and
intentionallyso.Ifwehadorientedthediodeinthenormalway,soastobeforwardbiased,itwouldonlydrop
0.7volts,justlikearegularrectifyingdiode.Ifwewanttoexploitthisdiode'sreversebreakdownproperties,we
mustoperateitinitsreversebiasmode.Solongasthepowersupplyvoltageremainsabovethezenervoltage
(12.6volts,inthisexample),thevoltagedroppedacrossthezenerdiodewillremainatapproximately12.6volts.

Likeanysemiconductordevice,thezenerdiodeissensitivetotemperature.Excessivetemperaturewilldestroya
zenerdiode,andbecauseitbothdropsvoltageandconductscurrent,itproducesitsownheatinaccordancewith
Joule'sLaw(P=IE).Therefore,onemustbecarefultodesigntheregulatorcircuitinsuchawaythatthediode's
powerdissipationratingisnotexceeded.Interestinglyenough,whenzenerdiodesfailduetoexcessivepower
dissipation,theyusuallyfailshortedratherthanopen.Adiodefailedinthismannerisreadilydetected:itdrops
almostzerovoltagewhenbiasedeitherway,likeapieceofwire.

Let'sexamineazenerdioderegulatingcircuitmathematically,determiningallvoltages,currents,andpower
dissipations.Takingthesameformofcircuitshownearlier,we'llperformcalculationsassumingazenervoltage
of12.6volts,apowersupplyvoltageof45volts,andaseriesresistorvalueof1000(we'llregardthezener
voltagetobeexactly12.6voltssoastoavoidhavingtoqualifyallfiguresasapproximateinFigurebelow(a)

Ifthezenerdiode'svoltageis12.6voltsandthepowersupply'svoltageis45volts,therewillbe32.4volts
droppedacrosstheresistor(45volts12.6volts=32.4volts).32.4voltsdroppedacross1000gives32.4mA
ofcurrentinthecircuit.(Figurebelow(b))

(a)ZenerVoltageregulatorwith1000resistor.(b)Calculationofvoltagedropsandcurrent.

Poweriscalculatedbymultiplyingcurrentbyvoltage(P=IE),sowecancalculatepowerdissipationsforboth
theresistorandthezenerdiodequiteeasily:

Azenerdiodewithapowerratingof0.5wattwouldbeadequate,aswouldaresistorratedfor1.5or2wattsof
dissipation.

Ifexcessivepowerdissipationisdetrimental,thenwhynotdesignthecircuitfortheleastamountofdissipation
possible?Whynotjustsizetheresistorforaveryhighvalueofresistance,thusseverelylimitingcurrentand
keepingpowerdissipationfiguresverylow?Takethiscircuit,forexample,witha100kresistorinsteadofa1
kresistor.Notethatboththepowersupplyvoltageandthediode'szenervoltageinFigurebelowareidentical
tothelastexample:
Zenerregulatorwith100kresistor.

Withonly1/100ofthecurrentwehadbefore(324Ainsteadof32.4mA),bothpowerdissipationfigures
shouldbe100timessmaller:

Seemsideal,doesn'tit?Lesspowerdissipationmeansloweroperatingtemperaturesforboththediodeandthe
resistor,andalsolesswastedenergyinthesystem,right?Ahigherresistancevaluedoesreducepower
dissipationlevelsinthecircuit,butitunfortunatelyintroducesanotherproblem.Rememberthatthepurposeofa
regulatorcircuitistoprovideastablevoltageforanothercircuit.Inotherwords,we'reeventuallygoingto
powersomethingwith12.6volts,andthissomethingwillhaveacurrentdrawofitsown.Considerourfirst
regulatorcircuit,thistimewitha500loadconnectedinparallelwiththezenerdiodeinFigurebelow.

Zenerregulatorwith1000seriesresistorand500load.

If12.6voltsismaintainedacrossa500load,theloadwilldraw25.2mAofcurrent.Inorderforthe1k
seriesdroppingresistortodrop32.4volts(reducingthepowersupply'svoltageof45voltsdownto12.6
acrossthezener),itstillmustconduct32.4mAofcurrent.Thisleaves7.2mAofcurrentthroughthezener
diode.

Nowconsiderourpowersavingregulatorcircuitwiththe100kdroppingresistor,deliveringpowertothe
same500load.Whatitissupposedtodoismaintain12.6voltsacrosstheload,justlikethelastcircuit.
However,aswewillsee,itcannotaccomplishthistask.(Figurebelow)

Zenernonregulatorwith100Kseriesresistorwith500load.>
Withthelargervalueofdroppingresistorinplace,therewillonlybeabout224mVofvoltageacrossthe500
load,farlessthantheexpectedvalueof12.6volts!Whyisthis?Ifweactuallyhad12.6voltsacrosstheload,it
woulddraw25.2mAofcurrent,asbefore.Thisloadcurrentwouldhavetogothroughtheseriesdropping
resistorasitdidbefore,butwithanew(muchlarger!)droppingresistorinplace,thevoltagedroppedacrossthat
resistorwith25.2mAofcurrentgoingthroughitwouldbe2,520volts!Sinceweobviouslydon'thavethat
muchvoltagesuppliedbythebattery,thiscannothappen.

Thesituationiseasiertocomprehendifwetemporarilyremovethezenerdiodefromthecircuitandanalyzethe
behaviorofthetworesistorsaloneinFigurebelow.

NonregulatorwithZenerremoved.

Boththe100kdroppingresistorandthe500loadresistanceareinserieswitheachother,givingatotal
circuitresistanceof100.5k.Withatotalvoltageof45voltsandatotalresistanceof100.5k,Ohm'sLaw
(I=E/R)tellsusthatthecurrentwillbe447.76A.Figuringvoltagedropsacrossbothresistors(E=IR),we
arriveat44.776voltsand224mV,respectively.Ifweweretoreinstallthezenerdiodeatthispoint,itwould
see224mVacrossitaswell,beinginparallelwiththeloadresistance.Thisisfarbelowthezenerbreakdown
voltageofthediodeandsoitwillnotbreakdownandconductcurrent.Forthatmatter,atthislowvoltagethe
diodewouldn'tconductevenifitwereforwardbiased!Thus,thediodeceasestoregulatevoltage.Atleast12.6
voltsmustbedroppedacrosstoactivateit.

Theanalyticaltechniqueofremovingazenerdiodefromacircuitandseeingwhetherornotenoughvoltageis
presenttomakeitconductisasoundone.Justbecauseazenerdiodehappenstobeconnectedinacircuitdoesn't
guaranteethatthefullzenervoltagewillalwaysbedroppedacrossit!Rememberthatzenerdiodeswork
bylimitingvoltagetosomemaximumleveltheycannotmakeupforalackofvoltage.

Insummary,anyzenerdioderegulatingcircuitwillfunctionsolongastheload'sresistanceisequaltoorgreater
thansomeminimumvalue.Iftheloadresistanceistoolow,itwilldrawtoomuchcurrent,droppingtoomuch
voltageacrosstheseriesdroppingresistor,leavinginsufficientvoltageacrossthezenerdiodetomakeitconduct.
Whenthezenerdiodestopsconductingcurrent,itcannolongerregulatevoltage,andtheloadvoltagewillfall
belowtheregulationpoint.

Ourregulatorcircuitwiththe100kdroppingresistormustbegoodforsomevalueofloadresistance,though.
Tofindthisacceptableloadresistancevalue,wecanuseatabletocalculateresistanceinthetworesistorseries
circuit(nodiode),insertingtheknownvaluesoftotalvoltageanddroppingresistorresistance,andcalculating
foranexpectedloadvoltageof12.6volts:
With45voltsoftotalvoltageand12.6voltsacrosstheload,weshouldhave32.4voltsacrossRdropping:

With32.4voltsacrossthedroppingresistor,and100kworthofresistanceinit,thecurrentthroughitwillbe
324A:

Beingaseriescircuit,thecurrentisequalthroughallcomponentsatanygiventime:

CalculatingloadresistanceisnowasimplematterofOhm'sLaw(R=E/I),givingus38.889k:
Thus,iftheloadresistanceisexactly38.889k,therewillbe12.6voltsacrossit,diodeornodiode.Anyload
resistancesmallerthan38.889kwillresultinaloadvoltagelessthan12.6volts,diodeornodiode.Withthe
diodeinplace,theloadvoltagewillberegulatedtoamaximumof12.6voltsforanyloadresistancegreaterthan
38.889k.

Withtheoriginalvalueof1kforthedroppingresistor,ourregulatorcircuitwasabletoadequatelyregulate
voltageevenforaloadresistanceaslowas500.Whatweseeisatradeoffbetweenpowerdissipationand
acceptableloadresistance.Thehighervaluedroppingresistorgaveuslesspowerdissipation,attheexpenseof
raisingtheacceptableminimumloadresistancevalue.Ifwewishtoregulatevoltageforlowvalueload
resistances,thecircuitmustbepreparedtohandlehigherpowerdissipation.

Zenerdiodesregulatevoltagebyactingascomplementaryloads,drawingmoreorlesscurrentasnecessaryto
ensureaconstantvoltagedropacrosstheload.Thisisanalogoustoregulatingthespeedofanautomobileby
brakingratherthanbyvaryingthethrottleposition:notonlyisitwasteful,butthebrakesmustbebuilttohandle
alltheengine'spowerwhenthedrivingconditionsdon'tdemandit.Despitethisfundamentalinefficiencyof
design,zenerdioderegulatorcircuitsarewidelyemployedduetotheirsheersimplicity.Inhighpower
applicationswheretheinefficiencieswouldbeunacceptable,othervoltageregulatingtechniquesareapplied.
Buteventhen,smallzenerbasedcircuitsareoftenusedtoprovideareferencevoltagetodriveamore
efficientamplifiercircuitcontrollingthemainpower.

ZenerdiodesaremanufacturedinstandardvoltageratingslistedinTablebelow.ThetableCommonzener
diodevoltageslistscommonvoltagesfor0.3Wand1.3Wparts.Thewattagecorrespondstodieandpackage
size,andisthepowerthatthediodemaydissipatewithoutdamage.

Commonzenerdiodevoltages

0.5W
2.7V 3.0V 3.3V 3.6V 3.9V 4.3V 4.7V
5.1V 5.6V 6.2V 6.8V 7.5V 8.2V 9.1V
10V 11V 12V 13V 15V 16V 18V
20V 24V 27V 30V
1.3W
4.7V 5.1V 5.6V 6.2V 6.8V 7.5V 8.2V
9.1V 10V 11V 12V 13V 15V 16V
18V 20V 22V 24V 27V 30V 33V
36V 39V 43V 47V 51V 56V 62V
68V 75V 100V 200V
Zenerdiodeclipper:Aclippingcircuitwhichclipsthepeaksofwaveformatapproximatelythezenervoltage
ofthediodes.ThecircuitofFigurebelowhastwozenersconnectedseriesopposingtosymmetricallyclipa
waveformatnearlytheZenervoltage.Theresistorlimitscurrentdrawnbythezenerstoasafevalue.

*SPICE03445.eps
D140diode
D242diode
R1211.0k
V110SIN(0201k)
.modeldiodedbv=10
.tran0.001m2m
.end

Zenerdiodeclipper:

Thezenerbreakdownvoltageforthediodesissetat10Vbythediodemodelparameterbv=10inthespice
netlistinFigureabove.Thiscausesthezenerstoclipatabout10V.Thebacktobackdiodesclipbothpeaks.
Forapositivehalfcycle,thetopzenerisreversebiased,breakingdownatthezenervoltageof10V.Thelower
zenerdropsapproximately0.7Vsinceitisforwardbiased.Thus,amoreaccurateclippinglevelis
10+0.7=10.7V.Similarnegativehalfcycleclippingoccursa10.7V.(Figurebelow)showstheclippinglevelat
alittleover10V.

Zenerdiodeclipper:v(1)inputisclippedatwaveformv(2).

REVIEW:
Zenerdiodesaredesignedtobeoperatedinreversebiasmode,providingarelativelylow,stable
breakdown,orzenervoltageatwhichtheybegintoconductsubstantialreversecurrent.
Azenerdiodemayfunctionasavoltageregulatorbyactingasanaccessoryload,drawingmorecurrent
fromthesourceifthevoltageistoohigh,andlessifitistoolow.

Specialpurposediodes
Schottkydiodes
SchottkydiodesareconstructedofametaltoNjunctionratherthanaPNsemiconductorjunction.Alsoknown
ashotcarrierdiodes,Schottkydiodesarecharacterizedbyfastswitchingtimes(lowreverserecoverytime),
lowforwardvoltagedrop(typically0.25to0.4voltsforametalsiliconjunction),andlowjunctioncapacitance.

TheschematicsymbolforaschottkydiodeisshowninFigurebelow.

Schottkydiodeschematicsymbol.

Theforwardvoltagedrop(VF),reverserecoverytime(trr),andjunctioncapacitance(CJ)ofSchottkydiodesare
closertoidealthantheaveragerectifyingdiode.Thismakesthemwellsuitedforhighfrequencyapplications.
Unfortunately,though,Schottkydiodestypicallyhavelowerforwardcurrent(IF)andreversevoltage
(VRRMandVDC)ratingsthanrectifyingdiodesandarethusunsuitableforapplicationsinvolvingsubstantial
amountsofpower.Thoughtheyareusedinlowvoltageswitchingregulatorpowersupplies.

Schottkydiodetechnologyfindsbroadapplicationinhighspeedcomputercircuits,wherethefastswitching
timeequatestohighspeedcapability,andthelowforwardvoltagedropequatestolesspowerdissipationwhen
conducting.

Switchingregulatorpowersuppliesoperatingat100'sofkHzcannotuseconventionalsilicondiodesasrectifiers
becauseoftheirslowswitchingspeed.Whenthesignalappliedtoadiodechangesfromforwardtoreversebias,
conductioncontinuesforashorttime,whilecarriersarebeingsweptoutofthedepletionregion.Conduction
onlyceasesafterthistrreverserecoverytimehasexpired.Schottkydiodeshaveashorterreverserecoverytime.

Regardlessofswitchingspeed,the0.7Vforwardvoltagedropofsilicondiodescausespoorefficiencyinlow
voltagesupplies.Thisisnotaproblemin,say,a10Vsupply.Ina1Vsupplythe0.7Vdropisasubstantial
portionoftheoutput.Onesolutionistouseaschottkypowerdiodewhichhasalowerforwarddrop.

Tunneldiodes
Tunneldiodesexploitastrangequantumphenomenoncalledresonanttunnelingtoprovideanegativeresistance
forwardbiascharacteristics.Whenasmallforwardbiasvoltageisappliedacrossatunneldiode,itbeginsto
conductcurrent.(Figurebelow(b))Asthevoltageisincreased,thecurrentincreasesandreachesapeakvalue
calledthepeakcurrent(IP).Ifthevoltageisincreasedalittlemore,thecurrentactuallybeginstodecreaseuntil
itreachesalowpointcalledthevalleycurrent(IV).Ifthevoltageisincreasedfurtheryet,thecurrentbeginsto
increaseagain,thistimewithoutdecreasingintoanothervalley.Theschematicsymbolforthetunneldiode
showninFigurebelow(a).

Tunneldiode(a)Schematicsymbol.(b)Currentvsvoltageplot(c)Oscillator.
Theforwardvoltagesnecessarytodriveatunneldiodetoitspeakandvalleycurrentsareknownaspeakvoltage
(VP)andvalleyvoltage(VV),respectively.Theregiononthegraphwherecurrentisdecreasingwhileapplied
voltageisincreasing(betweenVPandVVonthehorizontalscale)isknownastheregionofnegativeresistance.

Tunneldiodes,alsoknownasEsakidiodesinhonoroftheirJapaneseinventorLeoEsaki,areabletotransition
betweenpeakandvalleycurrentlevelsveryquickly,switchingbetweenhighandlowstatesofconduction
muchfasterthanevenSchottkydiodes.Tunneldiodecharacteristicsarealsorelativelyunaffectedbychangesin
temperature.

Reversebreakdownvoltageversusdopinglevel.AfterSze[SGG]

TunneldiodesareheavilydopedinboththePandNregions,1000timesthelevelinarectifier.Thiscanbeseen
inFigureabove.Standarddiodesaretothefarleft,zenerdiodesneartotheleft,andtunneldiodestotherightof
thedashedline.Theheavydopingproducesanunusuallythindepletionregion.Thisproducesanunusuallylow
reversebreakdownvoltagewithhighleakage.Thethindepletionregioncauseshighcapacitance.Toovercome
this,thetunneldiodejunctionareamustbetiny.Theforwarddiodecharacteristicconsistsoftworegions:a
normalforwarddiodecharacteristicwithcurrentrisingexponentiallybeyondVF,0.3VforGe,0.7VforSi.
Between0VandVFisanadditionalnegativeresistancecharacteristicpeak.Thisisduetoquantum
mechanicaltunnelinginvolvingthedualparticlewavenatureofelectrons.Thedepletionregionisthinenough
comparedwiththeequivalentwavelengthoftheelectronthattheycantunnelthrough.Theydonothaveto
overcomethenormalforwarddiodevoltageVF.TheenergyleveloftheconductionbandoftheNtypematerial
overlapsthelevelofthevalencebandinthePtyperegion.Withincreasingvoltage,tunnelingbeginsthelevels
overlapcurrentincreases,uptoapoint.Ascurrentincreasesfurther,theenergylevelsoverlaplesscurrent
decreaseswithincreasingvoltage.Thisisthenegativeresistanceportionofthecurve.

Tunneldiodesarenotgoodrectifiers,astheyhaverelativelyhighleakagecurrentwhenreversebiased.
Consequently,theyfindapplicationonlyinspecialcircuitswheretheiruniquetunneleffecthasvalue.Toexploit
thetunneleffect,thesediodesaremaintainedatabiasvoltagesomewherebetweenthepeakandvalleyvoltage
levels,alwaysinaforwardbiasedpolarity(anodepositive,andcathodenegative).

Perhapsthemostcommonapplicationofatunneldiodeisinsimplehighfrequencyoscillatorcircuitsasin
Figureabove(c),whereitallowsaDCvoltagesourcetocontributepowertoanLCtankcircuit,thediode
conductingwhenthevoltageacrossitreachesthepeak(tunnel)levelandeffectivelyinsulatingatallother
voltages.Theresistorsbiasthetunneldiodeatafewtenthsofavoltcenteredonthenegativeresistanceportion
ofthecharacteristiccurve.TheLCresonantcircuitmaybeasectionofwaveguideformicrowaveoperation.
Oscillationto5GHzispossible.

Atonetimethetunneldiodewastheonlysolidstatemicrowaveamplifieravailable.Tunneldiodeswere
popularstartinginthe1960's.Theywerelongerlivedthantravelingwavetubeamplifiers,animportant
considerationinsatellitetransmitters.Tunneldiodesarealsoresistanttoradiationbecauseoftheheavydoping.
Todayvarioustransistorsoperateatmicrowavefrequencies.Evensmallsignaltunneldiodesareexpensiveand
difficulttofindtoday.Thereisoneremainingmanufacturerofgermaniumtunneldiodes,andnoneforsilicon
devices.Theyaresometimesusedinmilitaryequipmentbecausetheyareinsensitivetoradiationandlarge
temperaturechanges.

TherehasbeensomeresearchinvolvingpossibleintegrationofsilicontunneldiodesintoCMOSintegrated
circuits.Theyarethoughttobecapableofswitchingat100GHzindigitalcircuits.Thesolemanufacturerof
germaniumdevicesproducesthemoneatatime.Abatchprocessforsilicontunneldiodesmustbedeveloped,
thenintegratedwithconventionalCMOSprocesses.[SZL]

TheEsakitunneldiodeshouldnotbeconfusedwiththeresonanttunnelingdiodeCH2,ofmorecomplex
constructionfromcompoundsemiconductors.TheRTDisamorerecentdevelopmentcapableofhigherspeed.

Lightemittingdiodes
Diodes,likeallsemiconductordevices,aregovernedbytheprinciplesdescribedinquantumphysics.Oneof
theseprinciplesistheemissionofspecificfrequencyradiantenergywheneverelectronsfallfromahigher
energyleveltoalowerenergylevel.Thisisthesameprincipleatworkinaneonlamp,thecharacteristicpink
orangeglowofionizedneonduetothespecificenergytransitionsofitselectronsinthemidstofanelectric
current.Theuniquecolorofaneonlamp'sglowisduetothefactthatitsneongasinsidethetube,andnotdueto
theparticularamountofcurrentthroughthetubeorvoltagebetweenthetwoelectrodes.Neongasglows
pinkishorangeoverawiderangeofionizingvoltagesandcurrents.Eachchemicalelementhasitsown
signatureemissionofradiantenergywhenitselectronsjumpbetweendifferent,quantizedenergylevels.
Hydrogengas,forexample,glowsredwhenionizedmercuryvaporglowsblue.Thisiswhatmakes
spectrographicidentificationofelementspossible.

ElectronsflowingthroughaPNjunctionexperiencesimilartransitionsinenergylevel,andemitradiantenergy
astheydoso.Thefrequencyofthisradiantenergyisdeterminedbythecrystalstructureofthesemiconductor
material,andtheelementscomprisingit.Somesemiconductorjunctions,composedofspecialchemical
combinations,emitradiantenergywithinthespectrumofvisiblelightastheelectronschangeenergylevels.
Simplyput,thesejunctionsglowwhenforwardbiased.Adiodeintentionallydesignedtoglowlikealampis
calledalightemittingdiode,orLED.

ForwardbiasedsilicondiodesgiveoffheataselectronandholesfromtheNtypeandPtyperegions,
respectively,recombineatthejunction.InaforwardbiasedLED,therecombinationofelectronsandholesinthe
activeregioninFigurebelow(c)yieldsphotons.Thisprocessisknownaselectroluminescence.Togiveoff
photons,thepotentialbarrierthroughwhichtheelectronsfallmustbehigherthanforasilicondiode.The
forwarddiodedropcanrangetoafewvoltsforsomecolorLEDs.

Diodesmadefromacombinationoftheelementsgallium,arsenic,andphosphorus(calledgalliumarsenide
phosphide)glowbrightred,andaresomeofthemostcommonLEDsmanufactured.Byalteringthechemical
constituencyofthePNjunction,differentcolorsmaybeobtained.EarlygenerationsofLEDswerered,green,
yellow,orange,andinfrared,latergenerationsincludedblueandultraviolet,withvioletbeingthelatestcolor
addedtotheselection.Othercolorsmaybeobtainedbycombiningtwoormoreprimarycolor(red,green,and
blue)LEDstogetherinthesamepackage,sharingthesameopticallens.ThisallowedformulticolorLEDs,such
astricolorLEDs(commerciallyavailableinthe1980's)usingredandgreen(whichcancreateyellow)andlater
RGBLEDs(red,green,andblue),whichcovertheentirecolorspectrum.
TheschematicsymbolforanLEDisaregulardiodeshapeinsideofacircle,withtwosmallarrowspointing
away(indicatingemittedlight),showninFigurebelow.

LED,LightEmittingDiode:(a)schematicsymbol.(b)Flatsideandshortleadofdevicecorrespondtocathode,
aswellastheinternalarrangementofthecathode.(c)CrosssectionofLeddie.

Thisnotationofhavingtwosmallarrowspointingawayfromthedeviceiscommontotheschematicsymbolsof
alllightemittingsemiconductordevices.Conversely,ifadeviceislightactivated(meaningthatincominglight
stimulatesit),thenthesymbolwillhavetwosmallarrowspointingtowardit.LEDscansenselight.They
generateasmallvoltagewhenexposedtolight,muchlikeasolarcellonasmallscale.Thispropertycanbe
gainfullyappliedinavarietyoflightsensingcircuits.

BecauseLEDsaremadeofdifferentchemicalsubstancesthansilicondiodes,theirforwardvoltagedropswillbe
different.Typically,LEDshavemuchlargerforwardvoltagedropsthanrectifyingdiodes,anywherefromabout
1.6voltstoover3volts,dependingonthecolor.TypicaloperatingcurrentforastandardsizedLEDisaround
20mA.WhenoperatinganLEDfromaDCvoltagesourcegreaterthantheLED'sforwardvoltage,aseries
connecteddroppingresistormustbeincludedtopreventfullsourcevoltagefromdamagingtheLED.
ConsidertheexamplecircuitinFigurebelow(a)usinga6Vsource.

SettingLEDcurrentat20ma.(a)fora6Vsource,(b)fora24Vsource.

WiththeLEDdropping1.6volts,therewillbe4.4voltsdroppedacrosstheresistor.Sizingtheresistorforan
LEDcurrentof20mAisassimpleastakingitsvoltagedrop(4.4volts)anddividingbycircuitcurrent(20mA),
inaccordancewithOhm'sLaw(R=E/I).Thisgivesusafigureof220.Calculatingpowerdissipationforthis
resistor,wetakeitsvoltagedropandmultiplybyitscurrent(P=IE),andendupwith88mW,wellwithinthe
ratingofa1/8wattresistor.Higherbatteryvoltageswillrequirelargervaluedroppingresistors,andpossibly
higherpowerratingresistorsaswell.ConsidertheexampleinFigureabove(b)forasupplyvoltageof24volts:

Here,thedroppingresistormustbeincreasedtoasizeof1.12ktodrop22.4voltsat20mAsothattheLED
stillreceivesonly1.6volts.Thisalsomakesforahigherresistorpowerdissipation:448mW,nearlyonehalfa
wattofpower!Obviously,aresistorratedfor1/8wattpowerdissipationoreven1/4wattdissipationwill
overheatifusedhere.

DroppingresistorvaluesneednotbepreciseforLEDcircuits.Supposeweweretousea1kresistorinsteadof
a1.12kresistorinthecircuitshownabove.TheresultwouldbeaslightlygreatercircuitcurrentandLED
voltagedrop,resultinginabrighterlightfromtheLEDandslightlyreducedservicelife.Adroppingresistor
withtoomuchresistance(say,1.5kinsteadof1.12k)willresultinlesscircuitcurrent,lessLEDvoltage,
andadimmerlight.LEDsarequitetolerantofvariationinappliedpower,soyouneednotstriveforperfection
insizingthedroppingresistor.

MultipleLEDsaresometimesrequired,sayinlighting.IfLEDsareoperatedinparallel,eachmusthaveitsown
currentlimitingresistorasinFigurebelow(a)toensurecurrentsdividingmoreequally.However,itismore
efficienttooperateLEDsinseries(Figurebelow(b))withasingledroppingresistor.Asthenumberofseries
LEDsincreasestheseriesresistorvaluemustdecreasetomaintaincurrent,toapoint.ThenumberofLEDsin
series(Vf)cannotexceedthecapabilityofthepowersupply.Multipleseriesstringsmaybeemployedasin
Figurebelow(c).

InspiteofequalizingthecurrentsinmultipleLEDs,thebrightnessofthedevicesmaynotmatchdueto
variationsintheindividualparts.Partscanbeselectedforbrightnessmatchingforcriticalapplications.

MultipleLEDs:(a)Inparallel,(b)inseries,(c)seriesparallel

Alsobecauseoftheiruniquechemicalmakeup,LEDshavemuch,muchlowerpeakinversevoltage(PIV)
ratingsthanordinaryrectifyingdiodes.AtypicalLEDmightonlyberatedat5voltsinreversebiasmode.
Therefore,whenusingalternatingcurrenttopoweranLED,connectaprotectiverectifyingdiodeantiparallel
withtheLEDtopreventreversebreakdowneveryotherhalfcycleasinFigurebelow(a).

DrivinganLEDwithAC

TheantiparalleldiodeinFigureabovecanbereplacedwithanantiparallelLED.Theresultingpairofanti
parallelLED'silluminateonalternatinghalfcyclesoftheACsinewave.Thisconfigurationdraws20ma,
splittingitequallybetweentheLED'sonalternatingAChalfcycles.EachLEDonlyreceives10mAduetothis
sharing.ThesameistrueoftheLEDantiparallelcombinationwitharectifier.TheLEDonlyreceives10ma.If
20mAwasrequiredfortheLED(s),Theresistorvaluecouldbehalved.

TheforwardvoltagedropofLED'sisinverselyproportionaltothewavelength().Aswavelengthdecreases
goingfrominfraredtovisiblecolorstoultraviolet,Vfincreases.Whilethistrendismostobviousinthevarious
devicesfromasinglemanufacturer,ThevoltagerangeforaparticularcolorLEDfromvariousmanufacturers
varies.ThisrangeofvoltagesisshowninTablebelow.

OpticalandelectricalpropertiesofLED's
 LED nm(=109m) Vf(from) Vf(to)
infrared 940 1.2 1.7
red 660 1.5 2.4
orange 602620 2.1 2.2
yellow,green 560595 1.7 2.8
white,blue,violet 3 4
ultraviolet 370 4.2 4.8

Aslamps,LEDsaresuperiortoincandescentbulbsinmanyways.Firstandforemostisefficiency:LEDsoutput
farmorelightpowerperwattofelectricalinputthananincandescentlamp.Thisisasignificantadvantageifthe
circuitinquestionisbatterypowered,efficiencytranslatingtolongerbatterylife.SecondisthefactthatLEDs
arefarmorereliable,havingamuchgreaterservicelifethanincandescentlamps.ThisisbecauseLEDsare
colddevices:theyoperateatmuchcoolertemperaturesthananincandescentlampwithawhitehotmetal
filament,susceptibletobreakagefrommechanicalandthermalshock.ThirdisthehighspeedatwhichLEDs
maybeturnedonandoff.ThisadvantageisalsoduetothecoldoperationofLEDs:theydon'thaveto
overcomethermalinertiaintransitioningfromofftoonorviceversa.Forthisreason,LEDsareusedtotransmit
digital(on/off)informationaspulsesoflight,conductedinemptyspaceorthroughfiberopticcable,atvery
highratesofspeed(millionsofpulsespersecond).

LEDsexcelinmonochromaticlightingapplicationsliketrafficsignalsandautomotivetaillights.Incandescents
areabysmalinthisapplicationsincetheyrequirefiltering,decreasingefficiency.LEDsdonotrequirefiltering.

OnemajordisadvantageofusingLEDsassourcesofilluminationistheirmonochromatic(singlecolor)
emission.Noonewantstoreadabookunderthelightofared,green,orblueLED.However,ifusedin
combination,LEDcolorsmaybemixedforamorebroadspectrumglow.Anewbroadspectrumlightsourceis
thewhiteLED.Whilesmallwhitepanelindicatorshavebeenavailableformanyyears,illuminationgrade
devicesarestillindevelopment.

Efficiencyoflighting

Lamptype Efficiencylumen/watt Lifehrs notes

WhiteLED 35 100,000 costly
WhiteLED,future 100 100,000 R&Dtarget
Incandescent 12 1000 inexpensive
Halogen 1517 2000 highqualitylight
Compactfluorescent 50100 10,000 costeffective
Sodiumvapor,lp 70200 20,000 outdoor
Mercuryvapor 1348 18,000 outdoor

AwhiteLEDisablueLEDexcitingaphosphorwhichemitsyellowlight.Theblueplusyellowapproximates
whitelight.Thenatureofthephosphordeterminesthecharacteristicsofthelight.Aredphosphormaybeadded
toimprovethequalityoftheyellowplusbluemixtureattheexpenseofefficiency.Tableabovecompareswhite
illuminationLEDstoexpectedfuturedevicesandotherconventionallamps.Efficiencyismeasuredinlumensof
lightoutputperwattofinputpower.Ifthe50lumens/wattdevicecanbeimprovedto100lumens/watt,white
LEDswillbecomparabletocompactfluorescentlampsinefficiency.

LEDsingeneralhavebeenamajorsubjectofR&Dsincethe1960's.Becauseofthisitisimpracticaltocoverall
geometries,chemistries,andcharacteristicsthathavebeencreatedoverthedecades.Theearlydeviceswere
relativelydimandtookmoderatecurrents.Theefficiencieshavebeenimprovedinlatergenerationstothepoint
itishazardoustolookcloselyanddirectlyintoanilluminatedLED.Thiscanresultineyedamage,andthe
LEDsonlyrequiredaminorincreaseindroppingvoltage(Vf)andcurrent.Modernhighintensitydeviceshave
reached180lumensusing0.7Amps(82lumens/watt,LuxeonRebelseriescoolwhite),andevenhigher
intensitymodelscanuseevenhighercurrentswithacorrespondingincreaseinbrightness.Otherdevelopments,
suchasquantumdots,arethesubjectofcurrentresearch,soexpecttoseenewthingsforthesedevicesinthe
future

Laserdiodes
Thelaserdiodeisafurtherdevelopmentupontheregularlightemittingdiode,orLED.Thetermlaseritselfis
actuallyanacronym,despitethefactitsoftenwritteninlowercaseletters.Laserstands
forLightAmplificationbyStimulatedEmissionofRadiation,andreferstoanotherstrangequantumprocess
wherebycharacteristiclightemittedbyelectronsfallingfromhighleveltolowlevelenergystatesinamaterial
stimulateotherelectronsinasubstancetomakesimilarjumps,theresultbeingasynchronizedoutputoflight
fromthematerial.Thissynchronizationextendstotheactualphaseoftheemittedlight,sothatalllightwaves
emittedfromalasingmaterialarenotjustthesamefrequency(color),butalsothesamephaseaseachother,
sothattheyreinforceoneanotherandareabletotravelinaverytightlyconfined,nondispersingbeam.Thisis
whylaserlightstayssoremarkablyfocusedoverlongdistances:eachandeverylightwavecomingfromthe
laserisinstepwitheachother.

(a)Whitelightofmanywavelengths.(b)MonochromaticLEDlight,asinglewavelength.(c)Phasecoherent
laserlight.

Incandescentlampsproducewhite(mixedfrequency,ormixedcolor)lightasinFigureabove(a).Regular
LEDsproducemonochromaticlight:samefrequency(color),butdifferentphases,resultinginsimilarbeam
dispersioninFigureabove(b).LaserLEDsproducecoherentlight:lightthatisbothmonochromatic(single
color)andmonophasic(singlephase),resultinginprecisebeamconfinementasinFigureabove(c).

Laserlightfindswideapplicationinthemodernworld:everythingfromsurveying,whereastraightand
nondispersinglightbeamisveryusefulforprecisesightingofmeasurementmarkers,tothereadingandwriting
ofopticaldisks,whereonlythenarrownessofafocusedlaserbeamisabletoresolvethemicroscopicpitsin
thedisk'ssurfacecomprisingthebinary1'sand0'sofdigitalinformation.

Somelaserdiodesrequirespecialhighpowerpulsingcircuitstodeliverlargequantitiesofvoltageandcurrent
inshortbursts.Otherlaserdiodesmaybeoperatedcontinuouslyatlowerpower.Inthecontinuouslaser,laser
actionoccursonlywithinacertainrangeofdiodecurrent,necessitatingsomeformofcurrentregulatorcircuit.
Aslaserdiodesage,theirpowerrequirementsmaychange(morecurrentrequiredforlessoutputpower),butit
shouldberememberedthatlowpowerlaserdiodes,likeLEDs,arefairlylongliveddevices,withtypicalservice
livesinthetensofthousandsofhours.

Photodiodes
Aphotodiodeisadiodeoptimizedtoproduceanelectroncurrentflowinresponsetoirradiationbyultraviolet,
visible,orinfraredlight.Siliconismostoftenusedtofabricatephotodiodesthough,germaniumandgallium
arsenidecanbeused.Thejunctionthroughwhichlightentersthesemiconductormustbethinenoughtopass
mostofthelightontotheactiveregion(depletionregion)wherelightisconvertedtoelectronholepairs.

InFigurebelowashallowPtypediffusionintoanNtypewaferproducesaPNjunctionnearthesurfaceofthe
wafer.ThePtypelayerneedstobethintopassasmuchlightaspossible.AheavyN+diffusiononthebackof
thewafermakescontactwithmetalization.Thetopmetalizationmaybeafinegridofmetallicfingersonthetop
ofthewaferforlargecells.Insmallphotodiodes,thetopcontactmightbeasolebondwirecontactingthebare
Ptypesilicontop.

Photodiode:Schematicsymbolandcrosssection.

Lightenteringthetopofthephotodiodestackfalloffexponentiallyinwithdepthofthesilicon.AthintopP
typelayerallowsmostphotonstopassintothedepletionregionwhereelectronholepairsareformed.The
electricfieldacrossthedepletionregionduetothebuiltindiodepotentialcauseselectronstobesweptintothe
Nlayer,holesintothePlayer.Actuallyelectronholepairsmaybeformedinanyofthesemiconductorregions.
However,thoseformedinthedepletionregionaremostlikelytobeseparatedintotherespectiveNandP
regions.ManyoftheelectronholepairsformedinthePandNregionsrecombine.Onlyafewdosointhe
depletionregion.Thus,afewelectronholepairsintheNandPregions,andmostinthedepletionregion
contributetophotocurrent,thatcurrentresultingfromlightfallingonthephotodiode.

Thevoltageoutofaphotodiodemaybeobserved.Operationinthisphotovoltaic(PV)modeisnotlinearovera
largedynamicrange,thoughitissensitiveandhaslownoiseatfrequencieslessthan100kHz.Thepreferred
modeofoperationisoftenphotocurrent(PC)modebecausethecurrentislinearlyproportionaltolightfluxover
severaldecadesofintensity,andhigherfrequencyresponsecanbeachieved.PCmodeisachievedwithreverse
biasorzerobiasonthephotodiode.Acurrentamplifier(transimpedanceamplifier)shouldbeusedwitha
photodiodeinPCmode.LinearityandPCmodeareachievedaslongasthediodedoesnotbecomeforward
biased.

Highspeedoperationisoftenrequiredofphotodiodes,asopposedtosolarcells.Speedisafunctionofdiode
capacitance,whichcanbeminimizedbydecreasingcellarea.Thus,asensorforahighspeedfiberopticlink
willuseanareanolargerthannecessary,say1mm2.Capacitancemayalsobedecreasedbyincreasingthe
thicknessofthedepletionregion,inthemanufacturingprocessorbyincreasingthereversebiasonthediode.
PINdiodeThepindiodeorPINdiodeisaphotodiodewithanintrinsiclayerbetweenthePandNregionsas
inFigurebelow.ThePIntrinsicNstructureincreasesthedistancebetweenthePandNconductivelayers,
decreasingcapacitance,increasingspeed.Thevolumeofthephotosensitiveregionalsoincreases,enhancing
conversionefficiency.Thebandwidthcanextendto10'sofgHz.PINphotodiodesarethepreferredforhigh
sensitivity,andhighspeedatmoderatecost.

PINphotodiode:Theintrinsicregionincreasesthethicknessofthedepletionregion.

Avalanchephotodiode:Anavalanchephotodiode(APD)designedtooperateathighreversebiasexhibitsan
electronmultipliereffectanalogoustoaphotomultipliertube.Thereversebiascanrunfrom10'sofvoltsto
nearly2000V.Thehighlevelofreversebiasacceleratesphotoncreatedelectronholepairsintheintrinsic
regiontoahighenoughvelocitytofreeadditionalcarriersfromcollisionswiththecrystallattice.Thus,many
electronsperphotonresult.ThemotivationfortheAPDistoachieveamplificationwithinthephotodiodeto
overcomenoiseinexternalamplifiers.Thisworkstosomeextent.However,theAPDcreatesnoiseofitsown.
AthighspeedtheAPDissuperiortoaPINdiodeamplifiercombination,thoughnotforlowspeedapplications.
APD'sareexpensive,roughlythepriceofaphotomultipliertube.So,theyareonlycompetitivewithPIN
photodiodesfornicheapplications.Onesuchapplicationissinglephotoncountingasappliedtonuclearphysics.

Solarcells
Aphotodiodeoptimizedforefficientlydeliveringpowertoaloadisthesolarcell.Itoperatesinphotovoltaic
mode(PV)becauseitisforwardbiasedbythevoltagedevelopedacrosstheloadresistance.

Monocrystallinesolarcellsaremanufacturedinaprocesssimilartosemiconductorprocessing.Thisinvolves
growingasinglecrystalboulefrommoltenhighpuritysilicon(Ptype),though,notashighpurityasfor
semiconductors.Thebouleisdiamondsawedorwiresawedintowafers.Theendsoftheboulemustbe
discardedorrecycled,andsiliconislostinthesawkerf.Sincemoderncellsarenearlysquare,siliconislostin
squaringtheboule.Cellsmaybeetchedtotexture(roughen)thesurfacetohelptraplightwithinthecell.
Considerablesiliconislostinproducingthe10or15cmsquarewafers.Thesedays(2007)itiscommonfor
solarcellmanufacturertopurchasethewafersatthisstagefromasuppliertothesemiconductorindustry.

PtypeWafersareloadedbacktobackintofusedsilicaboatsexposingonlytheoutersurfacetotheNtype
dopantinthediffusionfurnace.Thediffusionprocessformsathinntypelayeronthetopofthecell.The
diffusionalsoshortstheedgesofthecellfronttoback.Theperipherymustberemovedbyplasmaetchingto
unshortthecell.Silverandoraluminumpasteisscreenedonthebackofthecell,andasilvergridonthefront.
Thesearesinteredinafurnaceforgoodelectricalcontact.(Figurebelow)
Thecellsarewiredinserieswithmetalribbons.Forcharging12Vbatteries,36cellsatapproximately0.5Vare
vacuumlaminatedbetweenglass,andapolymermetalback.Theglassmayhaveatexturedsurfacetohelptrap
light.

SiliconSolarcell

Theultimatecommercialhighefficiency(21.5%)singlecrystalsiliconsolarcellshaveallcontactsontheback
ofthecell.Theactiveareaofthecellisincreasedbymovingthetop()contactconductorstothebackofthe
cell.Thetop()contactsarenormallymadetotheNtypesiliconontopofthecell.InFigurebelowthe()
contactsaremadetoN+ diffusionsonthebottominterleavedwith(+)contacts.Thetopsurfaceistexturedtoaid
intrappinglightwithinthecell..[VSW]

Highefficiencysolarcellwithallcontactsontheback.AdaptedfromFigure1[VSW]

Multicyrstallinesiliconcellsstartoutasmoltensiliconcastintoarectangularmold.Asthesiliconcools,it
crystallizesintoafewlarge(mmtocmsized)randomlyorientedcrystalsinsteadofasingleone.Theremainder
oftheprocessisthesameasforsinglecrystalcells.Thefinishedcellsshowlinesdividingtheindividual
crystals,asifthecellswerecracked.Thehighefficiencyisnotquiteashighassinglecrystalcellsduetolosses
atcrystalgrainboundaries.Thecellsurfacecannotberoughenedbyetchingduetotherandomorientationofthe
crystals.However,anantireflectrivecoatingimprovesefficiency.Thesecellsarecompetitiveforallbutspace
applications.
Threelayercell:Thehighestefficiencysolarcellisastackofthreecellstunedtoabsorbdifferentportionsof
thesolarspectrum.Thoughthreecellscanbestackedatoponeanother,amonolithicsinglecrystalstructureof
20semiconductorlayersismorecompact.At32%efficiency,itisnow(2007)favoredoversiliconforspace
application.Thehighcostpreventsitfromfindingmanyearthboundapplicationsotherthanconcentratorsbased
onlensesormirrors.

Intensiveresearchhasrecentlyproducedaversionenhancedforterrestrialconcentratorsat4001000sunsand
40.7%efficiency.ThisrequireseitherabiginexpensiveFresnellensorreflectorandasmallareaofthe
expensivesemiconductor.Thiscombinationisthoughttobecompetitivewithinexpensivesiliconcellsforsolar
powerplants.[RRK][LZy]

Metalorganicchemicalvapordeposition(MOCVD)depositsthelayersatopaPtypegermaniumsubstrate.The
toplayersofNandPtypegalliumindiumphosphide(GaInP)havingabandgapof1.85eV,absorbsultraviolet
andvisiblelight.Thesewavelengthshaveenoughenergytoexceedthebandgap.Longerwavelengths(lower
energy)donothaveenoughenergytocreateelectronholepairs,andpassonthroughtothenextlayer.A
galliumarsenidelayershavingabandgapof1.42eV,absorbsnearinfraredlight.Finallythegermaniumlayer
andsubstrateabsorbfarinfrared.Theseriesofthreecellsproduceavoltagewhichisthesumofthevoltagesof
thethreecells.Thevoltagedevelopedbyeachmaterialis0.4Vlessthanthebandgapenergylistedin
Tablebelow.Forexample,forGaInP:1.8eV/e0.4V=1.4V.Forallthreethevoltageis1.4V+1.0V+0.3V
=2.7V.[BRB]

Highefficiencytriplelayersolarcell.

Layer Bandgap Lightabsorbed

Galliumindiumphosphide 1.8eV UV,visible
Galliumarsenide 1.4eV nearinfrared
Germanium 0.7eV farinfrared

Crystallinesolarcellarrayshavealongusablelife.Manyarraysareguaranteedfor25years,andbelievedtobe
goodfor40years.Theydonotsufferinitialdegradationcomparedwithamorphoussilicon.

Bothsingleandmulticrystallinesolarcellsarebasedonsiliconwafers.Thesiliconisboththesubstrateandthe
activedevicelayers.Muchsiliconisconsumed.Thiskindofcellhasbeenaroundfordecades,andtakes
approximately86%ofthesolarelectricmarket.Forfurtherinformationaboutcrystallinesolarcellssee
Honsberg.[CHS]

Amorphoussiliconthinfilmsolarcellsusetinyamountsoftheactiverawmaterial,silicon.Approximatelyhalf
thecostofconventionalcrystallinesolarcellsisthesolarcellgradesilicon.Thethinfilmdepositionprocess
reducesthiscost.Thedownsideisthatefficiencyisabouthalfthatofconventionalcrystallinecells.Moreover,
efficiencydegradesby1535%uponexposuretosunlight.A7%efficientcellsoonagesto5%efficiency.Thin
filmamorphoussiliconcellsworkbetterthancrystallinecellsindimlight.Theyareputtogooduseinsolar
poweredcalculators.

Nonsiliconbasedsolarcellsmakeupabout7%ofthemarket.Thesearethinfilmpolycrystallineproducts.
Variouscompoundsemiconductorsarethesubjectofresearchanddevelopment.Somenonsiliconproductsare
inproduction.Generally,theefficiencyisbetterthanamorphoussilicon,butnotnearlyasgoodascrystalline
silicon.

Cadmiumtellurideasapolycrystallinethinfilmonmetalorglasscanhaveahigherefficiencythanamorphous
siliconthinfilms.Ifdepositedonmetal,thatlayeristhenegativecontacttothecadmiumtelluridethinfilm.The
transparentPtypecadmiumsulfideatopthecadmiumtellurideservesasabufferlayer.Thepositivetopcontact
istransparent,electricallyconductivefluorinedopedtinoxide.Theselayersmaybelaiddownonasacrificial
foilinplaceoftheglassintheprocessinthefollowingpargraph.Thesacrificialfoilisremovedafterthecellis
mountedtoapermanentsubstrate.

Cadmiumtelluridesolarcellonglassormetal.

AprocessfordepositingcadmiumtellurideonglassbeginswiththedepositionofNtypetransparent,
electricallyconducive,tinoxideonaglasssubstrate.ThenextlayerisPtypecadmiumtelluridethough,Ntype
orintrinsicmaybeused.ThesetwolayersconstitutetheNPjunction.AP+ (heavyPtype)layerofleadtelluride
aidsinestablishingalowresistancecontact.Ametallayermakesthefinalcontacttotheleadtelluride.These
layersmaybelaiddownbyvacuumdeposition,chemicalvapordeposition(CVD),screenprinting,
electrodeposition,oratmosphericpressurechemicalvapordeposition(APCVD)inhelium.[KWM]

Avariationofcadmiumtellurideismercurycadmiumtelluride.Havinglowerbulkresistanceandlowercontact
resistanceimprovesefficiencyovercadmiumtelluride.

CadmiumIndiumGalliumdiSelenidesolarcell(CIGS)

CadmiumIndiumGalliumdiSelenide:Amostpromisingthinfilmsolarcellatthistime(2007)is
manufacturedonateninchwiderollofflexiblepolyimideCadmiumIndiumGalliumdiSelenide(CIGS).Ithas
aspectacularefficiencyof10%.Though,commercialgradecrystallinesiliconcellssurpassedthisdecadesago,
CIGSshouldbecostcompetitive.Thedepositionprocessesareatalowenoughtemperaturetouseapolyimide
polymerasasubstrateinsteadofmetalorglass.(Figureabove)TheCIGSismanufacturedinarolltoroll
process,whichshoulddrivedowncosts.GIGScellsmayalsobeproducedbyaninherentlylowcost
electrochemicalprocess.[EET]

REVIEW:
Mostsolarcellsaresiliconsinglecrystalormulticrystalbecauseoftheirgoodefficiencyandmoderate
cost.
Lessefficientthinfilmsofvariousamorphousorpolycrystallinematerialscomprisetherestofthemarket.
Tablebelowcomparesselectedsolarcells.

Solarcellproperties

Maximum Practical
Solarcelltype Notes
efficiency efficiency
Selenium,polycrystalline 0.7% 1883,CharlesFritts
Silicon,singlecrystal 4% 1950's,firstsiliconsolarcell
Silicon,singlecrystalPERL,terrestrial,space 25% solarcars,cost=100xcommercial
Silicon,singlecrystal,commercialterrestrial 24% 1417% $5$10/peakwatt
CypressSemiconductor,Sunpower,silicon
21.5% 19% allcontactsoncellback
singlecrystal
GalliumIndiumPhosphide/Gallium
Arsenide/Germanium,singlecrystal, 32% Preferredforspace.
multilayer
Advancedterrestrialversionofabove. 40.7% Usesopticalconcentrator.
Silicon,multicrystalline 18.5% 15.5%
Thinfilms,
Degradesinsunlight.Goodindoors
Silicon,amorphous 13% 57%
forcalculatorsorcloudyoutdoors.
Cadmiumtelluride,polycrystalline 16% glassormetalsubstrate
Copperindiumarsenidediselenide,
18% 10% 10inchflexiblepolymerweb.[NTH]
polycrystalline
Organicpolymer,100%plastic 4.5% R&Dproject

Varicaporvaractordiodes
Avariablecapacitancediodeisknownasavaricapdiodeorasavaractor.Ifadiodeisreversebiased,an
insulatingdepletionregionformsbetweenthetwosemiconductivelayers.Inmanydiodesthewidthofthe
depletionregionmaybechangedbyvaryingthereversebias.Thisvariesthecapacitance.Thiseffectis
accentuatedinvaricapdiodes.TheschematicsymbolsisshowninFigurebelow,oneofwhichispackagedas
commoncathodedualdiode.
Varicapdiode:Capacitancevarieswithreversebias.Thisvariesthefrequencyofaresonantnetwork.

IfavaricapdiodeispartofaresonantcircuitasinFigureabove,thefrequencymaybevariedwithacontrol
voltage,Vcontrol.Alargecapacitance,lowXc,inserieswiththevaricappreventsVcontrolfrombeingshorted
outbyinductorL.Aslongastheseriescapacitorislarge,ithasminimaleffectonthefrequencyofresonant
circuit.Coptionalmaybeusedtosetthecenterresonantfrequency.Vcontrolcanthenvarythefrequencyabout
thispoint.Notethattherequiredactivecircuitrytomaketheresonantnetworkoscillateisnotshown.Foran
exampleofavaricapdiodetunedAMradioreceiverseeelectronicvaricapdiodetuning,Ch9

Somevaricapdiodesmaybereferredtoasabrupt,hyperabrupt,orsuperhyperabrupt.Theserefertothechange
injunctioncapacitancewithchangingreversebiasasbeingabruptorhyperabrupt,orsuperhyperabrupt.These
diodesofferarelativelylargechangeincapacitance.Thisisusefulwhenoscillatorsorfiltersaresweptovera
largefrequencyrange.Varyingthebiasofabruptvaricapsovertheratedlimits,changescapacitancebya4:1
ratio,hyperabruptby10:1,superhyperabruptby20:1.

Varactordiodesmaybeusedinfrequencymultipliercircuits.SeePracticalanalogsemiconductor
circuits,Varactormultiplier

Snapdiode
Thesnapdiode,alsoknownasthesteprecoverydiodeisdesignedforuseinhighratiofrequencymultipliersup
to20gHz.Whenthediodeisforwardbiased,chargeisstoredinthePNjunction.Thischargeisdrawnoutasthe
diodeisreversebiased.Thediodelookslikealowimpedancecurrentsourceduringforwardbias.Whenreverse
biasisapplieditstilllookslikealowimpedancesourceuntilallthechargeiswithdrawn.Itthensnapstoa
highimpedancestatecausingavoltageimpulse,richinharmonics.Anapplicationsisacombgenerator,a
generatorofmanyharmonics.Moderatepower2xand4xmultipliersareanotherapplication.

PINdiodes

APINdiodeisafastlowcapacitanceswitchingdiode.DonotconfuseaPINswitchingdiodewithaPINphoto
diodehere.APINdiodeismanufacturedlikeasiliconswitchingdiodewithanintrinsicregionaddedbetween
thePNjunctionlayers.Thisyieldsathickerdepletionregion,theinsulatinglayeratthejunctionofareverse
biaseddiode.Thisresultsinlowercapacitancethanareversebiasedswitchingdiode.

Pindiode:Crosssectionalignedwithschematicsymbol.
PINdiodesareusedinplaceofswitchingdiodesinradiofrequency(RF)applications,forexample,aT/R
switchhere.The1n40071000V,1AgeneralpurposepowerdiodeisreportedtobeusableasaPINswitching
diode.ThehighvoltageratingofthisdiodeisachievedbytheinclusionofanintrinsiclayerdividingthePN
junction.Thisintrinsiclayermakesthe1n4007aPINdiode.AnotherPINdiodeapplicationisastheantenna
switchhereforadirectionfinderreceiver.

PINdiodesserveasvariableresistorswhentheforwardbiasisvaried.Onesuchapplicationisthevoltage
variableattenuatorhere.ThelowcapacitancecharacteristicofPINdiodes,extendsthefrequencyflatresponse
oftheattenuatortomicrowavefrequencies.

IMPATTdiode
IMPactAvalancheTransitTimediodeisahighpowerradiofrequency(RF)generatoroperatingfrom3to100
gHz.IMPATTdiodesarefabricatedfromsilicon,galliumarsenide,orsiliconcarbide.

AnIMPATTdiodeisreversebiasedabovethebreakdownvoltage.Thehighdopinglevelsproduceathin
depletionregion.Theresultinghighelectricfieldrapidlyacceleratescarrierswhichfreeothercarriersin
collisionswiththecrystallattice.HolesaresweptintotheP+ region.ElectronsdrifttowardtheNregions.The
cascadingeffectcreatesanavalanchecurrentwhichincreasesevenasvoltageacrossthejunctiondecreases.The
pulsesofcurrentlagthevoltagepeakacrossthejunction.Anegativeresistanceeffectinconjunctionwitha
resonantcircuitproducesoscillationsathighpowerlevels(highforsemiconductors).

IMPATTdiode:OscillatorcircuitandheavilydopedPandNlayers.

TheresonantcircuitintheschematicdiagramofFigureaboveisthelumpedcircuitequivalentofawaveguide
section,wheretheIMPATTdiodeismounted.DCreversebiasisappliedthroughachokewhichkeepsRFfrom
beinglostinthebiassupply.ThismaybeasectionofwaveguideknownasabiasTee.LowpowerRADAR
transmittersmayuseanIMPATTdiodeasapowersource.Theyaretoonoisyforuseinthereceiver.[YMCW]

Gunndiode

Diode,gunnGunndiode

AgunndiodeissolelycomposedofNtypesemiconductor.Assuch,itisnotatruediode.Figurebelowshowsa
lightlydopedNlayersurroundedbyheavilydopedN+layers.AvoltageappliedacrosstheNtypegallium
arsenidegunndiodecreatesastrongelectricfieldacrossthelightlydopedNlayer.
Gunndiode:OscillatorcircuitandcrosssectionofonlyNtypesemiconductordiode.

Asvoltageisincreased,conductionincreasesduetoelectronsinalowenergyconductionband.Asvoltageis
increasedbeyondthethresholdofapproximately1V,electronsmovefromthelowerconductionbandtothe
higherenergyconductionbandwheretheynolongercontributetoconduction.Inotherwords,asvoltage
increases,currentdecreases,anegativeresistancecondition.Theoscillationfrequencyisdeterminedbythe
transittimeoftheconductionelectrons,whichisinverselyrelatedtothethicknessoftheNlayer.

Thefrequencymaybecontrolledtosomeextentbyembeddingthegunndiodeintoaresonantcircuit.The
lumpedcircuitequivalentshowninFigureaboveisactuallyacoaxialtransmissionlineorwaveguide.Gallium
arsenidegunndiodesareavailableforoperationfrom10to200gHzat5to65mwpower.Gunndiodesmay
alsoserveasamplifiers.[CHW][IAP]

Shockleydiode
TheShockleydiodeisa4layerthyristorusedtotriggerlargerthyristors.Itonlyconductsinonedirectionwhen
triggeredbyavoltageexceedingthebreakovervoltage,about20V.SeeThyristors,TheShockleyDiode.The
bidirectionalversioniscalledadiac.SeeThyristors,TheDIAC.

Constantcurrentdiodes

Aconstantcurrentdiode,alsoknownasacurrentlimitingdiode,orcurrentregulatingdiode,doesexactlywhat
itsnameimplies:itregulatescurrentthroughittosomemaximumlevel.Theconstantcurrentdiodeisatwo
terminalversionofaJFET.Ifwetrytoforcemorecurrentthroughaconstantcurrentdiodethanitscurrent
regulationpoint,itsimplyfightsbackbydroppingmorevoltage.Ifweweretobuildthecircuitin
Figurebelow(a)andplotdiodecurrentagainstdiodevoltage,we'dgetagraphthatrisesatfirstandthenlevels
offatthecurrentregulationpointasinFigurebelow(b).

Constantcurrentdiode:(a)Testcircuit,(b)currentvsvoltagecharacteristic.

OneapplicationforaconstantcurrentdiodeistoautomaticallylimitcurrentthroughanLEDorlaserdiodeover
awiderangeofpowersupplyvoltagesasinFigurebelow.
Constantcurrentdiodeapplication:drivinglaserdiode.

Ofcourse,theconstantcurrentdiode'sregulationpointshouldbechosentomatchtheLEDorlaserdiode's
optimumforwardcurrent.Thisisespeciallyimportantforthelaserdiode,notsomuchfortheLED,asregular
LEDstendtobemoretolerantofforwardcurrentvariations.

Anotherapplicationisinthechargingofsmallsecondarycellbatteries,whereaconstantchargingcurrentleads
topredictablechargingtimes.Ofcourse,largesecondarycellbatterybanksmightalsobenefitfromconstant
currentcharging,butconstantcurrentdiodestendtobeverysmalldevices,limitedtoregulatingcurrentsinthe
milliamprange.

Otherdiodetechnologies
SiCdiodes

Diodesmanufacturedfromsiliconcarbidearecapableofhightemperatureoperationto400oC.Thiscouldbein
ahightemperatureenvironment:downholeoilwelllogging,gasturbineengines,autoengines.Or,operationin
amoderateenvironmentathighpowerdissipation.NuclearandspaceapplicationsarepromisingasSiCis100
timesmoreresistanttoradiationcomparedwithsilicon.SiCisabetterconductorofheatthananymetal.Thus,
SiCisbetterthansiliconatconductingawayheat.BreakdownvoltageisseveralkV.SiCpowerdevicesare
expectedtoreduceelectricalenergylossesinthepowerindustrybyafactorof100.

Polymerdiode

Diodesbasedonorganicchemicalshavebeenproducedusinglowtemperatureprocesses.Holerichandelectron
richconductivepolymersmaybeinkjetprintedinlayers.Mostoftheresearchanddevelopmentisof
theorganicLED(OLED).However,developmentofinexpensiveprintableorganicRFID(radiofrequency
identification)tagsisongoing.Inthiseffort,apentaceneorganicrectifierhasbeenoperatedat50MHz.
Rectificationto800MHzisadevelopmentgoal.Aninexpensivemetalinsulatormetal(MIM)diodeactinglike
abacktobackzenerdiodeclipperhasbeendelveloped.Also,atunneldiodelikedevicehasbeenfabricated.

SPICEmodels
TheSPICEcircuitsimulationprogramprovidesformodelingdiodesincircuitsimulations.Thediodemodelis
basedoncharacterizationofindividualdevicesasdescribedinaproductdatasheetandmanufacturingprocess
characteristicsnotlisted.Someinformationhasbeenextractedfroma1N4004datasheetinFigurebelow.
Datasheet1N4004excerpt,after[DI4].

Thediodestatementbeginswithadiodeelementnamewhichmustbeginwithdplusoptionalcharacters.
Examplediodeelementnamesinclude:d1,d2,dtest,da,db,d101.Twonodenumbersspecifytheconnectionof
theanodeandcathode,respectively,toothercomponents.Thenodenumbersarefollowedbyamodelname,
referringtoasubsequent.modelstatement.

Themodelstatementlinebeginswith.model,followedbythemodelnamematchingoneormorediode
statements.Next,adindicatesadiodeisbeingmodeled.Theremainderofthemodelstatementisalistof
optionaldiodeparametersoftheformParameterName=ParameterValue.NoneareusedinExamplebelow.
Example2hassomeparametersdefined.Foralistofdiodeparameters,seeTablebelow.

Generalform:d[name][anode][cathode][modelname]
.model([modelname]d[parmtr1=x][parmtr2=y]...)

Example:d112mod1
.modelmod1d

Example2:D212Da1N4004
.modelDa1N4004D(IS=18.8nRS=0BV=400IBV=5.00uCJO=30M=0.333N=2)

TheeasiestapproachtotakeforaSPICEmodelisthesameasforadatasheet:consultthemanufacturer'sweb
site.Tablebelowliststhemodelparametersforsomeselecteddiodes.AfallbackstrategyistobuildaSPICE
modelfromthoseparameterslistedonthedatasheet.Athirdstrategy,notconsideredhere,istotake
measurementsofanactualdevice.Then,calculate,compareandadjusttheSPICEparameterstothe
measurements.

DiodeSPICEparameters

Symbol Name Parameter Units Default

IS IS Saturationcurrent(diodeequation) A 1E14
RS RS Parsiticresistance(seriesresistance) 0
n N Emissioncoefficient,1to2 1
D TT Transittime s 0
CD(0) CJO Zerobiasjunctioncapacitance F 0
0 VJ Junctionpotential V 1
m M Junctiongradingcoefficient 0.5
0.33forlinearlygradedjunction
0.5forabruptjunction
Eg EG Activationenergy: eV 1.11
Si:1.11
Ge:0.67
Schottky:0.69
pi XTI IStemperatureexponent 3.0
pnjunction:3.0
Schottky:2.0
kf KF Flickernoisecoefficient 0
af AF Flickernoiseexponent 1
FC FC Forwardbiasdepletioncapacitancecoefficient 0.5
BV BV Reversebreakdownvoltage V
IBV IBV Reversebreakdowncurrent A 1E3

IfdiodeparametersarenotspecifiedasinExamplemodelabove,theparameterstakeonthedefaultvalues
listedinTableaboveandTablebelow.Thesedefaultsmodelintegratedcircuitdiodes.Thesearecertainly
adequateforpreliminaryworkwithdiscretedevicesFormorecriticalwork,useSPICEmodelssuppliedbythe
manufacturer[DIn],SPICEvendors,andothersources.[smi]

SPICEparametersforselecteddiodessk=schottkyGe=germaniumelsesilicon.

Part IS RS N TT CJO M VJ EG XTI BV IBV

Default 1E14 0 1 0 0 0.5 1 1.11 3 1m
1N5711sk 315n 2.8 2.03 1.44n 2.00p 0.333 0.69 2 70 10u
1N5712sk 680p 12 1.003 50p 1.0p 0.5 0.6 0.69 2 20
1N34Ge 200p 84m 2.19 144n 4.82p 0.333 0.75 0.67 60 15u
1N4148 35p 64m 1.24 5.0n 4.0p 0.285 0.6 75
1N3891 63n 9.6m 2 110n 114p 0.255 0.6 250
10A0410A 844n 2.06m 2.06 4.32u 277p 0.333 400 10u
1N40041A 76.9n 42.2m 1.45 4.32u 39.8p 0.333 400 5u
1N4004datasheet 18.8n 2 30p 0.333 400 5u

Otherwise,derivesomeoftheparametersfromthedatasheet.FirstselectavalueforspiceparameterNbetween
1and2.Itisrequiredforthediodeequation(n).Massobrio[PAGM]pp9,recommends"..n,theemission
coefficientisusuallyabout2."InTableabove,weseethatpowerrectifiers1N3891(12A),and10A04(10A)
bothuseabout2.Thefirstfourinthetablearenotrelevantbecausetheyareschottky,schottky,germanium,and
siliconsmallsignal,respectively.Thesaturationcurrent,IS,isderivedfromthediodeequation,avalueof(VD,
ID)onthegraphinFigureabove,andN=2(ninthediodeequation).

ID=IS(eVD/nVT1)

VT=26mVat25oCn=2.0VD=0.925Vat1Afromgraph

1A=IS(e(0.925V)/(2)(26mV)1)

IS=18.8E9

ThenumericalvaluesofIS=18.8nandN=2areenteredinlastlineofTableaboveforcomparisontothe
manufacturersmodelfor1N4004,whichisconsiderablydifferent.RSdefaultsto0fornow.Itwillbeestimated
later.TheimportantDCstaticparametersareN,IS,andRS.

Rashid[MHR]suggeststhatTT,D,thetransittime,beapproximatedfromthereverserecoverystoredcharge
QRR,adatasheetparameter(notavailableonourdatasheet)andIF,forwardcurrent.

ID=IS(eVD/nVT1)

D=QRR/IF

WetaketheTT=0defaultforlackofQRR.ThoughitwouldbereasonabletotakeTTforasimilarrectifierlike
the10A04at4.32u.The1N3891TTisnotavalidchoicebecauseitisafastrecoveryrectifier.CJO,thezero
biasjunctioncapacitanceisestimatedfromtheVRvsCJgraphinFigureabove.Thecapacitanceatthenearest
tozerovoltageonthegraphis30pFat1V.Ifsimulatinghighspeedtransientresponse,asinswitching
regulatorpowersupplies,TTandCJOparametersmustbeprovided.

ThejunctiongradingcoefficientMisrelatedtothedopingprofileofthejunction.Thisisnotadatasheetitem.
Thedefaultis0.5foranabruptjunction.WeoptforM=0.333correspondingtoalinearlygradedjunction.The
powerrectifiersinTableaboveuselowervaluesforMthan0.5.

WetakethedefaultvaluesforVJandEG.ManymorediodesuseVJ=0.6thanshowninTableabove.However
the10A04rectifierusesthedefault,whichweuseforour1N4004model(Da1N4001inTableabove).Usethe
defaultEG=1.11forsilicondiodesandrectifiers.Tableabovelistsvaluesforschottkyandgermanium
diodes.TaketheXTI=3,thedefaultIStemperaturecoefficientforsilicondevices.SeeTableaboveforXTIfor
schottkydiodes.

Theabbreviateddatasheet,Figureabove,listsIR=5A@VR=400V,correspondingtoIBV=5uandBV=400
respectively.The1n4004SPICEparametersderivedfromthedatasheetarelistedinthelastlineof
Tableaboveforcomparisontothemanufacturer'smodellistedaboveit.BVisonlynecessaryifthesimulation
exceedsthereversebreakdownvoltageofthediode,asisthecaseforzenerdiodes.IBV,reversebreakdown
current,isfrequentlyomitted,butmaybeenteredifprovidedwithBV.
Figurebelowshowsacircuittocomparethemanufacturersmodel,themodelderivedfromthedatasheet,and
thedefaultmodelusingdefaultparameters.Thethreedummy0Vsourcesarenecessaryfordiodecurrent
measurement.The1Vsourceissweptfrom0to1.4Vin0.2mVsteps.See.DCstatementinthenetlistin
Tablebelow.DI1N4004isthemanufacturer'sdiodemodel,Da1N4004isourderiveddiodemodel.

SPICEcircuitforcomparisonofmanufacturermodel(D1),calculateddatasheetmodel(D2),anddefaultmodel
(D3).

SPICEnetlistparameters:(D1)DI1N4004manufacturer'smodel,(D2)Da1N40004datasheetderived,(D3)
defaultdiodemodel.

*SPICEcircuit<03468.eps>fromXCircuitv3.20
D115DI1N4004
V1500
D213Da1N4004
V2300
D314Default
V3400
V4101
.DCV401400mV0.2m
.modelDa1N4004D(IS=18.8nRS=0BV=400IBV=5.00uCJO=30
+M=0.333N=2.0TT=0)
.MODELDI1N4004D(IS=76.9nRS=42.0mBV=400IBV=5.00uCJO=39.8p
+M=0.333N=1.45TT=4.32u)
.MODELDefaultD
.end

WecomparethethreemodelsinFigurebelow.andtothedatasheetgraphdatainTablebelow.VDisthediode
voltageversusthediodecurrentsforthemanufacturer'smodel,ourcalculateddatasheetmodelandthedefault
diodemodel.Thelastcolumn1N4004graphisfromthedatasheetvoltageversuscurrentcurvein
Figureabovewhichweattempttomatch.Comparisonofthecurrentsforthethreemodeltothelastcolumn
showsthatthedefaultmodelisgoodatlowcurrents,themanufacturer'smodelisgoodathighcurrents,andour
calculateddatasheetmodelisbestofallupto1A.Agreementisalmostperfectat1AbecausetheIScalculation
isbasedondiodevoltageat1A.Ourmodelgrosslyoverstatescurrentabove1A.
Firsttrialofmanufacturermodel,calculateddatasheetmodel,anddefaultmodel.

Comparisonofmanufacturermodel,calculateddatasheetmodel,anddefaultmodelto1N4004datasheetgraph
ofVvsI.

modelmodelmodel1N4004
indexVDmanufacturerdatasheetdefaultgraph
35007.000000e011.612924e+001.416211e025.674683e030.01
40018.002000e013.346832e+009.825960e022.731709e010.13
45009.000000e015.310740e+006.764928e011.294824e+010.7
46259.250000e015.823654e+001.096870e+003.404037e+011.0
50001.000000e007.395953e+004.675526e+006.185078e+022.0
55001.100000e+009.548779e+003.231452e+012.954471e+043.3
60001.200000e+001.174489e+012.233392e+021.411283e+065.3
65001.300000e+001.397087e+011.543591e+036.741379e+078.0
70001.400000e+001.621861e+011.066840e+043.220203e+0912.

ThesolutionistoincreaseRSfromthedefaultRS=0.ChangingRSfrom0to8minthedatasheetmodelcauses
thecurvetointersect10A(notshown)atthesamevoltageasthemanufacturer'smodel.IncreasingRSto28.6m
shiftsthecurvefurthertotherightasshowninFigurebelow.Thishastheeffectofmorecloselymatchingour
datasheetmodeltothedatasheetgraph(Figureabove).Tablebelowshowsthatthecurrent1.224470e+01Aat
1.4Vmatchesthegraphat12A.However,thecurrentat0.925Vhasdegradedfrom1.096870e+00aboveto
7.318536e01.
Secondtrialtoimprovecalculateddatasheetmodelcomparedwithmanufacturermodelanddefaultmodel.

ChangingDa1N4004modelstatementRS=0toRS=28.6mdecreasesthecurrentatVD=1.4Vto12.2A.

.modelDa1N4004D(IS=18.8nRS=28.6mBV=400IBV=5.00uCJO=30
+M=0.333N=2.0TT=0)
modelmodel1N4001
indexVDmanufacturerdatasheetgraph
35057.010000e011.628276e+001.432463e020.01
40008.000000e013.343072e+009.297594e020.13
45009.000000e015.310740e+005.102139e010.7
46259.250000e015.823654e+007.318536e011.0
50001.000000e007.395953e+001.763520e+002.0
55001.100000e+009.548779e+003.848553e+003.3
60001.200000e+001.174489e+016.419621e+005.3
65001.300000e+001.397087e+019.254581e+008.0
70001.400000e+001.621861e+011.224470e+0112.

Suggestedreaderexercise:decreaseNsothatthecurrentatVD=0.925Visrestoredto1A.Thismayincrease
thecurrent(12.2A)atVD=1.4VrequiringanincreaseofRStodecreasecurrentto12A.

Zenerdiode:Therearetwoapproachestomodelingazenerdiode:settheBVparametertothezenervoltagein
themodelstatement,ormodelthezenerwithasubcircuitcontainingadiodeclampersettothezenervoltage.
AnexampleofthefirstapproachsetsthebreakdownvoltageBVto15forthe1n446915Vzenerdiodemodel
(IBVoptional):

.modelD1N4469D(BV=15IBV=17m)

Thesecondapproachmodelsthezenerwithasubcircuit.ClamperD1andVZinFigurebelowmodelsthe15V
reversebreakdownvoltageofa1N4477Azenerdiode.DiodeDRaccountsfortheforwardconductionofthe
zenerinthesubcircuit.

.SUBCKTDI1N4744A12
*TerminalsAK
D112DF
DZ31DR
VZ2313.7
.MODELDFD(IS=27.5pRS=0.620N=1.10
+CJO=78.3pVJ=1.00M=0.330TT=50.1n)
 .MODELDRD(IS=5.49fRS=0.804N=1.77)
.ENDS

Zenerdiodesubcircuitusesclamper(D1andVZ)tomodelzener.

Tunneldiode:Atunneldiodemaybemodeledbyapairoffieldeffecttransistors(JFET)inaSPICE
subcircuit.[KHM]Anoscillatorcircuitisalsoshowninthisreference.

Gunndiode:AGunndiodemayalsobemodeledbyapairofJFET's.[ISG]Thisreferenceshowsamicrowave
relaxationoscillator.

REVIEW:
DiodesaredescribedinSPICEbyadiodecomponentstatementreferringto.modelstatement.The.model
statementcontainsparametersdescribingthediode.Ifparametersarenotprovided,themodeltakeson
defaultvalues.
StaticDCparametersincludeN,IS,andRS.Reversebreakdownparameters:BV,IBV.
AccuratedynamictimingrequiresTTandCJOparameters
Modelsprovidedbythemanufacturerarehighlyrecommended.

Contributors
Contributorstothischapterarelistedinchronologicalorderoftheircontributions,frommostrecenttofirst.See
Appendix2(ContributorList)fordatesandcontactinformation.

JeredWierzbicki(December2002):PointedouterrorindiodeequationBoltzmann'sconstantshown
incorrectly.