UNIT 1- PHYSIOLOGY & TRANSDUCERS

PART A (2 Marks)

1. Distinguish absolute & relative refractory period.(NOV 2007)

Following the generation of action potential, there is a brief period of time during which the cell
cannot respond to any new stimulus. This period is called absolute refractory period, lasting about 1
msec in nerve cells. Following the absolute refractory period, there occurs a relative refractory period,
during which another action potential can be triggered, but a stronger stimulation is required. In
nerve cells, the relative refractory period lasts several milliseconds.
2. What is a spinal cord? (NOV 2007)
The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissue and support cells that extends from
the brain (the medulla oblongata specifically). The brain and spinal cord together make up the central
nervous system (CNS). The spinal cord begins at the occipital bone and extends down to the space
between the first and second lumbar vertebrae; it does not extend the entire length of the vertebral
column. The spinal cord functions primarily in the transmission of neural signals between the brain
and the rest of the body but also contains neural circuits that can independently control numerous
reflexes and central pattern generators. The spinal cord has three major functions: as a conduit for
motor information, which travels down the spinal cord, as a conduit for sensory information in the
reverse direction, and finally as a center for coordinating certain reflexes.
3. Define action potential. (NOV 2011)
When a section of a cell membrane is excited by the flow of ionic current or by some form of externally
applied energy, the membrane changes its characteristics & begins to allow some of the sodium ions
to enter. This movement of sodium ions into the cell constitutes an ionic current flow that further
reduces the barrier of the membrane to sodium ions. The net result is avalanche effect in which
sodium ion rush into the cell to try to reach a balance with the ions outside. At the same time
potassium ions, which were in higher concentration inside the cell during the resting state, try to leave
the cell but are unable to move as rapidly as sodium ions. As a result the cell has a slightly positive
potential on the inside due to the imbalance of potassium ions. This potential is known as action
potential & is approximately equal to +20mV. A cell that has been excited & that displays an action
potential is said to be depolarized, & the process of changing from the resting state to the action
potential is known as depolarization.
4. What are active & passive transducers?(NOV 2011)
5. What is bioelectric potential? (MAY 2012)
Certain systems of the body generate their own monitoring signals, which convey the useful
information about the function they represent. These signals are called as Bioelectric Potentials.
They are actually ionic voltages produced as a result of electrochemical activity of certain special
type of cells. The transducers convert these ionic potential to electric voltages. These natural
signals can be measured, monitored & aid the physician in diagnosis & treatment of various
diseases.
6. What is propagation of action potential? (MAY 2012)
Same as Q3
7. What are resting & action potentials? (NOV 2012)
Same as Q3 & Q10
8. What is a neuron? Define the various parameter associated with it. (NOV 2012)

The basic unit of nervous system is the neuron. The neuron is the single cell with a cell body,
sometimes called as soma, one or more input fibers called dendrites & a long transmitting fiber
called as axon. The axon branches near its ending into two or more terminals. The portion of the
axon immediately adjacent to the cell body is called axon hillock. This is the point at which the
action potentials are usually generated. Branches that leave the main axon are often called
collaterals. The axons & dendrites are coated with a fatty insulating substance called as myelin.
The coating is called as myelin sheath. In some cases the myelin sheath is interrupted at rather
intervals by the nodes of ranvier, which helps the speed of transmission of of information along
the nerves. Outside of the central nervous system, the myelin sheath is surrounded by an
insulating layer called as neurilemma. This layer is thinner than the myelin sheath & continuous
over the nodes of ranvier, is made up of thin cells called Schwann cells.

9. Classify the biomedical instrumentation.(MAY 2013)

o Measuring Instruments.
o Audiometer
o Blood cell counter
o Blood Pressure meter
o Blood PH meter
o Blood flow meter
o Digital BP meter
o GSR meter
o Stethoscope
10. Define resting potential. (MAY 2013)
First the concentration of sodium cells inside the cell becomes much lower than in the intercellular
fluid outside. Since the sodium ions are positive, this would tend to make the outside of the cell
more positive than inside. Second in an attempt to balance the electric charge, additional
potassium ions which are also positive enter the cell, causing a higher concentration of potassium
on the inside than on the outside. This charge balance cannot be achieved, however, because of
the concentration imbalance of potassium ions. Equilibrium is reached with a potential difference
across the membrane, negative on the inside & positive on the outside. This membrane potential

is called the resting potential of the cell & is maintained until some kind of disturbance upsets the
equilibrium.
11. What is meant by cell?
 The basic living unit of the body is cell. The function of organs and other structure of the body
are understood by cell organization.
12. State the applications of medical instrumentation system?
To design experiments & clinical studies.
To summarize, explore, analyze & present data
To draw inferences from data by estimation or hypothesis testing
To evaluate diagnostic procedure
To assist clinical decision making.
13. What is meant by measurement?
Measurement is an act or the result of comparison between the quantity and a
predefined standard.
14. Mention the basic requirements of measurement.
The standard used for comparison purpose must be accurately defined and should be
commonly accepted. The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable.
15. What are the applications of piezo electric sensors?
in cardiology
In phonocardiology
in blood pressure measurement
in measuring physiological accelerations
16. Define transducers.
Transducers are defined as a device which when actuated, transforms energy from one
form to another. Generally, any physical parameters are converted into electrical form.

17. Name the parameters that dictate the transducer capability

Linearity
Repeatability
Resolution and
Reliability
18. Define sensitivity
Sensitivity is defines as the electrical output per unit change in the physical parameter.
High sensitivity is generally desirable for a transducer.
19. Classify electrical transducers?
Active transducer :
A transducer that gives its output without the use of an excitation
voltage or modulation of a carrier signal is called an active transducer.
Passive transducer :
A transducer that gives its output using an excitation voltage or
modulation of a carrier signal is called a passive transducer. Generally the active transducer converts
a non- electrical energy into electrical energy and converts an electrical into non electrical energy.

20. Name the 2 parts of a transducer

Sensing element

Transduction element
11. What is electrode potential (or) half cell potential?
The interface of metallic ion solution with their associated metal results in an electrode
potential.
21. What are the characteristics of resting potential?
 The value of potential is maintained as constant. It depends on temperature.
Permeability varies.
22. Define the process of sodium pump.
It is an active process, called a sodium pump in which the sodium ions are quickly
transported to the outside of the cell & the cell again becomes polarized and assumes its resting
potential.
23. Define circulatory system
It is a type of transport system. It helps in supplying the oxygen and digested food to
different parts of our body and removing CO2 from the blood. The heart is the center of the
circulatory system.
24. Define heart, lung?
Heart is a pumping organ which eats regularly and continuously for years. It beats seventy
times a minute at rest. Contraction is systole and relaxation is diastole.
25. Define circulation and respiration?
We can define from the engineering point of view; the circulation is a high resistance
circuit with a large pressure gradient between the arteries and veins. The exchange of any gases in
any biological process is termed as respiration.
26. Give the applications of measurement systems.
The instruments and measurement systems are used for
Monitoring of processes and operations. Control of
process and operations.
Experimental engineering analysis.
27. List the functional elements of the measurement systems.
Primary sensing element.
Variable conversion element and
Data processing element.
28. What is radiation thermometry?
The basis of radiation thermometry is that there is a known relationship between the
surface temperature of an object and its radiant power. This principle makes it possible to measure
the temperature of a body without physical contact to it.
29. What is signal conditioning?
The performing of non-linear processes like modulation, detection, sampling, filtering,
chopping and clipping etc. on the signal to bring it to desired form is called signal conditioning.
30. What is meant by Resting Potential?
Equilibrium is reached with a potential difference across the membrane such that
negative on inside and positive on outside. This membrane potential caused by the different
concentration of irons is called Resting Potential.
31. What is meant by Action Potential?
 Cell has a slightly positive potential on the inside due to imbalance of potassium ions.
This positive potential of the cell membrane during excitation is called Action Potential and is about
20 mV.

PART B (8 & 16 Marks)

1. With relevant graph explain the relationship between the action potential & muscle contraction.
(NOV 2007)

SOURCES OF BIOELECTRIC POTENTIAL:

Certain systems of the body generate their own monitoring signals, which convey the useful
information about the function they represent. These signals are called as Bioelectric Potentials.
They are actually ionic voltages produced as a result of electrochemical activity of certain special
type of cells. The transducers convert these ionic potential to electric voltages. These natural
signals can be measured, monitored & aid the physician in diagnosis & treatment of various
diseases.

RESTING & ACTION POTENTIAL:

Certain types of cells within the body, such as nerve & muscle cells are encased in a semi
permeable membrane that permits some substances to pass through the membrane while others
kept out.

Surrounding the cells of the body are the body fluids. These fluids are conductive solutions
containing charged atoms known as ions. These principal ions are sodium Na +, potassium K+ &
chloride C-. the membrane of the excitable cells readily permits entry of potassium & chloride ions
but effectively blocks the entry of sodium ions. Since the various ions seek a balance between the
inside of the cell & the outside, both according to the concentration of electric charge, the inability
of the sodium to penetrate the membrane results in two conditions.

First the concentration of sodium cells inside the cell becomes much lower than in the intercellular
fluid outside. Since the sodium ions are positive, this would tend to make the outside of the cell
more positive than inside. Second in an attempt to balance the electric charge, additional
potassium ions which are also positive enter the cell, causing a higher concentration of potassium
on the inside than on the outside. This charge balance cannot be achieved, however, because of
the concentration imbalance of potassium ions. Equilibrium is reached with a potential difference
across the membrane, negative on the inside & positive on the outside.

This membrane potential is called the resting potential of the cell & is maintained until some kind
of disturbance upsets the equilibrium. Since the membrane potential measurement is made from
inside the cell with respect to the body fluids, the resting potential is negative & ranges from -60
to -100mV. A cell in resting state is said to be polarized.

When a section of a cell membrane is excited by the flow of ionic current or by some form of
externally applied energy, the membrane changes its characteristics & begins to allow some of
the sodium ions to enter. This movement of sodium ions into the cell constitutes an ionic current
flow that further reduces the barrier of the membrane to sodium ions. The net result is avalanche
effect in which sodium ion rush into the cell to try to reach a balance with the ions outside. At the
same time potassium ions, which were in higher concentration inside the cell during the resting
state, try to leave the cell but are unable to move as rapidly as sodium ions. As a result the cell
has a slightly positive potential on the inside due to the imbalance of potassium ions. This
potential is known as action potential & is approximately equal to +20mV. A cell that has been
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 excited & that displays an action potential is said to be depolarized, & the process of changing
from the resting state to the action potential is known as depolarization.

Once the rush of sodium ions through the cell membrane has stopped, a new state of equilibrium
is reached. the ionic currents that lowered the barrier to sodium ions are no longer present & the
membrane reverts back to its original selectively permeable condition, whereas the passage of
sodium ions from the outside to the inside of the cell is again blocked. It would take a long time
for the resting potential to develop again. But by an active process called as sodium pump, the
sodium ions are quickly transported to the outside of the cell, & the cell again becomes polarized
& assumes its resting potential. This process is called is called repolarization. The rate of
pumping is directly proportional to the sodium concentration in the cell.

The above figure shows the action potential waveform, beginning at the resting potential,
depolarizing & returning to the resting potential after repolarization

Following the generation of action potential, there is a brief period of time during which the cell
cannot respond to any new stimulus. This period is called absolute refractory period, lasting about
1 msec in nerve cells. Following the absolute refractory period, there occurs a relative refractory
period, during which another action potential can be triggered, but a stronger stimulation is
required. In nerve cells, the relative refractory period lasts several milliseconds.

2. Explain in detail how pulsatile blood volume changes can be measured using photoelectric type
resistive transducer. (NOV 2007)

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 3. Explain in detail central & peripheral nervous system. (NOV 2007)
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system is one which is responsible for the task of controlling the various functions of
the body & coordinating them into integrated living organisms. The basic unit of nervous system
is the neuron. The neuron is the single cell with a cell body, sometimes called as soma, one or
more input fibers called dendrites & a long transmitting fiber called as axon. The axon branches
near its ending into two or more terminals

The portion of the axon immediately adjacent to the cell body is called axon hillock. This is the
point at which the action potentials are usually generated. Branches that leave the main axon are
often called collaterals. The axons & dendrites are coated with a fatty insulating substance called
as myelin. The coating is called as myelin sheath. In some cases the myelin sheath is interrupted
at rather intervals by the nodes of ranvier, which helps the speed of transmission of of information
along the nerves. Outside of the central nervous system, the myelin sheath is surrounded by an
insulating layer called as neurilemma. This layer is thinner than the myelin sheath & continuous
over the nodes of ranvier, is made up of thin cells called Schwann cells.
Both axons & dendrites are called as nerve fibers & a bundle of individual nerve fibber is called as
nerve. Nerves that carry information from various parts of the body to the brain is called afferent
nerves & that from brain to various parts of the body is called efferent nerves.
Central Nervous system (CNS)

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 The brain is an enlarged collection of cell bodies & fibers located inside the skull, where it is well
protected from physical, temperature & chemical shock. The lower end of the brain connects with
the spinal cord, which also contains many cell bodies & fibers. Brain & spinal cord together forms
the central nervous system.

Cell bodies & small fibers in fresh brain are gray in color & are called gray matter, whereas the
myelin coating of larger fibers has a white appearance & are called as white matter. Collection of
neuronal cell bodies within the central nervous system is called nuclei; whereas the collection
outside the central nervous system is called ganglia. The central nervous system is generally said
to have bilateral symmetry.
Nerve fibers outside the CNS are called peripheral nerves. Afferent peripheral nerves that brings
sensory information to the CNS is called sensory nerves, whereas the the efferent nerves that
control the motor functions of the muscles are called as motor nerves.
The interconnection between neurons is called as synapses. All synapses occur at or near cell
bodies. In the nervous system, a synapse is a structure that permits a neuron (or nerve cell) to
pass an electrical or chemical signal to another cell. Synapses are essential to neuronal function:
neurons are cells that are specialized to pass signals to individual target cells, and synapses are
the means by which they do so. At a synapse, the plasma membrane of the signal-passing
neuron (the presynaptic neuron) comes into close apposition with the membrane of the target
(postsynaptic) cell. Both the presynaptic and postsynaptic sites contain extensive arrays of
molecular machinery that link the two membranes together and carry out the signaling process. In
many synapses, the presynaptic part is located on an axon, but some presynaptic sites are
located on a dendrite or soma.Astrocytes also exchange information with the synaptic neurons,
responding to synaptic activity and, in turn, regulating neurotransmission.

There are two fundamentally different types of synapses:

In a chemical synapse, electrical activity in the presynaptic neuron is converted (via the
activation of voltage-gated calcium channels) into the release of a chemical called
aneurotransmitter that binds to receptors located in the plasma membrane of the postsynaptic

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 cell. The neurotransmitter may initiate an electrical response or a secondary messenger pathway
that may either excite or inhibit the postsynaptic neuron. Chemical synapses can be classified
according to the neurotransmitter released: glutamatergic (excitatory), GABAergic (inhibitory),
cholinergic (e.g. vertebrate neuromuscular junction) and adrenergic (releasing norepinephrine).
Because of the complexity of receptorsignal transduction, chemical synapses can have complex
effects on the postsynaptic cell.
In an electrical synapse, the presynaptic and postsynaptic cell membranes are connected by
special channels called gap junctions that are capable of passing electric current, causing voltage
changes in the presynaptic cell to induce voltage changes in the postsynaptic cell. The main
advantage of an electrical synapse is the rapid transfer of signals from one cell to the next
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The main function of PNS is to connect the CNS to the organs & limbs of the body. The PNS
consists of several subsystems,
1. Somatic sensory nervous system system of afferent nerves that carry sensory information from
the sensors on the skin to the brain.
2. Auditory nervous system carries information from the auditory sensors in the ears to the brain.
3. Visual pathways carry sensory information from eyes to the brain.
4. Autonomic nervous system which involves emotional responses & controls smooth muscle in
various parts of the body, heart muscle & secretion of a number of glands.
Sympathetic nervous system speeds up the heart, causes secretion of some glands &
inhibits other body functions. In general it tends to mobilize the body for emergencies.
Parasympathetic nervous system which tends to slow the heart & controls the
contraction & secretion of the stomach. In general it tends to conserve & store bodily
resources.
Structure of Brain & Spinal Cord

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 The human brain has the same general structure as the brains of other mammals, but has a
more developed cortex than any other. Large animals such as whales and elephants have larger
brains in absolute terms, but when measured using the encephalization quotient which
compensates for body size, the human brain is almost twice as large as the brain of the
bottlenose dolphin, and three times as large as the brain of a chimpanzee. Much of the expansion
comes from the part of the brain called the cerebral cortex, especially the frontal lobes, which are
associated with executive functions such as self-control, planning, reasoning, and abstract
thought. The portion of the cerebral cortex devoted to vision is also greatly enlarged in humans.

The human cerebral cortex is a thick layer of neural tissue that covers most of the brain. This
layer is folded in a way that increases the amount of surface that can fit into the volume available.
The pattern of folds is similar across individuals, although there are many small variations. The
cortex is divided into four "lobes", called the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and
occipital lobe. (Some classification systems also include a limbic lobe and treat the insular cortex
as a lobe.) Within each lobe are numerous cortical areas, each associated with a particular
function such as vision, motor control, language, etc. The left and right sides of the cortex are
broadly similar in shape, and most cortical areas are replicated on both sides. Some areas,
though, show strong lateralization, particularly areas that are involved in language. In most
people, the left hemisphere is "dominant" for language, with the right hemisphere playing only a
minor role. There are other functions, such as spatiotemporal reasoning, for which the right
hemisphere is usually dominant.
Despite being protected by the thick bones of the skull, suspended in cerebrospinal fluid, and
isolated from the bloodstream by the bloodbrain barrier, the human brain is susceptible to
damage and disease. The most common forms of physical damage are closed head injuries such
as a blow to the head, a stroke, or poisoning by a variety of chemicals that can act as
neurotoxins. Infection of the brain, though serious, is rare due to the biological barriers which
protect it. The human brain is also susceptible to degenerative disorders, such as Parkinson's
disease, multiple sclerosis, and Alzheimer's disease. A number of psychiatric conditions, such
asschizophrenia and depression, are thought to be associated with brain dysfunctions, although
the nature of such brain anomalies is not well understood.
Scientifically, the techniques that are used to study the human brain differ in important ways from
those that are used to study the brains of other mammals. On the one hand, invasive techniques
such as inserting electrodes into the brain, or disabling parts of the brain in order to examine the
effect on behavior, are used with non-human species, but for ethical reasons, are generally not
performed with humans. On the other hand, humans are the only subjects who can respond to
complex verbal instructions. Thus, it is often possible to use non-invasive techniques such as
functional neuroimaging or EEG recording more productively with humans than with non-humans.
Furthermore, some of the most important topics, such as language, can hardly be studied at all
except in humans. In many cases, human and non-human studies form essential complements to
each other. Individual brain cells (except where tissue samples are taken for biopsy for suspected
brain tumors) can only be studied in non-humans; complex cognitive tasks can only be studied in
humans. Combining the two sources of information to yield a complete functional understanding
of the human brain is an ongoing challenge for neuroscience.
The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissue and support cells that extends
from the brain (the medulla oblongata specifically). The brain and spinal cord together make up
the central nervous system (CNS). The spinal cord begins at the occipital bone and extends down
to the space between the first and second lumbar vertebrae; it does not extend the entire length
of the vertebral column. It is around 45 cm (18 in) in men and around 43 cm (17 in) long in
women. Also, the spinal cord has a varying width, ranging from 1/2 inch thick in the cervical and
lumbar regions to 1/4 inch thick in the thoracic area. The enclosing bony vertebral column
protects the relatively shorter spinal cord. The spinal cord functions primarily in the transmission
of neural signals between the brain and the rest of the body but also contains neural circuits that
can independently control numerous reflexes and central pattern generators. The
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 spinal cord has three major functions: as a conduit for motor information, which travels down the
spinal cord, as a conduit for sensory information in the reverse direction, and finally as a center
for coordinating certain reflexes.
4. Draw the diagram & equivalent circuit of a differential capacitance pressure transducer & briefly
explain its operation. (NOV 2007)

5. Discuss the different ways of transport of ions through the cell membrane. (NOV 2011)
Same as Q1
6. Explain the different parts of central nervous system & their activity. (NOV 2011)
Same as Q2
7. Briefly explain the action of piezoelectric transducer as arterial pressure sensor. (NOV 2011)

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 8. Explain the working of fiber optic temperature sensor. (NOV 2011)

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 9. Explain the structure of human cell & its constituents with neat diagram. (MAY 2012)
CELL & ITS STRUCTURE:
The basic living unit of the body is the cell. Each organ of our body is an aggregate of many
different types of cells held together by intercellular supporting structures. Each type of cell
performs one type of function. The entire body contains 100 trillion cells. Among these 25
trillion cells are red blood cells which transport oxygen from lungs to tissue. Generally all cells
have the ability to reproduce new cells whenever the cells of a particular type are destroyed.
Further in all cells oxygen combines with carbohydrate, fat & protein to release the energy
required for the cell function.
Each cell consists of a centrally located nucleus (cell core) surrounded by the cytoplasm(cell
body). The nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a nuclear membrane and the cytoplasm
is separated from the surrounding fluids by a cell membrane. The different substance which
make up a cell are collectively is called protoplasm which is composed of water electrolytes,
proteins, lipids and carbohydrates.
Water is the principal fluid medium of the cell & its concentration is in between 70& 85%. Water
serves as solvent for various chemicals to produce chemical reactions. The electrolytes present
in the cell are potassium, magnesium, phosphate, sulphate, bicarbonate & small quantities of
sodium, calcium and chloride. The electrolytes provide inorganic chemicals for cellular reactions.
Further electrolytes at the cell membrane allow transmission of electrochemical impulses in
nerve & muscle fibers and the intracellular electrolytes determine the activity of different
enzymatically catalyzed reactions that are necessary for cellular metabolism. Proteins constitutes
10 20% of the cell mass & are divided into structural proteins & globular proteins(enzymes).
Structural proteins are in the form of long thin filaments which are
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 composed of polymers of many protein molecules. They are used to provide the contractile
mechanisms of all muscles. The globular proteins are globular form & are mainly the enzymes
which catalyze the chemical reactions which provide energy for cellular reactions. Lipids are
composed of different types of materials. They are fat soluble & water soluble. Important lipids
are phospholipids & cholesterol which are used to form membranous barriers that separate the
different cellular compartments. Carbohydrates play a major role in nutrition of the cell. They
are stored in the cells in the form of glycogen which are used to supply the cells energy. they are
present in the extracellular fluid in the form of glucose.

The cell also contains highly organized physical structures, called organells consisting of cells
chemical constituents. The cytoplasm is filled with cytosol ( clear fluid portion of the cytoplasm),
in which the minute & large particles and organelle are dispersed. Ribosome are minute granular
particles in the cytosol & are composed of a mixture of Ribonucleic acid (RNA) & proteins & they
function in the synthesis of protein in the cells. Lysosomes are vesicular organells & provide an
intracellular digestive system that allows the cell to digest & therby remove unwanted substance
& damage or the forign structures such as bacteria. The mitochondria organells are called as
power house of the cell. The cells extract significant amount of energy from the nutrients &
oxygen by means of the mitochondria. The mitochondria contains the deoxyribonucleic
acid(DNA) similar to that found in the nucleus. DNA is the basic structure of the nucleus that
controls the replication of the cell. Nucleus contains large quantity of DNA which are called
genes.
The genes first reproduce themselves & after this, the cell splits by a special process called
mitosisi to form two daughter cells. Inside the nucleus there is nucleolus which contains a large
amount of RNA & protein of the type found in ribosome. The size of the cell is in the range of 5
10 m.
Nature of Cancer Cells:
Generally cancer is caused by mutation or abnormal activation of cellular genes that control cell
growth 7cell mitosis. The abnormal genes are called oncogenes. The problem of mutation can be
increased by following factors.
Exposure of ionizing radiations x rays , gamma rays & UV rays can produce ions in tissue
cells. These ions are highly reactive & can rupture DNA strands thus causing mutation.
Chemical Substance like aniline dye derivatives from chemical plants cause mutations.
These chemical substances are called carcinogen. Carcinogens are present in cigarette
smoke.
Physical Irritants continuous abrasion of linings of intestinal tract by some type of food
produces damage to the tissues which lead to rapid replacement of the cells by mitosis
which causes mutation.

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 Hereditary Most cancer requires not only one mutation but two or three mutation before
cancer occurs.
Viruses certain types of cancer are caused by viruses example, leukemia.

10. What are the characteristic features to be considered while selecting a transducer? (MAY 2012)

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 11. Mention the names of the different subsystems in our body. Explain them with respect to their
function & constituents. (MAY 2012)

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 12. Explain the characteristics of resting potential, with reference to
Nernst Equation. (MAY 2012)
13. Draw the block diagram of a biomedical instrument system & briefly explain its components.
(NOV 2012)

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 14. Discuss the specification of a medical instrument system. (NOV 2012)
Same as Q13
15. List the advantages of optical fiber sensor. (NOV 2012)
Same as Q8
16. Explain a piezoelectric ultrasonic transducer with a neat schematic diagram. (NOV 2012)
Same as Q7
17. List the cell components & their functions. (MAY 2013)
Same as Q9
18. What are the difficulties in measuring living system? Explain in detail. (MAY 2013)

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