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A Dissertation
Doctor of Philosophy
December 2010
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ii
Indiana University of Pennsylvania
The School of Graduate Studies and Research
Department of English
ACCEPTED
Signature on File
Timothy P. Mack, Ph.D
Dean
The School of Graduate Studies and Research
iii
Title: The Listening Strategies of Tunisian University EFL Learners: A Strategy Based
increasingly global and television, radio, and the Internet become forums for English
communication. However, many countries, such as Tunisia, do not use English as a first
English language. Universities students, who elect to study English, are required to study
oral subjects, such as listening comprehension, as part of their studies. However, these
EFL learners struggle to understand oral English texts, in their listening comprehension
classes. This present study studies the reasons that Tunisian EFL learners have difficulty
the study used a questionnaire, interviews, listening diaries, and think-aloud protocols
with Tunisia university EFL learners to identify the listening strategies that they use and
the obstacles that they encounter while they listen to oral English transactional texts.
Based on the conviction that EFL learners are active in the listening comprehension
iv
process, this research is grounded on a cognitive strategic model, which combines
The findings of this study show that Tunisian EFL learners are active in the
listening process and use some strategies to help them understand some texts. However,
when they encounter listening obstacles during the listening process, they are unable to
orchestrate their strategy use and fail to comprehend the texts. Furthermore, the study
indicates that the learners have few reserve strategies to use when they are prevented
from using their default strategies. I conclude by proposing ways for listening
comprehension teachers to incorporate strategy teaching, graded oral texts, and culturally
appropriate tasks so that listening obstacles can be minimized and strategy orchestration
can be maximized.
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Writing this dissertation is the final step in a long journey. I would not have
begun this journey if it had not been for Dr. Jerry Gebhard and Dr. Ron Shafer who
encouraged me and gave me valuable advice during the PhD application process. There
were also many others along the way who kept cheering me on and encouraging me to
complete my PhD. Besides my wife, my main cheerleaders were the SKOP (Some Kind
of People) group. These are my friends who began the Composition/TESOL program
with me. They kept in touch and encouraged me to do my best and to reach my goals. To
research. I would also like to thank my committee members, Dr. Ben Rafoth and Dr.
Nancy Hayward for the valuable comments and suggestions they gave me to improve my
I would also like to thank Dr. Abdelmajid Ayadi, director of the Higher Institute of
I also would like to convey my appreciation to my research participants in Gabes for their
time and cooperation. It is because of their input that I was able to finish my research.
grammar.
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Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to my parents, James L. and M.
Eilene Ishler, for their encouragement on this journey, their comments and suggestions on
vii
DEDICATION
I dedicate this dissertation to the Lord God Almighty, who gave me the wisdom, strength,
and help I needed to complete this dissertation. I also dedicate this dissertation to my
wife, Houtef Ishler, the love of my life, who encouraged me to pursue a PhD, encouraged
me to press on when I wanted to give up, and sacrificed her time and energy so that I
could spend time collecting and analyzing data and writing up the results. She also gave
me space so that I could spend countless hours writing, revising, refining, and writing
again.
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER Page
ABSTRACT..................................................................................................iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS..........................................................................vi
DEDICATION.............................................................................................viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS..............................................................................ix
ONE INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................1
ix
TWO REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE..............................................................32
Introduction..................................................................................................32
Representation of Memory...........................................................................33
The Information-Processing System................................................33
Working Memory.................................................................34
Control Processes.................................................................37
Long-Term Memory.............................................................37
Declarative Knowledge........................................................38
Procedural Knowledge.........................................................39
Declarative Knowledge vs. Procedural Knowledge.............42
The Structure of Declarative Knowledge in Memory..........42
Accessing Declarative Knowledge from Memory...........................44
Comprehension............................................................................................44
Comprehension and the Role of Attention.......................................44
Definition of Comprehension...........................................................45
Word Identification Stage.................................................................46
Mapping the Acoustic Signal to an Initial Phonemic
Representation......................................................................46
Mapping the Initial Phonemic Representation
to a Person's Internal Lexicon..............................................47
The Trace Model......................................................47
The Cohort Model....................................................49
Segmentation........................................................................51
Attentional Signals...............................................................52
Meaning Construction Stage............................................................53
Schema Theory.....................................................................54
The Construction-Integration Model....................................55
Construction Phase...................................................60
Integration Phase......................................................60
L2 Learners and Comprehension.....................................................61
An L2 Selection-Access Model............................................61
An L2 Construction-Integration Model................................61
Working Memory and Comprehension............................................66
Cognitive Deficit..................................................................66
Cognitive Load.....................................................................66
L2 Listening Proficiency vs. L1 Listening Ability...........................68
Selected Research on Listening Comprehension and Learning Strategies. .70
Cognitive L2 Listening Comprehension Research...........................70
The Aural Signal..................................................................70
Segmentation........................................................................71
Materials and Teaching Methodology..................................72
x
Learners' Listening Proficiency............................................73
Learning Strategy Research.............................................................74
Learning Strategies...............................................................74
Metacognitive Strategy Awareness......................................75
Learning Strategy Use..........................................................76
Listening Comprehension Problems....................................77
A Cognitive Strategic Model for Listening Comprehension........................78
The Importance of Strategies in Listening Comprehension.............79
The Use of Strategies in the Information Processing System..........79
The Use of Tasks in Listening Comprehension................................85
Task Difficulty......................................................................86
Task Distortion.....................................................................86
Strategies and Foreign Language Learners......................................87
Learning Strategies in Listening Comprehension............................89
Listening Comprehension in a Tunisian Context.................89
Relationship of Research Questions to the Theoretical
Perspective.......................................................................................91
Summary of the Chapter..............................................................................92
Introduction..................................................................................................94
Definition of Qualitative Research...................................................95
Purpose for Using Qualitative Methodology for this Research.......97
Theoretical Frame............................................................................98
Relationship of Research Questions to Methodology......................99
Researchers Background and Role............................................................100
Researchers Background................................................................100
Researchers Role............................................................................101
Ethical Considerations...............................................................................102
Participants and Selection Procedure.........................................................104
Data Collection Methods...........................................................................108
Classroom Observations................................................................110
Questionnaire.................................................................................112
Group Interviews............................................................................116
Individual Interviews.....................................................................117
Listening Diaries............................................................................121
Think-Aloud Protocols...................................................................123
The Use of Think-aloud Protocols in
Cognitive Strategy Research..............................................123
Texts and Tasks Used for the Protocol...............................125
Equipment Used for the Protocol.......................................127
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Training Conducted for the Protocol..................................128
The Think-aloud Process....................................................129
Retrospective Interviews....................................................131
Obstacles Encountered during the Data Collection Process..........131
Listening Diaries................................................................132
Think-aloud Protocols........................................................132
Method of Data Analysis............................................................................136
Transcription.. ................................................................................136
Interview Transcription......................................................137
Think-aloud Protocol Transcription...................................137
Data Reduction...............................................................................137
Data Reduction and Coding of the Interviews...................140
Data Reduction and Coding of the Observations...............140
Data Reduction and Coding of the Diaries........................141
Data Reduction and Coding of the
Think-Aloud Protocols.......................................................141
Data Reduction and Coding of the
Retrospective Interviews....................................................141
Data Reduction and Coding of the Researcher's
Field Journal and Memos...................................................142
Data Analysis. ................................................................................142
Validity....................... ................................................................................143
Credibility.......................................................................................144
Transferability................................................................................145
Dependability and Confirmability.................................................145
Summary of the Chapter............................................................................145
FOUR FINDINGS.................................................................................................148
Introduction................................................................................................148
Listening Strategies Identified among Tunisian EFL Learners..................150
Findings from the Questionnaire....................................................150
Findings from the Listening Diaries..............................................154
Findings from the Group Interviews..............................................157
Findings from the Individual Interviews........................................162
Findings from the Think-aloud Protocols......................................169
Listening Obstacles Identified among Tunisian EFL Learners..................179
Findings from the Questionnaire and from the Group Interviews. 179
Findings from the Listening Diaries..............................................183
Findings from the Individual Interviews........................................187
Findings from the Think-aloud Protocols......................................192
Discussion of the Listening Obstacles...........................................194
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Text Speed..........................................................................195
The Relationship between Text Speed and Pause Length..196
Comprehension of the Text: Clear Word Focus.................199
Task Obstacles....................................................................199
External Obstacles..............................................................202
Topic Familiarity and Lack of Topic Affection..................203
Hatem's Story as an Example of a Tunisian EFL Student's Strategy Use..205
Conclusion.................................................................................................210
Introduction................................................................................................213
Listening Strategies and the Cognitive Strategic Comprehension Model. 215
The Function of Strategies in the
Cognitive Strategic Comprehension Model...............................................220
The Function of Listening Strategies in the
Information-Processing System.....................................................221
The Function of Listening Strategies in the
Comprehension Process.................................................................234
Tunisian EFL Students' Orchestration of Strategies
Listening to Oral Texts...............................................................................245
Strategy Use and the Cognitive Strategic Comprehension Model.246
An Examination of Strategy Use for Easy Oral Texts.......246
An Examination of Strategy Use for Difficult Oral Texts. 250
Basam as an Example of a Tunisian EFL Learner..................................259
Summary of the Chapter............................................................................268
SIX CONCLUSION..........................................................................................272
Introduction................................................................................................272
Discussion of Tunisian EFL Learners' Listening Strategy Use
and Obstacles Encountered........................................................................273
A Summary of Listening Strategy Use..........................................273
A Summary of Listening Obstacles Encountered..........................276
Discussion of the Function of Tunisian EFL Learners'
Listening Strategies....................................................................................278
Discussion of the Orchestration of Tunisian EFL Learners'
Listening Strategies....................................................................................281
Implications for Teaching Listening Comprehension to EFL Learners.....283
Implications for Listening Comprehension Research................................290
Suggestions for Further Research..............................................................293
xiii
REFERENCES.............................................................................................................295
APPENDICES
Appendix A Request Letter to the Director of the Gabes Campus............309
Appendix B Student Participant Informed Consent Form.........................310
Appendix C
Sample of Posted Announcement for Student Volunteers .............311
Student Volunteer Request Form....................................................312
Appendix D Observation Rubric................................................................313
Appendix E Tunisian EFL Learner Questionnaire.....................................314
Appendix F
Oxford Strategy Inventory for Language Learners........................324
Strategy Inventory Statements and Modifications for Research....327
Appendix G Coded Inventory...................................................................329
Appendix H Questions for Group Interviews............................................333
Appendix I Tasks for Individual Interviews.............................................334
Appendix J Text Transcripts for Interviews ............................................354
Appendix K Questions for Individual Interviews......................................377
Appendix L Student Listening Diary Writing Guidelines.........................378
Appendix M Tasks for Think-aloud Protocols...........................................380
Appendix N Text Transcripts for Think-aloud Protocols..........................391
Appendix O Questions for Retrospective Interviews after
Think-aloud Protocols........................................................415
Appendix P Interview Summary Form....................................................416
Appendix Q Observation Summary Form................................................417
Appendix R Listening Diary Summary Form...........................................418
Appendix S Retrospective Interview Summary Form for
Think-aloud Protocols........................................................419
Appendix T Researcher's Journal/Memo Summary Form........................420
xiv
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
4 Pseudonyms of Informants...............................................................................108
xv
18 Listening Obstacles Reported during the Individual Interviews......................188
xvi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
6 An example of a textbase....................................................................................57
xvii
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
The main thesis of this study is that Tunisian EFL learners are active listeners and
Unfortunately, instead of being empowered to use strategies that aid them to successfully
understand oral transactional texts in English, they are treated by the educational
establishment as vessels to be filled with the knowledge that comes from the
representative of the establishment, the teacher. Because Tunisian EFL learners are not
active in the listening process, they have difficulties comprehending oral English texts,
and they often use ineffective listening strategies. In addition, they encounter obstacles
that impede or prevent them from using listening strategies with little or no means to
Therefore, I first provide a short history of the audio-lingual method and the affect that
the audio-lingual method has had on Tunisian EFL learners. After I give an overview of
the audio-lingual method, I discuss the problem of the study and my central argument in
more depth. I end this chapter by describing the specific details of my study and
providing a brief summary of the chapter. In my description of the study I include the
purpose of the study, present my research questions, describe the sites for my study, and
1
Background to the Study
Understanding the history of this teaching method is foundational to grasp the effect the
audio-lingual method has had on the teaching of EFL learners in many educational
The audio-lingual method was implemented in 1943, when the U.S. government
started a language teaching program called the Army Specialized Training Program.
This program was replaced in 1946 with a similar program called the Post-Hostilities
Training Program (Giuliano, 1947, p. 60). These language programs made certain
assumptions about language teaching, such as teaching oral language before written
language and teaching receptive language skills before productive language skills.
Oral language was the primary focus so that learners in the program would be able to
understand and speak to native speakers of the target language (Lado, 1964, p. 50, 53,
Scanio, 1944, p. 188). This program also relied on teachers who were native speakers, or
near-native speakers of the target language. Therefore, it privileged the native speaker
teacher over teachers who maybe knew the language but could not speak it fluently
2006, p. 99) and it had the support of many linguists, including Brooks, Fries and Fries,
2
and Lado, all of whom gave an important framework for the audio-lingual method
(Kumaravadivelu, 2006, p.98). Even though the audio-lingual method lost its
successfully refuted its theoretical support, the ideas of the audio-lingual method still
continue to impact the way that language, especially oral language, is taught (Cook,
2001, p. 210).
students to use the language outside the classroom, and it assumed that anything
presented to students should be heard before being seen. It accomplished this by using
Therefore, an underlying assumption of the audio-lingual method was that if the student
learned these dialogues by heart, they could be used in conversations with native English
speakers outside of the classroom (Cook, 2001, pp. 206-207, Lado, 1964, p. 61-62).
Another underlying assumption was that native speakers should teach the language so
that words and sentences were presented with the correct pronunciation and stress. A
third principle was that a foreign language can be learned only with reference to the
culture of the people who speak that language (Lado, 1964, p. 56). Therefore, as teachers
from the United States taught English around the world, the culture of the United States
features of the language instead of providing language they could use outside the
3
classroom. Therefore, even though the proponents of the audio-lingual method expected
that the students would use the phrases and vocabulary outside of class, in reality the
students were unable to transfer what they learned from the classroom to their
Even though the audio-lingual method's theoretical basis has been rejected, the
audio-lingual method still influences policy decisions and pedagogy in many countries,
including Tunisia (Anggraeni, 2007; Daoud, 1996, p. 600). The influence of the audio-
lingual method is strongest in the primary and secondary schools, which provide the
controlled by the government, education policy, including teaching methods, are also
passed down by the government. These policies change very slowly. In addition, even
when government policies and approved education methods change, teachers are slow to
implement these changes, preferring to continue to use their own methods. Thus,
teachers often use the audio-lingual method in their teaching when the pupils start
required, formal education at the age of six in primary schools and they continue to be
exposed to this method through nine years of basic school education and fours of
Therefore, these pupils are accustomed to this method when they start to learn English in
the sixth year of primary school. Pupils studying on the academic track, including those
4
who want to continue their English studies, finish their secondary school education by
taking a college entrance exam called the Tunisian Baccalaureate (Tunisian Ministry of
Tunisians learn a dialectical form of Arabic from the time they are born until they
enter school. Throughout the basic education of pupils, but especially in the first six
years of their education, they learn Modern Standard Arabic, a standard form of Arabic
which is common to all Arabic speakers throughout the world. This form of Arabic is
used in writing and on television and radio. However, it is different from the spoken
form of Arabic that Tunisians use. Therefore, they must learn a different form of Arabic,
with a different grammar and vocabulary, than their mother language. When pupils enter
the third year of primary school they begin to learn French, the second language in
Tunisia; and when they enter the sixth year of primary school, they begin to learn
English, which is taught from the last year of primary school to the last year of secondary
school. In the primary school, most classes are taught in Modern Standard Arabic.
However, in the secondary school, only language and liberal arts classes are taught using
Modern Standard Arabic; most of the math and science classes are taught using French.
English is taught as a foreign language and it is not used outside of English language
education. The previous textbook was called Communicate in English (Badri, Malki,
Mammou, 1992). The preface to this book states, [The book] teaches new language
forms and their uses and practices receptive and productive skills. The main aim of the
5
course is to provide the learner with the language he/she might need to take an active part
in a wide range of social situations. . . .We attempted to establish a balance between the
authors also thank the British Council and the American Cultural Center, for providing
us with different materials (p. 7). Thus, it seems clear from the beginning of this book
that the audio-lingual method has influenced the development of the book with the
reference to the four language skills and the separation of the language skills into
receptive skills and productive skills. Furthermore, it aims to provide language that could
be used in social situations outside of the classroom, another objective of the audio-
lingual method.
The most recent textbook for the first year of secondary school is called Let's
Learn English (Ben Ali, Ben Msaddeg Jebahi, Souli, Abida; 2008). It contains five
modules with each of the modules containing five lessons. The preface to the book
approach or method can claim to be exhaustive and far-reaching. We have opted for
different approaches and methods (NP). The textbook, for the second year of secondary
school is called Proceed with English (Kaabachi, Mabrouk, Labidi, 2009). It contains six
modules with each of the modules, containing five lessons. The introduction states, As
the learners work their way through the different steps that make up each part, they build
up a better knowledge of the target language and culture. . . .Our main concern. . . has
6
he/she is going to be productive (p. 4). Therefore, by comparing the textbook from 1992
with the current textbook, it is clear that the authors have distanced themselves from any
However, even though the authors have stated their use of a variety of methods, a
closer examination of the book uncovers many similarities with the audio-lingual method.
First, exercises are included in each section which give phrases to practice and sentences
to complete. Second, the listening exercises in each section ask the pupils to fill in
missing information from a paragraph or a table. Third, the speaking exercises ask the
pupils to repeat fixed phrases, changing a word with each repetition. Fourth, most
sections include a pronunciation part, with words and phrases to repeat. Therefore, even
though the English curriculum used in the elementary and secondary levels denies using
the audio-lingual method, many of its elements are present such as following set models,
with particular phrases and vocabulary. Consequently, it seems there is lack of clarity as
to the textbook writers' intentions and the actual content of the book.
Daoud (1996) states that the lack of clarity in policy-making and pedagogy exists
because of the lack of teacher training and the predominant view by policy makers and
implying that the foundation of policy-making and pedagogy in primary education and
secondary education is audio-lingual, which includes the way that English and listening
7
English Language Learning at Universities in Tunisia
Once secondary school pupils pass the baccalaureate exam they can elect to
continue their studies in the university. Many of the pupils who enroll in the university
system study English. All university campuses and schools of higher education are under
the authority of the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research. This ministry
approves all post-secondary programs and courses that are taught. Most liberal arts
subjects, such as languages, are taught at campuses that are designated as liberal arts
campuses (facults des lettres in French). These liberal arts campuses, along with
higher education language schools, teach English as a university major. All university
campuses and schools of higher education generally have the same academic system,
because the academic program is decided by the Ministry of Higher Education (Ministry
departments. The language module is divided into two parts: written language and oral
expression, and pronunciation. Each course has a coordinator who decides on the course
Education, 2008).
Real Listening and Speaking 2 (Logan & Thaine, 2008). Each unit contains both
8
listening exercises and speaking exercises. The listening exercises have missing
information that the students need to fill in. There are also exercises that have a
conversation with missing words which need to be completed. The book also contains
Like the textbooks that are used in the secondary schools, there are some
influences of the audio-lingual method in this book. First, a tape is used that contains the
voice of a native English speaker. Second, each of the chapters in the book has a
listening text that relates to some aspect of British or American culture. Third, the
listening exercise has task completion exercises in which some of the information is
completed but other information is missing. In addition, the students are asked to fill in
practice in the audio-lingual method. Fourth, the students are asked to speak with other
students using what they have learned in the lesson. This emphasis on oral
Even though according to Daoud (1996) the university teachers are being trained
to implement new methods and move away from an audio-lingual approach (pp. 602-
603), a report on higher education from the World Bank indicates that this is not the case.
This report indicates that in the year 1995 to 1996 about 20% of the teachers at the
university level were from the secondary schools. These secondary school teachers also
were assigned to teach first- and second-year university students (World Bank, 1997, pp.
30-31). Since most of these secondary school teachers had taught for many years, they
used the same audio-lingual teaching methods in the university that they had used in the
9
secondary schools. Many of these secondary school teachers, like those at my research
site, are assigned to teach courses in the oral module, including listening comprehension.
In the secondary school, the current curriculum that has been adopted has, to
some degree, moved away from the audio-lingual method. However, as Daoud (1996)
teacher's understanding of language and the way that language should be taught, pupils
who have completed the English program in the secondary school are exposed to an
audio-lingual pedagogy. When Tunisian EFL learners enter the university they study a
number of various subjects including listening comprehension. Even though there has
been some movement away from past teaching methods such as the audio-lingual method
in the university (pp. 602-603), it is clear from the universities' use of secondary school
teachers to teach oral subjects such as listening comprehension that this method is still
being used and it is not helping Tunisian EFL students to learn how to understand oral
being used by the listening comprehension teachers in the university, and my research has
shown that these current methods for teaching listening comprehension in Tunisian
universities are ineffective. They are ineffective because they do not consider the needs
of the student. One example from my research of the teacher-centered approach is the
10
fear that participants mentioned while they described their experiences in their listening
comprehension classes. One participant was afraid to answer the teacher because she was
afraid that she might not have the right answer. Another participant concurred and said
that even if she had the correct answer she could not raise her hand out of fear of the
inappropriate topics or texts. For example, one participant said that the students in class
were not allowed to tell the teacher that the oral text topics were boring. Another
participant said that many students do not attend class because the same oral texts are
It is clear from the participants comments that there is a disconnect between the
teacher's pedagogical approach and the Tunisian EFL students' ability to effectively
understand oral English transactional texts. In addition, the majority of the participants
indicated that the teacher used the same texts and tasks year after year, without realizing
that the students did not understand them. Participants said that they often did not
understand in their classes and indicated that specific obstacles, such as the speed of the
text, unfamiliar vocabulary and grammar in the text, poor audio quality, and confusing
tasks, prevented them from understanding the texts and completing the tasks in their
classes. Because of this disconnect between the teacher's perception of the students'
needs and the students perception of their needs, it is obvious that more research is
needed to follow up on this study to provide them with better tools to help understand
11
It seems to me that there is not only a disconnect between the teachers and their
students, but also between the policy-makers (international and national educational
administrations) and the policy-implementers (the teachers). The policymakers are the
stake holders and have an interest in what is taught and how it is taught. These
stakeholders include not only the Tunisian government but also other international
governments, such as the United States and Britain, and international bodies, such as the
World Bank. Even though the policy- makers decide what should be taught (content) and
how it should be taught (methodology), the teachers continue to use their own
methodology and often their own content (M. Damak, personal communication, April 1,
2010). The students are the ones who suffer because teaching methodologies are based
Different contexts have different needs based on their linguistic, sociocultural, and
political nuances. Therefore, there is no one best method for all the students in Tunisia
(pp. 538-539). The second dimension is practicality. This means that teachers should
know what pedagogical approach is best for their students and they should be free to
modify and develop different teaching approaches based on their students' learning needs
(pp. 540-542). The third dimension is possibility. This means that the teacher's goal
should be to empower students and help students in their learning process. Part of this
12
process is being aware of the students' needs and the different learning styles that they
have. In this way, the teacher will empower the students by providing the tools they need
to understand oral English texts and encouraging them to be competent users of the
students in Tunisia, I noticed that EFL students had a very difficult time understanding
oral texts in their listening comprehension classes. I also noticed that other teachers
encountered these difficulties as well. Teachers would repeat an oral text recorded on an
audio cassette many times, but the students were often unable to understand the words or
the meaning of the text. From these observations, I began to think about researching the
obstacles that these learners encountered in understanding oral English texts. I realized
that an audio-lingual method, which still influences the Tunisian EFL educational system,
is inadequate. The focus should move first to the students, allowing them to identify the
obstacles they encounter when they listen to oral texts; and second to the teachers, giving
them the freedom to implement a teaching plan that prioritizes the students needs to
From the outset of my research, I assumed that the strategies that Tunisian EFL
learners used to understand oral texts were inadequate, causing them to have difficulties
understanding the text. I also assumed that these learners encountered obstacles in the
oral text, hindering or preventing their ability to understand the text. These two
13
I conducted a qualitative research study and primarily used qualitative methods to
allow the Tunisian EFL learners to describe the strategies they used and the obstacles
they encountered. This qualitative methodology is the first step in finding solutions to
help them better understand oral English transactional texts. By primarily considering
the learners' perspective during this research, I have adopted a postmethod approach as
that comprehension is a complex process. I have chosen this framework for three
reasons. First, I am researching oral transactional texts in English because the primary
focus is understanding the information in the text, not examining the interaction between
the interlocutors. Second, my research is mainly concerned with the way that Tunisian
EFL learners use cognitive strategies during the comprehension process. Third, Tunisian
EFL learners primarily listen to oral English texts and understand them without
interacting with other learners in the classroom. I present the cognitive framework I have
chosen for this research in more detail in Chapter 2. This framework, which I call the
model, and integrated listening strategies that facilitate and guide the whole process.
Since the models of Anderson, Baddeley, and Kintsch automatize the language learning
process and consider language learners passive in cognitive process, I added strategies to
comprehension process. Therefore the cognitive strategies that language learners use in
14
their comprehension process are an integral aspect of the human information processing
residing in working memory and facilitating the central executive's job of processing
information and passing information from one process to another process (Macaro,
2006). Learners use metacognitive strategies to oversee comprehension and the transfer
of information throughout the processing system, verifying that learning tasks are
missing information and confirm that the cognitive and metacognitive strategies have
My argument in this research study is that EFL learners use specific cognitive,
an oral text, strategies are not orchestrated effectively, or EFL learners encounter
obstacles which prevent them from using their listening strategies then comprehension
will not occur. Thus, I believe that the difficulties that Tunisian EFL learners have in
15
Definitions
There is a body of research that indicates that people actively listen to oral texts
through using various learning strategies (Berne, J.E., 2004). When I use the term
learning strategies, I refer to language learning strategies that are used by a learner to
employed by the learner to aid the acquisition, storage, retrieval, and use of information.
Wenden (1991) defines strategies as mental steps or operations that learners use to learn
However, instead of using the previous definitions, I will use Macaro's definition
of learning strategies (2006, pp. 325, 327), which corresponds to the cognitive strategic
activity, or action that has been initiated by a goal and is measured against a learning
situation. Second, a learning strategy is tied to a specific learning situation but should be
strategies means that a listener combines different strategies together to create a cycle of
strategy deployment that promotes a greater depth of interaction with the text and results
strategies are located in working memory and allow the central executive to manage the
processing resources at its disposal and to facilitate the perceiving, holding, encoding,
and processing functions that it is required to do (Macaro, 2006, pp. 325, 327). Macaro
16
also states that learning strategies are simple cognitive actions that can be combined
together to form clusters of strategies. Therefore, some learning strategies, such as note-
taking, are clusters of simpler strategies such as is this phrase that I just heard
important?, should I write this phrase down?, what parts of the word should I write
down?, and how can I write it down and also continue to listen to the text? (p. 327).
follow O'Malley and Chamot (1990) and Wenden (1991) by dividing strategies into three
groups: cognitive, metacognitive, and socio-affective. Listeners use these three types of
strategies to capture, store, analyze, verify, and respond to the essential information from
First, learners use cognitive learning strategies to process aural information and
store the essential content from this information (Macaro, 2006; Wenden, 1991, Wenden,
1987). In addition, cognitive strategies aid the human mind in the comprehension process
and integrating the textbase and the situation model. In addition, cognitive strategies
facilitate the tasks of cognitive components, such as the central executive and the
orchestrate various activities they must perform in order to achieve successful learning.
In addition, these types of strategies provide learners with knowledge of their own
abilities, their strengths, their weaknesses, the value of alternative strategies in improving
17
their performance, and the way in which various strategies interact with each other and
strategies, when they talk with others about what they have heard or when they identify
and reflect on their emotions. Learners do this when they ask other learners or the
teacher questions, or verify with other learners their understanding of an oral text. They
also employ these strategies when they identify and reflect on their emotions to measure
Wenden (1987) suggests that these three types of strategies have five
characteristics. (1) Some may be observable (i.e. note-taking) and others may not be
observable (i.e. mental comparisons). (2) Strategies help the learner to solve problems.
(3) Strategies allow people to regulate and control language learning, and contribute to
the learning of languages. (4) Some strategies are consciously deployed; however, others
become automatized. (5) Strategies can be changed, learned, and rejected (pp. 7-8).
When I use the term oral English texts, oral texts, or texts I am referring to
the recorded speeches of native English speakers from the U.S. and Britain. Two types of
oral texts exist in language teaching: interactional and transactional. Interactional texts
transactional texts, the information that is understood from an aural text is the primary
focus.
18
According to my experience, listening courses in Tunisia universities primarily
use transactional texts. In these types of texts, there is no speaker to provide feedback, so
EFL learners cannot rely on immediate feedback, as with interactional texts. Therefore,
they need to establish another means to obtain feedback in order to establish whether they
have effectively understood the transactional text and whether they have extracted the
important information from that text. EFL learners often use the teacher or other students
Definition of a Task
From this point on, I will use the term tasks to refer to pedagogical tasks. In the
which the intention is to convey meaning rather than to manipulate form. The
task should also have a sense of completeness, being able to stand alone as a
communicative act in its own right with a beginning, a middle and an end.
(2004, p. 4)
19
When I use the term task I am referring to a written activity that helps examiners,
researchers, teachers, or other type of assessors gauge the degree to which a listener has
Types of tasks. According to Rost (1990b), there are three types of tasks: on-line
tasks, retrospective tasks, and prospective tasks. An on-line task is executed while the
student is listening to an oral text. A retrospective task is performed after a student has
listened to an oral text. Finally, a prospective task, like an on-line task, is done while the
student is listening to an oral text. However, unlike on-line tasks, prospective tasks focus
Each of these types of tasks can be identified as open or closed. Open tasks
do not specify the range of options for expression and often require listeners to
summarize, in their own words, what they have understood. On the other hand, when
listeners execute closed tasks, they must choose between various fixed alternatives. Grid
completion, multiple choice, true and false, and matching exercises are all examples of
closed tasks; note-taking and summarizing are examples of open tasks (Rost, 1990b, p.
124).
In this section, I state the purpose of this study, identify the research questions that
I have purposed, depict the setting for the study, and point out the significance of this
20
Purpose and Research Questions
I had two purposes in conducting this study. First, I wanted to identify the
listening strategies that Tunisian EFL learners use and the obstacles they encounter which
prevent them from adequately understanding oral English transactional texts. Second, I
wanted to observe whether the Tunisian EFL learners use of strategies concurred with
The study of the type, extent, and range of learning strategies that are used by Tunisian
EFL learners should provide a baseline for analyzing their listening comprehension
processes, and I believe that strategies are an integral part of each of these processes. If
learners to not use certain types of strategies, it may indicate that they are having trouble
combined with learning strategy use as a framework to attempt to guide the following
research questions.
EFL learners use when listening to oral English transactional texts? How wide and
2. What are the major obstacles that Tunisian EFL learners encounter when listening to
21
Setting of the Study
Description of the research site. The setting for the study is at the Higher
Institute of Languages (Institut Superieur des Langues) in Gabes, Tunisia, which is part
of the University of Gabes. Gabes is the fifth largest city in Tunisia with a population of
located 306 kilometers south of the capital, Tunis. Gabes is a coastal town, surrounded
by olive and almond groves and farm land. It is also an important industrial city that
processes phosphates that have been mined in the west of Tunisia. In addition, it contains
a rare type of oasis that attracts many tourists. The people in Gabes are primarily rural
and their economic status is primarily lower-middle class. The students who attend this
institute are primarily from Gabes or the surrounding rural villages and come from a
Tunisia, 2008).
At the Gabes institute, a director has overall responsibility for the running of the
institute and a General Secretary has responsibility for many of the daily, routine
activities. There are more than 4,000 students at this institute with about 1,700 of these
students enrolled in the English department. These students are divided into 28 classes
by the school's administration with about 60 students in each class. Other languages,
such as French, German, and Italian, are also taught at this institute. The school also has
Education, 2008). I conducted my study with students who were in the first or second
22
Summary of Findings
I had two purposes in conducting this research. I accomplished the first purpose
used. The metacognitive strategies that I identified were a planning strategy and a
monitoring strategy. The cognitive strategies that I identified were a selective attention
taking strategy, and a repetition strategy. The socio-affective strategy that I identified
did not have a large collection of strategies. If learners have a large collection of
strategies, they will have a greater likelihood of successfully understanding oral texts.
For example, if a learner is prevented from using a note-taking strategy, she can replace it
strategy, so they had no other strategy to take the place of their note-taking strategy; this
Not only did I answer my first research question by identifying the listening
strategies that my participants used when listening to oral transactional texts in English, I
also answered my second research question through identifying some important listening
obstacles that hindered or prevented the participants from understanding the oral texts to
which they listened. These obstacles relate to five features of listening comprehension:
the text, comprehension of the text, the task, external factors, and negative disposition.
The main obstacles that the participants mentioned were: a fast text speed, a long text, an
23
inability to understand the speaker's accent, a complex or confusing task, inability to
listen to the text and write answers at the same time, and audio and external noise.
processing system. Transfer strategies, aided the movement of information through four
recycling, retrieval, and storage. Comprehension strategies, were also used to assist the
French. Because they used comprehension strategies based on French stress, rather than
comprehension strategies based on English stress, they were not able to use these
understanding texts and successfully completing tasks, when they did not encounter
listening obstacles. However, listening obstacles, such as a fast text, a long text, a long
task, and a confusing task, usually prevented them from understanding texts and
significant for the three entities that I have previously identified: the stakeholders of the
English academic program in Tunisia, the educators, and the learners. The stakeholders
include the Tunisian, British and, U.S. governments and other international organizations
such as the World Bank. Listening comprehension is a required course for all first- and
24
second-year Tunisian university students and, consequently, it is important in the English
program. Therefore, the difficulty Tunisian EFL students have understanding oral
English texts and learning from those texts is a crucial problem for the stakeholders.
These stakeholders have invested a lot of time and resources in establishing an EFL
program so that Tunisians can compete in a world market that requires a high degree of
competence in English.
Tunisia to provide unemployed Tunisians with English language education to improve the
The participants of these training program take the TOEIC exam when they finish their
training (L. Jack, personal communication, October 16, 2010). Since 25% of this exam
tests learners ability to understand oral transactional texts, it behooves the Tunisian
government to ensure that these participants understand these type of texts. According to
my research, the current system of listening comprehension is not helping Tunisian EFL
learners to understand oral transactional texts in English, and I hope that my research will
encourage the stakeholders, including the Tunisian government, to reassess their teaching
other listening comprehension teachers while I taught in Tunisia, it is clear that these
25
teachers are largely unaware of the extent to which Tunisian EFL learners have
understood oral English transactional texts. This research will provide these teachers
with a better understanding of the obstacles that these learners encounter and the
strategies that these learners use when thy listen to these oral texts. I expect that this
This research is also essential for Tunisian EFL learners, who have had no input
into the educational reforms that have taken place. The results of my research have
indicated that they are often unable to understand oral English transactional texts and
they encounter many obstacles while they listen to these texts. Therefore, allowing them
postmethod pedagogy can be developed which will help them understand oral English
transactional texts and empower them to become full users of English in the world in
(Anggraeni, 2007; Sadoon, 2009). Even though I have not conducted research outside of
Tunisia, I believe that the obstacles that I have uncovered in this study also are applicable
to other countries outside of Tunisia. I think that EFL learners throughout the world will
improve their ability to understand oral English transactional texts as educators empower
learners to share the strategies they use and the obstacles they encounter listening to these
texts. EFL learners may improve their ability to understand these types of texts as
26
educators seriously consider the responses of these EFL learners and develop a
curriculum based on minimizing the obstacles and maximizing their use of effective
strategies, using the cognitive strategic model I have outlined in this chapter.
listening comprehension research among EFL learners in Tunisia and outside Tunisia.
the field of listening comprehension and only limited research has been conducted
areas: L2 strategy research and L2 listening obstacle research. Because of the lack of
research in these two areas, I realized that my study is not only very important to help
Tunisian EFL learners better understand oral texts, it also enters territory where very few
Chapter 2, I review some of the research that has been done in the field of listening
conducted in three areas. The first area is describing L2 learners' strategy use primarily
through strategy inventories. The results of this research have provided a large list of
strategies that can be broadly divided into three categories: cognitive, metacognitive, and
socio-affective. The second area of research has focused on the degree to which
metacognitive strategies are used and the extent to which metacognitive training helps L2
learners better understand oral English texts. The third area of research is learners'
perceptions of their strategy use, especially their cognitive strategy use. This area has
27
focused on understanding to what degree learners are aware of their strategy use and
clarifying the role of teachers in helping L2 learners become more aware of their strategy
use.
Even though describing strategies and providing L2 learners with more awareness
of their strategy use are important areas of research, few researchers have combined their
strategy research with a cognitive model. Macaro (2006) mentioned that strategy
completely understand the way in which L2 learners use strategies while listening to oral
listening strategies into a cognitive model, which includes Anderson's (1983, 1993) ACT
model, Baddeley's (2002, 2009) working memory model, and Kintsch's (1998)
comprehension model.
strategies and also language specific strategies. As I have previously stated, most
strategy research has involved describing strategies using a strategy inventory such as
Oxford's (1990) Strategy Inventory for Language Learners. These inventories have
assumed that all strategies apply to all language learners and, therefore, are universal in
scope. However, my research shows that EFL learners use language-specific strategies in
28
learners encounter while listening to oral texts. Those few researchers who have
researched this area (Hasan, 2000; Vogely, 1995) have conducted mostly quantitative
research. Goh (2000) conducted qualitative research and used self-reports as her data-
collection method. However, her research used only one data-collection method and
related mostly to the cognitive processes of perception and parsing of the auditory signal.
grounded in a cognitive model, and elicits responses through a wide range of data-
collection methods.
In this chapter I have introduced the topic of my research. I began this chapter by
providing an overview of the audio-lingual method and the way this method has been
lingual method is important because it is this method which was introduced into Tunisian
EFL programs and still influences the teaching of listening comprehension classes in
Tunisia.
After providing a background to the study, I identified the central problem of this
study: the current top-down approach to learning is not helping the Tunisian EFL learners
to become users of English and is not helping them to understand oral transactional texts
difficulties that Tunisian EFL learners encounter while listening to oral texts in English, I
focused this research on the learners' perspective rather than the teachers' perspective.
The data that I collected demonstrate that learners use ineffective listening strategies with
29
little knowledge of how to use more effective strategies. In addition, they encounter
obstacles while listening to oral texts with little understanding of how to overcome these
In my opinion, the solution to the difficulties that Tunisian EFL learners face is to
possibility(p. 538). This pedagogy encourages a bottom-up information flow rather than
top-down. I believe that it is only through this bottom-up approach that educators will be
able to understand the difficulties that EFL learners have while they listen to oral texts in
model, I adopted a cognitive theoretical framework that includes Anderson's (1983, 1993)
ACT model, Baddeley's (2002, 2009) working memory model, Kintsch's (1998)
comprehension and to identify the type, extent, and range of learning strategies they used.
questions and I described the setting of the study where I conducted my research. In
addition, I also reported the significance of this study. The significance of this study can
identifying listening strategies that Tunisian EFL learners use and obstacles they
30
encounter while they listen to oral texts. The primary stakeholders, the U.S., British, and
Bank, have invested a lot of time and resources in developing a nation-wide EFL program
throughout Tunisia and helping EFL learners to effectively listen to oral transactional
texts in English. In addition, because I believe that EFL learners outside of Tunisia
settings throughout the world, I believe this study can be transferred to other research
31
CHAPTER TWO
Introduction
model. This is a short-coming that Macaro (2006) talks about in his article, Strategies
for language learning and for language use: Revising the theoretical framework.
Therefore, I have coupled a theoretical model with listening strategies. This model is
memory model (Baddeley, 2002, 2009) a comprehension model (Kintsch, 1998), and
strategies.
model, a theory of the human information processing system explaining how information
is stored in the human mind, and I also describe Baddeley's (2002, 2009) working
process from the time of perception until the point where the perceived information is
'understood,' and use Kinstch's (1998) Construction-Integration model as the core of this
process. In the final section, A Cognitive Strategic Comprehension Model for Listening
the human information processing system and the comprehension model that is presented
in the first two sections. The chapter concludes by re-presenting my research questions
32
framework.
Representation of Memory
In this section, I present two popular cognitive models, the ACT model
(Anderson, 1983, 1993) and Baddeleys Working Memory model (Baddeley, 2009; Cook,
2001, p. 83-84) as a framework for understanding the way in which the brain processes
aural information. These models are important because they describe the transfer of aural
information throughout the cognitive processing system and are a foundational part of the
Gagn, Atkinson and Shiffrin researched mental structures and processes (Gagn,
Yekovich, & Yekovich, 1993; Schunk, 1996). This research was partially responsible for
the advance of cognitive psychology and led to a description of the human information-
processing system (Gagn, Yekovich, & Yekovich, 1993). Figure 1 diagrams the human
information-processing system.
33
As is show in Figure 1, a general information-processing memory model basically
includes sensory registers, which obtain information from the environment; working
memory, an area where the information can be processed; and long-term memory, a
storage area for information (Gagn, Yekovich, & Yekovich). The arrows in the diagram
system begins processing information when a stimulus input is detected by one of the five
senses (hearing, sight, touch, taste, or smell). The appropriate sensory receptors receive
the input and hold it for a very brief period in its initial sensory form (Schunk, 1996).
After the receptors receive the information they transmit it to working memory. Working
Working memory is also the area where new and old information are combined and
processed. As research has indicated, memory has a very limited capacity and duration
with information starting to decay after about ten seconds. Most theorists hold that
some people able to retain one or two units less and others able to retain one or two units
more (Baddeley, 2002, p. 91; Gagn, Yekovich, & Yekovich, 1993, p. 41; Miller, 1994, p.
348 ; Schunk, 1996, p. 151). A unit can be defined as any meaningful piece of
memory's capacity, at least two researchers, Cowan (2005) and Cook (2001), disagree
with Miller's working memory limits. After performing extensive tests, Cowan maintains
34
Long-Term Memory
Declarative Procedural
Knowledge Knowledge
Central
Central
Executive
Executive
Working Memory
Sensory
Registers
Input
that the capacity of working memory is only four units of information (pp. 109-110), not
seven as Miller claims. Cook also performed his own memory tests and found that native
English speakers can remember eight units of information, while speakers who use
English as a second language can only remember between five and six units of
information in English (pp. 82-83). All three indicate that new information entering into
working memory can be recoded into more compact chunks so that working memory
can hold more information, as long as all of the chunks together are not more than the
35
maximum threshold. Information recoding makes processing easier and, therefore,
evident that L2 learners have a working memory lag compared with native English
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) originally proposed that working memory was not a
unitary entity but is composed of three different processes: the Phonological Loop, the
Visuospatial Sketchpad, and the Central Executive. He and his colleagues have added a
fourth process, the Episodic Buffer, after further research (Baddeley, 2002). I adopted
Sketchpad, the Episodic Buffer, and the Central Executive make up the short-term
memory that most theorists call working memory. Phonological information from the
sensory registers is passed to the Phonological Loop. The Phonological Loop contains
two parts: a short-term storage area and a rehearsal mechanism that allows working
pass visual and spatial information to the Visuospatial Sketchpad, which temporarily
stores this information until it is processed in working memory. The Episodic Buffer is
an area where information from the Visuospatial Sketchpad and the Phonological Loop
are combined with information from long-term memory and processed (p. 86). This
buffer also conducts some of the control processes. Even though Baddeley does not talk
specifically about comprehension in his model, the Episodic Buffer is the area where
36
comprehension most likely occurs as the textbase and the situation model are combined.
The Central Executive is mostly an attentional system which allows the mind to attend to
important information.
Control processes. There are control processes that guide the transfer of
information from one area of memory to another area of memory. According to the
Information Processing Model (Gagn, Yekovich, & Yekovich, 1993; Schunk, 1996),
control processes help manipulate information in working memory. Schunk lists the
processes that Shunk mentions, occur in the Episodic Buffer, with the possible exception
of rehearsal, which primarily occurs in the Phonological Loop (Baddeley, 2009, p. 59).
knowledge that has been put into practice. Declarative knowledge is knowing about
1993; Gagn, Yekovich, & Yekovich, 1993, p. 60). Procedural knowledge consists of
37
static information. These units can be images, visceral information (from a human
being's senses of smell, taste, and touch), or propositions. Images and sensory
information in declarative memory are retained intact and maintain a close likeness to
what they represent. However, propositions, which are abstract, do not necessarily
maintain the semantic sense of the experience (Gagn, Yekovich, & Yekovich; Kagan,
2002).
relation and one or more arguments. The arguments are the topics of the proposition and
are usually nouns and pronouns. Arguments can be subjects, objects, goals
1993, p. 62). The relation constrains the arguments and are usually verbs, adverbs, and
adjectives. Generally, each verb, adjective, and adverb indicate the number of
propositions and, therefore, the number of ideas. Thus propositions express single ideas
using nodes and links. Using this graphical method of representation, the node expresses
the entire proposition and the links point to each element of the proposition. Each link is
labeled with each argument's role within a specific proposition. A propositional network
shows the way in which ideas can be shared between nodes (Gagn, Yekovich, &
38
Yekovich, 1993, p.66). An example of a propositional network, using the sentence, Tom
the store
O
S yesterday
P2 P1
R
S R
S
went P3
R Tom
large
Yekovich, and Yekovich (1993) describe on page 65. In this figure, S signifies the
subject of the proposition, O identifies the object, and Rdenotes the relation.
called productions which consist of conditions and actions. A condition is the argument
that must be true for the production to be performed. An action is a piece of declarative
knowledge that is acted on if the condition is true. Productions can be visually expressed
through logical IF-THEN statements. The conditions are clauses in the IF portion of
the statement and the actions are clauses in the THEN portion of the statement (Gagn,
39
IF Fred is walking down the road
And Fred sees someone else walking down the road
THEN Fred asks that person his or her name
Figure 3. A Sample production of a person asking someone his or her name. Adapted
from The cognitive psychology of school learning (2nd ed.). E. D. Gagn, C. W.
Yekovich, & F. R. Yekovich, p. 92. Copyright [1993] by Harper Collins.
produce a specific behavior, in this case asking the person their name.
Productions can also be combined to form more complex production systems. For
40
IF Tom wants to talk to his friend on the telephone
P1 THEN Tom picks up the telephone
IF Tom hears a dial tone coming from the telephone speaker
P2 THEN Tom constructs a proposition that his friend's phone is not in use.
Tom dials his friends number
IF Tom doesnt hear his friend's voice
P3 THEN Tom constructs a proposition that his friend is not answering the
phone and is, therefore, unavailable to talk on the phone
Tom performs No- Answer production
IF No-Answer when calling his friend's telephone number
P4 THEN Tom constructs a proposition that he may be able to leave an
answer on his friend's answering machine.
Tom listens for an answering machine to pick up
IF Telephone Answering machine picks up
P5 THEN Tom leaves his friend a message indicating that he had called
IF Telephone Answering machine doesnt pick up
P6 THEN Tom constructs a proposition that he can't leave his friend a
message
Tom constructs a proposition that he needs to hang up the
telephone and try again later.
Tom hangs up the telephone
IF Tom hears his friend answer with some sort of greeting
P7 THEN Tom creates a proposition that his friend is available to talk on the
telephone
Tom talks to his friend on the telephone
Figure 4. Sample production system for calling a friend on the telephone. Adapted from
The cognitive psychology of school learning (2nd ed.). E. D. Gagn, C. W. Yekovich, & F.
R. Yekovich, p. 95. Copyright [1993] by Harper Collins.
A production system consists of different productions that are linked together. Each
from available declarative information. Even though the procedural steps have been
41
listed step by step, often these steps become automated instead of controlled. Automated
spatial relations, and sensory experiences. Procedural knowledge, on the other hand, is
represented in memory in a way that preserves the rules that affects our behavior and
knowledge takes more time, effort, and practice before it is gained. Declarative
human being's mind without causing him or her to behave in a certain way, whereas
1983; Gagn, Yekovich, & Yekovich, 1993). Even though they are different in many
ways, they are always interacting because procedural knowledge uses declarative
data that is in our mind and procedural knowledge to be the logic of what to do with that
long-term memory is stored as cognitive units. These cognitive units are linked together
42
to form a vast declarative knowledge network. This network of cognitive units includes
propositions, images, and visceral information, such as sounds, smells, and tastes. A
Figure 5 shows the way in which different types of cognitive units are linked together
into a network. The small circles represent the cognitive units in memory and the larger
circles represent micro-networks of cognitive units. This diagram of nodes and links is
43
clear whether individual neurons store cognitive units of information, or whether several
neurons linked together store cognitive units of information (Anderson, 1983, p. 86).
In cognitive theory most nodes and links in the declarative knowledge network are
inactive most of the time. Even though the information is stored in our minds, we are
when it is triggered from sensory input that has been decoded and transferred to working
Comprehension
even more complex since there is no written information to reference. Instead, the
listener has an aural stream of information which disappears just as quickly as it appears.
various prosodic information, such as stress and intonation, segment the stream of sounds
into words, and then transform the recognized words into meaningful information in
order to comprehend an oral text. This process from recognition to transformation must
Our ears constantly hear sounds. However, these sounds do not equate to
listening. Listening occurs when someone ignores other auditory input that is around him
and directs her concentration on one auditory stream of input. This attention results in an
44
alertness and a readiness to consider the incoming auditory input. Attention makes the
listener's cognitive processes available for the processing of the auditory input (Rost,
comprehension is still a very difficult task, made even more difficult by two important
considerations. First, the average person speaks at about 160 words per minute or about
eight words every two or three seconds, requiring the incoming auditory stream to be
processed quickly (Rost, 1990a). Second, the working memory is very limited and can
hold less than 10 seconds of acoustic input, requiring the information in working memory
Definition of Comprehension
different processes that occur during comprehension can be divided into two very
important stages. The first stage is called word identification. During this stage, the
human mind analyzes the incoming acoustic signal and maps this acoustic signal to an
internal lexicon via various short-term registers. This lexicon is the internal store of
procedural knowledge. This second stage is called meaning construction. These stages
45
most likely occur in parallel with meaning being constructed as soon as some words have
After the aural input has been attended to, word identification from that input
occurs in two phases. The first phase is mapping the acoustic signal to an initial
phonemic representation and the second phase is mapping the initial phonemic
children are less than a year old, they have already been able to decode the acoustic
signal they have heard when their family speaks to them. This process is very complex
and researchers are not certain about the underlying mechanisms performing this process.
The major reason for the complexity of this process is that phonemes are co-articulated,
efficient communication, but it makes the decoding process very complicated (Miller &
Eimas, 1995).
Several theories have been presented that attempt to explain how the human mind
can so effectively translate a variable, co-articulated acoustic signal into a fixed phonemic
representation in the mind. One theory, the motor theory of speech perception, claims
that there is a specialized processing system that calculates the acoustic signal and then
translates it into phonemes. A second theory, the direct-realist view of speech perception,
claims that there is no specialized processing system that handles the decoding of the
acoustic signal. Instead, this theory speculates that the acoustic signal contains all the
46
information necessary for the human mind to decode the signal. A third set of theories
information in the acoustic signal to perform the translation task. Instead, there are
general principles of auditory processing, learning, and categorization [that] underlie the
listener's ability to map the acoustic signal onto phonetic catergories (Miller &
Eimas,1995, p. 470).
understood and better explained than the acoustic signal mapping stage. A number of
different theories attempt to explain this process, with two basic groups of theories. One
group of theories takes a narrow, modular view of decoding; the acoustic signal is given
an initial phonemic representation, as is described in the last paragraph, and then this
representation is mapped to the internal lexicon. The second group of theories takes a
broad, holistic view of decoding; these theories hold that the acoustic signal is mapped
directly on the internal lexicon, thus bypassing the previous process of acoustic signal
mapping. The majority of researchers agree with the narrow, modular view of decoding
(Dahan & Magnuson; 2006; Miller & Eimas, 1995). Both the TRACE model and the
Cohort model are narrow, modular perspectives of decoding, mapping preprocessed input
to an internal lexicon:
information flows upward from the segment level and is combined with information in
long-term memory. Information from long-term memory also flows downward and is
47
combined with the preprocessed input. It is an activation model because certain
information is activated based on evolving hypotheses (Dahan & Magnuson; 2006; Miller
& Eimas, 1995). TRACE, therefore, combines bottom-up processing as well as top-down
the lowest level and moving to the overall meaning of the utterance at the top level. Top-
Based on the hypotheses about the preprocessed input that TRACE develops,
are additional pieces of information that are found before or after the segment and are
about the input first activates a phonetic feature, then a segment, and finally a word. The
more likely a particular hypothesis is, the stronger the activation of that particular feature,
segment, or word. Because the preprocessed input is presented sequentially and is time-
based, the constructed hypotheses are reconsidered over small periods of time based on
new input (Dahan & Magnuson; 2006; Miller & Eimas, 1995).
As the hypotheses are modified, new representations are activated and old
representation's strength of activation is based on past input as well as current input; the
context of the incoming input is also considered in this model. Since segmentation
occurs as part of the activation process, a separate segmentation strategy is not necessary
When a word reaches a certain activation level, that word is chosen as the representation
48
of the preprocessed input and is mapped to the internal lexicon, where it will be further
processed during the meaning construction stage. Many of the processes mentioned here
work in parallel to make the decoding and comprehension systems more efficient (Dahan
The Cohort model. The Cohort model (also known as the Selection-Access
model) is the most common word recognition model and was originally hypothesized by
Marslen-Wilson and Welsh in 1978 and revised by Marslen-Wilson in 1987 and 1989
(Dahan & Magnuson, 2006). This model has two phases: an initial access phase and a
final selection phase. During the access phase, the preprocessed acoustic signal is
mapped, phoneme by phoneme, into phonetic representations of words that have been
stored in long-term memory (Rost, 2002). Through this process, words are recognized
sequentially, from beginning to end, and each phoneme is compared with a linguistic
stored model, accessing all the eligible candidates that have the same initial phonological
patterns (i.e. the cohorts). As more phonemes are isolated, the words with the same
phonemic pattern are accessed and the others not matching that phonemic pattern are
eliminated. This process continues until only one word matching the phonemic pattern of
the input remains; this word is selected to represent the acoustic signal and is mapped to
the internal lexicon for further processing (Dahan & Magnuson, 2006; Dahan &
Many researchers have criticized the Cohort model. Carrell and Eisterhold (1988)
and Nunan (1991) criticized it because this model is an exclusive bottom-up process that
49
does not take into account the background knowledge of the listener. Nunan says that
people don't remember the whole text, like a tape recorder, but only remember bits and
pieces of information. Even the parts remembered wont be the exact words of the
original message. He suggests that humans store the meaning in our minds, but not the
Dahan and Tanenhaus (2004) have also criticized the Cohort model because, in its
initial form, it required a small time lag between access and selection. They state that the
human mind is much more tolerant of mismatches than the Cohort model indicates;
candidates that dont exactly match the lexical input, but are semantically equivalent, are
activated as a word unfolds. Their research indicated that mapping the acoustic input to
model, they found that contextual constraints can affect even the earliest moments of
mapping the input onto the developing representation. However, unlike Carrell and
Eisterhold (1988), who insist that the schema always drives the process, Dahan and
Tanenhaus argue that when contextual constraints are weak, the initial mapping will be
primarily driven by bottom-up phonetic constraints. But, when contextual constraints are
strong, the context will guide the mapping and development of the semantic
representation.
Criticism of the initial cohort model was addressed by Gaskell and Marslen-
Wilson (2002) and a revised distributed cohort model was devised. As Dahan and
50
Magnuson (2006) admit, in the revised distributed cohort model the process of access and
selection is a continuous, instantaneous process with no time lag, and cohorts are no
longer selected or eliminated. Instead, the revised cohort model uses an activation model,
similar to the TRACE model, and cohorts have a particular activation strength based on
the acoustic input. Therefore, cohorts can affect each other with either increasing or
decreasing activation levels based on the incoming acoustic information, with the
ultimate selection made based on the strength of the final activation levels. The revised
cohort model also allows cohorts to accessed based on either lexical features or semantic
Segmentation. This is one of the parallel processes occurring during the word-
identification stage. Segmentation refers to a plan that the human mind devises to
recognize word boundaries from the acoustic input, and is a highly debated issue among
step in processing the acoustic signal. However, further research has shown that
segmentation is not important for English speakers, especially in the initial acoustic
mapping process (Miller & Eimas, 1995). The TRACE model and the revised cohort
model do not require a segmentation strategy, since segmentation occurs in the course of
the mapping process (Dahan & Magnuson, 2006; Miller & Eimas). However, if it does
occur, it may occur during the phonemic mapping process and aid this process (Dahan &
Magnuson). Additional views of segmentation can be found in Dahan and Magnuson and
51
When reading, a person focuses her eyes on white spaces in the text with the
knowledge that these spaces divide the texts into words. However, segmenting an oral
including English, have a segmentation strategy for dividing aural speech into individual
words. Because English is a stress-timed language, a regular metrical beat falls on the
listeners hear the rhythm of the English speech, they also hear the strong-stressed
syllables and the information words that correspond to these syllables. This regular
rhythmic speech allows Native English listeners to focus only on the information words
in the aural stream. As the name indicates, these information words contain the
information that the human mind needs to construct meaning from the text. (Sanders,
Neville, & Woldorff, 2002, p. 520). According to Rost (2002), because 90 per cent of all
information words are stressed on the first syllable, the normal segmentation strategy in
phonemic mapping process is the focus that English language speakers give to certain
attentional signals. The three attentional signals are volume, pitch direction, and
If certain words or syllables are spoken with more or less volume than normal,
this will carry a certain significance which the human mind will attempt to decode into
meaning. For example, if the word Tom in the sentence, Tom went with Julian
52
yesterday, is louder than the other stressed syllables in the sentence, the human mind
will attach more significance to this word and attempt to construct the meaning of the
sentence considering the extra volume of this word; for example, it was Tom who went
The height of the pitch and its falling or rising also has important significance.
For example, if one interlocutor speaks to another one with a continuous high pitch (also
known as the high key), the listener may get upset because he or she is interpreting the
high key as an attempt by the speaker to dominate the situation. On the other hand, a
guides to signal how readers and listeners should interpret the incoming information.
ideas, indicating the relative importance of ideas, and evaluating the given ideas. Such
discourse signaling cues include previews, summarizers, emphasis markers, and logical
As has been previously mentioned, the processes that are involved in decoding,
mapping, and meaning construction most likely occur in parallel. Therefore, once some
words are identified from the acoustic signal and are successfully mapped to a person's
internal lexicon, meaning is immediately constructed from all the available, activated
53
these: schema theory and Kintsch's Construction-Integration model (1998). Schema
theory, largely forgotten now, was very popular in the 1970's and 1980's. The
Schema theory. Carrell and Eisterhold (1988) describe Schema Theory as a top-
down, meaning construction model that takes into account the readers or listeners
background knowledge. According to this theory, the activated lexicon from the word-
knowledge, or schema, to construct meaning. This theory proposes two basic modes of
schema is invoked from the activated lexicon by the incoming data. Top-down
processing, on the other hand, occurs as general predictions are made based on higher-
level general schemata, which locates lower-level data that fits into the partially-satisfied,
According to Carrell & Eisterhold, comprehension happens when the text interacts with
According to Anderson (1993), chunks are added to the schematic structure one at
a time. Schemata are associated or linked with other knowledge structures and are
54
content-addressable and cross-referenced; therefore, information can be located based on
system.
Norman (1981) talk about three types of learning. First, they define accretion as the
encoding of new information into the existing schematic structure. Since new
they define tuning or schema evolution as the modification and refinement of the schema.
Thereby, an existing schema can be slowly modified to conform better and better to the
sorts of situations to which it is to apply (p. 336). Third, they define restructuring or
Schemata are not isolated entities. Many people, including Anderson (1993), say
that schemata are hierarchically organized. In other words, there are schemata within
schemata. Schallert, who is quoted by Richgels (1982, p. 1), also agrees, saying that
schematic structures once formed can be imbedded within each other, forming
referenced with other structures and representations. These structures change and
become more elaborate and more specific as a person grows in his or her experiences.
a cognitive model that they posited as an alternative to Schema Theory (Kintsch and van
Dijk, 1978; van Dijk & Kintsch, 1983). Since then Kintsch has refined this model and
55
called it the Construction-Integration Model(also used in its abbreviated form, the C-I
model (1998). Schema Theory sees comprehension as a very structured, mostly top-
down process; but, Kintsch claims that recent research has indicated that comprehension
is a much more bottom-up, loosely structured process. He states that the comprehension
is very sensitive to context and flexibly adjusts to shifts in the environment. He says that,
in the beginning stages, comprehension is quite chaotic and only reaches order at the
concluding stage (p. 94). Chaotic means that many different nodes, containing
propositions, sensory information, and contextual situations, are linked together in the
same network; some of these nodes logically relate with each other and others contradict
each other. Even though the nodes in the network are not logically related to each other
in the beginning stages, the network becomes stabilized and logically organized in the
For example, Figure 6 visually depicts the sentence, Two lions were loose in
56
Pittsburgh
O
P2 S P1 today
R
S R
S
loose P3
R lions
downtown
Yekovich, and Yekovich (1993) describe on page 65. This figure represents Kintsch's
(1998) description of a textbase consisting of those elements and relations that are
directly derived from the text itself. . . . , but without adding anything that is not explicitly
When a textbase is formed, propositions from the text will activate information
from long-term memory. This knowledge from long-term memory includes personal
experience, knowledge about the language, about the world in general, and about the
specific communicative situation (Kintsch, 1998, p. 103). Kintsch calls this knowledge
from long-term memory the situation model. Johnson-Laird (1980) says that a situation
model represents a state of affairs and accordingly its structure is not arbitrary like that
structure mirrors the relevant aspects of the corresponding state of affairs in the world
57
(p. 98). This situational model is stored in a person's long-term memory and is activated
along with the text in working memory. Thus, each node in this network will also link to
other ideas from a person's previous knowledge of a situation that may or may not be
related to the meaning of the sentence. I have depicted this network in Figure 7, based on
58
industrial
Regatta
geography
(rivers, hills,...)
Steelers
I2 I3
I4
I1
S Pittsburgh O
P2 P1 today
R R
S S
R loose P3
lions
I10
downtown
I7 I9
I8 free
I5 I6
zoo escaped
wild animals Africa
tigers, bears,...
Of course this is only an example and I would expect more related pieces of information
purposes of explanation and analysis, there are two components to this network: the
textbase and the situation model. The solid lines represent links to propositions,
59
beginning with P (P1, P2, etc.), that have been constructed from the text: the textbase.
The dotted lines represent links to cognitive chunks of information, beginning with I (I1,
I2, etc.), that represent knowledge from long-term memory. These cognitive chunks of
information can be previously stored propositions. However, they can also be images,
stages: construction and integration. During the construction phase, propositions from
the textbase activate background knowledge, forming the situation model, and this
activated knowledge is linked into the network. Also included in the link is a probability
that a particular node, or cognitive chunk, is relevant based on the textbase. Some
cognitive chunks of knowledge that are linked are more relevant (i.e. they have a stronger
link) than other cognitive chunks of knowledge, which may only be weakly linked.
During the construction process, certain rules are followed. There are rules for
the way in which the nodes are interconnected into the network and the way that
knowledge is activated. There are also rules for constructing inferences. Kintsch (1998,
p. 96-97) states that there are three levels of connections among the nodes: directly
used to stabilize the network . . .in a way that takes account of the pattern of mutual
constraints that exists among the nodes of the network (Kintsch, 1998, p.98). Strong,
60
relevant nodes continue to be linked during the spreading activation process, while the
weak, irrelevant nodes disappear from the network. The resulting network is a person's
episodic text memory, a text that has integrated with the listener's or reader's personal
from a different language in their lexicon. This complexity affects the process of the
aural signal being segmented and decoded into words, the words being added to a
learner's internal lexicon, and the process whereby meaning is constructed and integrated.
above, in which the learners' L2 internal lexicon is integrated with their L1 internal
lexicon, activating lexical candidates in both languages whenever the input matches
interactive model, I now discuss the way in which L2 learners construct meaning from
an L2 oral text within the C-I model. There are two views about L2 comprehension.
The first view is that after L2 words are decoded they can only be accessed through the
first language, instead of being accessed directly. This model is known as the word
association model. The second view is that L2 words are connected to the concept
directly without being connected to the first language word. This model is known as the
61
concept mediation model (Potter, So, Von Eckardt, & Feldman, 1984). Kroll and Stewart
(1994) combined these two models into one model, the revised hierarchical model, to
reflect not only the reliance on the L1 that most L2 learners experience initially, but also
the ability that more proficient L2 learners have to access the concept directly without the
necessity of associating it with the word in the first language (Kroll, Michael, Tokowicz,
The revised hierarchical model concurs with much of the research on proficiency
reviewed below. This research argues that proficient L2 learners are better able to
process and understand an L2 text than are less proficient learners. This model also
agrees with the Construction-Integration model discussed above. Figure 8 illustrates this
model.
Lexical
links
L1 L2
Conceptual Conceptual
links links
Concept
Figure 8. The revised hierarchical model. Taken from The development of lexical
fluency in a second language, by J. F. Kroll, E. Michael, N. Tokowicz, & R. Dufour,
2002, Second Language Research, 18(2), p. 139. Copyright [2002] by Sage Publications.
Reprinted with Permission.
concept. The arrows depict the strength of the relationship between the nodes. This
62
figure depicts a less proficient L2 learner. The L2 word is strongly linked to the L1 word
but only weakly linked to the concept. The L1 word is strongly linked to the concept but
only weakly linked to the L2 word. The concept is strongly linked to the L1 word but
only weakly linked to the L2 word. As the L2 learner becomes more proficient, the link
between the L1 word and the L2 word may or may not become weaker while the link
between the concept and the L1 word and the concept and the L2 word will become
stronger.
63
industrial
Regatta
geography
(rivers, hills,...)
Steelers
I2 I3
I4
I1
S Pittsburgh O
P2 P1 today
R R
S S
R loose P3
lions
I10
downtown
I7 I9
I8 free
I5 I6
zoo escaped
wild animals Africa
tigers, bears,...
64
Figure 9 is an example of a propositional network for an L2 learner, who has English as
his or her L1 and Arabic as his or her L2. Note that the Arabic words are linked to both
the proposition and the English word. In this example, there are strong links between the
L2 words, the L1 words, and the proposition, which indicates a proficient learner.
Bearing the C-I model in mind, the strength of the link of a L2 word to a
relevant to the textbase. With less proficient L2 learners, many words will not be linked
to the textbase during the construction phase or may be only very weakly linked.
the internal lexicon will be more strongly linked into the textbase, with a higher
Not only will L2 words be linked to the textbase that is being created by the L2
learners, a situation model will also be created with links of varying strengths and
probabilities. This situation model will include background knowledge from their L1
language context as well as their L2 context. As I have already mentioned, less proficient
L2 learners will have weaker links attached to L2 contexts and stronger links attached to
their L1 contexts. More proficient L2 learners will have stronger links attached to L2
During the integration phase, the spreading activation will stabilize the network
by maintaining the strong relevant nodes and eliminating, weak irrelevant nodes. This
will cause less proficient L2 learners to not understand or misunderstand an L2 oral text,
65
whereas more proficient L2 learners will have an easier time understanding an L2 oral
The comprehension process mentioned above occurs in working memory for both
and cognitive load, occur in an L2 learner's working memory but do not occur in an L1
pronunciation and language use and is completely influenced by a persons first language.
For example, the learner's L1 determines the size of working memory. Therefore, when a
person learns another language, that second or third language must be learned through the
restrictions of the working memory placed on it by the first language. These restrictions
are what Cook calls a cognitive deficit (87). Because of these restrictions, a second
language learners cognitive processes work less efficiently in the second or third
language than in the first language, as the decoding process in a second or third language
puts a greater strain on working memory resources (Hagtvet, 2003; Tyler, 2001). The
effect of this cognitive deficit is accentuated with less proficient learners and diminished
Cognitive load. Since working memory is generally less efficient when an EFL
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Sweller first explored the concept of cognitive load in his article, Cognitive load during
problem solving: Effects on learning (Sweller, 1988). According to van Merriboer and
Sweller (2005, p. 148), working memory can hold just seven new pieces of information,
and can only effectively process three or four of them at once. Any information that is
not rehearsed is lost after about 10 seconds. Merriboer and Sweller define cognitive
load as the amount of new information that working memory can process at one time.
Thus, cognitive load increases as more new pieces of information are introduced into
working memory simultaneously (p. 148). This load on working memory impacts
Brown (1995) gives six principles regarding cognitive load. 1) There will be less
cognitive load on working memory when there are fewer referents (i.e. individuals and
objects) in a text. She says that this is because more referents increase the likelihood that
previous knowledge units will be strongly linked into a propositional network when they
should only be weakly linked in or not linked in at all. 2) Texts are easier to understand
when the referents in a text are clearly distinguishable from each other. 3) A text is easier
text when the sequence of events are ordered. 5) A text is easier to understand when it
has fewer inferences. 6) It is easier to understand a text that is clear, unambiguous, and is
compatible with the reader's or listener's existing knowledge. Therefore, when readers or
listeners encounter texts that follow these principles, working memory will haves less
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cognitive load, and when readers or listeners encounter texts that violate one or more of
their English proficiency affected their ability to understand L2 texts. I was interested in
the research that discussed to what extent L2 learners' English proficiency indicated their
ability to understand English texts. Reading specialists have been researching this issue
for many years and this issue is now starting to become more important among listening
The issue of proficiency, has led to the development of two theories. The first
theory, the linguistic threshold hypothesis (LTH), claims that L2 learners must reach a
certain threshold of proficiency in the L2 before they will be able to understand a written
or an oral text. This theory is also called the short-circuit theory because, according to
language learning until a certain level of proficiency in the L2 language is attained. The
second theory, the linguistic interdependence hypothesis (LIH) claims that L2 learners
can use their ability in their first language to help them understand written or oral texts in
their L2.
comprehension. Vandergrift (2006) is the first researcher to explore this issue. In his
68
he reports on research that he conducted among English-speaking, eighth-graders in
Canada who were learning French. There were 75 participants in the study. The results
of the study indicated that even though both L2 proficiency and L1 listening ability were
important in understanding the L2 oral texts, proficiency had twice as much influence on
vocabulary development, both through context and in isolation, may help L2 learners
an L2 context. In her research she conducted two different types of reading tasks with
her participants: scanning, and receptive reading. With the scanning exercise, the
participants were asked to locate certain words or phrases without understanding their
meaning or their relationship to the text. With the receptive reading exercise, students
were asked to read the text and understand the meaning of the text. She discovered that
when the students performed the less cognitively demanding task of scanning, L1 reading
ability was more of a factor than L2 proficiency. However, when the students carried out
more important influence than L1 reading ability. Taillefer speculated that possibly both
the linguistic threshold hypothesis and the linguistic interdependence hypothesis may
interact. She indicated that there may be a language threshold for more difficult, more
understanding the difficult tasks. On the other hand, L2 learners may be able to use their
L1 ability when they are faced with easier, less cognitively demanding tasks.
69
The consensus of this research is that there is more evidence for the linguistic
proficiency is important especially with the use of learning strategies. In other words,
more proficient learners are better able to use strategies to understand oral texts than less
proficient learners.
Even though not much research has been conducted linking strategy use with
to understand oral English texts. These studies have attempted to understand the reasons
that for L2 learners have a difficult time understanding oral texts. Most of this research
has been quantitative and has taken a cognitive approach, attempting to look at various
I have divided the research that as been done in the areas of listening
comprehension and learning strategies into two areas. First, cognitive listening
comprehension research that has been carried out with L2 learners. Second, research in
examined specific aspects of the auditory signal like prosodic information, speed of the
speech, the complexity of the speech, or the variability of speech tones and stress. For
example, Jung (2003) looked at the role of discourse signaling cues among a group of
Korean L2 learners. She divided the 80 participants into two groups. Both groups
70
listened to an academic lecture, one group benefited from discourse cues and the other
group did not. The participants were then given summary tasks and recall tasks. Jung
analyzed the tasks quantitatively and concluded that the discourse cues were important in
Participants were trained to use the computer, including how to increase and decrease the
speed of speech. Then they participated in an experiment in which they listened to a text
through a computer and controlled the speech's speed. Through the use of a
questionnaire and retrospective interviews in her research, she concluded that L2 learners
were better able to understand the text when the speech's delivery rate was slower.
an attempt to ascertain the methods L2 listeners use to segment the incoming auditory
signal into recognizable words. Sanders, Neville, and Woldorff (2002) are among many
study, they conducted experiments with a group of native Japanese speakers, a group of
native Spanish speakers, and a group of native English speakers. Their purpose in the
study was to discover how these different groups of learners identified words from an
aural input. Their research concluded that the speech-segmentation strategy of their first
Cutler (2000) summarizes a large body of research in her article and concludes
from this research that each language has a specific segmentation strategy. Therefore, an
L2 learner will automatically segment aural speech in an oral English text in the same
71
way that he or she would in their first language. This will cause problems when the
segmentation strategy of the first language is different from the segmentation strategy of
English. Cutler says that this may not be changeable. However, she does say that it is
their first language segmentation when they listen to oral English texts.
Field (2003) also talks about segmentation. He says that L2 learners have a
difficult time hearing word boundaries in English and often hear words that are between
word boundaries, making a word from two partial words in the aural stream. However,
he indicates that L2 learners can learn to emulate the segmentation strategy of native
English speakers. He suggests that teaching reduced forms and dictating short phrases
may help L2 learners with the rhythm or the oral English language.
the materials that are used in L2 classrooms and the teaching methodology that is applied
maintained that the use of CALL (computer-aided language learning) could be used to
slow down the speed of speech, thereby helping the learners to better understand it.
language training center. The instruments that she used for her research were a
questionnaire, interviews, and observations. From her analysis of the data, she concluded
that the use of authentic aural texts helped the learners to be more confident in their
72
Learners' listening proficiency. Some researchers have noticed that certain L2
learners are able to understand oral English texts better than other L2 learners. This has
Researchers have tried to examine the more proficient learners to better understand what
they do to understand oral English texts. These researchers have also compared the more
proficient listeners with the less proficient listeners to diagnose the differences.
Proficiency has been linked with strategy use, however, it also can relate to listening
comprehension ability.
proficient and less proficient learners is Liu (2002). In her mixed quantitative/qualitative
dissertation research, she looked at the differences between more proficient and less
proficient L2 university students in Hong Kong and the way in which they processed
speech. She used four data collecting instruments, a questionnaire, interviews, a partial
transcription exercise, and introspective verbal reports. She concluded that the students'
proficiency and the amount of time that they listened to oral English texts greatly affected
the students' comprehension ability. The less proficient students' experienced what Liu
describes as an acoustic blur (p. 285), in which the less proficient learners are unable to
properly segment the incoming aural stream into meaningful words. She also concluded
that there is a proficiency threshold among L2 learners. Those learners who pass the
threshold are able to effectively understand oral English speech whereas those who are
73
Another researcher, Jeon (2007) also examined more proficient and less proficient
conducted a quantitative, ex post facto study with 141 students from a U.S. university.
He also conducted a qualitative, follow-up study in which 13 students, who had taken
part in the study, were interviewed. He concluded that proficient L2 learners, as well as
those learners who had knowledge of the content of the text, were better able to
understand the text than other learners who were less proficient, or who had no
Not only has cognitive listening comprehension research been conducted with L2
Learners, learning strategy research with L2 learners has also been conducted. I review
the learning or listening strategies that they use when they listen to oral English texts.
Many researchers, including Goh (1998), Green and Oxford (1995), Khalil (2005),
Oxford (1994), and Vandergrift (2003a, 2003b) have indicated in their research that
strategy use is important and helps L2 learners better understand oral English texts.
analyzed the SILL quantitatively and concluded that female students used strategies more
74
often than male students and more proficient students used strategies more often than less
proficient students.
initially take a listening and reading proficiency test called the Secondary Level English
Proficiency Test (130). She used the results of the test to place 16 students into either a
students and asked each of the students to record entries in a listening diary for eight
weeks. During the interview, she read a text aloud, pausing periodically. During the
pauses Goh asked the participant to verbalize the strategies that the students used to
understand the text. From the interviews and the diaries, she made a list of strategies and
converted the verbal information into numbers using coding and frequency counts. She
then used descriptive statistics on the resulting information. From her analysis, Goh
concluded that the high-proficiency group used a broad range of strategies to comprehend
the text. In contrast, the low-proficiency group used a very small number of strategies.
Metacognitive strategy awareness. While some research has been done in the
metacognitive strategies. The purpose of much of this strategy research has been to train
Mareschal (2007), and Vandergrift (2003b) are among those who have focused on
comprehension ability.
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Mareschal (2007) studied English L1 speakers, not English L2 speakers, who
were studying French as a second language. She conducted a qualitative study for her
doctoral dissertation with two small groups of government employees in Canada who
were enrolled in a mandatory French L2 learning program. The instruments that she used
concluded from her research that the learners' knowledge of their strategies coupled with
metacognitive training on how to manage those strategies was very effective in helping
the learners in the study to improve their listening comprehension ability. She added that
Learning strategy use. Some researchers have asked learners what strategies
they think they use, while trying to discover what strategies they actually use. Zhang and
Goh (2006) and Hwang (2003) are among those who have asked learners to report their
listening comprehension problems as well as their strategy use. Zhang and Goh
Singapore (n=278). They used the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory in Listening and
Speaking Strategies (MAILSS) to ascertain their perceptions of the usefulness and their
use of the various learning strategies (p. 203). The inventory asked the participants to
decide the usefulness of each of the listed strategies. The participants were also asked to
decide to what extent they used each of the listed strategies. The researchers then
compared those two factors of perceived usefulness and perceived use to identify whether
the students indeed used the strategies that they indicated were important. Their results
76
indicated that practice strategies were deemed by the students to be the most important.
However, students admitted that they did not use these strategies. The researchers
concluded from this apparent inconsistency that the students were not yet conscious and,
confident strategy users (p. 214). The researchers' recommendation is that more strategy
Hwang (2003) also examined problems that L2 learners have when listening to
oral English texts and the strategies that they use to understand these texts. However, she
disagreed with Zhang and Goh (2006) that more strategy training is needed. Instead she
concluded that more focus is needed in using simpler texts and explicitly teaching oral
introspective and retrospective reports from participants while they listened to four
different texts. She found that proficient listeners had no difficulty understanding
different types of texts and these types of listeners also used a variety of various
strategies. She discovered that less proficient listeners used less strategies and had
difficulty decoding and understanding oral English texts. When simpler texts were used,
less proficient learners were able to decode the text effectively. When more difficult texts
were used, these learners were not able to decode the texts.
students completed a questionnaire about their learning strategy use and their listening
comprehension problems. The learning strategy use results were mixed with students
77
using some effective strategies and other ineffective strategies (pp. 141-142). The
students also reported a whole range of problems that affected their listening
vocabulary, difficult grammatical structures, and lengthy texts), difficult tasks (especially
difficulty with prediction, inferencing tasks), difficult speakers (especially fast speech,
non-standard pronunciation, various accents, and no face to go with the words), and
listeners' lack of interest. After listing the listening comprehension problems that the
students identified, Hasan presented some suggestions to identify the students' problems
and to focus on a teaching plan that will help students to overcome their problems.
Goh (2000) also researched problems that 40 students in China had while
listening to oral texts. All of the participants wrote listening diaries. Some also
However, unlike the results of Hasan's (2000) research, Goh's participants reported
problems that related to comprehension of the text. In addition, her findings related
mostly to the low-level cognitive processes of perception and parsing of the auditory
signal.
listening strategy use, I conclude the chapter by summarizing the theoretical model I have
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The Importance of Strategies in Listening Comprehension
As the research community has explored the ramification of new insights into the
information processing system, the focus of research has shifted away from learning as a
to aural information in English, and, after enough exposure, the brain would
automatically understand oral English without any conscious effort on the part of the
listener (Brown, 1990, p. 8). But now researchers have concluded that listening is an
active skill and that a person improves his or her listening comprehension through active
Processing system described above. They assist the Central Executive in carrying out its
2006). As I mentioned above, strategies can also be clustered together to perform higher
information processing theory with cognitive strategies into a model which is depicted in
Figure 10.
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Long-Term Memory
Declarative Procedural
Knowledge Knowledge
Practicing
Rehearsal/Repetition
Translating/
Transferring
Central
Executive
Attention
Attention
Working Memory
Sensory
Registers
Attention
Input
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This model based on a description by Macaro (2006, p. 326) and Wenden (1991, p. 19)
creates a fuller understanding of how information processing occurs. I have named this
combination of cognitive information theory with strategy use the Cognitive Strategic
Comprehension Model.
processing system. First, attention helps the Central Executive attend to information
from the incoming auditory stream. Second, the attended to information is maintained in
working memory through the Phonological Loop recycling the information until it has
been processed. Rehearsal enhances the task of the Phonological Loop. Third, while the
Episodic Buffer combines new information from the Phonological Loop with information
from long-term memory, learners use two other cognitive strategies, association and
retrieved when needed. Practicing is used to help increase the speed of the retrieval
strategies such as elaboration and inferencing, aid the construction of the textbase during
use metacognitive and socio-affective strategies to oversee and reinforce the transferring
of information throughout the information processing system and verify that perceived
aural information has been understood accurately and that reasonable meanings have
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To further illustrate the relationship between strategies and their cognitive
processes, I have created two tables. Table 1 lists different types of metacognitive,
cognitive, and socio-affective strategies along with a brief description of each strategy.
Table 1
A List and Description of Metacognitive, Cognitive, and Socio-affective Strategies
Strategy Group Strategy Set Description
Metacognitive Planning Planning and organizing in advance so that a
task can be successfully completed.
Monitoring Overseeing the ongoing listening process so
that a task can be successfully completed.
Evaluation Checking comprehension after listening to a
text to verify that a task has been
successfully completed.
Cognitive Selective attention Focusing on specific information, in a text.
Rehearsal/Repetition Repeating information to facilitate retention.
Inferencing/Guessing Using understood information in text to
guess, predict, or complete missing
information.
Summarizing/ Periodically synthesizing what has been
Note-taking heard to facilitate retention of the
information.
Imagery Using visual images to assist in the
comprehension of new verbal information.
Associating/ Linking, integrating, grouping, or combining
Elaborating/Grouping/ new ideas with known information according
Combining to logical principles.
Practicing Using language to communicate, which
facilitates and expedites the retrieval of
appropriate information from long-term
memory.
Analyzing and Constructing rules, or comparing and
Reasoning contrasting words or expressions between the
target language and the EFL learner's primary
language to make language learning easier.
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Strategy Group Strategy Set Description
Translating/ Converting words or expressions from the
Transferring primary language into the target language; or
using words, concepts, or structures from the
learner's primary language to understand the
target language.
Socio-affective Cooperation Working with peers to check comprehension,
resolve a question with a text, share
information, check notes, or obtain feedback
on a learning task.
Note: Adapted from Wenden,1991, p. 22; O'Malley & Chamot, 1990, p.46; and Oxford,
Table 2 associates the cognitive strategies with different areas of the human information-
processing system.
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Table 2
The attention strategies are associated with both the Central Executive and the sensory
registers. The Central Executive, which controls attention, coordinates with the sensory
registers to latch onto or get information from the aural stream and transfer verbal
the Visuospatial Sketchpad. Rehearsal and summarizing strategies are used by the
phonological buffer to hold information in the phonological buffer until it has been
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comprehended. The Episodic Buffer is the main area in working memory that uses the
information from long-term memory and combines it with information from the
Phonological Loop and the Visuospatial Sketchpad. This is also the area where
with information from short-term memory in the Episodic Buffer. Listeners use
and practicing to help the information move between the Episodic Buffer and long-term
As is evident from Table 2 and Figure 10, cognitive strategies are essential to the
important. Metacognitive strategies are used by the listener to oversee, monitor, and
control the movement of information throughout the processing system and also aid the
comprehension process. Socio-affective strategies are used by the listener to help clarify
and verify with others what the listener has understood from the text (Wenden, 1991).
Using listening tasks is the conventional method that researchers and teachers use to
attempt accessing cognitive processes. These tasks are then evaluated to ascertain the
extent to which learners have understood the texts. I used tasks to assist in the
primarily pedagogical and not theoretical, the proper selection, use, and evaluation of
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tasks is paramount. Two important considerations for an assessor when selecting, using,
and evaluating tasks are the task difficulty and task distortion.
Task difficulty. Nunan (2004, p. 86) discusses six factors that affect the
difficulty of the task. 1) The task's cognitive complexity. This means the amount of
thinking required for an EFL learner to understand a task. Tasks which are familiar to an
EFL learner are, therefore, cognitively easier, whereas tasks that are unfamiliar are
cognitively more difficult. 2) The number of questions and parts the task contains.
3) The third factor is how many references to the text the task provides. 4) The amount
accuracy that is required in completing the task. 6) The amount of time that an EFL
learner has to complete a task. Nunan as well as others (Field, 2009; Oxford, Cho,
Leung, and Kim; 2004; Robinson and Gilabert, 2007) indicate that the most important
factor affecting the task's complexity is the familiarity that a learner has with a particular
Task distortion. No task can accurately and completely identify what a listener
has understood from a text. All tasks only approximate the understanding of a listener.
However, Rost (1990b) says that the less distortion a task causes, the better an assessor
can approximate a listener's understanding of a text (p. 123). Distortion occurs when
there is a delay between the time of listening to a task and the execution of a task, when
the task is open instead of closed, or when the response to a task must be formulated in
the listener's own words rather than the original words of the text. Therefore, open,
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retrospective, original tasks cause more distortion than closed, on-line, veridical tasks
listening ability is a factor when L2 learners read or listen to second language texts.
Taillefer indicated that L1 ability can only be used by L2 learners when they are faced
with less cognitively-demanding tasks, and presumably less cognitively demanding texts.
She concludes that the Linguistic Threshold Hypothesis applies when L2 learners
complete more cognitively-demanding tasks. Vandergrift also supports the claim that L1
listening ability can be used by L2 learners when they listen to oral English texts,
although he did not identify whether that use is contingent on the degree of difficulty of
In addition, much research has been conducted in the area of learning strategy
use. Regarding L1 learning, both researchers and teachers have indicated that all learners
use learning strategies to complete a learning task or activity (Lyke & Young, 2006;
Oxford, 1990; Riding & Rayner, 1998; Rost, 2002; Vermunt & Vermetten; 2004; Vinther,
2005). Anderson and Vandergrift (1996) and Rubin (1987) claim that EFL students can
help them learn a foreign language. These strategies can give EFL learners the tools they
Anderson and Vandergrift (1996), Oxford (1990), Rubin (1987), and Wenden
(1987, 1991) concur with L1 strategy research that has been conducted and state that the
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use of strategies is essential for foreign language learners to effectively learn a foreign
language. Oxford states that strategies are tools that language learners use to be actively
involved in their language learning. Rubin argues that it is not helpful for language
students to be just given information (p. 17). Instead, she claims that learning
strategies are the best way for language students to be active in their language learning
because they give these students opportunities to internalize information in ways which
are meaningful to them (p. 17). Wenden (1991) agrees by stating that successful
language learners have discovered that employing strategies helps them in their language
acquisition.
Miller, 2005; Goh, 2000; Mendelsohn, 1995; Vandergrift, 2003a), all EFL learners use
some strategies to help them understand an oral English text. More proficient EFL
learners are more aware of the strategies that they use and employ these strategies more
2003a) encourage EFL learners to identify what strategies they use when listening in their
first language and then to employ these strategies when listening to English. This process
helps EFL learners become aware of the strategies that they have automatized when
listening to their first language. Once they are cognizant of these strategies, they can
intentionally use these strategies when listening to a foreign language. When students are
aware of these strategies, they will have the confidence and ability to effectively listen to
texts in English. Vandergrift (2003b) adds that EFL learners should be encouraged to
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focus more on metacognitive strategies when they listen to oral English texts, thereby
I will close this chapter by relating the Cognitive Strategic Comprehension Model
to listening comprehension in an EFL context. At times when I refer to strategies that are
including J. Berne (2004), Goh (1998, 2000), Mendelsohn (1994, 1995), and Vandergrift
(2003a, 2003b).
that L1 learners have developed learning strategies to help them comprehend texts in
their first language. Tunisians, like all L1 learners, have also developed learning
strategies to help them comprehend texts in their own language. However, when
Tunisian EFL learners listen to oral texts in English they often experience difficulties.
Sometimes they find that the strategies they have relied on to understand oral texts in an
L1 context do not help them in an EFL context. Furthermore, these learners may face
new contexts and new challenges that they did not face when they listen to oral texts in
an L1 context.
1993) ACT model, Baddeley's (2009) working memory model, and Kitsch's (1998)
comprehension occurs when a textbase, constructed from an oral text, is combined with a
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situation model from a listener's long-term memory. The use of appropriate strategies is
research has been conducted with Tunisian EFL students, the types of listening strategies
they use and the obstacles they encounter while listening to oral English texts is
Tunisian EFL students use when they listen to oral transactional texts in a university
context and the obstacles they encounter understanding these types of texts. I then
examined the relationship between the listening strategies they used, the obstacles they
encountered, and their ability to understand oral transactional texts in English. I assumed
that if they encountered less obstacles, they would use more listening strategies and they
would be more likely to understand the texts. Conversely, I assumed that if they
encountered more obstacles, they would use less listening strategies and they would be
Throughout my research I took into account two other factors: the students'
cognitive load on working memory and their proficiency level. First, I examined the
extent to which the students were affected by cognitive load. I did this by presenting the
students with different levels of tasks and different types of texts and analyzing the way
in which the students' use of strategies were influenced by these different levels of tasks
and texts. I expected that easier texts and tasks would decrease the students' cognitive
load and more difficult texts and tasks would increase their cognitive load. Furthermore,
I expected that they would use a broad range of effective listening strategies when they
experienced a lower cognitive load. I expected that students would use a limited amount
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of strategies that were ineffective in helping them understand the oral texts when they
experienced a higher cognitive load. Second, I examined the way in which students'
proficiency level affected their use of strategies. Throughout my research I expected that
less proficient students would use less effective listening strategies and more proficient
the human information processing system with the use of learning strategies. I refer to
this theoretical perspective as the Cognitive Strategic Comprehension model. I had two
purposes in conducting this study. 1) I wanted to identify the listening strategies that
Tunisian EFL learners use and the obstacles they encounter which prevent them from
whether the Tunisian EFL learners use of strategies concurred with the model that I
proposed. Based on these two purposes, I asked the following research questions.
affective) do Tunisian EFL students use when listening to oral English transactional
texts?, centered on identifying the learning strategies students use when they listen to
oral texts. I used questionnaires, classroom observations, individual interviews, and the
think-aloud protocol to answer this question. Question 2, What are the major difficulties
that Tunisian EFL students encounter when listening to oral English transactional texts?,
focused on identifying the hindrances that students indicated that they had in
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understanding oral texts. I used questionnaires, interviews, and listening diaries to
Since I believe that strategies are an integral part of the Cognitive Strategic
Comprehension Model, I expected that a wide variety of strategies integrated with the
comprehension ability. On the other hand, a lack of strategies, both transfer strategies
the human information-processing system may indicate that the information cannot be
process may indicate that an appropriate textbase could not be constructed, resulting in a
lack of comprehension.
In this chapter I presented the theoretical framework for my study, the Cognitive
processing system, as has been theorized by Anderson (1983, 1993). Anderson's model
effectively presents a description of long-term memory and the way in which information
moves between long-term memory and working memory, also known as short-term
Therefore, I have added to Anderson's model, Baddeley's (2009) working memory model.
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description of the decoding process and the meaning construction process. I chose to use
However, I pointed out that the above cognitive models that I have assumed in my
research, consider the comprehension process to be automatic and that learners are
passive in this process. Since this idea is incompatible with my assumption that EFL
learners are active in the comprehension process, I have added the use of listening
strategies to the above models to create a cognitive strategic model of EFL learners'
problems that Tunisian EFL students have in understanding oral texts used in a university
theoretical model and the way in which these research questions aided me in determining
the feasibility of my proposed model among Tunisian EFL students who are attempting to
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CHAPTER THREE
Introduction
research was to identify and describe the obstacles that Tunisian EFL learners have in
understanding oral English texts and identify the learning strategies that they use to
my research have a specific culture, background, and educational history. Each of the
participants also has a unique context that significantly impacts the way in which he or
she listens and understands oral texts. Through a qualitative methodology, I use
examples from individual participants, instead of statistical averages from the group, that
identify the specific ways that each participant listens to oral texts and the specific needs
of each one. In my view, the learners' specific culture, background, educational situation,
In order for me to answer the research questions that I have posed, I used various
data-collection methods and type of analysis. The data-collection methods I used were: a
diaries, and classroom observations. The types of data analysis I used were: typology,
coding, and hermeneutical analysis. Through using these different types of analysis at
different times and with different learners, I was able to triangulate the results, increasing
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I used both offline and online data-collection methods in my research. Offline
means that the participants did not listen to an oral English transactional text nor
complete an associated task during the data-collection method. Online means that the
participants listened to texts and completed associated tasks during the data-collection
method. The five offline methods I used were: a questionnaire, observations, group
interviews, listening diaries, and classroom observations. The two online methods I used
were individual interviews and think-aloud protocols. The offline methods provided me
with an overall understanding of the listening strategies that Tunisian EFL learners use
and the obstacles they encounter while they listened to oral texts. My observations of the
hand knowledge of the way in which learners use some strategies during their classes. In
addition, the online methods allowed me to observe the listening strategies that Tunisian
EFL learners use and the obstacles they encounter while they listened to oral texts in a
observation, at worst, I assumed that the participants may identify different strategies
than during the individual interviews, which are self-reports. I was also able to
corroborate the strategies that the learners reported using in the offline methods with the
strategies that they actually used during these two online methods.
inquirer (Schwandt, 1997, p. 174). This type of research assumes an emic perspective
rather than an etic perspective. In other words, I realize that I cannot separate myself
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from my research context, where I have lived and taught for many years. Moreover, I do
not want to separate myself from this context because being an insider provides me with
opportunities to collect data that I may not be able to collect if I were an outsider. For
example, I was able to introduce myself to learners and to the teachers as a teacher from
Sfax, who was familiar with the educational system in Tunisia. Once the learners and
questions and volunteering for my research, which they may have been reluctant to do if I
backgrounds from my home country, the United States, as well as my social, educational,
and occupational background from living in Tunisia for about 20 years. The participants
of my research also respond to their situation from a particular context. They also have
personal, social, and educational backgrounds that are different from my background.
Realizing this, I approached my research acknowledging that Tunisian EFL learners may
understand their difficulties when listening to oral texts differently from the expectations
and assumptions has enabled me to set them aside, giving me a better understanding of
the context of the learners and the way in which they approach listening to oral texts
Another key component of qualitative research is that, since my research has been
contexts. However, even though the results of my research may not be generalized they
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may be transferred, if other contexts are similar to my research context. For example,
other researchers, who are researching university EFL learners listening to oral
transactional texts, could transfer my strategy use findings and my obstacle findings to
their research context. These findings may be especially applicable to research in another
Much of the research that has been done in the fields of listening comprehension
and learning strategies has used quantitative methodology; I reviewed some of this
projects have relied on strategy inventories that are based on a Western, predominantly
methodology strips the individual participants and their culture out of the research
The strategies that EFL learners use and the obstacles that they encounter while
they listen to oral texts are very complex. Macaro (2006) states that the complexity
strategy research so that answers can be found to the specific problems of EFL learners.
This is one of the strengths of qualitative research and a primary reason that I chose a
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Another strength of my research is that it is grounded in a cognitive model, which
I explain in detail in Chapter 2. Macaro (2006) claims that strategy research up until now
has not been grounded in a cognitive model. He says that, in the past, strategy research
has claimed a cognitive model as its foundation but then paradoxically this research has
stated that strategies are tools that are outside of the cognitive realm; thus, they have
often been classified as skills to be learned rather than cognitive processes that are part of
without naming it as such, that places strategies in working memory. He says that more
to strategy research that includes the EFL learner's human dimension and situates
strategies as an integral part of their cognitive processing. I believe that this research is
an important contribution to L2 listening research. I hope that this research will inspire
others to produce more of this type of research in other areas of the world, especially in
Theoretical Frame
In this research, I have presented Anderson's (1983, 1993) ACT theory, Baddeley's
working theories to explain the cognitive listening process that occurs when Tunisian
EFL learners are exposed to an oral English text in a university context. However, I think
that Macaro's (2006) strategy model that places strategies in working memory needs to be
added to the above models. In this research, I examined the process of listening
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comprehension from the learners' viewpoint, trying to understand their difficulties in
assumes the importance of listening strategies to aid the comprehension process. I had
EFL learners use when listening to oral English transactional texts? How wide and
2. What are the major obstacles that Tunisian EFL learners encounter when listening to
I asked the first question to discover the strategies that learners used when they
listen to oral transactional texts. Through this process, I expected to find that learners did
not use certain strategies, which could have aided them in the listening comprehension
process. I also suspected that some of their strategy use was ineffective, possibly causing
the listening comprehension difficulties they experienced. I used the data from the
questionnaire, the interviews, the think-aloud protocol, and the listening diaries to answer
this question.
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I asked the second question to attempt to uncover the obstacles that learners
encounter when they listened to oral transactional texts. I also tried to relate those
difficulties to specific areas of the cognitive strategic comprehension model that I have
outlined. For example if learners indicated the text was too fast or too long, these
obstacles may have prevented them from using rehearsal or repetition strategies which are
used to maintain information in the phonological loop. I used data from the interviews,
the think-aloud protocol, and the listening diaries to answer this question.
completely objective in a research setting. Instead, the researcher will see a particular
research setting through a specific world view, containing his personal, social, and
view, I will unconsciously make certain assumptions based on that world view
Researcher's Background
I grew up with friends from many different ethnic backgrounds and became aware of
cultures and world views different from my own. This openness to other cultures and
different world views became more pronounced when I attended university and came in
contact with learners from other areas of the United States and other countries throughout
the world.
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In 1988, I moved to Tunisia. After studying Arabic and the Tunisian culture, I
started to teach English; primarily teaching oral language courses such as pronunciation,
speaking, and listening. The method that I was initially exposed to was the audio-lingual
method where I modeled phrases and the learners repeated what I had said. The audio-
me in their language, I not only studied Modern Standard Arabic and Tunisian Arabic, but
integrated into the culture through marrying a Tunisian woman and fathering three
Arabic, have given me a greater awareness of the multi-faceted culture that Tunisians are
privileged to possess, and have given me the ability to understand and question Tunisian
Because of the long period I have been teaching in Tunisia, I fulfill an important
tempered by the prolonged time that I have lived and taught in Tunisia. I am, therefore,
able to understand the Tunisian context and sympathize with the Tunisian EFL learners'
situation.
Researcher's Role
influences how I conduct my research, I also have a specific role in my research context.
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Erlandson et al. (1993) define the researcher's possible roles on a continuum from a
complete observer on one side to a complete participant on the other side. However,
Erlandson et al. state that normally researchers are not complete observers or complete
participants. Instead they are in the middle of the continuum, taking on the role of either
participant as a participant in the group and their role as a researcher is known to the
group. However, his or her role as participant is secondary to his or her role as an
in the group and their role as a researcher is known to the group. However, his or her
Since I have lived and taught for many years in Tunisia, I would consider myself
a participant at the research site that I am studying. Yet, I do not want to camouflage my
participant.
Ethical Considerations
welfare when conducting the study. The purpose of this study is to discover the problems
that Tunisian EFL learners have when listening to oral texts so that, eventually, I might be
able to incorporate different ways of teaching and different ways of student learning.
Therefore, the ultimate purpose of this study is to benefit the Tunisian EFL learners by
improving their learning and teaching environment so that they will eventually be able to
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Before I conducted this study, I expected the learners to become more aware of
their problems and the way they approach these problems. I also anticipated they would
realize their problems in understanding oral English texts are not insurmountable. I
hoped they would discover that the way they approached listening to an oral English text
and the tools they used to understand it made a difference in whether they were able to
understand it.
Before I began my research, I received written permission from the director of the
Gabes campus, oral permission from the head of the English department, oral permission
from the listening comprehension teachers to observe their classes, and written
permission from each of the participants participating in the study. A copy of the request
for written permission from the director is in Appendix A. A copy of the written student
conduct this study from the Internal Review Board (IRB) at Indiana University of
During this research, I explained its purpose to the participants, that all the
interviews and protocols are recorded, and all the information is confidential. Since the
information in the research is confidential, any names or personal information that I used
the research was entirely voluntary and their involvement would not positively or
negatively affect their grades in their classes. I also stressed to all participants in the
study that they were under no obligation to take part in any of the data-collection
methods and that they could withdrawal at any time if they no longer wished to
participate.
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Participants and Selection Procedure
This study has sought a broad understanding of the difficulties that Tunisian EFL
learners have in listening to oral texts in English. I selected learners using two methods.
The first method was attending each of the first- and second-year listening
comprehension classes, explaining the purpose of the research, and asking for volunteers
for the research. The second method was posting an announcement, which asked for
volunteers to participate in the interviews, diary writing, and the think-aloud protocols.
This announcement was written in both English and Arabic. Samples of the English
questionnaire to the learners, and asking for volunteers to complete the questionnaire.
The selection process for the interviews, diaries, and think-aloud protocols was different
from the process for obtaining volunteers to complete the questionnaire. The selection
104
Gabes
Questionnaires
11C 6C
Group Volunteer
Interviews Pool Y1 Y2
166
300 distributed
L M H
28 returned
Listening
Proficiency Test
2 7 4
(TOEFL LC Test)
(28 total took test)
(20 participated)
L M H L M H L M H
3 10 5 0 4 2 0 2 2
18 6 4
I began the selection process for the interviews, diaries, and think-aloud protocols by
creating a pool of volunteers from those students who had volunteered for the research
during my visits to each of the listening comprehension classes. I then added to this pool
by selecting students who volunteered via a posted announcement that explained who I
was, the purpose of my research, and the need for participants for interviews, diaries, and
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think aloud protocols. The announcement also indicated that participation in the research
was completely voluntary and gave my contact information for those who wished to
respond to the announcement (see Appendix C). I expected that at least 48 students
would attend this meeting and that I would be able to select students for the data-
I piloted the questionnaire with some EFL speakers to determine the accessibility
of the questionnaire before distributing the questionnaire and to obtain the maximum
amount of responses possible. After piloting the questionnaire, I made some changes
based on the comments I received. I then distributed 300 questionnaires to the first- and
completed returns from the 300 questionnaires I distributed. I analyzed the results of the
problems that Tunisian EFL learners have in understanding oral texts and the strategies
that they reported while listening to oral transactional texts. I included two copies of a
consent form at the beginning of the questionnaire for each respondent to complete.
For each of the classes, I obtained permission from the teacher to allow me to
distribute the questionnaire during class time. I used the last 10 minutes of the class to
explain the purpose of the research and the questionnaire and to distribute the
questionnaires to the students. I informed them that their involvement in the research
would not affect their grade in the class. I then asked them to complete the questionnaire
and return it to the university administration office. I told the students who completed the
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From the posted announcement and the questionnaire, I received consent forms
from 166 students volunteering for my research. I contacted each and asked them to
attend a meeting where I further explained my research and gave them a proficiency test
to divide them into three groups based on their proficiency in English. 28 students
attended the meeting, even though I hoped to have at least 48 students attend to provide a
larger sample and a more even distribution of low-, medium-, and high-proficiency
students. I divided the 28 students by the results of the proficiency test, listed in Table 3.
Table 3
Eight of the students who took the proficiency test subsequently dropped out of the
research, leaving 20 participants; five were from the first year, 14 were from the second
year, and one was from the fourth year. 13 participants were involved in the group
interviews, 18 in the individual interviews, six in the think-aloud protocol, and four in
listening diary writing. I used pseudonyms for all of my participants to protect their
identity. Table 4 lists the names of the 20 participants and indicates the data-collection
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Table 4
Pseudonyms of Participants
Data-Collection Methods
108
listening diaries. These methods are further defined and explained below. For all of the
methods, the participants were encouraged to speak in the language in which they were
most comfortable: Arabic, English, or French. However, even though they were
encouraged to use the language in which they were the most comfortable, all of the
The questionnaire was written in both English and Arabic. I used a questionnaire
details from a small segment of the student population, details that I would be unable to
participants to observe their performance with specific listening texts and tasks.
described when they were listening to oral English texts. Even though they may not be
aware of these strategies during an interview, they may be aware of these problems and
strategies during their listening comprehension classes and may be better able to describe
participants used while they listened to an oral English text. I expected that this would
reveal further strategies that they used but which were not identified during the
interviews and the diary writing. The data from the think-aloud protocol was especially
helpful in revealing strategies that participants used during the textbase construction.
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Each of these data-collection methods was specifically chosen to allow me to
triangulate my results and identify the maximum number of difficulties and strategies
that participants encountered when listening to an oral English text. Each of these
Classroom Observations
Since, as far as I am aware, no research has been done on difficulties that Tunisian
comprehension classes. It was important to observe the classes at the Gabes site even
though I have taught listening comprehension classes for a number of years. Gabes has a
different approach to teaching than the university where I taught, as well as different
context, teachers, texts and tasks. I needed a general understanding of the type of texts
that the students listen to, the type of tasks that they complete, and the interaction
between the teacher and the students. These observations gave me some preliminary
information regarding how Tunisian EFL students learn in a classroom environment even
though they did not provide a lot of information about learners' listening comprehension
processes (Anderson & Vandergrift, 1996). I also was able to observe some socio-
affective strategies, such as asking for clarification, cooperating with peers, and
There were three listening comprehension teachers at the Gabes site. One teacher
taught listening comprehension to both first- and second-year students. The other two
the listening comprehension teachers during a total of four classes, three first-year classes
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I attended and observed each class with the teacher's permission, I used an
observing the students, the teacher, and the interaction between the students and the
teacher. I took note of what the students were doing while they were listening to oral
texts, the extent to which they sought information from other students when they
answered assessment exercises, and the amount of questions they asked to clarify
information.
I also observed the teacher and various aspects of her interaction with the
students. First, I attempted to notice the teacher's actions while the students were
listening to an oral text. Second, I observed the teacher's method of presenting an oral
text, (i.e. whether the students were asked to listen to the whole oral text without
interruption, or whether the students listened to certain parts of the text). Third, I
observed whether the teacher divided the students into groups and encouraged the
students to complete the task exercises with other students, or the teacher elicited answers
from individual students without collaboration with others. Finally, I observed the
teacher's response when the students could not complete a task or answer comprehension
interactions, listening problems that students had during class, and socio-affective and
metacognitive strategies that they were using while listening to an oral English text.
students learn. I was well aware that observation could not uncover these students'
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internal learn processes, in other words it could not reveal cognitive strategies that the
Questionnaire
The questionnaire was written in both English and Arabic. I have included the English
EFL students to better understand the strategies that they think they use while they are
learning in English. I expected that the data from this questionnaire would provide me
with a broad range of viewpoints and help me to have a better understanding of the
learning strategies that Tunisian EFL students thought they used. I also expected that the
data would help me to better understand the problems they have in comprehending oral
The first part of the questionnaire requested demographic information from the
students. The second part asked students to rank the difficulty of specific oral text
features. The third part contained a strategy inventory. The fourth part asked about the
students' listening habits outside of the class. The final part was opened-ended and gave
the students the opportunity to list any specific problems they have while listening to oral
English texts. The questionnaire was written in both English and Arabic, so that all the
The main part of the questionnaire was a strategy inventory, which is a structured
survey that contains statements relating to learning habits to which the respondent must
make a fixed response; these individual Likert items each linked to particular listening
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strategy (Oxford & Crookall, 1989). These statements were randomly ordered, not
ordered by strategy type. In addition, some statements were repeated throughout the
inventory. The random organization and the repetition was done to increase the internal
Inventory for Language Learners (SILL) (1990), which uses a five-level scale, except that
Applicable if the statement did not pertain to them. The strategy inventory focused on
Appendix F along with the SILL statements that I used in my questionnaire and the
I also developed a coded version of the inventory that I used in the questionnaire,
listing all of the statements according to strategy type. This coded inventory is included
strategies proposed by O'Malley and Chamot (1990) and Wenden (1991). This list of
strategies is in Chapter 2 (Tables 1 and 2). Since the statements in the inventory were
randomly ordered and not ordered by strategy type, I used a coded version of the
inventory so that I could later sort and categorize the inventory statements by strategy
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I chose to base my inventory on Oxford's SILL because, according to research, it
is one of the most popular strategy inventories with good reliability (Hsiao & Oxford,
2002; Khalil, 2005; Nisbet, Tindall & Arroyo, 2005; and Nyikos & Oxford, 1993). The
SILL is a 50-question inventory which is designed primarily for ESL learners, although it
may be used for both ESL and EFL learners. It is a general purpose inventory which
identifies learner strategies from reading, writing, speaking, and listening. Since I was
interested in listening strategies for my research, many of the statements in the SILL were
strategies: cognitive, metacognative, and socio-affective. I believe that this system was
more appropriate for my research than Oxford's six-category system. Since I decided to
use this three-category system, I adapted Oxford's SILL to develop a more balanced
inventory with an equal number, or a near equal number, of questions for each strategy
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Table 5
A List of Strategies, Codes Assigned, and Number of Questions per Strategy in the
Strategy Inventory
Oxford's SILL. Some of these statements were exactly the same as the SILL statements
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and some were modified to fit the listening context of my research (see Appendix F for
details). Each of the statements in the strategy inventory reflected a certain strategy set.
To avoid making the inventory too long, I included fewer socio-affective strategy
Group Interviews
The purpose of the group interviews was to probe more deeply into the specific
problems Tunisian EFL learners have understanding oral English texts in their
classrooms, and the reasons for these problems. I also wanted to identify the specific
learning strategies the learners used when they listened to oral English texts in their
classrooms, and the reasons they used certain strategies and did not use other strategies.
could uncover problems that all of the participants, in general, encountered and the
listening strategies they used. This is a method suggested by O'Malley and Chamot
(1990). 13 learners in four groups took part in the group interviews. Two participants
had low proficiency, seven had moderate proficiency, and four had high proficiency. I
conducted the interviews in English. However, if any participant did not understand a
question or needed clarification, I used Tunisian Arabic to clarify the question. I also
made it clear to the students that they were free to answer the questions in English or
Arabic.
During the group interviews, I asked the participants guiding questions regarding
their listening habits listening to oral texts, obstacles that they encountered in listening,
and strategies that they found useful or not useful. I also asked them general questions
about the usefulness of the listening comprehension course and the amount of exposure
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they had to English outside of the campus. Finally, I asked them for suggestions about
ways to improve the teaching methods for learning to listen in a classroom environment.
The questions that I asked in the group interviews are listed in Appendix H.
Individual Interviews
in group interviews. Three of these participants had low proficiency, ten had moderate
proficiency, and five had high proficiency. Rubin and Rubin (2005) describe the process
relevant first-hand information about the subject and they should be well-informed about
it. Rubin and Rubin also say the researcher should choose interviewees that represent a
perspectives and different points of view. In addition, they also indicate that the
Based on Rubin and Rubin's (2005) advice, I chose interviewees that I thought
would help me to better understand the issues that the Tunisian EFL learners were facing.
I also expected that these interviewees would be able to convey some of the problems and
describe some of the strategies that they used when listening to oral texts in a university
environment.
Before the interview, I graded different texts according to Brown's (1995) six
principles which I reviewed in Chapter 2. Thus, each text only had one or two speakers,
the speakers were clearly distinguishable from each other, the texts were spoken at a
moderate speed and were clear. The texts did not require a lot of inferences to be made,
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and the subject of the texts were within the realm of the participant's experience. Based
on her principles, I ranked these graded texts from Very Easy to Very Difficult. I
administered the easiest texts to the low- proficiency participants, the most difficult
texts to the high-proficiency participants, and the moderately difficult texts to the
moderate-proficiency participants. Finally, I divided the texts in each of the three text
groups into Easy and Difficult. Table 6 displays the list of texts that were used for
the individual interviews, as well as the text number, the participant level for which the
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Table 6
One text, Choosing a Holiday, was used with both moderate and high proficiency
participants, ranked difficult for the moderate proficiency students and easy for the high
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proficiency students. In addition, two versions of the text Laughter were used, the
original version and a version with the pauses between information units removed. I
ranked these two versions differently: Easy for the original version and Difficult for
Each text that I used in my research had a task associated with it. I chose a
variety of tasks and tried to chose tasks that were not cognitively difficult, based on
Nunan's (2004) list of six factors that determine task complexity, reviewed in Chapter 2.
Even though I used written tasks for the difficult texts, I used both written and visual
tasks with the easy texts. I used the visual tasks to determine if the participants used
different cognitive processes with these tasks than they did with the written tasks.
The tasks that I used for the individual interviews are listed in Appendix I. The
texts that I used are listed in Appendix J. I gave each participants two texts, one easy text
and one difficult text according to the above description. I began the interview by
explaining the listening procedure. I then gave them two tasks, for each of the texts. In
addition, I gave each participant the topic of the text before they listened to each text to
enhance their abilities to use background knowledge. After they listened to each text, I
asked them questions about the ease or difficulty of the task and the text, the strategies
used to complete the task, obstacles they encountered when they listened to the texts, and
their perception regarding their understanding of the text after the participants finished
each task. I also asked them to compare their experience completing these tasks with
completing tasks in the classroom. The questions that I asked them are in Appendix K.
After I finished asking the participants questions about their experience listening to the
text and completing the task, I scored the task to see whether they were able to
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successfully complete the task. Then I asked them questions regarding any difference
interviews with four of them: one had high proficiency and the other three had moderate
confirm emerging data, and test developing theories. For these follow-up interviews, I
gave each participant two or three difficult tasks to complete. I also altered the text or
disallowed certain common strategies that were emerging from my research so that I
Listening Diaries
learners to become more aware of their learning processes and the strategies used.
Diaries are especially helpful in making learners aware of metacognitive and socio-
affective strategies used (Oxford, Lavine, Felkins, Holloway, & Saleh, 1996, pp. 20-21).
purposes. For my purposes, I had participants record in writing the strategies that they
used while they were listening to oral English texts in class and outside of class. This
gave me an additional method for collecting participants' listening strategies and listening
obstacles. Howell-Richardson and Parkinson (1988) indicate that the researcher needs to
specifically define what types of information are to be included in the diary with clear
important aspect of diary writing is for the researcher to maintain frequent contact with
the participants to make sure that they are writing the entries according to the researcher's
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written guidelines and to answer any questions that they may have (Gan, Humphreys, &
Hamp-Lyons, 2004).
between February and April 2009. I explained the purpose of the study and the purpose
of the diaries to the participants. I also explained to the diary-writing participants the
format of the diaries, and the content of the diaries. I gave them written procedures and
example entries in addition to the oral instructions. I requested that they write their
entries in English and if any participants had difficulty writing in English to inform me. I
told them that they should write about listening strategies used and obstacles encountered
when listening to oral texts in their listening comprehension classes. I also told them that
grammar and spelling were not important for the purposes of my research. Bi-weekly, I
contacted the participants to review their entries and to answer any questions.
The main reason for asking them to write in these self-reflective diaries was to
discover how the participants used strategies while they were involved in listening to oral
to write in their diaries when they were involved in listening to English in other
television. Through these diaries, I hoped that learners would become more aware of the
listening strategies that they used while they listened to oral English texts.
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Think-Aloud Protocols
think-aloud protocols. These protocols help the researcher to identify the use of cognitive
Vandergrift (1996) and Rubin (1987) describe a verbal report protocol as a procedure in
which learners verbalize their thoughts while carrying out a task or immediately after
finishing a task. Its purpose is to get as close as possible to a human being's thinking
comprehension happens in the mind and what cognitive and metacognitive strategies are
involved in the comprehension process (Berne, J., 2004; Camps, 2003). It also allows the
participant to describe how he or she is using particular strategies for particular tasks
(Wenden, 1991).
Anderson and Vandergrift (1996) identify three types of verbal reports: self-
the task has been completed (retrospection) (p.4). Finally, they indicate that self-
information is in the focus of the learner's attention (p.4). In other words, self-revelation
discloses thought processes while the information is still in working memory, without any
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commentator describing a sports match; it is the person analyzing or interpreting what
Anderson and Vandergrift (1996) indicate that one type of verbal report, the think-
informant tries to analyze or interpret his or her thought processes, during a task or after a
task has been completed, it becomes self-observation (i.e. retrospective) (p. 4).
Oxford and Crookall (1989) reviewed strategy studies and found that think-aloud
learners used. Anderson and Vandergrift (1996) also discussed the importance of verbal
report protocols in the book Language Learning Strategies around the World, where they
gave examples of people who used verbal report protocols successfully. They also cited a
study by Murphy (1987) who used verbal report protocols to examine the listening
Wenden admits that some researchers have raised objections about verbal reports,
really reporting internal thinking processes, which are inaccessible, or only a description
of how they use what they have learned (1987). However, Wenden claims states that
these processes, which may be unconscious much of the time, become conscious when
they enter into working memory during the comprehension process (p. 36-37). Wenden
also states that think-aloud protocols must be conducted carefully. She encourages the
researcher to plan his or her methodology conscientiously and train the participants
carefully so that the participants will completely report what they are thinking while they
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are listening to oral texts or reading written texts but not to report thinking processes
and determined that it would help me in my research to identify learning strategies that
the participants actually used when they listened to an oral English text, the way they
used these strategies to help them understand oral English texts, and the problems they
protocols with two high-proficiency learners and four moderate-proficiency learners, who
Texts and tasks used for the protocol. The texts used in the protocol were
similar to the types of texts used in the learners' listening comprehension classrooms.
Table 7 displays the texts that I used during the think-aloud protocol, a text number, the
participant level for which the text was designed, and the type of text.
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Table 7
After the training session for the think-aloud protocols, I modified my original
research design in three ways. First, the participants mentioned that they could not
concentrate on their thoughts while listening to a difficult text and completing the
associated task simultaneously. They requested that they listen to the difficult texts
without completing the associated tasks so they could concentrate on their thoughts
during the protocol. Therefore, even though there was no change in the procedure for the
easy texts, I changed it for the difficult text by not requiring them to complete the task. I
told them that the most important part of the protocol was concentrating on the text and
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identifying their thoughts during the protocol, not completing the task. Second, I allowed
the participants to write their thoughts instead of verbalizing them when they were taking
notes on the text. Third, because of the low number of participants involved in the think-
aloud protocols, in addition to listening to the easy text, I asked each participant to listen
to two difficult texts instead of one. Four of the participants agreed to this request and
two requested to listen to two difficult texts and not listen to an easy text.
proficiency and two having high proficiency, listening to one easy text and two difficult
texts. The fifth participant, having moderate proficiency, listened to two difficult texts
and produced one verbal report and one written report. The sixth participant, having
moderate proficiency, also listened to two difficult texts and produced a written report
from both of these texts. This process resulted in the creation of 16 think-aloud
protocols. Nine of these protocols were transcribed verbal reports and seven were written
reports.
Similar to the texts used for the individual interviews, the texts that were used in
the think-aloud protocols were carefully chosen to reduce the learners' cognitive load,
In addition, I gave the participants the topic of the text before the protocol was started to
enhance their abilities to use background knowledge. The tasks that I used are in
Appendix M. The transcripts of the texts that I used for the protocol are in Appendix N.
Equipment used for the protocol. The protocols were conducted at the research
site using a Dell Inspiron E1505 laptop computer with high quality headphones for this
exercise. I verified the smooth functioning of the equipment before I conducted the
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protocol. The texts were copied from original CDs to the laptop computer with the tone
signals and silent segments added to the texts using the software, Audacity (2008). The
participants then listened to these texts directly from the laptop computer, without using
Training conducted for the protocol. Anderson and Vandergrift (1996) mention
allows the participants to become familiar with what is required before the protocol is
conducted. I trained all of the participants in the proper use of the computer equipment at
I conducted the training in English, although I told the participants that they could
use either English or Arabic during the training. The training session had three parts.
During the first part, I described the protocol and the way the protocol would be
listening to a short text that I had never listened to before, and verbalized my thoughts
while I listened to the text. I gave each of the participants time to practice thinking
During the practice session, each participant took a turn listening to a text and
practicing thinking aloud while the others observed. I pointed out that they were to
verbalize their thoughts and not try to add explanation or evaluation to their thoughts.
This is in keeping with Anderson and Vandergrift's explanation of what the participants
should verbalize (1996). After each participant had practiced the protocol, the others
provided feedback on what happened during the exercise and how the process could have
been improved. I gave them time to practice, and then discussed the process with the
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participants. I answered their questions and I listened to their comments about the
process.
participants talk aloud during the task or soon after completing the task. Various
methods are used to allow the participants to verbalize their thoughts. In reading
research, think-aloud protocols have been used quite extensively. During these protocols,
red dots can be inserted in a reading passage to remind the participants to verbalize their
various ways. Some researchers have used a more unstructured approach and given the
participant the ability to indicate with a raised hand when to stop the audio text so that
they can verbalize his or her thoughts. Other researchers have used a more structured
approach and have imbedded tone signals into the oral text to indicate to participants
when to stop and verbalize their thoughts (Anderson & Vandergrift, 1996).
For my study, I used a more structured approach during the think-aloud process. I
inserted periodic silent segments into the listening passage at strategic places in the text.
I used silent segments instead of tone signals because the participants indicated during
the training session that tone signals were too intrusive and caused them to lose their
thoughts.
in length. I purposely divided audio segments based on the position of information units
in the text. I divided some of these segments in the middle of an information unit. I
divided some of them at the end of an information unit. I also purposely varied the length
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of the segment to observe the relationship between a segments' length and the
participant's ability to hold that segment in working memory. I assumed that they would
not have much trouble maintaining a short segment in working memory but would lose
information as the segment lengthened (over 20 seconds) and the storage capacity of
thoughts while they were listening to the text at each silent segment. I also reminded
them to verbalize their thoughts if they failed to respond during those silent segments. In
addition, I felt it was important to allow the participants to use the language of their
choice when talking aloud, in Arabic, French, or English (Anderson and Vandergrift,
1996). I also gave them the freedom to switch between languages, if they chose, during
the protocol. Even though I gave them the choice of which language to use during the
protocol, all the participants verbalized their thoughts, or wrote their thoughts in English.
Each think-aloud protocol session lasted for two hours. This two-hour session
allowed time for the protocol itself and for the retrospective interview that immediately
followed, described below. After being scheduled for a time, each participant entered the
room and sat down in a chair across from me and next to the computer.
I asked the participant's permission before I started the recording of each protocol.
During the protocol, I played each of the texts from the portable computer. At each silent
interval, the participants would record into the headphone microphone their thoughts at
that particular time. I stopped the recording at the silent segments to make sure that the
participants had adequate time to express their thoughts. After they had verbalized their
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thoughts, I resumed playing the CD. I continued this process until the text was finished.
insights into the problems they faced with the protocol and the learning strategies they
used during the protocol. Oxford and Crookall (1989) and Anderson and Vandergrift
(1996) mentioned that think-aloud protocol follow-up is an important part of the research
study. The questions I used during the retrospective interviews are listed in Appendix O.
copy of the tasks that they had completed and a written transcript of the texts to which
they had listened. I then asked them to point out specific portions of the tasks and the
texts with which they had particular listening problems and asked them to try and explain
why they had difficulties with those specific portions. I also asked them what portions of
the tasks and the text they understood and the reasons they had understood those portions
and had not understood other portions. Finally, I asked them to give their reflections on
During the data collection process I encountered some obstacles implementing the
plan I had established for two of my data-collection methods: the listening diaries and the
think-aloud protocols. Below I describe the obstacles I encountered and the way in
which I overcame these obstacles and modified my plan for these data-collection methods
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Listening diaries. Data collection from the listening diaries did not give me the
data that I had expected. I had hoped that the participants would conscientiously write
their diary entries during their listening comprehension classes, other classes, and outside
class. Unfortunately, even though I discussed with the participants about the process of
writing diary entries and I met them every two weeks while I was collecting data at the
site, they still had a hard time writing entries in their diaries. Some of their difficulties
were because their listening comprehension classes met only sporadically, due to
teachers' absences. Sometimes they forgot to write entries. Another difficulty was that
one participant only wrote about listening to oral texts outside of class; he wrote about
songs he had listened to and English programs he had watched on television via satellite.
However, even though I had collected data from only four participants, I still
received some important information about their experiences listening to oral texts in a
classroom. I was also able to confirm some of my findings uncovered through my other
data-collection methods. I divided the data from the diaries into two categories:
strategies that learners used while listening to an oral text, and problems that learners
Think-aloud protocols. Even though I carefully conducted the training with the
participants and even though I demonstrated to them how to think aloud, I found as I
conducted the think-aloud protocols that the participants could not isolate their actual
thought processes while they listened to oral texts. Based on the research that I had read,
I was expecting the participants to say things like, I really don't understand what the text
is speaking about at this point, There are too many words in this segment which makes
it too difficult for me to capture these words and try to understand what they mean, or I
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understand some of the words but I can't make sense out of what I am hearing.
Unfortunately, the participants did not verbalize these types of thoughts. This
discouraged me, and I initially thought that I would not have any useful data from the
think-aloud protocols. I initially thought that I would not have any useful data from the
think-aloud protocols. However, as I analyzed the data, I realized that I did have data that
could help my research. The participants had not reported their thoughts on their
cognitive processes, as I had hoped, but they did report their thoughts about specific oral
Through my analysis, I uncovered four types of data. The first type of data,
which I called summarization data, was from participants who had repeated what they
thought was the main idea or ideas of the segment; in other words, they summarized what
they had heard. The second type of data, which I called association data, came from
participants who associated words or ideas from the segment with background knowledge
that they had. For example, a participant associated a text entitled, Renting a Car with
her friends she knew who had tried to rent a car. The third type of data, which I called
problem-identification data, came from participants who identified problems that they
had while listening to a particular segment. The fourth type of data, which I called
commenting data, came from participants who had commented on the segment. For
example, during listening to one segment of a text entitled, Earth Day and
Environmental Problems, the participant said, That's the most annoying topic for me.
These types of data were useful in helping me understand strategies used and
some obstacles that the participants encountered while they listened to an oral text.
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Summarization data was useful because it gave me a glimpse of how they used working
memory during the comprehension process. This data was especially helpful in
of the process that the participants used to comprehend oral texts and the strategies that
they used. In other words, it helped me understand how they constructed the textbase and
how they combined their textbase with a situation model to attach meaning to a text and
comprehend it.
For example, Ahlem listened to the following segment taken from the text,
Coming of Age.
We don't really have a special ceremony where I'm from. I guess the senior prom
is sort of like that. It's a big dance we have our last year of high school. We dress
up; girls wear formal dresses, and guys wear suits or tuxedos. The couple takes a
Ahlem's response to this segment was, When the graduates in this country, the boys
wear suits and the girls wear dresses and they dance together. This response indicates
how Ahlem's mind has constructed a textbase through the identification of words like,
wear suits, girls wear dresses, and dance. In addition, even though Ahlem does not
choose an appropriate situation model, her response reveals the way in which her mind
created a situation model by linking information from long-term memory to the textbase
Association data was useful because it helped me to understand the way in which
associations and connections were made between working memory and long-term
memory. These associations also gave me some insight into how the participants created
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their situation model. This was very important because I did not collect this type of data
For example, Karima heard the following segment from the text Earth Day and
Environmental Problems.
When deforestation occurs, thousands of species of plants and animals are killed.
This destruction is particularly tragic when it occurs in rain forests, because humans
rely on the rain forest for common products including coffee, bananas, chocolate,
been watching on deforestation and it had a very bad effect on animals. That's what I was
thinking about. This response indicated that she associated information from her long-
term memory that was appropriate for the information she had stored in her working
memory.
when Basam heard a segment from the text, Renting a Car, he responded, It was really
hard to complete this task because of many noises outside also the speed of native
speaker is another obstacle for achieving it. In this statement, Basam provided two
obstacles, outside noises and fast speech, which helped me triangulate obstacles from
including the think-aloud protocols, I was able to triangulate my data and confirm the
Finally, the commenting data was useful, because it helped me identify another
important class of obstacles, affective obstacles. Through this data, I realized that the
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participants were not able to understand the text because they were negatively influenced
by the text which caused them to not focus on the information in the text. For example,
Karima heard the following segment from Earth Day and Environmental Problems:
Air pollution is probably one of our oldest environmental problems. People in Ancient
Rome complained about dirty air over two thousand years ago. In response she said,
That's the most annoying topic for me. I've been listening to that since seventh grade.
Every day, every year, we talk about pollution and the causes, and its so boring. It is
clear from this segment that the topic of the text has prevented her from attending to the
text. This is an important class of obstacles that I will consider further in Chapter 4.
In my study, before analyzing the data, I first transcribed the audio recordings that
I had made during the interviews and the think-aloud protocol and translated into English
the parts of the audio recording that had been spoken in Tunisian Arabic or French. Then
I reduced the amount of data, and analyzed it to draw conclusions, by using summary
sheets and coding the important, salient information. I finally used qualitative analysis
Transcription
transcribe the data because in the process, analysis begins and the researcher becomes
much more acquainted with the data that has been recorded. During this process,
researchers writes notes or memos to help them later with the analysis. Listening to the
136
recordings multiple times and reading the transcripts multiple times helps to facilitate the
analysis process (Maxwell, 2005, p. 96). I had two types of data to transcribe: interviews
and think-aloud protocols. The process that I used for each is specified below.
which related to the learners' strategy use and listening comprehension problems that they
transcribe.
think-aloud protocols before analyzing them. Likewise, I only transcribed those portions
labeled each protocol with a participant identification number and a protocol segment
number so that I could later link the protocol with the retrospective interviews. I
expected that the transcribed protocols would reveal a lot of cognitive strategies and
some metacognitive strategies that were being used during each participant's listening
comprehension process.
Data Reduction
After transcribing each of the interviews and protocols, the next step in the data
analysis process was reducing the data. I purposely reduced the data by using summary
sheets to record the important information based on the strategies and cognitive processes
listed in Table 8.
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Table 8
Note: Based on work done by Wenden (1991), O'Malley and Chamot (1990), and Oxford
(1990)
Table 8 lists strategy groups, strategy sets, and codes associated with the strategy sets
used for my analysis. These strategy groups and sets were taken from Chapter 2.
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Part of the data reduction process is to choose a way of analyzing the data.
Maxwell lists three primary ways to do this: memos, categorizing strategies, and
connecting strategies. I analyzed my written memos from the data collection process to
help me focus my analysis on certain emerging issues during my research. Coding and
dissect the data into small, manageable pieces (Maxwell, 2005, p. 96). According to
strategies, such as summary forms and coding to help me reduce the data and to facilitate
strategies. These types of analysis are quite different from categorizing strategies, like
coding. With coding, the data is fractured by being divided into different parts. This
from different methods. However, with connecting analysis the data is left intact and it,
along with its context, is connected with other texts to see the way in which statements
in one text are related to statements in other texts. (Maxwell, 2005, p.98). Both coding
and connecting should be used to provide a complete account of the data (p. 99).
collected during the interviews. These stories related the participants' experiences
connecting the important aspects of the story with learning strategies and listening
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comprehension problems that I identified in my categorization process. These two ways
of analyzing data made my study much richer than it would have been otherwise.
Data reduction and coding of the interviews. After I conducted each of the
reducing the data that I had accumulated in each of the interviews. I did this by reading
through my interview notes, my field notes, and the interview transcription and
summarizing the information on an interview summary form (see Appendix P). This
form is a combination of two contact summary forms that are described by Miles and
For each individual or group interview that I had, I wrote the contact information
at the top of the form; I labeled the main issues and themes from the interview; I
summarized the information that I received based on the questions asked and coded each
important point by using the codes in Table 8. I noted other salient points gleaned from
the interview with a code, if appropriate; and I wrote down other questions to use in the
next interview. This form allowed me to reduce the data from the interview to one or two
pages and made analysis of the data much easier. If there were new strategies not listed
observations using a procedure very similar to the procedure that I used for the
interviews. I created an observation summary form (see Appendix Q), based on the
contact summary form. I put the relevant information regarding the time and the place of
the observation on this form. I also recorded the important points from my written
observation notes, and coded each point using the same procedure as with the interviews.
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Data reduction and coding of the diaries. As with the interviews and
observations, I created a diary summary form for each diary that I collected from the
participants (see Appendix R). I read through each diary several times before I began the
process. As I read through each diary entry, I recorded the important points from that
entry on to the diary summary form, including strategies used and listening problems
recognized and recorded. I also included the diary page number for each important point.
I then coded that entry using the same procedure used with the interviews and the
observations. I was able to reduce the amount of information contained in each diary to a
Data reduction and coding of the think-aloud protocols. I coded each protocol
by reading the transcript and listening to the recording at the same time. For each
protocol and each segment of the protocol, I focused on the verbalized thoughts of the
participants, related to a predefined list of strategies. These strategies are listed in Table
8. Each time there was a remark in the protocol that related to a specific, pre-defined
strategy set, I coded that particular segment of the protocol with an appropriate code. If
there was a remark in the protocol that related to a strategy set that was not included in
Table 8, I established a new strategy set for that strategy and an appropriate code.
retrospective interview summary form based on the interview summary form that I had
created (see Appendix S). The retrospective interview form also contained a column for
linking participant comments about the protocol with the specific part of the protocol to
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For each participant, I wrote contact information at the top of the form. Second, I
completed the main issues and themes from the interview. Third, I summarized the
information received based on the questions I had asked. I coded each of these important
points, referring to my initial list of codes in Table 8 and then adding to that list specific
strategies that were related to a strategy set, or adding a new strategy set if the data
warranted it. Fourth, I wrote down other salient points received from the interview with a
code, if appropriate. Fifth, I wrote down other questions that I need to ask when
conducting my next interview. This form allowed me to reduce the data from the
Data reduction and coding of the researcher's field journal and memos. As
with the interviews, the observations, and the listening diaries, I created a researcher's
journal summary form (see Appendix T). I read through my journal and memos several
times before I began the reduction process. Then, as I read through each entry, I recorded
the important points from each entry as well as emerging thoughts that the entries
contained and new questions that I should ask the participants. I also wrote down on the
summary form any preliminary conclusions I had drawn in the entry and included the
applicable journal or memo page number for that point on the summary form. I then
coded each entry using the same procedure used with the interviews and the observations.
I was able to reduce the amount of information contained in the field journal and memos
Data Analysis
After reducing the data, as I described above, I used typology to classify the data
into different groups. I started with a list of strategies and obstacles which I used as the
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beginning of my classification system and then I added to these categories as I analyzed
the incoming data. The coding that I mentioned above was one of the most important
methods of data analysis methods that I used during my research. Through coding, I
identified strategies, obstacles, and other salient data that was important for the
able to find consistencies between them, which I used for my developing categories.
When I found differences between them, I identified these for further analysis and
Through this type of analysis I used the words of the participants to better understand the
strategies that they used and especially the obstacles that they faced. By allowing their
words to speak, I was better able to understand how they felt about their situation and I
had more well-grounded ideas regarding possible solutions for the difficulties they faced.
Validity
their experiences with me and realize that I honor them and protect them from any
purpose in doing this study is to eventually enrich Tunisian EFL learners' understanding
of oral English texts and to, hopefully, improve the way that listening comprehension is
Erlandson et. al. (1993) have listed four criteria which are important to establish
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quantitative research these terms are called, internal validity, external validity, reliability,
and objectivity. I have incorporated these criteria in to my study so that other researchers
Credibility
the Tunisian culture and have taught English to Tunisian EFL learners for about 17 years.
incorporating this technique into my study by asking my participants about other sources
of information that I had not initially considered and being aware of emerging sources of
different participants and I collected the data at different times. I found through my data
analysis that much of the information was similar among the participants. I also had
interviews (both group and individual), student diaries, and think-aloud protocols.
of a study. I incorporated referential materials into my study by taking pictures of the site
as well as including the audio material that I produced throughout my research. Member
by asking participants to check transcripts of interviews for accuracy. I also asked the
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entry in a reflective journal every day that I conducted research to guide me in my
Transferability
Using thick description is one technique that can be used to create transferability.
reports of the think-aloud protocols. I also used thick description when writing my final
report of findings, by providing the context for my data collection procedures. Another
purposeful sampling throughout the data collection process, especially when I chose
is the audit trail (Erlandson et al., p. 148, 149). I created a box that included all of the
audio recordings of the interviews and the think-aloud protocol, the student diaries, my
notes from the interviews and classroom observations, my field journal, my memos, the
data reduction forms that I used, and my analysis. This box is stored in a secure place. In
the future, if any researcher wants to verify the accuracy of my findings, they will be able
The methodology that I used for my study has been chosen expressly because it is
a qualitative research study. For my research I connected Anderson's (1983, 1993) ACT
Integration model, and listening strategies. I used my research questions to guide me and
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I conducted my research. Since qualitative research assumes a particular context for a
study, I provided a context that included my background and role in this research, a
description of the research sites, and the educational system of Tunisia. This context will
help others better understand my research and allow this research to be transferable to
In order to carry out this research, I had to gain access to participants and elicit
their participation. I asked the students, who completed the questionnaire, to volunteer
for further research. I also posted a general announcement asking for volunteers for my
research study at both research sites to produce a large pool of volunteers. Once I had a
pool of volunteers, I purposefully selected participants for further research. This means
that I chose participants based on their knowledge of listening problems and their ability
different educational levels and different backgrounds so that I could obtain a wide range
of views, thus avoiding bias and errors during my research. During this process, I
I used a variety of methods to collect data for my research. During this study, I
retrospective interviews. These various methods were used with different groups of
learners during fall 2008 and spring 2009. The diversity of methods, times, and
Tunisian EFL learners have when listening to oral transactional texts and the types of
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strategies that they use when they listen to these types of texts. In addition, this diversity
Finally, I analyzed the data that I collected. Before I analyzed the data, I needed
to transcribe it into written form. After the transcription and translation process, I
reduced the data using memos, summary forms, coding, and connection strategies.
Memos allowed me to notice emerging categories from the data. Summary forms and
coding enabled me to reduce the large amount of data that I had and to notice similarities
the relationship of various stories participants related to specific learning strategies and
the coding and connection strategies I mentioned above, I also used typology to help me
categorize the data that I had collected and hermeneutical analysis to allow the
participants' words to tell their story and the issues that they were facing while they
listened to oral texts in English. The data-collection methods and data analysis methods
that I used in my research increased both the credibility and the validity of my study.
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CHAPTER FOUR
FINDINGS
Introduction
Many studies have been conducted that examine English Second Language (ESL)
and English Foreign Language (EFL) learners' strategy use. However, as far as I am
aware, no studies have examined the relationship between strategies, comprehension, and
the human information processing system. Wenden (1991) describes the interaction
between listening strategies and various cognitive processes when ESL learners listen to
oral texts; however, she does not include comprehension in her discussion. In defining
the human information processing system, Anderson (1983) describes this system as
automatized with information flowing from one cognitive process to the next. Kintsch
(1998) also describes the two stages in his comprehension model, the Construction-
processes as being automatic is unfortunate, because I believe that EFL learners are
active in the listening comprehension process, not inactive as Anderson and Kintsch
Because I think that EFL learners are active in the listening comprehension
process, I have added listening strategies into a cognitive model, which I have called the
Cognitive Strategic Comprehension Model. This is the model that I have assumed
throughout my research. However, even though I have described EFL learners as active
listeners, I have observed, while teaching in Tunisia, that Tunisian EFL learners have
difficulty understanding oral English transactional texts. Therefore, the purpose of this
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study is two-fold. First, I want to discover the listening strategies that Tunisian EFL
learners use and the obstacles which prevent them from adequately understanding oral
English transactional texts. Second, I want to observe whether the Tunisian EFL learners
use of strategies concurs with the Cognitive Strategic Comprehension Model that I have
proposed. In Chapter 5, I will examine this second purpose in more detail. In this
research. First, what are the metacognitive, cognitive, and socio-affective strategies that
Tunisian EFL learners use when they listen to oral English transactional text? Second,
what are the obstacles that these learners encounter while they listen to these types of
texts? I collected data using five different methods: a questionnaire, a listening diary,
answered my research questions and produced a list of listening strategies that Tunisian
EFL learners used when they listened to oral transactional texts in English and a list of
I have identified the listening strategies that Tunisian EFL learners use through
strategies, and one socio-affective strategy. The majority of my participants used two
strategy, Matching. In addition, I have found that my participants used six cognitive
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practice strategy, Listening Many Times, an inferencing strategy, Guessing, a note-taking
have also indicated that Tunisian EFL learners use at least one socio-affective strategy,
Not only has my research identified the listening strategies that Tunisian EFL
learners use when they listen to oral transactional texts in English, the research has also
identified some important obstacles that hindered or prevented the participants from
understanding the oral texts. The obstacles mentioned by research participants relate to
five features of listening comprehension: the text, the task, comprehension of the text,
external factors, and negative disposition. The main obstacles the participants mentioned
were: a fast text speed, a long text, an unfamiliar accent, a complex or confusing task, a
long task, and audio or external noise. In addition they also encountered an inability to
My first research question was answered by compiling the listening strategies that
think-aloud protocols.
A questionnaire was the first method I used to determine the participants' strategy
use during their listening comprehension classes. The questionnaire was primarily a
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contained 75 statements about strategy use. The Tunisian EFL learners who volunteered
to complete the questionnaire read each statement and assessed the validity of these
statements based on their personal experience of listening to oral texts in English. Most
of these statements were placed in the context of a classroom, although some of them
were about listening to English oral texts outside of the classroom. Each statement in the
questionnaire was related to one of 16 strategy sets. The questionnaire's purpose was to
gauge the frequency of learning strategy use by the participants. I ordered the strategy
sets by their mean score through descriptive statistics. The results of this ordering
provided seven distinct groups of strategies, which I labeled always used, usually
used, frequently used, often used, sometimes used, occasionally used, or rarely
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Table 9
Frequency of Listening Strategy Use from the Questionnaire, Based on the Responses of
As is displayed, the results of the questionnaire indicate that the respondents always
used one metacognitive strategy, planning. Then, they usually used two cognitive
that they frequently used one metacognitive strategy, evaluation; one cognitive strategy,
showed that they often used one metacognitive strategy, monitoring; three cognitive
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used one socio-affective strategy, encouragement. Next, the results indicated that the
inferencing. After that, the results suggested that the respondents only occasionally used
translating/transferring. Finally the results showed that the respondents rarely used one
eleven strategies that they always, usually, or often used while they listen to oral texts in
translating/transferring were ranked so low by the respondents. The results of the two
learners usually talk with each other when trying to decide on an answer. The result of
that learners often search for words in Arabic or French to understand the meaning of a
word in English. As I will discuss later, it seems that the culture, in general, and teachers,
in particular, discourage learners from talking to other learners while completing a task
associated with an oral English text, as well as translating from English into either Arabic
or French.
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Findings from the Listening Diaries
way of discovering listening strategies that the participants used in their listening
comprehension classes. I also used this data to triangulate the results with other data-
However, only three of them wrote in their diaries about strategy use. Table 10 lists the
strategies mentioned by them, the strategy set from which each strategy comes, and the
Table 10
Listening Strategies Identified in the Listening Diaries (n=3)
Listening Listening Listening Strategy # of Students
Strategy Group Strategy Set Reporting
Metacognitive Planning Reading Task 3
Proximity to Source 2
Cognitive Attention Task Information Focus 1
Elaboration Matching 1
Practice Listening Multiple Times 2
Translation Translation 1
Socio-Affective Cooperation Completing the Task with 1
Classmates
Questioning/ Talking to a Classmate 1
Clarification
Four cognitive strategies, two metacognitive strategies, and two socio-affective strategies
were mentioned by the participants. Four of the strategies, Reading the Task, Task
Information Focus, Matching, and Listening Multiple Times, were also cited in the
individual interviews. Two of these strategies, Reading the Task and Task Information
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Focus along with two other strategies, Translation and Talking to a Classmate, were
mentioned in the group interviews. The remaining two strategies, Proximity to Source, a
planning strategy, and Completing the Task with Classmates, a cooperation strategy, were
new strategies that were not mentioned in the other data-collection methods.
Samia said that she tried to get as close to the tape player as possible in talking
about the planning strategy Proximity to Source, . She described her listening experience
As usual, before listening, I try to read the questions quickly in order to have an
idea about the main topic, because our teachers don't give us enough time to read
the questions. This is on one hand. On the other hand, I fear not to listen or
understand some words. But things were well done because I was near or close to
Therefore, her assumption seems to be that if she was close to the tape player, she would
Dhakra, also used the Proximity to Source strategy. She said that she tried to be
as close to the front as possible so that she could hear the teacher better and watch the
I think the new teacher will face problems with us because she doesn't speak
loudly and the amphitheater is always full and students don't get the point that
they should be quiet and silent in order to listen. Instead, they complain and shout
saying that they don't hear anything. Personally, I try my best to come as early as
I can in order to have a seat in the first or second range because seeing the teacher
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while he or she is speaking allowed me to understand, especially words that I
From the comments of these two students, Dhakra and Samia, it seems they thought that
being close to the teacher would help them better understand what the teacher was saying
and better understand the oral text, resulting in doing better on the task.
It was surprising that only one of the participants, Samia, wrote in her listening
diary about translation. Since I have observed a translation strategy being used in the
listening comprehension classes I taught, I thought that translation would have been
discussed more. Samia writes the following about translation in one of her diary entries.
The most difficult [text] was the third, it was like the first but the words are not
familiar to us at all. The text was typically economic and the words we are
required to complete are not simple words but economic terms. So, the teacher
was obliged to explain them to us and to complete them by herself but she asked
This is an interesting entry because Samia is not discussing her use of translation. Instead
it is the teacher that is asking them to find Arabic synonyms for the words the students
have encountered in the oral English text. It seems that the teacher has resorted to using
this strategy because the students are unable to understand the meaning of the text. The
teacher gives the learners the meaning of many of the words in the text and then, it
seems, the teacher asks them to use Arabic to make sure that the students have understood
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Findings from the Group Interviews
Tunisian EFL learners listening strategies was group interviews. The strategies that they
Table 11
Along with the listening strategies mentioned during the group interviews, Table 11 also
indicates the strategy group and strategy set of each strategy as well as the number and
percentage of groups that mentioned the strategy. The results of the group interviews
were somewhat different from the results of the questionnaire; planning, selective
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attention, and note-taking strategies were highly ranked. However, unlike the
questionnaire, a translation strategy was also ranked fairly high. Another cognitive
strategy, Guessing, which was ranked fairly high in the questionnaire, was cited by only
25% of the group interview participants. Finally, the socio-affective strategy, Using
Breathing Techniques, was only mentioned by one participant. This final strategy is an
affective strategy in which the participant breathed in and out to reduce his anxiety. Even
though this strategy was only mentioned once by the participants, I listed it in the table
because the participant who used it found it very useful in reducing his anxiety and
helping him concentrate on the text. This strategy was not mentioned in any of the other
data-collection methods.
listening activity, it is not surprising that few socio-affective strategies were mentioned
and more than half of the strategies that were mentioned were cognitive strategies.
During the group interviews, two cognitive strategies, Focus and Note-taking, were
mentioned by all of the participants. These participants described three types of focus
they used while they listen to oral English texts, Key Word Focus, Task Information
Focus, and Topic Focus. Regrading Key Word Focus, the group participants said that
they focused on key words in the text in one of two ways; they either extracted key words
from the text based on their understanding of the text's context, or they listened for clear
words in the text and then wrote these down or tried to remember them. They also said
that they used this type of focus on specific information, such as dates, names of places,
and names of people. The second type of focus mentioned during the group interviews
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was Task Information Focus. The participants who mentioned this type of focus said
they used the task as a filter to determine the information on which to concentrate in the
text. The third type of focus was Topic Focus. The participants who reported using this
strategy focused on the topic of the text to help them determine the information in the text
on which to concentrate.
The second strategy that was mentioned in all the group interviews was note-
taking. Participants mentioned taking notes on key information and key words while one
group mentioned taking notes on specific information such as names, dates, places, and
long words. Two groups specifically mentioned the process of taking notes based on the
task requirements and then to write down clear words from the text, including numbers
Participants from three of the groups said that the metacognitive strategy Reading
the Task was important when attempting to understand oral texts in English. Based on all
my data, including the data from the group interviews, it seems clear that students read
the task before they listened to the text to better understand it. Knowing beforehand what
information is requested in the task helped them effectively listen so that they could
successfully complete the task. Surprisingly, this was the only metacognitive strategy
that was mentioned during the group interviews. Since respondents from the
questionnaire indicated that they usually used three metacognitive strategies, planning,
mentioned during the group interviews. It may have been that they were so focused on
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talking about other strategies they thought were more important to discuss, that they
Two other cognitive strategies, Guessing and Memorization, were only mentioned
by participants in only one group. The participants who mentioned Guessing said it
helped them to understand some unknown words in the text based on their background
knowledge of the topic. Using this information, the participants said that they could
guess answers to some of the questions in the task. Participants who cited the second
strategy, Memorization, claimed that this strategy was important to help them remember
key information. Once they had it in mind, they wrote down some of the information
before they forgot it. Memorization is a repetition strategy that allows learners to keep
Two other strategies that were discussed by the participants, Translation and
Getting Help from Classmates were debated at length by the participants during the group
interviews. Translation, the first controversial strategy, was discussed in half of the
groups. Two participants defended the use of this strategy. The first one said, When
there are difficult words, I translate them into Arabic and then I understand the meaning
in English. The second said, Sometimes when there are difficult words, I translate
them into Arabic in order to understand it. However, other participants were hesitant to
use this strategy. One participant said, From secondary school our English teachers
encourage us to not translate English into Arabic but to try and understand it in English.
Because of that now it is much easier to understand English in English without the need
to translate it into Arabic. Therefore, it is not clear the extent to which the translation
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strategy is used. During the group interviews, seven participants said that they did not
translate from English into Arabic. However, three said that they sometimes translated
English words into Arabic so that they could understand the English words. It is possible
that they had been told in secondary school not to translate and they may have also been
told by their listening comprehension teachers in the university not to translate from
English into French or Arabic. Therefore, from this negative feedback, some students
may see it as a negative strategy. On the other hand, it is possible that all the students
was also debated by the participants of the group interviews. There were a number of
participants who did not want to use this strategy for various reasons. The first reason
seems to be a desire to rely on oneself and ones own understanding of the text. For
example, Mohammed, said, I dont ask other students. I feel competent in myself.
These exercises are like an exam so I must rely on myself. Wahida, also claimed that
she needed to rely on herself. She said, I dont do that. I want to concentrate on the
text. I need to listen by myself with no help from other students. Another reason, other
than self-reliance, seems to have been a politeness issue. For example, Mounir, said, I
dont do that because I dont want to bother anyone. A third explanation for not wanting
to use this strategy was the belief that others had various understandings of the text,
which confused rather than helped the learner. For example, Radhia said, I try my best
to understand the text without talking to anyone. It doesnt help me to talk with someone
else because they all have different understandings of what the text is about, which
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confuses me. So I just focus on the text and try to understand it by myself. However,
other participants did not see that this strategy confused but rather it helped them better
understand the texts. For example, Ridha said, Sometimes I ask other students for help
and that helps me in understanding the text. Bouthaina, said, It is sometimes helpful [to
talk to other students]. I take what they have understood along with what I have
understood and that sometimes helps me to have a better understanding of the text.
clarification strategy, seven said that they did not use this strategy and four said that they
did sometimes use this strategy. It may be that those participants who did not use this
strategy have tried it in the past and have not found it helpful. However, it may also be
possible that they were told by the teacher to not talk to others and, instead, rely on their
own understanding of the task and the text. From my teaching experience, I would have
expected the group interview participants to report using more socio-affective strategies,
since Tunisians are very social and very rarely perform a task without including others.
During the individual interviews, I asked participants to listen to one difficult text
and one easy text. Some of the easy texts had a written task and some had a visual task.
The texts that I used are listed in Chapter 3. As mentioned in Chapter 3, I labeled texts
easy when I expected these texts to be below the participants' comprehension ability. I
designated texts as difficult when I expected these texts to be above the participants'
comprehension ability.
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Table 12 shows the listening strategies the participants used while they were
listening to easy texts and difficult texts and completing an associated task.
Table 12
Listening Strategies Used for Easy and Difficult Texts During the Individual Interviews
(n=18)
Table 12 lists the name of the strategy, the group and set to which the strategy belongs,
the number and percentage of times it was used by the participants for visual tasks
associated with easy texts, for written tasks associated with easy texts, and for difficult
texts. As is shown, a total of 11 strategies were used, the participants used two strategies
when they completed visual tasks, three strategies when they completed written tasks
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associated with easy texts, and ten strategies when they completed written tasks
associated with difficult texts. Each of these strategies belongs to a different strategy set.
association strategy. Although no one explicitly mentioned this strategy, Abir, Houda,
Nourzed, and Zohra implicitly suggested that they had used Association by mentioning
that they had heard the text before, or they were familiar with the topic of the text. Abir
and Nourzed used this strategy for the visual tasks associated with easy texts and Houda
and Zohra used this strategy for the difficult texts. Houda said that knowing the topic
helped her as she listened to the difficult text. She said, Because I knew the topic, I
knew what the topic was talking about, completing the task was easier. For example the
reasons and things like that was kind of easy. Nourzed said that she found completing
the visual task easy. She said, I've heard the story before in Arabic. Knowing the story
Focus, which the participants called concentration, is a second strategy that the
specific part of the text. Nourzed explained her use of Focus: I read the task first then I
listened to the text and I concentrated on what I needed to complete the task. This
strategy was used by all of the participants who listened to the difficult texts and all of the
participants who completed a written task associated with an easy text. It was not used at
all when the participants completed visual tasks associated with easy texts.
Note-Taking was a third strategy that the participants mentioned. Eight of the
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Samia said that elaborating the text through note-taking made it easier for her to
understand the text: I can shorten the whole text. With note-taking, I can omit some
words and write down the important words. This process of omitting some words and
writing down the important words was important for the participants. Note-taking was
also used as a repetition strategy, in which case the words are written down exactly as in
the text without any elaboration. Fatma describes this strategy in the following way: I
note down all the words that I hear in the conversation and then I can refer back to my
notes to find the information which helps me to answer the questions in the task.
Picture Matching was a fourth strategy that was used by all of the participants
when they completed a visual task. Other than the two participants who used an
association strategy, this was the only strategy that the participants used when they
completed a visual task. Since it was the primary strategy they used, it seems that this
strategy processes a picture in the visuo-spatial sketchpad and then matches the picture
with the corresponding text from the phonological loop. Salah described this strategy by
saying, I matched the description from the text with the picture in the task.
mentioned by the participants as being the normal practice strategy that is used during
their listening comprehension classes. However, even though it was mentioned as being
a normal strategy, only about three-quarters of the participants used this strategy for the
difficult text. The other participants did not want to listen to it a second time. These
participants either said that the text was clear and easy enough and they did not need to
listen to it again, or they said that the text was too difficult and listening to the text again
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would not help them complete more of the task. I have categorized this strategy as a
practice strategy, because it helped the participants activate inactive information in their
long-term memory. Khadija says this about Listening Many Times: The more times you
listen to something the more you understand. . . .So when you listen to something a
second time you may understand something that you didn't understand the first time.
Memorizing is a repetition strategy that helped the two participants repeat the
information in working memory until it had been comprehended. Basam described how
he used a memorization strategy: First you have to concentrate on all the words. Then
you have to memorize the main idea and some important words. Then you complete the
task using the information that you remembered from the text.
A seventh strategy, Guessing, was only explicitly mentioned by one student and
implicitly mentioned by another. This result was surprising to me as it was quite highly
rated in the questionnaire. It is possible that more participants used it during the
individual interviews, but did not report it. Sheima said this about Guessing: I listened
evident from her response, she used this strategy without any orchestration of any other
strategies; therefore, her use of this strategy was not very effective.
strategies were mentioned: Reading the Task, Matching, and Checking Information. The
first two strategies were used quite extensively by the participants but Checking
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Reading the Task is a planning strategy. It was used by all of the participants who
completed a written task associated with an easy text and by 12 participants who listened
to the difficult task. Learners used this strategy by looking at the task before they listened
to the text and deciding on which part of the task they should focus or what information
they needed to successfully complete the task. In addition, this strategy helped students
while they listened to know the parts of the text to focus while they listened to the text.
Abir said, I read the task to know what information I needed to find.
Matching was a second metacognitive strategy that was used by all of the
participants for both the written task that was associated with the easy text and for the
difficult text. The participants used this monitoring strategy to make sure that the
completing the task. About this strategy, Nourzed said: I read the task first then I
listened to the text and I concentrated on what I needed to complete the task.
The final metacognitive strategy that was used was Checking Information. This
strategy is an evaluation strategy. Even though only one participant used this strategy,
she thought this strategy was very important. She said, I can write down answers and
then review them and write the correct answers down on the task.
individual interviews and none of the participants wanted to conduct the interview in
Arabic or French, even though I told them they could speak in their first language. The
lack of this strategy surprised me because I observed the use of this strategy while I
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the learners would search for a word in Arabic and then define the English word based on
the meaning of the Arabic word. As I mentioned when I discussed the findings from the
group interviews, translation seems to be a controversial strategy. They may have used it
unconsciously but did not want to mention it because they have been told by their
teachers that they should not translate from Arabic into English.
conflict between the teachers' prescription not to use this strategy and the learners' natural
desire to use this strategy. This conflict is evident from my conversation with the only
participant who implied that she may have used Arabic during the individual interviews,
Samia. The following is part of the conversation that I had with her when I asked her
S: I listen to the text and I try to say the words and the ideas in my own
language.
S: I try to say it in another way. So, if I don't take the right word. . .I just
R: So you listen to the text in English and then you try to translate it into
Arabic?
S: No. For example, the speaker said that you can improve memory by
R: Oh. I see.
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In this dialogue, she uses the phrase in my own language. I thought that she meant she
translated into Arabic. However, when I asked her about her translation strategy, she
denied it and explained that she did not use another language but she used a different
This implied taboo of using Arabic when listening to English is also mentioned
when I interviewed Fatma. After she listened to a difficult text, she said:
The text was difficult. Sometimes it was too fast. But it was clear. I had a hard
The problem she mentions is that she is not used to listening to English conversations.
The solution is not translating into Arabic, but, instead, practice listening to English
conversations. Therefore, as I mentioned before when I discussed the findings from the
some participants admitted using it but others denied using it completely. Its use was also
not reported during the individual interviews, even though its use was implied
because of the apparent restriction of using Arabic by teachers and others, it seems that
none of the participants wanted to admit using it during the individual interviews.
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participants who participated in the think-aloud protocols responded by summarizing
problems related to the segment, or commenting on the segment. Out of those four
listening strategies that the participants used while they listened to an oral text in English.
Table 13
Along with the strategy names, I also listed the names of the participants participating in
the think-aloud protocols, the percentage that each participant used a particular strategy,
and the total percentage that each particular strategy was used during the think-aloud
protocols. All of these strategies are related to the comprehension process, rather than the
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confine myself to only describing these strategies. In Chapter 5, I will discuss in more
detail the relationship between these strategies and the comprehension process.
Tunisian EFL students used, Clear Word Focus and Segment End Focus. I refer to these
strategies as language-specific strategies, because I think that Tunisian EFL students have
learned these strategies from their multilingual educational background of Arabic and
French. Clear Word Focus and Segment End Focus may be beneficial to help the listener
focus on important words in an oral text when they listen to a syllable-timed language,
like French. However, when they listen to an oral text in English, which is a stress-timed
language, these strategies are very unhelpful. Both of these strategies, along with
Guessing and Adding Extra Information are related to the word-identification and
Three of the participants used Clear Word Focus more than half of the time in
order to recognize words from the text during the think-aloud protocols. Salah did not
use it as much as the others. This could be because he had a more difficult time than the
others in identifying words and information from the segments he heard. The four
participants used this strategy by focusing on clear words, words that are held longer, are
louder, or that have longer pauses after them. They seem to use this strategy to recognize
An example of the use of Clear Word Focus is below, showing an extract from a
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A: September the 12th/(.62) And/(.50) what time did you want to leave JFK/
(.20)
C: Mid-afternoon(.62)
A: So/ (.37) like departing around (.20) like one or two (.15)
C: Right (.25)
A: OK
In this example, the bold-faced syllables are the stressed syllables and the length of the
pauses in seconds is shown in parentheses. Normally a native English speaker would use
Rhythm Focus to focus on the stressed syllables to recognize the words in the information
units. During a think-aloud protocol, Salah responded to the segment in this way, She's
giving the dates of her travel, the 15th. Salah has obviously misunderstood the segment.
Instead of understanding that the agent and the customer were talking about the time of
departure, he thinks they are talking about her dates of travel. I see this as a concrete
example of Salah's use of Clear Word Focus. The time four-fifteen is repeated twice
and is the clearest word in the segment. So it seems that Salah has heard it and guesses
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the government//(.60) the writers cannot be arrested or otherwise punished//
This example is a segment from a think-aloud protocol with Hichem. After listening to a
segment from the text, Hichem responded, U.S. freedom. Punished, arrested, writers.
Freedom of press. None of these words has context and, therefore, what he wrote does
not make sense. It seems that he listened for the clear words and reported what he heard,
The second language-specific strategy that the participants used during the think-
aloud protocols was Segment End Focus. As with Clear Word Focus, participants
focused on the clear words. However, students using this strategy focused specifically on
the end of the segment rather than on words in the segment that they thought were clear.
Participants used Segment End Focus 15% of the time, with Houda using it more than
The problem with using Segment End Focus is clearly demonstrated by the
But there are some health concerns. And this is a big "but" with this kind of diet.
Nutritional experts worry about the effects of low-carb diets on the body. What
kind of effects are we talking about? Some significant ones, like vitamin
deficiencies...
This segment is taken from a text entitled, Two Popular Diets. In this text, a lecturer
talks about two popular diets, the low-fat diet and the low-carb diet. In this segment the
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lecturer is talking about health concerns linked to both of these diets.
This segment has one main point, which is the health concerns of the nutritional
experts. However, it also has two sub-points. The first sub-point is the concern about
what type of effects these two diets have on the body. The second sub-point is specifying
After listening to the above extract, Houda, responded, Vitamin deficiencies can
be linked to carb diets. Thus, she focuses on the last two words in the segment, vitamin
deficiencies and ignores all the other words in the segment, except for carb diets.
She then links vitamin deficiencies and carb diets without really understanding how
they are linked. She doesn't mention the health concerns, or that nutritional experts are
concerned about the effects of the diet on the body. Her statement mentions part of the
last sub-point but doesn't focus on the main idea of the segment.
Another example of the use of Segment End Focus can be seen in Hatem's
response to a segment from an oral text entitled, Airline Reservations. This segment is
shown below.
A: uh, most of the time daily, and sometimes hourly. And this fare is a
non-refundable fare. There is a 75 dollar fee for any changes once the
C: I understand. OK.
Hatem responds to this segment, She understands what he says and that's all. Thus, he
misses all the important information in the segment that the travel agent gives to the
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woman. All he hears is, I understand. OK, which is the last piece of information in the
segment, but it is not important in this segment. Therefore, like Houda, he has used a
strategy that has failed to help him understand the important information in the segment.
Guessing is a third strategy that the participants used during the think-aloud
protocols. Participants used this strategy when they were unable to understand the
meaning of some words that they had recognized or they did not understand what the
words meant in the context of the text that they had heard. The participants of the think-
aloud protocols used this strategy much more than the participants of the individual
interviews, which leads me to believe that this strategy was actually used much more
an oral text entitled Newspapers. A segment from this text is shown below.
This is what freedom of the press means, and Americans take this right very seriously.
Newspapers are an important way to get information in this country, and when
people read a newspaper, they want to be confident that the information in it is truthful
and fair. Daily newspapers are cheap and easy to buy and are an important part of
newspapers. Daily newspapers are an important part of American life. They are cheap.
Anyone can buy it. Hatem's response to the segment may seem confusing. However, if
we analyze it piece by piece, what he has done becomes more understandable. Figure 12
illustrates, in pictorial form, the way that Hatem has understood this segment.
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Response
Lack of freedom in writing in newspapers. Daily
newspapers are an important part of American life.
They are cheap. Anyone can buy it.
Adding
Background/Known Information
Daily newspapers =
freedom cheap
newspapers
an important part
of American life
This is what freedom of the press means, and Americans take this right
very seriously. Newspapers are an important way to get information in
this country, and when people read a newspaper, they want to be
confident that the information in it is truthful and fair. Daily newspapers
are cheap and easy to buy and are an important part of American life.
Text
Figure 12: A model of comprehension strategy use by one Tunisian EFL learner
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He used Clear Word Focus, Segment End Focus, Guessing, and Adding Extra
Information to help him try to understand the meaning of the segment he heard. Hatem
first used a Clear Word Focus strategy to recognize the words freedom, newspapers,
daily cheap, and buy. It seems that he also used a Segment End Focus strategy to
recognize the phrase, an important part of American life. Once he recognized the
pieces, he was not sure what they meant so he used a guessing strategy to infer what the
words have in common and what they mean in the context of the segment. Through his
guessing strategy, therefore, he inferred that daily, newspapers, and cheap are
related and that daily, newspapers and an important part of American life are
related. In addition, it seems that he inferred that buy must mean that people buy the
newspapers. Finally, even though he has heard the words freedom and newspapers,
he did not guess that there is freedom in writing newspapers. Instead he used an Adding
Extra Information strategy to associate from his background knowledge that there is a
lack of freedom in writing newspapers and so this is what he links together during the
comprehension process. The result of using these four comprehension strategies is his
response to the segment. Even though it is not what a native English speaker would
understand from the segment, it is what Hatem has understood as a result of using his
In this section, I have identified the listening strategies that Tunisian EFL learners
use. These strategies include metacognitive strategies, cognitive strategies, and socio-
affective strategies. The strategies that the majority of the research participants reported
using during their listening comprehension classes were: one metacognitive strategy,
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Reading the Task and three cognitive strategies, Focus, Note-taking; and Listening Many
Times. In addition, during my research the research participants reported using two
monitoring strategy. They also reported using six cognitive strategies during the
taking strategy; and Memorization, a repetition strategy. The results of my research has
also indicated that Tunisian EFL learners use at least one socio-affective strategy, Getting
two other more controversial strategies were mentioned being used in their listening
strategy, Getting Help from Classmates. These two strategies were controversial because
some of the participants said that they used them but others said that they should not be
used. First, from the results of my research, it seems that my participants had been told
that they should not use Translation and, instead they should only use English to
understand the text and respond to the text. Second, it seems that the other controversial
strategy in my research, Getting Help from Classmates, was also not used by the majority
of they participants. They said that they did not understand it either because they thought
they should rely on their own understanding, because their teachers' had told them not to
use this strategy, or because they considered completing a listening task like taking an
exam.
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Listening Obstacles Identified among Tunisian EFL Learners
used the same data-collection methods to identify listening obstacles as I used above to
the group interviews, and the listening diaries, I used to identify listening obstacles that
the participants reported when they listened to oral English texts in their classroom. The
used to identify listening obstacles they encountered while listening to oral texts.
I expected the participants from all the data-collection methods to list features of the text,
or features related to the text, that they considered to be hindrances to understanding the
text. In addition to these open listening obstacles, I also asked respondents to the
questionnaire and participants of the group interviews to rank a fixed list of obstacles
order to collect a list of listening obstacles that the questionnaire respondents thought
were important. The question was, Please write down specific problems that you have
when you listen to English oral texts. 17 of the respondents responded to this open-
ended question, providing a list of listening obstacles which I have included in Table 14.
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Table 14
Table 14 lists the obstacles mentioned by the respondents and the percentage of
respondents who mentioned this obstacle. I have excluded from this table those obstacles
that were mentioned by only one respondent. The obstacles reported most by the
respondents were: a fast text speed, a difficult to understand accent, and unclear speech.
Other than the tape not being clear and unfamiliar grammar, the other obstacles
mentioned by the questionnaire respondents dealt with the importance of words and were
interview participants also mentioned listening obstacles which they thought were
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Table 15
In Table 15, I have grouped the obstacles the participants of the group interviews reported
into three categories: those related to the text, those related to the task, and miscellaneous
obstacles that were listed. Most of the obstacles mentioned were related to the text. 75%
of the groups mentioned the speaker's accent, the speed of the text, and reductions in the
text. Half of the groups mentioned audio noise as an obstacle. The remaining obstacles in
the table were only mentioned by one group; they are: short pauses, unknown
complex topic. The two highest ranked obstacles, a fast text and an unfamiliar accent,
were mentioned by both the questionnaire respondents and the group interview
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participants. All the other obstacles mentioned by the group interview participants were
also mentioned by the questionnaire respondents. These obstacles are: unclear speech,
new vocabulary, not hearing stressed words, unclear audio, and unfamiliar grammar.
Table 16 compares the open obstacles list with a fixed list of obstacles that
were ranked by both respondents of the questionnaire and participants of the group
interviews.
Table 16
As is shown, the rankings from both data-collection methods are similar. Both text speed
and speaker's accent were ranked as the most troublesome obstacles, while the context or
background of the text and number of speakers were ranked as the least troublesome
obstacles to understanding an oral text. The only major difference was unfamiliar
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that unfamiliar grammatical structures were more of a hindrance than vocabulary, while
the participants of the group interviews thought that vocabulary was more of an obstacle
Therefore, based on the data that I have analyzed from the questionnaires and
from the group interviews, the listening obstacles that seem to be the greatest hindrance
are: a fast text speed, an unclear accent, and unclear speech even though other listening
obstacles, such as audio noise and unfamiliar vocabulary were also mentioned.
Three of the four students who wrote listening diaries, described encountering
listening obstacles when they listen to oral English texts. These obstacles are listed in
Table 17.
Table 17
Obstacles Participant
Mounir Saoussen Samia
Audio Noise X
Difficult/Unclear Pronunciation X
Teacher Passivity X
Fast Text Speed X X
Negative Affect of Topic on Listener X
Unfamiliar Topic X
Unfamiliar Vocabulary X X X
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As shown in the Table17, all three students mentioned vocabulary as being an obstacle.
In addition, two students listed the fast speed of the text as being an obstacle. All the
other obstacles were only mentioned by one of the students: audio noise, pronunciation,
teacher passivity, topic affect on the listener, and unfamiliar topic. All of these obstacles
were also mentioned in the other data-collection methods, with the exception of teacher
passivity.
Mounir writes an entry describing his encounters with listening obstacles: The
lesson was a bit boring. In fact the theme [smoking] was a bit unfashionable. The quality
of tape was very bad which affected my understanding of the speech. The teacher was
also a bit inactive which made me fed up. I think that a good listening session depends
on the quality of the tape. The teacher motivation, and the authenticity of the theme. In
these sentences, Mounir lists several obstacles: lack of topic affection, audio noise, and
teacher passivity. Then he summed it up by saying that these three obstacles must be
frustrated, fed up, when the teacher was passive and this affected his ability to
[In] the first task I managed the description part but I couldn't hear well and
know the birthplace of them. Maybe because I didn't hear about them before.
[In] the second task, from 16 words, I knew 12. The other words were somehow
difficult because of the speed of the speaker for example the word 'moves' I heard
it 'rules'.
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First, Saoussen mentions that she could not hear well the words needed to answer the
task because she was not familiar with them. This is, therefore, a problem with
vocabulary. Second, she could not complete the second task for two reasons. First the
speaker's speed was too fast and, second, she misheard the pronunciation of words, which
Samia mentions the obstacles with which she had difficulties in two separate
entries. In the first entry she stated, Today, we were asked to complete notes. . . . As
usual, the main difficulty was hearing some words because the speaker was too fast, not
all of them of course but some. In this entry she mentioned that, as usual, the main
difficulty was that the speakers spoke too fast. In other words, she encounters this
obstacle a lot when she listens to oral texts and this is the primary obstacles that she is
they spoke about places and theaters names which I don't know. I found
also difficulties in hearing some movies titles and I was obliged to ask my
colleague who sit next to me. But even with the help of my friend, I failed
to finish the task. The words I missed actually, were not movies or
theaters names, they were new vocabulary for us, used in the informal
Here she mentioned not being able to understand the meaning of certain words, which
caused her to fail to finish the task. As with the group interviews, the quickness of the
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speech and unfamiliar words were the two biggest obstacles mentioned in the listening
diaries.
However, the extent to which students encountered each of these obstacles is not
obvious from a table. For example, Samia mentioned the text being too fast. However,
even though she talked about the quickness of the text, she spoke more often in her
entries about the importance of understanding words. When she understands the words
she is happy. However, when she encounters words that she does not know or cannot
I fear not to listen or understand some words. But things were well done
because I was near the tape recorder so my task was successful. But in the
second part, we were asked to fill in the gaps, I faced some problems with
some words that their pronunciation looks a like so, how to spell them was
From her diary entries, it is clear that her main concern is understanding the words.
However, even though Saoussen and Samia wrote about the text sometimes being
too fast, Mounir does not. Instead he indicates from his entries that the speed of the
speakers is fine. The following are some examples of the way in which he approaches
the text.
1. The speech was clear to me, but I had some difficulties concerning some words that
I do not know or heard. I had no problems while listening and I was motivated to
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3. I did understand the speech but the new words affected my understanding of some
parts.
4. I had no difficulties in understanding the speech, but the new words affected a bit of
my understanding.
5. The speech was interesting. . .and clear. I think that a good understanding also lies
Continually he states that the speech is clear and that there is some other obstacle, usually
not understanding the words, which prevents him from understanding the text. This
concentration on vocabulary and understanding specific words was a major focus of all
three students. Again, as I have mentioned before, these entries indicate an emphasis on
Obstacles that were encountered while the participants listened to oral texts were
reported during two data-collection methods: the individual interviews and the think-
aloud protocols. In Table 18, I have listed the obstacles that were mentioned by
participants of the individual interviews, the total number and percentage of participants
mentioning the listening obstacle, the number and percentage of participants mentioning
a listening obstacle for the easy texts, and the number and percentage of participants
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Table 18
As Table 18 indicates, fast speech was the obstacle most often cited by the participants.
After fast speech, the inability to listen and write simultaneously, a long text, a confusing
task, and a difficult accent were the next four obstacles most often mentioned. All of
these obstacles were reported more for the difficult text than they were for the easy text.
However, it is interesting to note that five of the remaining seven obstacles were
mentioned during the easy text but not during the difficult text. These five obstacles are:
unknown vocabulary, short pauses, difficult topic, background noise, and multiple
speakers. It seems that the participants expected these types of obstacles for the difficult
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Two of the obstacles most often mentioned, a fast text speed and a difficult
accent, were also the two obstacles most often reported in the other data-collection
methods. However, most of the other obstacles mentioned in the individual interviews
were either not reported, or rarely reported in the other data-collection methods. In
addition, obstacles that were reported many times in the other data-collection methods
There are many examples of obstacles that were reported frequently in most of the
data-collection methods but were not mentioned at all during the individual interviews.
One example of the obstacles often reported during the group interviews is reductions,
yet it was not mentioned at all during the individual interviews. Another example of this
difference is the obstacle, encountering unknown vocabulary, which was mentioned very
often in the listening diaries, and also mentioned a few times in the questionnaire, but
was not a significant obstacle for the participants during the individual interviews. It was
mentioned only three times during the easy text interviews and not at all during the
difficult text interviews. Other obstacles, such as unfamiliar grammar, hearing stressed
words, listening for reductions, and lack of audio clarity, were also prominently reported
in the other data-collection methods, but absent from the individual interviews. In
addition, other obstacles such as the inability to listen and write simultaneously, text
length, and a confusing task, which were either not mentioned at all in the other data-
collection methods, or only rarely mentioned, figured prominently during the individual
interviews.
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I would like to propose three possible explanations for the participants reporting
listening obstacles in the individual interview which were unrelated to those reported in
the other data-collection methods. The first explanation is regarding the differences in
types of tasks between the classroom and the individual interviews. The listening tasks
were easier and shorter in their listening comprehension classes than they were during the
individual interviews, which may be the reason that long tasks were not reported as an
obstacle, and confusing tasks and the inability to listen and write simultaneously were
only mentioned twice, once in the questionnaire and once in the group interview.
The data from my research gives evidence that the participants' listening tasks in
the classroom are shorter and easier than were the tasks in my research. For example, I
asked the participants to compare tasks and texts in the interviews with tasks and texts in
the classroom. Out of seven participants who talked about the text, only one thought the
text was more difficult. However, out of eleven participants who responded to my
question as to whether the task was easier in the classroom than the interview, only two
thought that the tasks related to the easy texts were more difficult; but five participants
thought that the tasks related to the difficult text were more difficult. Evidence also
exists in my observations. I noticed during the observations that the tasks the teachers
used were easier than some of the tasks I used during my research. Therefore, it seems
that some obstacles related to the task, such as difficulty listening and writing at the
simultaneously and the difficulty the participants had with long or complex tasks during
the individual interviews, were more noticeable to them during the individual interviews
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Another explanation for the participants reporting listening obstacles, unrelated to
vocabulary, listening for individual words, and focusing on grammar seem to be much
more a part of the listening comprehension classroom than it was during the individual
interviews. During my observations, all three of the teachers I observed, Ms. Arbi, Ms.
Hamdi, and Ms. Jerbi, concentrated on helping the students hear individual words in the
text. Ms. Hamdi and Ms. Jerbi, wrote on the board the sentences from the text that
answered a question from the task. Ms. Hamdi concentrated on getting the students to
identify the exact words from the text, filling in missing words that the students had
missed. Ms. Arbi encouraged the students and also summarized and consolidated what
the students had said. All three teachers would correct any mistakes in words or
pronunciation that the students had made. Therefore, my classroom observations seem to
confirm that an emphasis on words and grammar are much more part of the classroom
than it was during the individual interviews. Therefore, because emphasis on words and
grammar was not a focus of the listening tasks during the individual interviews, it is
understandable participants would not report these as being obstacles in the individual
interviews, even though they had reported them in the other data-collection methods.
Finally, I think that obstacles related to textual clarity and audio noise were more
classroom, because sound quality was an issue in their classrooms, but was not an issue
during the individual interviews. For example, I noticed the audio problems and
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participants' reports during the individual interviews. They said that the audio during the
interview was much clearer than the audios that they heard in their classes. They also
said that there was more noise in the class, making it difficult for them to focus on the
text. Conversely, not one participant during the individual interviews said that the text
was unclear, said that the audio was not clear, or complained about noise in the
classroom. Therefore, I think the individual interviews had different types of tasks, more
focus on meaning rather than words, and more audio clarity and less noise. These
differences caused the participants to report different obstacles from the individual
interviews than they reported about their listening comprehension classroom experiences.
obstacles during the think-aloud protocols. The obstacles he cited that deterred him from
understanding the text were: a fast text speed, outside noises, and too much information.
He also complained about losing his focus or having his focus delayed.
Regarding text speed, Basam said, I was thinking about the great speed of the
native speaker. It is a major problem in such a task. He also mentioned the tempo of the
text in response to another segment of text. At this point he also mentioned that outside
noises had disturbed him, It was really hard to complete this task because of many
noises outside also the speed of native speaker is another obstacle for achieving it.
Another obstacle that Basam mentioned was too much information. The following is
what he said about this obstacle, I really feel uncomfortable because all the
circumstances are presented at the same time it was very hard to complete [the task].
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The final obstacle that Basam mentioned was delayed focus. This obstacle is a
concept that the participants talked about during the individual interviews. They defined
the concept in the following way. During their listening comprehension classes, they
listened to an oral text at least three times. The first time they are told by the teacher to
listen and to not focus on understanding the text. The second time they are told to focus
on understanding the text. The third time they are told to listen, and presumably check
their answers. Therefore, they have learned to delay their focus until the second or
During the individual interviews, the participants may have had a problem with
delayed focus, since they listened to the easy text only once and they listened to the
difficult text twice. Even though they may have had it, none of them reported it directly.
Some of them mentioned it indirectly when they talked about the difficulty in focusing
and when they mentioned that they were used to listening to an oral text three times.
Unlike the other participants, Basam reported delayed focus as being an obstacle
during the think-aloud protocol. He said the following about this obstacle, I was
thinking about my lost. I feel that I am not concentrating in the conversation because we
[students] have a habit that we listen to a text three times the first time we don't actually
concentrate and we delay that concentration to the second or the third time. After
listening to another segment of the think-aloud protocol Basam said, I was thinking
about how I could make an answer and I was not completely concentrating on the
conversation since we were familiar with three times listening. This is definitely an
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Discussion of the Listening Obstacles
From my analysis of the five data-collection methods, I have divided the obstacles
the participants mentioned into five main classes. These classes, along with the obstacles
Table 19
The first class of obstacles relates to the manner of conveying the text. This class relates
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between the various cognitive processes in the human information-processing system.
The two main obstacles in this class are text speed and text length. The second class of
obstacles relates to comprehension of the text and to hearing specific words, and focusing
on specific structures. This class relates to obstacles interfering with the participants'
strategy use during the comprehension process. There are mainly three obstacles in this
class: unknown vocabulary, inability to hear specific words, and unfamiliar grammatical
specific words. These obstacles are understanding various accents and reductions, and
contending with unclear speech and unclear pronunciation. A third class of obstacles
relates to the task. This class is associated with obstacles that interfere with the
participants' ability to understand the listening task and to complete it. The three main
obstacles in this class are: task complexity and task length, and the inability to listen and
write simultaneously. A fourth class of obstacles relates to external variables. This class
relates to obstacles that interfere with the participants' ability to attend to the aural stream.
The obstacles mentioned that correspond to this class are audio noise, background noise
in the audio, and external noise. The last class of obstacles relate to the participants' lack
of affection toward a text. In other words, if a participant finds the topic of the text or the
text itself uninteresting, or if she is negatively disposed toward the topic of the text, she
will have a more difficult time focusing on the text and will have a difficult time
Text speed. The first class of obstacles relates to the way in which the oral text is
conveyed. This class of obstacles pertains to both the speed of the text and the length of
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the text. In my research, too fast of a text speed was the major obstacle for most of the
participants in all of the data-collection methods. By this they meant the tempo of the
speakers was very quick and their speech contained many words per minute. They also
mentioned that the clarity of the text was important. They thought that it was vital for
words to be spoken slowly and clearly so that they could effectively understand a text.
To try and overcome the fast text speed obstacle, the participants often used the
practice strategy, listening many times. They often found that when they listened to the
text more times they would understand more of it. However, this strategy did not always
help them. For example, Abir said, It also wouldn't help me to listen to it a third time
because it was just too fast. Ahlem also did not find the listening many times strategy
always helpful. In response to the question, would it help to listen to the text again, she
said, Not really. I don't understand what the text is talking about. Usually it helps me [to
listen another time to the text] but this time it didn't help me. The speech was too fast.
The relationship between text speed and pause length. Even though the
majority of my participants cited a fast text speed as being a huge hindrance to their
comprehension of the text, I discovered that the tempo of the speech and the amount of
words per minute was not as important as the length of the pauses between each
information group and the amount of information words in each information group.
During my research, I eliminated the normal pauses from seven different texts
during my research to further test the relationship between pauses and text speed. Six
participants were involved in listening to one of these texts. One participant listened to
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two of the texts. After the participants listened to the text, I asked them to give their
Table 20
As is shown, four out of seven times students found the text too fast and three times they
said that it was clear and not too fast. Once I lengthened the normal pauses of a difficult
text and the participant found the text easier to understand. During this experiment with
the six participants, I did not find a difference between medium- and high-proficiency
understanding texts when the pauses were removed, and sometimes they had no difficulty
Even though I cannot make any generalizations from this experiment, it seems
that there is a relationship among the amount of words in an information group, the
length of pauses, and how fast the speaker spoke. Therefore, from my research it seems
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that when the pauses were longer, the text was perceived to be slower by the participants,
On the other hand, when the pauses were shorter, they perceived that the text was faster.
One example of the relationship between pause length and text speed is taken
from my individual interview with Ahlem. I gave her an easy text but I edited it by
removing the pauses from the text. When I asked her if she found the text easy or
difficult, she said that it was not very easy and it was very fast. The second time she
listened to it, the text was unedited, in other words the text contained the normal pauses
between the information units. When I asked her which version she preferred she said
that she preferred the second version. When I asked her the reason that she preferred the
second version, she said, I understood more the second time. I was more comfortable.
When I listened the second time it was clearer and easier. I don't know why it's easier or
clearer. For the difficult text, I did the opposite from the easy text; I gave Ahlem the
normal text the first time she listened to it and then the second time I gave her a modified
version of the same text with the pauses removed. When I asked her about the difference
between them, she thought that the speaker had talked faster the second time. Another
participant, Mounir, had a similar reaction to Ahlem. When he listened to a text with
pauses removed he said, The speech was too fast. Also some information was a bit
difficult to extract from the text because the speech was too fast. When he listened to
the same text with the normal pauses he said, The speech was not as fast the second
Therefore, even though the text was not slower, if the text contained longer pauses
then the participants thought that a text was slower. This demonstrates that more pauses
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in a text can give a learner the perception that the text is slower and easier to understand,
while fewer pauses can give a learner the perception that the text is faster and more
difficult to understand.
Comprehension of the text: Clear word focus. The second class of obstacles is
they used a listening strategy I named Clear Word Focus. I previously defined this
strategy as a focus on words that are held longer, are louder, or that have longer pauses
after them. This strategy had probably been learned as an effective way of understanding
French, but since the English language is different from the French language, Clear Word
structures in Tunisian EFL learners' listening comprehension classes, they often found
common features of spoken English, such as reduced speech, unstressed syllables, and
Task obstacles. A third class of obstacles was obstacles related to the task.
According to my findings, there were two main obstacles in this class mentioned by most
of the participants in most of the data-collection methods: the inability to listen to the text
and write answers in the task simultaneously and the task itself. I will discuss each of
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First, according to the participants, they found it very difficult to listen and write
simultaneously. This is understandable since average people speak about five times faster
than they can write. For a Tunisian EFL student, writing is probably ten times slower
I can reveal the truth that we in Tunisia are quite late in getting with the text
when staying with one argument or idea. For example, when she talks about
suggestions, there are obviously four suggestions. I can go with her suggestions
for the first and the second. However, when she is talking about the second
suggestion, I have still memorized the first suggestion. Then she is running
through [the third and] the fourth and I am still thinking about the second
one....She's not too fast. But my brain isn't going as fast as she is speaking....I
can't write as fast as she can talk. So I miss information because when I am trying
to write down one point, she is on to the next point, which I can't concentrate on.
Since the text is spoken much faster than the participant can write, either the text, the
task, or both should be modified to assist the EFL learner in this area. I will discuss this
Second, the task itself was also often identified by the participants as an obstacle
to comprehension of the text. I believe there are four issues to consider in this area. The
first issue, according to my experience, is that many listening tasks have been designed
participants were not familiar with some tasks which was an obstacle to their
comprehension and successful completion of the task. Third, the length or complexity of
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some tasks caused participants difficulty. Finally, the participants had difficulty with
tasks with questions that were not in the same order as the answers in the text. These are
four important issues which, I believe, may have hindered my research participants from
The first issue that may have caused difficulties for the participants is that many
listening comprehension tasks are very similar to reading comprehension tasks. For
example, true and false, multiple choice, matching, sentence completion, and short
answer completion, are all reading comprehension tasks that are also used in listening
comprehension. These tasks work well with reading comprehension texts where the
reader can refer back to the text to complete the task. However, using this type of tasks
require either memorization of the information in the text or taking notes while listening
to the text. This problem also causes another obstacle, the inability to listen and write at
the same time. Because the participants' working memory became completely focused on
the text, many of them found it difficult to complete the task at the same time as listening
to the text.
A second issue that caused problems was the use of tasks with which the students
were not familiar. I used a variety of tasks from different sources and I discovered that
participants found familiar tasks easier to complete successfully than unfamiliar tasks.
The participants found multiple choice, true and false, and matching the easiest tasks to
complete. However, completing partially written notes was very difficult for some of
them because they were not familiar with the linear method that native English speakers
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use to take notes. In addition, two participants were given tasks in which they were
asked to find errors in the task. They had never encountered this type of task before and
A third issue was that some tasks were too long, had too many questions, or had
too many parts. When the participants encountered a long task, they tried to focus on part
of the text and answer questions related to that part, but they were unable to focus on
other questions in the task that referred to other parts of the text.
The final issue related to the task as an obstacle was the participants encountering
a task that had questions in a different order from the answers in the text. For example, I
gave to a participant a task which had the questions in a different order from the answers
in the text. The participant was only able to answer the questions sequentially and she
External obstacles. The fourth class was external obstacles. The obstacles
mentioned in this class were unclear speech, unclear audio, and external noise. The
obstacles that were mentioned from this class were reported by the participants as
occurring while they listened to texts in their listening comprehension classes. Four of
classes, and three of them reported audio noise in the class was an obstacle. During the
group interviews, three of the four groups reported poor audio quality from their listening
comprehension classes, and two groups reported background noise on the tape as being
an obstacle in these classes. Audio noise in the listening comprehension class was also
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This class of obstacles is obviously a concern to the questionnaire respondents
and the research participants. In addition, even though these obstacles were often
obstacles were rarely reported during the individual interviews and think-aloud protocols.
In fact, only once did a participant mention this obstacle during the think-aloud protocols.
Since, the participants rarely encountered this obstacle when they listened to texts during
the individual interviews and think-aloud protocols, it seems that this class of obstacles
can be eliminated, if proper preparations are made by the teacher before class. I will
negative disposition of some participants toward a topic could potentially deter them
from focusing on the oral text. One text that I used more than once was entitled, Earth
Day and Environmental Problems (Scholnick & Gabler, 2003b, pp. 165-167). One
participant began to listen to the speaker talk about air pollution and then she said,
That's the most annoying topic for me. I've been listening to that since seventh grade.
Every day every year we talk about pollution and the causes and it's so boring. This
negative attitude toward the topic of the text prevented her from concentrating on the
text. Since she was unable to concentrate, she could not understand the text. I
sometimes encountered this obstacle with other participants as well, especially during the
individual interviews. If a participant was very familiar with a topic and had a negative
feeling about the subject, he or she was unable to concentrate on the text and, therefore,
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During the think-aloud protocols, three participants were sometimes affected by
this obstacle, which prevented them from focusing on the segments. During the four
obstacle toward the text which caused them to not understand. In fact, during the think-
aloud protocols, one of the participants, Karima, was so negatively affected by the two
texts to which she was listening that she could not understand anything that the speakers
were saying.
dispositions. The first type was when the text caused the participants to provide negative
comments about the text; such as when a participant said, I feel it's a silly explanation.
The girl seems so naive to me. All she needs to do is read the paper in the package that
you get when you buy your camera. There's nothing new in anything he said. It's just
useless. The second type is when the topic created a negative attitude, as when a
participant said, That's the most annoying topic for me. I've been listening to that since
seventh grade. Every day every year we talk about pollution and the causes and its so
boring. The third type caused the participants to judge what the speaker said, such as I
don't know if I should believe her because it seems like it's not true what she's talking
ability to focus on a text in class, the three participants during the think-aloud protocol
presented important information to help understand the importance of this obstacle and
the value of finding ways to help educators, researchers, and EFL learners work together
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Hatem's Story as an Example of a Tunisian EFL Student's Strategy Use
I believe this story captures the essence of Tunisian EFL students' use of strategies
in their classes and the way that obstacles affect their ability to effectively use their
listening strategies.
When I first interviewed Hatem, he seemed like any other Tunisian EFL student.
Hatem's proficiency test indicated that he was a low, medium-proficiency EFL student.
he would do well on the easy text but would have trouble on the difficult text. However,
The first easy text I gave him was entitled Strange and Unusual Things. I had
used this same text two other times and the other two students who had heard it
complained that it was too long and too difficult. They also complained that the task was
too difficult. They said that they could not listen and write at the same time. One of the
students had said that he needed longer pauses in the text to give him time to write down
the answers.
On the other hand, Hatem did not complain about the text he had been given and
did not seem to have trouble with it. He did admit that the second exercise in the task
was more difficult and required more concentration than the first exercise.
flexibility in how he approached the two exercises. He said that in the first exercise all of
the answers were written and it was only a matter of putting the right answer in the right
box. In addition, he devised a short-hand notation system for this exercise. So, while he
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listened to the text, he wrote the first letter of each city in the appropriate box. Then,
when the text was finished he finished writing the name of the city, which began with the
letter he had written in the box. When he encountered the second exercise, he changed
his strategy by taking notes on the text, writing down in his notes important information,
and then answering the questions in the exercise with the information from his notes.
I was intrigued by the nonchalant way in which Hatem had correctly completed
the tasks associated with the easy text and I wondered how he would cope with the
difficult text. The difficult text that I gave Hatem was called Ethical Decisions. This is
a text that I had given to two other students with mixed results; one student had done well
on it and the other had done poorly. However, both of them had a higher proficiency than
Hatem, therefore, I expected him to have trouble with the text. Much to my surprise, he
didn't find it difficult at all. In fact, he was one of two students who needed to listen only
once to the difficult text. He said that the task and the text were not difficult at all and
that I wouldn't have got anything new by listening to it again. He also mentioned only
one listening obstacle, a long text, when he said, The only difficult part of it was that the
text was a little bit long and it's difficult to concentrate throughout the whole text.
However, this obstacle did not prevent him from finishing the task. He said, Everything
[in the text] was clear. The speech was clear and it wasn't too fast. To finish the task
Hatem's performance on the two different texts intrigued me. He was supposed to
be a lower proficiency student and he should have struggled with both of the texts. Yet,
he not only correctly completed the tasks, he didn't even need to listen to the difficult text
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a second time. I began to think that he may rely too much on his listening strategy, note-
taking. Therefore, I decided to have another interview with Hatem where I could begin to
observe how he performed if he was not allowed to take notes. The questions that I
wanted to answer were, Would Hatem be able to switch from a note-taking strategy to
another strategy?
I arranged a meeting with Hatem for a follow-up interview. For the interview I
used another easy text, entitled Zoos and another difficult text, entitled, Product
Placement. For both of these texts I did not allow Hatem to take notes. For the regular
individual interviews, the other three participants who had listened to Zoos had no
difficulty in successfully completing the task. However, with Hatem, I eliminated the
long pauses that the text contained. As I mentioned earlier in this chapter, this gave the
Again, I was surprised by Hatem's response to the task. The lack of pauses did
not seem to deter him from understanding the text and finishing the task. He did mention
that he had some confusion about the two parts of the task. But, he did not think it was
too fast. I was also interested by his strategy use. He said that normally he would have
taken notes. But since he was not allowed to take notes, he only concentrated and that
was it. Therefore, initially he seemed to be able to modify his strategy use, at least for a
Similarly to the first text, for the second text, Product Placement, I did not
allow Hatem to take notes. The text was very similar to the other difficult text that
Hatem had listened to, Ethical Decisions. The only difference in the interview was that
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Hatem was allowed to take notes during the first interview, whereas he was not allowed
Unlike the first difficult text, Hatem had trouble with the second difficult text. He
said that one listening obstacle, a fast text, interfered with his strategy use. Because of
the fast text, he could not use his normal focus strategy while he listened to the text,
Instead, he said that he was only able to focus on the conclusion, using Segment End
Focus, which, as I mentioned earlier in the chapter, is not effective when listening to oral
English texts. He used this strategy by waiting for the conclusion, and then memorizing
the words that the speaker used and writing down the words on the task. He said it would
have been much easier to complete the task if he had been allowed to take notes.
when his preferred strategy, note-taking, could not be used. However, because he lacked
a large repertoire of effective strategies, the strategies that he used did not help him
understand the text and complete the task. With a short, easy text, such as Zoos, he
was able to use a less effective strategy such as memorization. However, with a longer
text, he could not keep all of the information in working memory and he was only able to
remember the very end of the text. Furthermore, his strategy use was not flexible enough
I gave Hatem another opportunity to listen to the text. This second time, I
allowed him to use his normal listening strategy, note-taking. He said this after
encountering the text a second time, It was much easier the second time because I was
able to take notes. Because with notes I can write everything down that I hear. I can
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write down all the key ideas. Through note-taking, I can also connect the text, and the
main ideas of the text, with the task. Even though he was able to take notes, he was not
able to correctly complete the task. He normally used the task to guide him as to what
notes to take. However, this task, which was a note-taking completion task, did not
contain enough clues on which information he should concentrate, therefore, he saw the
task as being an obstacle to understanding the text. He said the following about the task
Usually I use the task to help me know what information I should listen for. In
this case I wrote down examples. I also wrote down his descriptions. In this case
I didn't understand what was the key information and so I tried to write down
everything until I get tired and I can't write down anything more. . . .In this
exercise, [my note-taking strategy] didn't work because the task was open
which didn't clue me in on what important key ideas I should listen for. I could
not connect the information in the text with the requirements of the task. I'm sure
Thus, the bad task became an impeding obstacle that prevented him from
understanding the text. In addition, it seems that Hatem's note-taking strategy worked
well when the task was clear and gave him enough information so that he knew on what
to concentrate in the text. Furthermore, he had some flexibility in his strategy use. But
he had trouble when the text became too long, the text was too fast, or the task did not
have enough markers to point him to the important information in the text.
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Hatem's story is an example of a typical Tunisian EFL student listening to an oral
text and completing a task. Most of the participants I interviewed had specific strategies
that they used with familiar tasks. Even though some of them had trouble, most of them
were able to use their strategic approach to understand a text and correctly complete a
or if they were somehow prevented from using their normal listening strategies then
many of them failed just like Hatem failed to understand the text and correctly
Conclusion
In this chapter, I have presented the major findings of my research and I have also
answered my two research questions. In the first section, I presented the listening
strategies that the participants used when they listen to oral English texts. Because most
only two that were used by most of the participants, Reading the task and Matching. One
participant. Participants reported that they used some socio-affective strategies in their
socio-affective strategies and preferred not to use them. Others found them effective in
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The major cognitive strategies that were used while listening to texts during the
discovered two language-specific strategies, Specific Word Focus and Segment End
Focus. These strategies were not effective in aiding the participants to understand the
text to which they listened. It seems that they developed these strategies to help them in
listening to oral texts in French. Further research needs to be done in this area to
discover if there may be other language-specific strategies and the extent to which
learning strategies in general and listening strategies in particular can be used universally.
group interview participants talked about this strategy. Some of them said they used it
during their listening comprehension classes and other denied using it. Its use was not
reported in any of the other data-collection methods, including the individual interviews.
One of the participants during the individual interview hinted that she used a translation
strategy. However, she denied it when I asked her about it and instead insisted that she
used a paraphrasing strategy, not a translation strategy. During the individual interview,
another participant indicated that the reason she did not understand the text was that she
was not used to English, not because she was not using a translation strategy.
In the second section, I presented obstacles that prevented the participants from
understanding oral English texts. I have classified these obstacles into five categories:
obstacles, and affective obstacles. The major text-related obstacles that the participants
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encountered were fast speech and a long text. The major comprehension-related
obstacles the participants encountered were difficult accents and unknown vocabulary.
unfamiliar task and a long task and the inability to listen and write simultaneously.
The fourth class of obstacles was external noises. Even though the participants
reported some external obstacles such as outside noise, students talking, and audio noise,
during their listening comprehension classes, only one participant reported an external
obstacle, outside noises, during a think-aloud protocol. This low occurrence of this class
of obstacles seems to be because I was able to control for these factors during my
disposition toward the text which affected their concentration on the text and their
comprehension of the text. I called this class of obstacles, affective obstacles. These
obstacles were reported in the group interviews, the listening diaries, and the think-aloud
protocols. During the think-aloud protocols three types of affective obstacles were
recorded: negative comment about the text, negative attitude toward the topic, and a
negative judgment on the context or the speaker of the text. Affective obstacles are
important because a learner with a negative disposition toward the text, the topic of the
text, the content of the text, or the speaker in a text seem to create a type of filter or
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CHAPTER FIVE
Introduction
researcher, I was curious to know the reasons for the difficulties that they encountered.
This curiosity lead me to begin this present research. I saw that in listening
comprehension classes the learners were passively receiving information because, out of
frustration, teachers were giving them the answers to complete the tasks that they had
been given. The learners became frustrated because they did not understand the oral
texts and the teachers became frustrated because they did not know how to teach the
learners to find the important information in the oral texts to understand the texts.
Through this observation and analyzing process, I was perplexed. I believed that
EFL listeners were active in the listening process, but the teacher was treating them as
passive vessels that needed to be filled with the important information from the oral text.
I knew that the most important reason that the learners were not understanding the oral
texts was because the teachers were using ineffective teacher-centered, methodologies. I
knew that a change in focus was needed, focusing on the students' needs instead of the
teachers' methods. As the needs of the students were highlighted, a new, student-centered
way of teaching could be found that would empower the students to understand oral
that could interfere with their strategy use. The first step in moving to this student-
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centered approach was by identifying the listening strategies that they used and the
obstacles that they encountered while listening to oral texts. These observations
understanding the current situation of Tunisian EFL learners: What listening strategies do
Tunisian EFL learners use when they listen to oral English transactional texts?, and What
are the major obstacles that Tunisian EFL learners encounter when listening to oral
English transactional texts? These two questions gave my research direction. In addition
classroom. These observations of watching these learners trying to understand the oral
texts with little or no help from other learners, propelled me to use a cognitive model for
model, assuming that Tunisian EFL learners were active listeners. This is a theoretical
approach which was suggested by Macaro (2006), but, as far as I am aware, has not been
formally proposed in research. I have called this theoretical model the Cognitive
research questions. In this chapter I will consider the extent to which the listening
strategies Tunisian EFL learners use and the obstacles they encounter correspond to the
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Cognitive Strategic Comprehension Model, the way in which they function in this model,
and how Tunisian EFL learners use their strategies in this model.
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Long-Term Memory
Declarative Procedural
Knowledge Knowledge
Picture Guessing
Matching Note-Taking
Paraphrasing
Association
Central
Executive
Attention
Focus
Working Memory
Sensory
Registers
Reading Task
Matching Focus
Checking Information Input
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This model has an architecture similar to Anderson's (1983, 1993) ACT model. An
added the ACT model Baddeley's (2009) working memory model. I have also added
Even though the above models are very useful in understanding information flow
and comprehension throughout the human information processing system, I believe that
they are insufficient to completely explain comprehension because these models treat
I added cognitive and metacognitive strategies to the above models, indicating the active
role that learners play in the comprehension process. This modified model includes
listening strategies at both the architectural level and the comprehension level. I named
strategies at the architectural level transfer strategies and I named strategies at the
move the information between the various components of the system and comprehension
strategies help the listener construct the textbase and the situation model.
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strategies mentioned by Wenden (1991). However, Figure 13 includes only those
strategies that my research participants actually used. The strategies that are included in
this model are an aggregation of data that I compiled during my research. As is shown,
the learners used attentional strategies, rehearsal strategies, elaboration strategies, and
Even though the diagram in Figure 13 describes the flow of information and the
way in which listening strategies interact with that flow of information, it does not
Comprehension Model. The comprehension process, which I have taken from Kintsch's
work (1998), happens in working memory at the same time that information is flowing
confirmed my supposition: that Tunisian EFL learners use transfer strategies to move
discovered that they use comprehension strategies during the comprehension process.
Therefore, in the same way that Figure 13 diagrams the way in which transfer strategies
aid the flow of information throughout the human information processing system, Figure
14 diagrams the way in which comprehension strategies aid the comprehension process.
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Long-Term Memory
Association
Guessing
Situation
Model
Proposition
Network Textbase
Working
Memory
Task Text
Focus Focus
Guessing
The Task
The Text
Internal Lexicon
Figure 14. A modified diagram of the construction phase of the C-I model, including
actual strategy use from findings.
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As is shown in Figure 14, comprehension occurs when aural information from the
sensory registers has been moved into working memory, identified based on the internal
lexicon, and combined with a situation model that has been activated in long-term
memory. These two entities, the textbase and the situation model, are constructed into a
however, the integration phase, at which time a spreading activation process occurs to
stabilize the network, is not depicted. This figure includes four main comprehension
My research has shown Tunisian EFL learners actively use transfer strategies
while processing the aural information and also use comprehension strategies during the
comprehension process. Although these two processes occur simultaneously in the mind,
I will discuss these two processes separately, discussing the functions that these listening
strategies perform and the way in which the participants of my research use these
Comprehension Model. This role facilitates the flow of information throughout the
human information system, depicted in Figure 13, and also facilitates the construction of
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The Function of Listening Strategies in the Information-Processing System
In Chapter 2, I discussed the four processes that occur while information flows
Recycling, Retrieval, and Storage. Table 3, shown in Chapter 2, listed these four
processes, the cognitive function where these processes occur, and the strategy sets that
are used during each cognitive process. In Table 21, I have reproduced Table 3 along
with the display in the last column of the aggregate data that summarize my findings.
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Table 21
According to Oxford (1990) and Wenden (1991), each strategy set should contain
a number of strategies. However, many of the participants in my research had only one
or two strategies for each strategy set and some strategies were completely missing.
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Notably I did not encounter any strategies related to the analyzing/reasoning strategy set
or strategies related to the translating/transferring strategy set. These two strategy sets
utilize the listener's native language to process information. Although I am not certain
about the reasons that the participants did not use strategies corresponding to these two
strategy sets, I assume that they have been taught that they should understand an oral text
Even though many of the participants in my research used only one or two
strategies for each strategy set, the results indicated that Tunisian EFL learners use
listening strategies to facilitate the cognitive processes that Wenden has mentioned (1991,
pp. 20-22) and, therefore, suggesting that listening strategies are an integral part of the
each strategy set (Chapter 2, Table 3), my research showed that my participants used far
less than what other researchers have indicated is normal. I use the term strategic
unboundedness when listeners use a large amount of strategies for each strategy set.
Therefore, if these listeners are unable to use one particular strategy when they are
listening, they normally have other strategies that they can use. However, many of my
participants did not demonstrate strategic unboundedness during my research, but the
screwdrivers, hammers, saws, planes, etc. Because this carpenter has a range of different
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tools, he is able to use the right tool for the right job, for example using a small
screwdriver for a small screw and a large screwdriver for a large screw. This carpenter
has built up his tools over a number of years and is able to successfully take on any
situation with the right tool. An analogy to strategic boundedness is a novice carpenter
who only has a few tools with which to work on his project. He might not have a Phillips
screwdriver and he will try to screw a Phillips screw into the wood with a flat
screwdriver. Or, he may not have a screwdriver so he tries a hammer. Because of the
novice carpenter's lack of tools, he limits himself to very simple projects that he is
familiar with and he knows he can complete successfully. If he attempts a more difficult
project, he will have a difficult time, because of his lack of expertise and his lack of the
correct tools.
boundedness. Therefore, like the novice carpenter using only a very limited number of
tools, the participants in my research only used one or two strategies for each of the
cognitive functions. I would assume that they did not use other strategies because they
were not familiar with them, or did not have enough practice using them. Because of
their use of a very limited number of strategies, they were not able to switch to a
different, more effective strategy when their primary strategy was not effective.
strategies is to plan which strategies the listener should use, monitor the way the listener
uses strategies, and to verify that strategies have helped the listener to obtain correct
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information. Three metacognitive strategies were used by the participants of my
planning strategy that helped the participants to decide on which information to focus.
Abir, gives a description of this strategy: I read the task to know what information I
needed to find and then I tried to concentrate on that information in the text. Another
connect the information they focused on with the information required for the task. This
strategy was mentioned either explicitly or implicitly by most of the participants during
the individual interviews. Ahlem, a research participant, said, I listened for words that
answered the questions in the task. Basam, also mentioned his use of a matching
strategy: For the [difficult] task I needed to take. . . information from my notes that
corresponds to the missing information from the task and fill that information in the
strategy, Checking Information, to be certain that she had successfully completed the
task. She said, When I have a blank piece of paper, I can write down answers and then
review them and write the correct answers down on the task.
throughout the human information processing system, cognitive strategies were also used
to help transfer information throughout this system during the four cognitive processes
(Wenden, 1991). These cognitive processes are: reception, recycling, retrieval, and
storage.
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The cognitive strategy that the participants used to aid the reception process was
focus. This strategy was used during the reception process to bring to the awareness of
the cognitive attentional system the sounds detected by the auditory sensory registers. As
auditory stream so that information can be moved into working memory. Without this
attentional system, the aural stream is only noise. All the participants used a focus
strategy.
Even though all the participants used focus as a reception strategy, each one used
it differently. Some tried to focus on every word. Others tried to focus on important
information. There were also some who tried to use the task as a filter for the text. Based
on the questions of the task, these participants would focus on specific parts of the text
and ignore other parts of the text. The participants used focus for both the easy and the
difficult texts.
Below are two descriptions of the way in which Mounir used focus for both easy
these numbers require some concentration. The first activity was a bit easy. The
focus was mainly on dates. The second activity was easy but it required more
concentration. The first was easy because it only required circling information.
The second was more difficult. . . .But with a little concentration, the second is
OK.
Thus he thought that the more difficult parts of the text and the task required more focus
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than the easier parts.
Not only did Mounir consider focus important for easy texts, he also found it
important for difficult texts. He said, In order to complete the task I had to concentrate
on what I heard. For example, when she says, 'I'm going to give you an example,' I open
my mind and I try to concentrate more. . . .I need to concentrate on the examples that she
gives and get the main ideas from these examples. Like Mounir, the participants in the
individual interviews focused on various aspects of the text and they used Focus to
concentrate on information they thought would help them understand the text and
complete the task. Mounir extracted the main idea from the examples in the text and
After the auditory signal has been attended to, the information focused on is
stored temporarily in working memory during the recycling process while awaiting
information can be held in working memory and information stored there begins to
deteriorate very quickly. One cognitive strategy, Memorization, was used by some of the
participants to repeat or rehearse the information in the Phonological Loop until it had
memorization strategy when he said, I have memorized [the speaker's] idea and the
context. I want to copy her speech word for word and I want to write the right answer.
memory, another strategy, Note-taking, was also used by some participants to help
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rehearsal strategy and wrote down every word that they could hear on a piece of paper,
without changing the words in any way. After they wrote everything down, they would
read the task and try to match the information they needed with the information that they
had written down. Basam describes his use of this strategy: Taking notes is very helpful
because it allows you to record information so you don't have to keep all of it in your
head. [For this task] I needed to take notes on the whole text and then take information
from my notes that corresponds to the missing information from the task and fill that
were used in the retrieval and storage processes. For example, Abir said during an
individual interview: I looked at the pictures which gave me the topic and then I
matched the text with the picture. Thus, she used an association strategy during the
retrieval process. In her case the picture she saw triggered an associated topic in her
long-term memory. She used this topic to help her complete the task. Houda also used
she had heard. The topic of the text she listened to was about the origin of some English
words. At the end of the text the speaker said, I hope I've stimulated your curiosity to
find out more about the origins of your favorite English words. In response Houda says,
He did stimulate me to know the origin of some of my favorite English words. Thus
she had associated her favorite English words with the speaker said about their origins
and then she had stored this combined information in her long-term memory.
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In addition to an association strategy, many participants used another cognitive
strategy, Guessing, even though no one reported using this strategy. Salah's use of this
strategy demonstrates how it can be used during the retrieval process. During a think-aloud
protocol, Salah heard the following segment from an oral text, We live on the water planet.
Our world is made up of 75 percent water, and without water, there would be no life on earth.
The atmosphere is not the only part of our environment that is in danger. To this Salah
responded, Now a man is speaking about the water as the most important thing of life. Even
though the segment does not say that water is the most important thing in life, Salah used a
guessing strategy to make the correct assumption that this is a main idea of the segment.
During his use of a guessing strategy, he first retrieved relevant information about the
importance of water to sustain life from his long-term memory. Then he combined it with the
information in working memory about the segment to reach the inference that the speaker is
Salah was not the only research participant to use a guessing strategy. Basam
provided another example of a guessing strategy. However, unlike Salah who used a
guessing strategy to retrieve information from long-term memory, Basam used this
guessing strategy to help him store information to long-term memory while he was
listening to a segment from a think-aloud protocol. For brevity I have included only the
end of the segment, the part that relates to Basam's response. The speaker said, Many
people work hard for the simple reason that they enjoy it! For many Americans, their
work gives them an identity, meaning they say, . . . 'I'm a something.' Basam responded
to this segment by saying, I was thinking about jobs in general and how men should get
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jobs whatever its nature (hard or easy). Basam used a guessing strategy to assume that
the speaker is talking about jobs. He then stored this information in his long-term
memory and pondered the importance of people having a job. Even though, Basam's
assumption of the meaning of the segment is wrong, his guessing strategy has still helped
Only one participant, Samia, used the cognitive strategy Paraphrasing. During an
individual interview she said this about the strategy, I try to paraphrase it in my own
way. . . . I try to get another word that means the same thing. This strategy helped her
during the retrieval process to redefine words in the text that she did not understand with
words that she had stored in her long-term memory. It then seems that she was able to
associate the new word with a similar word she had previously stored in long-term
Another cognitive strategy, Listening Many Times, was also used during the
retrieval process by many of my research participants. It was used during the individual
interviews as a practice strategy to help them acquire information they had previously
stored in long-term memory. They used this strategy as a way of repeating the
information may times until they were able to activate relevant information in long-term
memory and retrieve that information from long-term memory for use in the
Many Times strategy. He said, When I listen the second time the ideas become clearer
because I am familiar with the ideas and I can concentrate on the unfamiliar words
more. Salah also described this strategy: The first time you don't understand what is
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going on in the text. The more times you listen to a text, the more information you get
out of the text, and the more of the task you will be able to complete.
interview, Dhakra explained the difference between the two in this way, If I had the
background knowledge for this subject, I wouldn't have needed to listen to it more than
once. However, without the background knowledge, I need to listen to it more than once
so that I can better understand the text and successfully complete the task. Therefore,
when listeners are unable to link background knowledge with information from the text, a
Note-taking was another strategy that was used during the individual interviews
by most of the participants. This strategy was used during the retrieval process to
summarize or elaborate what they had understood from the text. Summarization or
elaboration was the way that most of my participants used the note-taking strategy.
Using it in this way was different from the few who used it during the recycling process
the text and identify important information in the text. She said, I can summarize the
text and write down the important words. However, once it was used by Fatma as a
grouping strategy to put like items together. She said, I divided my blank paper into two
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columns and I put what Mark said on one side and what Doris said on the other side. . . . I
task during the individual interviews, is an imagery strategy I called Picture Matching.
Ahmed described his use of this strategy during the retrieval process: I listened to the
words that they said and I matched up the words with the pictures in the task. Zohra
was another research participant who used Picture Matching during the comprehension
process. Describing her use of this strategy, she said, I used the pictures to help me
understand what [the speakers] are talking about. So I matched the description with the
picture. Six of the eight participants who had a visual task reported using only a
matching strategy, matching the picture with the lexical information from the oral text. In
addition to a matching strategy, the other two used an association strategy, which they
said helped them understand the text. None of the participants mentioned using any other
strategies, including Focus, while completing a visual task. For example, Houda said: I
didn't have to focus too much on the text because all I needed to do was match the
description with the pictures. I was comfortable and relaxed with this task.
The findings from my research indicate that during the individual interviews
visual tasks affected the participants understanding of a text differently than written tasks.
These findings suggest that Baddeley's (2009) working memory model accurately depicts
the process that the participants used. When the participants completed a visual task,
they used a matching strategy to match the picture with information from the auditory
stream. This strategy is used to transfer pictures to the Visuospatial Sketchpad where the
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pictures are associated with relevant information in long-term memory. This information
is then combined with the lexical information in the Episodic Buffer to comprehend the
text. During my research, this strategy was used during both the recycling process and
When the participants completed a written task, they first focused on information
in the auditory stream; second, some of them used a repetition strategy to maintain the
information in the Phonological Loop; third, they all used other strategies like note-
taking and guessing to elaborate on the information, which they had stored; and finally
some of them used association strategies to combine information from working memory
In this section, I have discussed the way in which the participants used cognitive
system. Some metacognitive strategies were also used to plan, monitor, and check the
way in which this information moved throughout the system. In order for the above
strategies is needed at both the architectural level and the comprehension level.
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The Function of Listening Strategies in the Comprehension Process
Up to this point, I have discussed the use of listening strategies in the human
information processing system, based on Anderson's (1983, 1993) ACT model and
Baddeley's (2009) working memory model. This system discusses information moving
throughout memory; however, this system does not treat the comprehension process. In
words and meaning attached to the words. This is the comprehension aspect of the
Integration model. In the same way that transfer strategies aided my participants in the
comprehension process.
subdivided the focus strategies into Task Focus and Text Focus. The participants used
Task Focus to concentrate on the task and used Text Focus to concentrate on various parts
of the text. Often Task Focus and Text Focus strategies were used together. During the
individual interviews, Nourzed and Zohra explained their use of these two strategies.
Nourzed said, I read the task first then I listened to the text and I concentrated on what I
needed to complete the task. Zohra agreed, First, I read the questions so I know what
information I am looking for. Then I listen for information which answers the questions
in the task. The participants used these focus strategies to help construct a textbase. In
addition to the general text strategies that Nourzed and Zohra talked about above, some
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of the participants used two specific types of text focus strategies during the
comprehension process: Specific Word Focus and Segment End Focus. While these
participants used these two specific types of strategies, they also referenced their internal
lexicon to try to understand specific words from the text. The participants used a
guessing strategy to infer the meaning of various parts of the text, which were not clear.
The participants used information from the task, the text, and the internal lexicon to help
Not only did the participants use strategies to help create a textbase, they also
used them to create a situation model. The participants used an association strategy to
help them link activated information from long-term memory to the situation model.
They also used a guessing strategy to help them infer associations that were not activated
in their long-term memory as well as to add extra information which they deduced was
an example of Specific Word Focus, taken from the text Airline Reservations. One
ooh you're not/(.25) uh let's seeee(.75) what's the/(.80) that's the 8th of
A: Well, I'm going to give you prices on both/(.90) if you stay over and if you
don't
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As discussed in Chapter 2, there is a particular rhythm to the speech of English. Pauses
in English usually mark the end of an information unit and each information unit will
have at least one strongly stressed syllable. This prominent syllable marks important
information. English listeners focus on these prominent syllables and map them to the
prominent syllables in the speech. The slash (/) indicates a pause in the speech. This also
indicates the end of an information unit. After the slash is the amount of time (in
seconds) that the pause lasted. In the text from which this segment is taken, a woman is
calling a travel agency to make airline reservations. In this specific segment, the travel
agent is lengthening the ends of some words, making an even longer pause. I added
multiple letters to indicate this. After the lengthened sound is the amount of time (in
segment above, they would use a type of text focus, which I call Rhythm Focus, to focus
on the prominent syllables. These syllables, indicated in bold-type, would indicate the
important words. From these words, the native English speaker would be able to
understand that the airline flight is on United Airlines. From the long pauses, the
repetition of information, and the hesitancy of the travel agent, the native English listener
would also understand that there is a problem. From the phrase ooh you're not..., from
what the customer says, I could if it saves money, and also from the response of the
travel agent, the native English listener would understand an inference: the price was very
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expensive for the dates for which she asked, but she is willing to change the dates if it
will save her money. The native English listener would also understand that the travel
agent will give the customer both prices, the expensive price and the cheap price, and let
her decide. All this information is understood by the pauses, the intonation, and the 17
strategy as I have described above, they used two different text focus strategies: Clear
Word Focus and Segment End Focus. When the participants used a Clear Word Focus
strategy, they focused on words that were clear to them and tried to understand the
segment based on those words. For example, after listening to the segment above, Salah
used Clear Word Focus when he said, The man is giving her more information, giving
her the price and asking her about the date. He understood three pieces of information.
First, the man is giving her more information. Second, a piece of information that he is
giving her is the price [of the ticket]. Third, he is asking her about the date [of the flight].
The words United Airlines, fare, and 8th of September are the clearest words in the
segment. In addition there are long pauses after fare, and prices on both which
would help him to focus on those words. The other words in the segment are not as clear.
From Salah's use of Clear Word Focus, he understood that the man and the woman were
talking about prices and dates, thus misunderstanding the man and woman's discussion.
I think that the participants used Clear Word Focus, instead of Rhythm Focus,
because they were using a language-specific strategy that they had learned from using
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Therefore, Clear Word Focus would be appropriate for a syllable-timed language, such as
timed language. This inappropriateness of Clear Word Focus is evident because the
participants were never able to completely understand a segment by using this strategy,
even though it was used 55 times by four participants during the think-aloud protocols.
Therefore, when the participants in my research used a Clear Word Focus strategy, they
were unable to completely understand a text and they often misunderstood the text.
In addition to using Clear Word Focus, they also used another language-specific
strategy, Segment End Focus. Even though this strategy was used only 18 times, it did
not result in the participants being able to understand oral English texts. Ahlem is one of
the four participants who used this strategy. An example on one segment from the oral
And a third reason which is related to the previous one the one I just mentioned
is that a lot of people work hard to keep a job that gives them benefits//(1.0) By
paid for by the government so people are protected even if they lose their jobs//
The above segment has three information units. Each of these has a one second
pause after it. The third group also has a 0.50 second pause in the middle of it. The first
information group has six strongly stressed words, the second has five, and the third has
six. Thus, for a native English speaker, this information can be stored in memory with no
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trouble. However, for a Tunisian EFL learner using Clear Word Focus, the working
memory becomes overloaded. For example, Ahlem, replied to this segment, In Europe
they have protection even if they lose their jobs. But in America they work hard because
their salary is paid by their company not by the government. She uses Clear Word
Focus to concentrate on the clear word protected and possibly she hears benefits.
However, because of the length of the segment, she cannot focus on any other clear
words. Instead, she uses Segment End Focus to identify the phrase lose their jobs from
the end of the segment. Even though Clear Word Focus does not help her to understand
the segment, her use of Segment End Focus helps her mostly understand the last
In addition to Clear Word Focus and Segment End Focus, Ahlem also uses
Guessing to infer the meaning of the segment based on words that she has heard. For
example, she seems to have heard the clear word benefits from earlier in the segment.
However, she does not understand the word benefits and she did not focus on the
meaning given in the segment. Instead, it seems she used her internal lexicon to link the
word benefit with a word in her lexicon, salary. She produces the second sentence
by incorrectly recognizing the meaning of the word benefits, which is not correct. In
addition, it seems she understands from the segment that salaries in Europe are paid for
by the government, but in the United States, they are paid for by companies;
understand the segment. All the elements of comprehension are present: recognizing
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words, mapping recognized words to her internal lexicon, guessing the meaning of
unknown words, and combining recognized words with other knowledge in long-term
memory to produce a meaning for the words. The result of this process is the textbase
with which the situation model is later combined. Unfortunately, the textbase that Ahlem
Ahlem was not alone in misunderstanding the meaning of words in the text;
Salah, also incorrectly guessed the meaning of at least one word in a segment taken from
I: Great/(.75)
In this segment, a woman is asking a man about the night market in Malaysia. It is
talking about buying leather goods, including belts and shoes, at the night market.
However, Salah did not mention this at all. Instead, he said, He said that he bought
some nice bargains, I think. The man in the segment does not mention bargains at all.
Therefore, it seems the participant misheard the word, belt, in the segment and drew a
wrong conclusion about the meaning of the segment based on the misheard word.
Therefore, instead of understanding that someone can buy good quality leather goods at
the night market, he assumes the man said that he bought some good bargains at the night
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market, which the man did not say. This shows that the strategy that Salah used for
identifying the meaning of the word led to his misunderstanding the segment. This
misunderstanding of a word could be because Salah was unfamiliar with the word, or
with how the word was pronounced and, therefore, the correct word did not exist in his
internal lexicon. It also could be that the context was unfamiliar and that his guessing
the textbase has been combined with a situation model. In the same way that strategies
are used to form the textbase, strategies are also used to help form a situation model.
This is a crucial aspect of the comprehension process because it helps learners fill in
missing information from the textbase. If an appropriate situation model is chosen, much
of the information in the textbase is already known, making it easier for learners to
concentrate on new information. If there is no situation model for a textbase, they must
focus more on the text. If an inappropriate situation model is chosen, it is very likely that
Based on the findings, and on the research (Cook, 2001; Hagtvet, 2003; Tyler,
2001) it seems that the participants do not have the same ability as native English
listeners to focus on all the important information in an oral text. Therefore, it is even
more important for them to choose an appropriate situation model to make the listening
research had an appropriate or semi-appropriate situation model only 13% of the time
and 25% of the time they had no situation model. Even worse, they used an
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inappropriate or incomplete situation model 62% of the time. Consequently, when the
participants did not choose an appropriate situation model, they often either did not
situation model into the developing propositional network: Guessing and Association.
Below I show the way in which a participant in my research, Salah, used these two
strategies to help him link a situation model with the textbase, first unsuccessfully and
M: At the night market you bargain for prices/(.35) the seller tells you one
price/(.30) then you offer a lower price/(.40) he lowers his price a bit/(.35)
then you raise your price/(.45) if you can agree on a good price/(.20) you
His response to this segment clearly indicates that he has misunderstood the segment. He
The woman asked if all the prices in the night market were cheap. He said
that the first time you buy something for a high price but the second time
they will give you sort of a promotion to the client to buy something else
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It seems that Salah's misunderstanding stems from linking an inappropriate situation
model to the textbase that he has created. He correctly understood the woman's question,
but he completely misunderstood the man's response. The pause between the woman's
question is long enough for the participant to be able to understand the woman's question,
but the man's response is too long for the participant and contains only short pauses.
These pauses are enough for a native English listener to focus on the important words,
but not enough for this Tunisian EFL learner, who is using Clear Word Focus. Salah
probably hears some isolated words such as raise, lower, good price, and buy,
but he is unable to use his guessing strategy to make any meaning from these words.
Salah should be able to link a correct situation model with the textbase since the
topic, bargaining, is commonly practiced in Tunisia. However, it appears that he has not
heard the word bargain but instead heard about high and low prices. He has used a
guessing strategy to assume that the topic is about buyers and sellers instead of about
bargaining. After guessing the topic, he uses an association strategy to link his
background information about buyers and sellers to the text. Based on the results of these
corresponds to what Salah says in his reply to the text. In this situation, when a person
goes to a shop for the first time, he may get a higher price because the shop owner does
not know him. However, after he buys something once, he becomes a client and the next
time he buys something from that same shop, he is known by the owner and will get a
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lower price. Thus, the situation model guided Salah into comprehending the text when
the textbase that he had created was too vague. Unfortunately, the situation model he
used was not appropriate for the segment and so he misunderstood the segment.
On the other hand, while listening to a segment from another text, shown below,
what can we do about this problem//(.60) well/(.35) there are several things that can
help to reduce water pollution//(.95) laws must be created to limit the dumping of
dangerous materials into our waters//(.50) and factories must be forced to pay very
high fines for breaking these laws//(1.0) in addition/(.40) governments must spend
The segment above is taken from the oral text, Earth Day and Environmental Problems.
In this text, a woman is giving a lecture about various environmental problems. After
listening to the extract, Salah replied with the following statement, He gives us the steps
to take in order to face this problem. Government decision. Like other segments we
have seen, this segment contains many words (64 of them). But less than half of them
Salah was only able to focus on a few of the words in the above segment. It is
clear he was able to correctly focus on the words problem and government, and
correctly link them with a meaning from his internal lexicon; he may have understood a
few other words as well. His reply clearly indicates he did not understand all the words
of the segment, and he incorrectly uses the word decision instead of action.
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Nevertheless, from the words that he understood, he correctly guesses the topic and
situation model, Steps to Take to Solve the Problem (of Water Pollution) with the
textbase. Thus, the situation model he used helped him supplement his inability to
identify all the important words from the segment and helped him partially understand
the segment.
are important in order to comprehend an oral text, showing that the participants' use of
comprehension strategies, such as Focus, Guessing, and Association, helped them in the
out that Tunisian EFL learners use transfer strategies to help move information
throughout the human information-processing system; therefore, they are a vital part of
the system. The participants' use of listening strategies gives evidence to suggest that
orchestrated a cluster of strategies from each of the strategy sets so that comprehension
examining the strategies of those participants who completed tasks associated with easy
texts and the strategies of those participants who completed tasks associated with difficult
texts. As I examine the strategy orchestration of these participants, I examine both their
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successful completion of these tasks and their unsuccessful completion of these tasks, and
I consider the listening obstacles that they encountered while they listened to the texts.
The results of my research showed that the participants used different strategies
depending on the type of text to which they listened, indicating that these learners are
active in the listening comprehension process. In addition, they have a limited repertoire
of strategies they can successfully orchestrate together to understand easy texts and
successfully complete tasks associated with those texts. Because they use a limited
number of strategies, they often have a difficult time orchestrating their strategies
together when they listen to difficult texts and are often unsuccessful in understanding
understand the way in which the participants used listening strategies while they listened
participants in my research who listened to these types of texts. I chose to use easy texts
in my research because I assumed that listening obstacles, like the ones that I discussed in
Chapter 4, are not present. Thus, the vocabulary is known, the speech is slower, there are
longer pauses between information units, and the text is shorter. In addition, I expected
these texts to be below the participants' comprehension ability. Some of the tasks were
visual and some were written. Because I assumed that the participants would not
encounter obstacles while they listened to the easy text, I also assumed that they would
use a larger range of strategies and would be better able to orchestrate their strategy use
246
than when they listened to the difficult texts. Therefore, I was interested to examine
whether the participants used the same collection of strategies when they listened to easy
I discovered that the participants used very few listening strategies when they
listened to easy texts. The majority, 60%, were also able to successfully complete the
task. However, more of them successfully completed the visual task than successfully
completed the written task, 86% versus 47%. Therefore, my initial assumption that they
would use more strategies was wrong. However, my assumption that they would
encounter very few obstacles, was correct. In addition, I assumed, incorrectly, from the
outset that almost all of the participants would successfully complete both the written
successfully completed the task; both low and high proficiency students successfully
completed tasks, and both low and high proficiency students unsuccessfully completed
tasks. Discussed below are the participants' successful and unsuccessful use of strategies
and how the participants' success and lack of success compares with the Cognitive
Written tasks associated with easy texts were successfully completed by 47% of
the participants in my research. Except for one high proficiency participant, all of the
participants had a medium proficiency. Of the participants who were successful, all of
them except one used three strategies together: Reading the Task, Focus, and Matching.
Two of these strategies that the participants used, Reading the Task and Matching, were
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metacognitive strategies and only one, Focus, was a cognitive strategy. Only one
successfully complete the task, focusing only on the important words in the text. No one
Apparently, combining the information with information from long-term memory through
elaboration was not necessary because these texts were easy, the topics of the texts were
well known, the vocabulary was familiar, and the task was simple. In addition, no one
encountered any listening obstacles while they listened to the text or completed the task.
Except for one, all of the participants, who were assigned visual tasks, completed
participants associated information in their long-term memory with the visual task, giving
them additional support in successfully completing the tasks. The participants used a
focus strategy with the written tasks, but not with the visual tasks. This agrees with
Baddeley's (2009) working memory model that focus, an attentional strategy related to
the sensory registers and the central executive, is not needed with visual information.
From the results of the participants who completed written tasks associated with
easy texts, I concluded the following. If a text was below the participants'
comprehension ability and when they did not encounter any obstacles, they used only a
monitoring strategy. These strategies help move lexical information into the
participants encountered an easy text that has a visual task associated with it, they used a
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much different strategy, Picture Matching which moves visuals information into the
easy task, I now consider those participants who were unable to complete an easy task
associated with an easy text. Of these, the overwhelming majority, were unable to
successfully complete a written task associated with an easy text. Table 22 displays the
listening strategies that were used by the research participants and the listening obstacles
that they encountered completing written tasks associated with easy oral texts.
Table 22
Unsuccessful Participants' Listening Strategy Use for Written Tasks Associated with Easy
As is evident from the table, all of the participants who unsuccessfully completed
the written tasks associated with the easy texts used the same strategies as those who
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successfully completed them. Therefore, the difference was the listening obstacles that
the participants encountered, not in their strategy use. Those participants who were
unable to successfully complete a written task associated with an easy text encountered
three main obstacles: a fast text and a long task, as well as an inability to listen and write
at the same time. These obstacles seemed to prevent these participants from effectively
In addition, there is an indication that these participants are strategically bound because
they did not change their strategy use, using exactly the same strategies when they did not
An examination of strategy use for difficult oral texts. I now examine the
strategies that participants used to complete tasks associated with difficult texts. I used
difficult texts for this research project because I expected these texts to be above the
participants' comprehension ability and I was interested to know the extent to which their
strategy use would be affected with obstacles they would encounter, such as unknown
vocabulary, fast speech, long information units, and short pauses between information
units. I was also interested to know the difference between their strategy use for easy
variety of listening strategies when they listened to difficult texts than when they listened
to easy texts. Their strategy use with more difficult texts also corresponded to the
cognitive functions that Wenden (1991) mentioned. In addition, they were able to
orchestrate their strategies to a certain extent to help them understand difficult texts when
250
they encountered only a few listening obstacles, or if the obstacles they encountered did
not impede their strategy use. However, when they encountered an impeding obstacle or
many different obstacles, they are unable to use their normal listening strategies, affecting
their ability to understand the text. The findings indicate that the strategies most
oral texts, I begin with those participants who were able to successfully complete task
associated with difficult oral texts. Table 23 displays those participants who successfully
Table 23
As is shown in the above table, all of the participants, except one, had moderate
proficiency. The strategy cluster used by the majority of the participants was: Reading
the Task, Focus, Note-Taking, Listening Many Times, and Matching. All the participants
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used an attentional strategy, Focus, an elaboration strategy, Note-Taking, and a practice
strategy, Listening Many Times. It seems that they were also able to use their focus
strategy to retain the information until it had been comprehended. Therefore, with these
cognitive strategies they were able to obtain information from the aural stream, retrieve
relevant information from long-term memory, retain the information in working memory
until it had been comprehended, and store new information back into long-term memory
with note-taking. By using these various strategies, they used strategies for all of the
cognitive processes except for recycling, which occurs in the Phonological Loop.
In addition to the cognitive strategies mentioned above, they all used two
metacognitive strategies: Reading the Task and Matching. These two strategies helped
them develop a plan for listening. It also helped them ensure that they listened to the
correct information so that they could complete the task. In addition to the other two
metacognitive strategies, the low proficiency participant also used Checking Information,
which helped her verify that she had answered the task correctly. Interestingly, the
participants were able to use the above strategies successfully even though they
encountered various obstacles while they listened to the texts. The participants reported
the following listening obstacles: fast text speed, a long text, and a long or difficult task.
Two individuals also reported two other obstacles: the inability to listen and write
By comparing the participants use of listening strategies with the easy texts and
with the difficult texts, it seems that they used a greater range of strategies with the
difficult texts than they did with the easy texts. Therefore, it seems that when the text is
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easy and there are no listening obstacles, the participants did not need to use a large
number of listening strategies to aid the information processing system. However, when
the text was more difficult and there were more listening obstacles, they needed to use
Even though the results of my research show that the participants could use more
listening strategies to help them understand difficult texts, it is surprising that only 33%
of the participants were able to successfully complete tasks associated with difficult texts
and no high proficiency participants were able to successfully complete tasks associated
with difficult texts. Therefore, I now examine the strategy use of those participants who
were not successful in completing tasks associated with difficult texts to discover how
their strategy use, and the obstacles they encountered, were different from those
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Table 24
The information in brackets was mentioned by only one participant. Even though I
discovered that the high-proficiency participants did not perform any better on the task
than the medium- or low-proficiency participants. This is evident from Table 24. As I
previously discussed, this table shows that even though the high-proficiency participants
used the same strategies and encountered similar obstacles as the medium-proficiency
task but none of the high-proficiency participants were able to complete the task.
Part of the reason for the high-proficiency participants lack of success may have
been because many of them were given partially completed notes to complete. They
were totally unfamiliar with this type of task and this type of western note-taking is
different from the way that Tunisians take notes. However, this is only a partial answer
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because three medium-proficiency participants also had this type of task and two of these
three participants were able to complete the task successfully. I think that the rest of the
explanation to their poor performance is that they were so overwhelmed by the fast speed
of the text that they were unable to effectively focus on the text or take notes based on the
text, even though they reported that they had used a focus strategy and a note-taking
strategy.
I now present some comments from the high-proficiency participants, which seem
to corroborate my belief that the fast text completely incapacitated their strategy use.
First, Samir says this about the difficult text to which he listened: My brain isn't going as
fast as she is speaking. I can't write as fast as she can talk. So I miss information
because when I am trying to right down one point, she is on to the next point, which I
can't concentrate on. Another participant, Dhakra, also agrees with Samir. She said, I
tried to concentrate on specific words in the text to complete the task. It worked for the
[easy] task because the words were spoken slowly in the text and I could understand
them. However, in this [difficult] text the words were spoken too fast and there were too
many unknown words which kept me from successfully completing the task. Finally, I
have included a short comment from Houda who says, I can't catch all the information at
the same time. I can't hear and focus and write all at the same time. These three
comments from these three high-proficiency participants give an indication that even
though they reported that they used a focus strategy and a note-taking strategy, they
actually had difficulty focusing on the important information; additionally, they were
unable to take notes on the important information because of the speed of the text and
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their lack of focus.
participants. However, only one of the four used a note-taking strategy. It seems that
they decided not to take notes because they had a hard time listening and writing at the
same time with the difficult texts; therefore, they stressed a focus strategy instead of a
strategy when they listened to a text. This strategy is an elaboration strategy, because
they did not have this key strategy they were not able to identify patterns in the data, to
make associations, and to combine what they had heard with information from long-term
memory to aid comprehension. Listening Many Times was another strategy they
reported using, but which did not seem to help them. Fore example, when I asked Ahlem
if the Listening Many Times strategy helped her she said, Not really. I don't understand
what the text is talking about. Usually it helps me but this time it didn't help me. The
speech was too fast. Finally, even though they said they used a focus strategy, it seemed
that the text was too fast and so, like the high-proficiency participants, they were unable
to focus on the important information in the text. For example, when I asked Saoussen if
she was able to focus on the text, she said, No. The speaker had a British accent and I
had a hard time understanding that accent. The text was too fast.
I finally discuss the reasons that the low-proficiency participants were unable to
complete the difficult text successfully. The successful low-proficiency participants did
not report encountering any listening obstacles. However, the unsuccessful low-
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proficiency participants reported many listening obstacles. It seems that these obstacles
affected their strategy use, especially Note-Taking, which was not reported by them at all.
The obstacles that these two low-proficiency participants reported was a fast text, an
unclear text, and a long text. About the text, Nourzed said, I wasn't able to concentrate.
I found it difficult. The vocabulary was simple. But the text was too long. Sheima
agrees with Nourzed when she says, I couldn't concentrate because it was too long. In
addition, Sheima cited a long task with too many questions and the difficulty of writing
down answers while listening to the text. Therefore, it seems that the major obstacles of
a fast text and a long task, as well as difficulty in writing and listening simultaneously,
prevented these two participants from using their focus strategy which may have helped
them successfully complete the difficult texts. They also had no elaboration strategy, an
important factor in not being able to successfully complete the task. In contrast, the one
low-proficiency participants who successfully completed the task associated with the
difficult text reported using a large amount of different strategies that helped each
checking strategy which helped her ensure that she had correctly answered the questions
in the task.
that the participants did have a range of strategies that allowed information to flow
throughout the human information-processing system. However, the findings also show
that these learners are not always able to successfully understand oral English
transactional texts, even with a range of strategies, because they encounter obstacles
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while they are listening to these texts. The major obstacles that I have discussed above
are: a fast text, a long text, and a long task. In addition, they were not able to listen and
write simultaneously. Furthermore, it seems that the listening obstacles they encountered
hindered or prevented them from using their listening strategies effectively. The
strategies that were most affected by the obstacles were Focus and Note-taking.
One strategy noticeably lacking from most of the participants' strategy clusters
was a metacognitive evaluation strategy. The one participant who used this strategy
benefited from it enormously. Some of the participants thought that they had successfully
completed a task and they were very surprised when they discovered that they had not
their performance on the tasks and their actual performance on the task, I believe that an
evaluation strategy, like Checking Information would have helped all of the participants
how successful they were in completing tasks associated with oral texts; high-proficiency
participants had more lack of success than medium-proficiency participants and a low-
proficiency were able to overcome the listening obstacles they faced and to orchestrate a
cluster of strategies well in the midst of the listening obstacles they encountered.
boundedness to be another important issue with regard to Tunisian EFL learners. All the
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participants reported very similar strategy use regardless of what type of texts or
obstacles they encountered. The amount of strategies was less with easy texts and more
with difficult texts, but there were not a wide variety of different strategies that I would
have expected and that other researchers, such as Oxford (1990), Wenden (1991),
O'Malley, and Chamot (1990), have cited. Therefore, they did not have other strategies to
use when they were prevented from using their usual strategy. This is an indication that
the participants had strategic boundedness. For example, Hatem and Mounir, performed
very well when listening to oral texts. Both of them used a note-taking strategy. They
were able to understand both easy texts and difficult texts. However, when I did not
allow them to take notes, they did not have any other elaboration strategy to replace it
and, therefore, they failed to understand the oral texts given to them. Furthermore, rather
than realizing that they lacked a listening strategy to replace the note-taking strategy, they
complained about the text or the task. Hatem complained that the task was bad and
Mounir said that he was unable to concentrate on the text and the text's topic was
confusing.
This chapter ends with the story of one participant, Basam. His story
appropriately summarizes the way in which other participants also approached texts and
tasks.
Like Hatam, Basam's way of listening intrigued me. However, Basam was
different from Hatem in proficiency: Hatem had a lower proficiency and Basam had a
higher proficiency. Like other research participants, I gave Basam both an easy text and
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a difficult text. No matter what type of text I gave him, he decided that the texts were
easy. However, sometimes he was successful in completing the task and sometimes he
was not.
For example, I gave Basam an easy text entitled, Strange and Unusual Things.
Two other participants also had this same text and had done poorly on the first part of the
task and had done better on the second part of the task. Although he did not think he did
very well on the task, he did better than the other two participants on this task, receiving
75% correct on the first part and 71% correct on the second part. When I asked him
about the text and the task, he said that they were easy: But you have to concentrate
because of some speed [of the text]. However, when I asked him if he had completed
the task, he said he had not completed it.: While you're concentrating on one sentence
[of the text], the next passes very quickly. So you can't concentrate on one piece of
that a fast text as well as his inability to listen and write at the same time were two
important obstacles that hindered him from completing the task. Even though he
encountered two obstacles while listening to the easy text, it seems that through his
strategy use, Reading the Task and Focus, he was able to overcome these obstacles,
As with the easy text, Basam thought that the difficult text was easy. When I
asked Basam the reason it was easy he said, There was only one person speaking. He
said the only difficult part of the text was that he did not have background knowledge of
the topic. When I asked him about his strategy for listening to the text and completing
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the task he only mentioned note-taking: I took notes on the important information from
the text and then I rewrote it in the task. Taking notes is very helpful because it allows
you to record information so you don't have to keep all of it in your head. He used note-
down definitions and key words from the text. What I think is important I write down
However, even though he was confident that he had done well on the task, the
correction of the task indicated that he had not understood the text, getting only 10% of
the task correct. Like half of the other research participants, there was a difference
between his perception and the indication from the correction of the task. However, it
seems that in Basam's case, maybe he did understand, but he did not know how to
reconcile the task requirements of an unfamiliar task with the notes he had taken while
listening to the text. The task itself, therefore, became an obstacle; Basam thinking he
had understood the text, but the assessment indicating that he had not understood the text.
Even though Basam had some difficulty with the tasks, he showed flexibility in
his strategy use between the easy text and the difficult text. He explained to me the way
his strategy use changed from the easy text to the difficult text: For the first task you
listen for specific information and then write down that information directly in the task.
However, for the second task I needed to take notes on the whole text and then take
information from my notes that corresponds to the missing information from the task and
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I was intrigued by Basam's performance on the two tasks I had given him and the
apparent disconnect between his perception and the indication from the corrected tasks.
Therefore, I decided to re-interview him, giving him other texts and observing how he
During the re-interview, the first text I gave him was a lecture entitled, Ethical
Decisions. This had a note-completion task very similar to the first difficult text to
which he previously listened. Although he did better than the first note-completion task,
In order to see if he was able to change his strategy use, as he did when I first
interviewed him, I did not allow him to take notes while he listened to the first text. I
also removed the normal pauses to make the text appear more difficult, trying to observe
if Basam would admit that the text was difficult. However, he did not change his
opinion. Similar to the first interview he said, It's easy because there's only one person
speaking in this text and she uses clear words and her language is very clear; the words
are simple and plain. But, it was obvious that he was confused by the task and initially
he did not write down anything on the task. I asked him if the problems he had writing
information on the task indicated that the task was difficult. However, he denied it,
saying that the task was easy. [The task is] easy because the text is easy. You just have
to memorize some information from the text and then you fill in the blanks that are in the
task.
This comment from Basam seems to identify the thinking of the research
participants; if the text is easy, the task is easy and if the text is difficult, the task is
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difficult. This attitude often caused the research participants to believe that they had
understood a text if they believed the text was easy, even if the corrected task indicated
that they had not understood the text. Conversely, if these participants believed that the
text was difficult, they thought that they had not understood the text and had done poorly
on the task, even if the corrected task had indicated they had understood the text.
Like the first interview, Basam changed his normal strategy use, since I did not
allow him to take notes. Instead of using a note-taking strategy, he used a memorization
strategy: First, you have to listen to each word that is said in the text - don't miss any
words. From all that information, your brain will remember the main ideas and the
important words in the text that you may use in the task. Complete the task using the
information that you remembered from the text. Thus, his description includes a focus
it did not seem that his strategy use was very effective. As I previously mentioned, he
got less than half of the task correct. When I asked him the reason for not doing well on
the task he said, When I listened to it the first time, I thought it was easy -- and it was
very easy. Because the way of speaking is clear everything is clear. But when you asked
me to answer the task I got a little bit confused. Then when I listened to the text the
second time I got [more] confused because I realized that I had put the information from
the second type in the third type and I couldn't find a way of correcting it. For this first
listening text, it seemed the task was the only obstacle that he encountered.
The second text I gave Basam during the re-interview was a discussion from the
radio entitled, Obesity. The task associated with this text was a table that was to be
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completed with details from the text. Like the three other participants who listened to
this text and completed the associated task, Basam did not do well on the task. In
Basam's case he got only 33% of the task correct. Basam thought the task was confusing.
He said the following about the task, I was confused by the task. Therefore, I didn't
know if I should take notes or not. I didn't know if I should complete the task or take
notes. I don't have time to take notes and complete the task at the same time. I think it's
In addition, instead of Basam saying that the text was easy, as he had with the
previous text, he said it was difficult and mentioned the obstacles he encountered that had
made the text difficult: The speaker spoke much faster than the previous speaker [from
the first text]. Also there were multiple speakers who intervened in the middle of the
difficult and more confusing. Thus he indicated that the text's speed and multiple
speakers were the two obstacles that prevented him from understanding the text. In
addition, even though I allowed him to listen to it three times, this did not help him to
understand it any better; thus, the obstacles prevented him from using his strategies to
Another interesting aspect was the confusing task and the difficult text causing
him to change his normal strategy use and implement a memorization strategy instead of
a note-taking strategy. I asked him why he did not use his normal note-taking strategy.
He replied, But you don't have time....If you do not have a task to complete, you can
take notes on the text. However if there is a task to complete, there is no time to take
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notes and also to complete the task. Furthermore, the task is more important so the task
used to replace his normal note-taking strategy, did not help him to understand the text
or complete the task successfully. Even though he said that a memorization strategy
could help a listener to complete the task very easily after listening the first time, he
admitted, I'm trying to concentrate on the missing words but I'm finding it a little bit
difficult because the missing words are [spoken too fast]. Even after listening to it three
times he said his strategies did not help him at all to understand the text.
The third text I gave Basam during the re-interview was a text entitled, On the
Job. This text was a conversation between a new employee and an employee who had
worked at the company for many years. Even though the text contained multiple
speakers, Basam found the text easy. The only obstacles he mentioned were a long text
and a long task. The task had two parts. The first part contained completion questions
focusing on the main ideas of the text. The second part was a table that was to be
completed with details from the text. Basam did well on the table, completing 83% of
the table correctly. However, he did poorly on the completion exercise, getting only 41%
correct.
The first time Basam listened to this text, he tried to answer the questions on the
task while listening to the text. However, because of the speed of the text, and listen-
write difficulties, he was unable to do this. The second time he listened to the text, he
changed his strategy and used a note-taking strategy instead of the memorization strategy
he used the first time. He found that the note-taking strategy worked better for him and
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he was able to complete the task better the second time than he was able to complete it
the first time. He listened to the text a third time and completed parts of the task that he
During both of the times that I interviewed Basam, he claimed that, in general, the
texts were easy. Out of five texts to which he listened, he only found one of them
difficult. In addition, he generally found the tasks easy, he only found difficulty with the
task associated with the second text during the re-interview. However, even though he
generally found both the texts and the task easy, he did poorly on almost all of the tasks.
Out of seven tasks, he only successfully completed two of them, a 29% successful
completion rate. The normal strategy cluster he successfully used was Reading the Task,
Focus, Listening Many Times, Note-taking, and Matching. The obstacles he encountered
during the listening process were a fast text, long text, a long task, and a confusing task.
In addition, he also encountered another obstacle, an inability to listen and write at the
same time.
text, it seemed that the obstacles only affected his ability to understand the text once.
However, the big obstacle Basam encountered was not the text and task obstacles
mentioned above but his inability to translate what he had understood into appropriate
task responses. The majority of the time he thought the text and the task were easy; but
the corrections of the task indicated that he had not understood the text. It seemed that
his goal was to complete the task, whether or not he completed it correctly. During the
re-interview I asked him about this, but he did not seem to have an appropriate answer.
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The answer he gave had to do with his concentration, not his completion of the task: I
see that my concentration is gradual. It starts up really high and then falls down to
nothing by the end. However, I think there was a different problem; he did not check
his answers that he had written down to make sure they were correct. It seems that the
better synchronize his understanding of the text with the requirements of the task.
During the two interviews I had with Basam, I noticed that sometimes he thought
he had understood the text but the indication from the task was that he had not
understood the text. Other times he was able to successfully complete the task even
though he told me that he had not understood the text. Although sometimes he
encountered obstacles that prevented him from understanding the text, it was usually the
task that gave him the most difficulty. Twice he was unfamiliar with the task, twice the
task confused him, and at least once he could not relate what he had understood from the
text to the requirements of the task. In addition to the difficulties he had with
understanding the task requirement, I think the most significant issue was that each time
he did not use a metacognitive evaluation strategy, which would have helped him verify
that his completion of the task corresponded with his understanding of the text.
because many of my research participants had similar experiences listening to a text. Just
as Basam was only able to switch between a note-taking strategy and a memorization
using favorite strategies continuously, whether they were appropriate for the text and task
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or not; much like a novice carpenter who uses the same favorite hammer for everything
participants also encountered similar obstacles to Basam when they listened to an oral
English text. Sometimes these obstacles prevented them from using strategies that would
have helped them understand the text, as Basam was prevented from understanding the
second text in the re-interview. Finally, many of the research participants encountered
difficulty relating what they had understood in the text with the requirements of the task.
Also, just like Basam, all of the participants, except for Fatma, did not use the evaluation
strategy, Checking Information, which would have ensured that what they had written in
the task agreed with what they had understood from the text.
From the outset of my research, I have tried to determine reasons that Tunisian
EFL learners have trouble understanding oral texts. I assumed a cognitive model as my
theoretical approach because this approach seemed to best fit the situation in which the
The findings indicated that the participants used listening strategies at both the
architectural level and at the comprehension level. At the architectural level, the
participants used transfer strategies to help move information throughout the system.
described by Wenden (1991). Therefore, they used a focus strategy to help move
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information from the sensory registers to working memory, this is the reception process.
Focus strategies also help them keep information in working memory. Along with focus,
a few participants used a memorization strategy which helped the Phonological Loop to
repeat information. These two strategies are used during the holding or recycling process
and help hold and repeat information in working memory until it has been comprehended.
Three strategies, Guessing, Note-Taking, and Paraphrasing, help the Episodic Buffer
during the retrieval process to combine relevant information from working memory and
Matching, also helped the participants to use pictorial information to help comprehend
information during this process. Finally, two strategies, Listening Many Times, and
during the storing process to move new, important information into long-term memory. I
also found from my research that three metacognitive strategies, Reading the Task,
the system and help ensure that the right information is used in the comprehension
process.
Not only did the findings show that the participants used listening strategies at the
architectural level, they also used strategies at the comprehension level. These strategies
help in the construction of the textbase and the inclusion of a situation model with the
comprehension, Text Focus and Task Focus help the learner to isolate the correct
information from both the text and the task. These two strategies, along with Guessing,
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help to match information from the text with known information in the learners' internal
lexicon. A guessing strategy is also used, along with an association strategy, to help in
Even though findings demonstrated that the participants used text focus during the
comprehension process, the type of text focus that the participants in my research used
was not an English-based Rhythm Stress focus strategy, like native English listeners use.
Instead they used two French-influenced text focus strategies, Clear Word Focus and
Segment End Focus. These two strategies often helped them pick incorrect, unimportant
information instead of the important information that a rhythm stress strategy would have
chosen.
the comprehension level were not as effective as those strategies that they used at the
architectural level. I attribute this to them using universal strategies at the architectural
level, which are strategies that can be used effectively with any language. However, the
strategies they used at the comprehension level, especially at the word identification
focus, which were not effective when they listened to oral English texts.
In the final part of this chapter, I explored the way in which my participants used
listening strategies while they listened to two oral texts, an easy text and a difficult text
and completed two tasks associated with those texts. I discovered the proficiency of the
participants had no relationship to how successful they were able in completing listening
tasks. I also discovered that when they listened to the easy texts they used a limited
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amount of listening strategies, which seems to be because the text was below their
comprehension level and the vocabulary was well-known, the text was slow, and the
information units were short. However, when they listened to difficult texts, the
participants used a wider range of strategies that corresponded with the Cognitive
such as a fast text, a long text, and a long task, as well as the inability to listen and write
at the same time. These obstacles prevented the participants from using their normal
strategies and prevented other strategies from being effective. I also elaborated in the
final part of this chapter on another finding from my research, strategic boundedness.
This term refers to Tunisian listeners as normally only using one strategy from each of
the cognitive processes. Therefore, when obstacles prevented a participant from using
From the findings of my research, it seems that the theoretical model I have
adopted accurately depicts the process that Tunisian EFL learners use to understand oral
transactional text in English. In addition, this theory has helped identify where
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CHAPTER SIX
CONCLUSION
Introduction
I began this research to better understand the reasons that Tunisian EFL learners
have difficulty understanding oral English transactional texts. I decided from the outset
that these learners are active listeners and that they use a cognitive process to understand
oral transactional texts in English. Based on these two premises, I used a theoretical
working memory model (Baddeley, 2009), a comprehension model (Kintsch, 1998), and
listening strategies (Oxford, 1990; Wenden, 1991; O'Malley and Chamot, 1990; &
Vandergrift, 2003b). I combined these three aspects into a theoretical model which I call
the Cognitive Strategic Comprehension Model. The two research questions I have
EFL learners use when listening to oral English transactional texts? How wide and
2. What are the major obstacles that Tunisian EFL learners encounter when listening to
I have discovered through my research that Tunisian EFL learners are active
listeners, they are aware that they use strategies while they listen to oral transactional
texts in English, and the strategies they use are an integral part of the theory that I have
identified. Even though they may not be aware of all of the strategies that they use, they
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are aware of many strategies that facilitate the flow of information throughout the
number of listening obstacles they encountered. I will first summarize the listening
strategies these participants used and then I will summarize the obstacles they
encountered.
strategies, Note-taking and Paraphrasing; a practice strategy, Listening Many Times; and
In addition to the transfer strategies I have mentioned above, which help move
information between cognitive areas in the human information processing system, the
participants also used three main comprehension strategies: Focus, Guessing, and
Association; and they used two types of focus: Clear Word Focus and Segment End
Focus. In contrast to the transfer strategies I mentioned above, which are universal
strategies, Clear Word Focus and Segment End Focus, are language-specific strategies.
Because the participants used these two language-specific strategies to focus on clear
words in the text and the end of information units in a text, these participants most likely
developed these strategies while learning a syllable-timed language, like French, rather a
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stress-timed language, like English. Since these two strategies are based on a syllable-
timed language, these strategies were counter-productive when the participants used the
strategies to help them in understanding oral English speech. The use of these two
because these strategies caused them to focus on the wrong information in the text.
Although I expected the participants to use most of the above strategies, I was
surprised that they did not use the cognitive strategy, Translation, because I observed
learners using this strategy quite frequently while I taught students in Tunisia, especially
when the students were defining new vocabulary words. In fact, when I thought that one
participant had used it to help her understand a text, she denied it and claimed that she
very controversial, with some of the participants saying they had used Translation in their
classes and others denying using this type of strategy. There was an attitude among some
of them that it was wrong to use this strategy. Therefore, even though they probably use
a translation strategy in their listening comprehension classes and they may have used
this strategy subconsciously while listening to oral texts in my research, they did not
In addition to the cognitive strategies that I mentioned above, I also identified two
metacognitive strategies that the participants used: Reading the Task and Matching.
Reading the Task is a planning strategy and Matching is a monitoring strategy. Most of
the participants used these two strategies to help them decide on which information to
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concentrate in the text and to oversee the flow of information throughout the cognitive
system. Even though only one student used a metacognitive evaluation strategy,
Checking Information, she found it important to ensure that she had completed the
listening task correctly. Many of the participants had a difficult time connecting what
they had understood from the text with the requirements of the task, which lead me to
conclude that if more of the participants had used an evaluation strategy, they may have
more accurately connected the information from the text with the task requirements.
primarily conducted with individual Tunisian EFL learners, I did not expect to discover
many socio-affective strategies. However, the participants during the group interviews
did identify one socio-affective strategy, Getting Help from Students. Similar to
Translation, the use of this strategy caused disagreement among the participants. Some
participants admitted using this strategy to help them in their listening comprehension
classes to better understand the oral text and complete associated tasks. However, the
majority of the participants thought it was wrong to use this strategy. There were four
reasons given for not wanting help from other students. 1) They wanted to rely on
themselves. 2) They didn't want to bother other students. 3) They saw the task as a type
of exam and getting help from other students a form of cheating. 4) They thought that
the above strategies together, resulting in better comprehension of the oral English
transactional texts. However, even though the participants used listening strategies to aid
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the movement of information between each cognitive process, they used only one or two
strategies at each information transfer point. Therefore, if they were prevented from
using a particular strategy, information flow was often impeded. In addition, some
participants had some flexibility in their use of strategies enabling them to switch to a
different strategy if a favorite strategy could not be used. However, other participants did
not have this flexibility to switch strategies and floundered with no strategic plan when
In addition to the listening strategies I have identified above, I also found that
certain text and task obstacles blocked the participants from effectively using their
strategies and understanding the oral text. They reported encountering some of these
these obstacles while they were listening to texts and completing associated tasks during
my research. I classified the obstacles that the participants mentioned by into five
categories: text transfer obstacles, text comprehension obstacles, task obstacles, external
obstacles, and affective obstacles. The main text transfer obstacles they encountered
were a fast text speed and a long text. They also encountered text comprehension
constructions. A third text comprehension obstacle was not hearing specific words. Next,
they cited some task obstacles; task complexity and task length were mentioned as well
as the inability to listen and write important information simultaneously. They also
reported some obstacles pertaining to factors outside the text and task: audio noise,
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background sounds in the audio, and classroom noise. Finally, the affective obstacles
they encountered during the research were negative feelings about the text, negative
feelings about the topic, and negative judgments about the speaker.
The participants reported that some of the above obstacles occurred during their
listening comprehension classes, some of them occurred while they listened to a text
during the research, and some of them occurred in both situations. A fast text and an
unfamiliar accent were the obstacles cited occurring in both their listening
comprehension classes and during the research. The main obstacles that the participants
reported during their listening comprehension classes were: unclear speech, unknown
vocabulary, audio noise or an unclear audio, and external noise. Finally, a long text and
an unknown topic were the main text obstacles that the participants only encountered
the text to the task and an inability to listen and write simultaneously, there were three
other main task obstacles that the participants encountered during the research: a
oral texts. They encountered this obstacle both in their listening comprehension classes
units or short pauses between the information units were sometimes interpreted by the
participants as being fast, while short information units or longer pauses between the
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I also noticed that the task itself sometimes became an obstacle to their
comprehension of the text. Task unfamiliarity was the major task obstacle the
participants encountered. Because they were unfamiliar with a task, they did not know
how to translate their understanding of a text into acceptable requirements for the task.
This led to the participants sometimes not being able to successfully complete the task,
even though they thought that they had understood the text. This is an important issue
because researchers and teachers use listening tasks to determine whether an EFL learner
I found that the listening strategies that the participants used while they listened to
oral English texts integrated into the Cognitive Strategic Comprehension Model I have
proposed in this research. According to Wenden (1991), there are four cognitive
processes that are used to manipulate information throughout the human information-
processing system. These four processes are: reception, retention, retrieval, and storage.
My research shows that Tunisian EFL learners used specific transfer strategies during
each of these processes to help manipulate and move information throughout the human
information-processing system. Not all of the participants used all of these transfer
strategies. However, most of them were able to use the majority of them as long as they
did not encounter impeding obstacles while they listened. I have summarized my
participants used Focus, an attention strategy, which helped them attend to information in
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the auditory stream and transfer this information to working memory. Different types of
focus were used by participants. Some focused on important information in the auditory
stream. Others attempted to focus on every word they could hear. Still others used the
The second cognitive process is retention. During this process, the information
that has been transferred to working memory is recycled until it can be comprehended.
One strategy, Memorization, was used by a few participants to help maintain information
in working memory. A couple of other participants also used a note-taking strategy to aid
the working memory in maintaining information. These participants wrote down every
The third cognitive process is retrieval. During this process, relevant information
memory and important information from the text, stored temporarily in working memory,
is used during the comprehension process to give meaning to the text. Five listening
strategies were used by the participants to transfer information from long-term memory
Many Times. An association strategy was used by a few participants to link known
strategy was also used by a few participants to link information that they assumed should
be linked with information in working memory. They made these assumptions based on
their knowledge of the text's context and sometimes only on conjecture. A paraphrasing
strategy was used by one or two participants. Through paraphrasing, the learners were
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able to link words or possible meanings from long-term memory to working memory.
Even though this strategy is similar to an association strategy, this strategy allowed them
to link information that would not normally be linked with an association strategy. Note-
taking was used my most of the participants. Like paraphrasing, this strategy allowed
them to link information from long-term memory to working memory by elaborating and
expanding on the information on which they had focused. The final strategy that most
participants used was Listening Many Times. This strategy is a practice strategy. As the
gradually activated and combined with the information in working memory. Similar to
Paraphrasing and Note-taking, Listening Many Times links information from long-term
The fourth cognitive process is storage. During this process new important
information comprehended from the text is stored in long-term memory. Three strategies
were used during the retrieval process, Association, Guessing, Note-taking, and
Paraphrasing, were also used during the storage process to retain new important
through linking assumed related information between the new information in the text and
During the four cognitive processes, reception, retention, retrieval, and storage, a
comprehension process is also occurring. The data in my research showed that not only
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did participants use transfer strategies to move information throughout the human
attempt to understand the text. The strategies that they used during this process were:
Focus, Association, and Guessing. Most of the participants used two types of focus,
Clear Word Focus, and Segment End Focus to attempt to identify and comprehend
specific words in the text. This word identification process, I described more thoroughly
in Chapter 2. As I mentioned earlier in this chapter, these two strategies were not
effective in helping the learners to correctly identify important words and information
because these strategies are based on a syllable-timed language, like French, and not a
stress-timed language, like English. Most of the participants also used an association
strategy. Some of the participants also used a guessing strategy. Unlike the focus
strategies, these two strategies helped the participants link information from long-term
memory to information in the text and create a textbase during the construction stage of
I found that the participants' strategy use varied depending on whether they were
listening to easy texts or difficult texts. They were more likely to use less strategies with
the easy texts and more strategies with the difficult texts. This was an important finding
because I expected the participants to use more strategies with the easy texts and less
According to the data, when participants listened to easy texts with a written task
they used only three strategies: two metacognitive strategies, Reading the Task and
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Matching, and one cognitive strategy, Focus. It seems that because they considered the
texts very easy, they decided they were able to understand the text and complete the task
without using any other strategies. When they listened to an easy text with a visual task,
they used only one strategy, Picture Matching. Thus it is evident that a focus strategy,
which was used with written tasks to transfer information to the Phonological Loop, was
not needed with visual tasks because the visual information was transferred to the Visuo-
Another important finding was that listening obstacles could easily interfere with
the participants' ability to understand the texts and successfully complete the tasks
because the participants used very few strategies. In addition to their inability to listen
and write at the same time, the other two main obstacles that impeded their ability to
successfully understand the easy texts and complete an associated task were a fast text,
In contrast to the participants' strategy use while they listened to easy texts, they
used more strategies when they listened to difficult oral texts and were able to orchestrate
strategies they used with the difficult texts corresponded to the four cognitive processes,
whereas there was no relationship between their strategy use and the cognitive processes
when these learners listened to easy texts. Thus the majority of the learners used a
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Even though they used a variety of transfer strategies and orchestrated their
strategies to some degree, only one-third of the participants were able to understand the
analysis of the data that the difference between those who were successful and those who
were unsuccessful was in their ability to overcome listening obstacles they encountered,
not in their strategy use. Those participants who overcame the listening obstacles were
usually able to successfully complete the listening tasks; those who were unable to
overcome the listening obstacles were usually unsuccessful in completing the tasks. In
addition to their inability to listen and write simultaneously, the obstacles that caused the
greatest amount of difficulty were: a fast text, a long text, a long task, and unfamiliar
accents.
ineffective in teaching Tunisian EFL learners how to understand oral transactional texts
in English. The audio-lingual method treats EFL learners as passive participants and
expects them to just hear and understand the words of the text and the meaning of the
text. This method becomes frustrating for the student because they are unable to hear or
understand the oral texts. This method also becomes frustrating for the teacher because
they do not understand why the learners do not understand the text and do not know how
Instead, I believe a paradigm shift is needed that empowers the EFL learners and
helps them to become competent users of English and fully able to understand oral
283
transactional texts in English. The first aspect in this paradigm shift is to treat EFL
novice listeners with few strategic tools to help them understand complex texts.
However, Tunisian EFL learners can become expert listeners with a large repertoire of
strategic tools, giving them more flexibility in which strategies they use to listen to oral
texts. In this process, they will realize that strategies are tools. In the same way that
carpenters choose appropriate tools for the objects they are constructing, listeners should
choose the most appropriate strategies that will best enable them to successfully
understand the oral text. Through this process the EFL learners will move from strategic
training is appropriate for written language, but not for oral language. I think that
teachers should be well-versed in the ways that oral English is different from written
language and the unique aspects of oral English. In addition, they should use a learner-
understanding oral English texts. In this way, listening comprehension teachers will be
The third step in this paradigm shift is to move the teaching focus away from
Instead, the focus should be on identifying main ideas and important details. In addition,
284
inferencing skills should be taught to the students. It is also important for the teacher to
allow the students to work out the answers by themselves, in their own words. As the
focus moves from identifying individual words to identifying main ideas and important
details, an English language- specific strategy, Rhythm Focus, should be taught and
encouraged rather than the EFL learners' default strategy, Clear Word Focus.
related, topic-related, and external. The class of obstacles that was the simplest to
overcome was the external obstacles. Because I controlled for these obstacles during the
individual interviews and the think-aloud protocols, these external obstacles were not
mentioned at all during the individual interviews and mentioned only once during the
individual interviews and think-aloud protocols lead me to the conclusion that classrooms
and methods can be modified to minimize and even eliminate external obstacles. For
example, comprehension classrooms can be fitted with speakers in all areas of the
classroom and teachers can attach an audio player into those speakers so that the audio is
heard throughout the room. In addition, teachers can use CDs instead of cassettes to
focus on specific words and structures would gradually disappear. As learners are
exposed to different types of texts and accents from different areas of the world, some
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text-bases obstacles, such as pronunciation, accent and reduced speech, could be
eliminated.
the same way that learners are taught to read step by step, learners should be taught to
listen step by step. Part of this systematic approach is selecting and grading appropriate
oral texts based on the proficiency of the learner, in the same way that reading
comprehension texts are graded based on a reader's proficiency. For lower proficiency
learners, texts of no more than one minute should be used that have short information
units and long pauses between these units of approximately one second. As the learners
become more proficient, longer texts can be used. For moderate proficiency students,
texts should be no longer than three minutes. If longer texts are used for moderate
proficiency learners they should be broken down into two- to three- minute segments
with a discussion of each segment before moving on to the next segment. As the
proficiency of a students increases, longer information units and shorter pauses can be
gradually introduced into the instruction. If these guidelines are followed, when learners
reach a high proficiency, they should be able to understand any oral English transactional
texts with little or no difficulty. If the teacher cannot find audios that meet the suggested
specifications above, the teacher can edit audio texts with audio-editing software such as
Audacity to break the audio into smaller segments and to increase the pauses between
information units.
286
The choice of appropriate topics is another area that listening comprehension
teachers should consider. Pre-listening activities are the typical way that new topics are
Tunisian EFL learners both in their listening comprehension classes and during the
research. Therefore, pre-listening activities may not be sufficient, especially for lower
the students' proficiency. Since the topic affects how a EFL listener approaches a text,
interesting topics should be chosen and a variety of different topics should be identified
to continually pique the listeners' interest. The teacher may want to use oral texts with
topics that relate to the learners' context and worldview rather than employing texts that
The final area that teachers should consider is the tasks used with oral English
transactional texts. In my experience, very little thought has been given into the ease or
difficulty of a particular task. Tasks are mostly retrospective, which are difficult for
Tunisian EFL learners to complete while they are listening to an oral text. This, I believe,
Instead, I would recommend that short, familiar tasks are given to EFL listeners with the
instructor giving a thorough explanation of the requirements of the task. Tasks should be
devised that require a minimum amount of writing to avoid obstacles arising from having
to listen and write simultaneously. As much as possible, on-line tasks, tasks that the
learner completes while she is listening a text, should be introduced and used instead of
retrospective tasks. As I have previously mentioned, the focus of a task should be on the
287
main ideas of a text and important details in it, instead of a focus on specific words.
Since 50% is considered a passing mark in Tunisia, True and False and Multiple Choice
tasks should be avoided, unless they are specifically designed so that good guessers, who
do not understand the text, will not be able to receive a passing mark. New, innovative
tasks should be designed which take into consideration the listeners' cultural background.
All tasks should be avoided that depend on a western cultural perspective. These new
types of tasks should preclude reliance on memorization of chunks of text and should
take into consideration the learners' working memory limitations, bearing in mind that the
learners are unable to refer back to a text when they answer questions in a task.
Some specific types of tasks can be used if they are appropriate for the goals of
the instructor. For example, carefully, systematically-designed Cloze tasks can be used to
draw attention to important information in the text and to help listeners focus on the
stressed words; however, these tasks are counter-productive if the Cloze task is designed
answer tasks can be used effectively if the answers focus on important details from the
text. Tasks that have tables to be completed can also be used as long as the listeners are
familiar with the task. Finally, to help listeners focus on main ideas, I would suggest
including summarizing tasks. These tasks will allow the listeners to write in their own
I believe that when the above suggestions are implemented, Tunisian EFL
learners will be able to relate their understanding of the text with the requirements of the
task. However, it is essential that these learners not only complete the task, but also
288
complete it correctly, to the best of their ability. Therefore, it is essential that instructors
Checking Information. By using this strategy, the listeners will confirm that they have
Finally, I would like to mention one strategy, Listening Many Times, that the
participants relied on and which they said is an essential strategy in the listening
comprehension classroom. This strategy can be useful as a practice strategy, but it must
be used appropriately. The participants reported that they were accustomed to listening
to oral texts three times. Some of the participants even stated that there was a process in
always listening a text three time. These participants said that the first time they listen to
the text they get comfortable with the text, the second time they try to understand the
missing information and the main ideas, and the third time is for checking information
and for fun. Other participants added that the more times they listen to a text, the more
information they get out of the text, which aids them in completing more of the task.
This may seem like a good method for the learners. Unfortunately, the teachers who use
this method are actually handicapping the learners; the learners will never hear these
types of texts three times outside of the classroom, because, normally, they will only hear
once the oral English transactional texts that they listen to outside the listening
systematically moves the learner from a novice level to an expert level through initially
allowing the learner to listen twice and then gradually allowing them to listen only once.
289
The suggestions I mentioned above necessitate using appropriate texts based on
listeners' proficiency, using appropriate tasks related to the texts that are used, and using
listening to a text. If EFL learners are instructed how to listen to a text to locate
important information in the text, eventually these learners should be able to successfully
Not only does my research indicate important implications for teaching listening
comprehension research. The findings from my research that have an impact on listening
The first significant area is the relationship between proficiency and strategy use
research in the area of a learner's proficiency and strategy use, which I reviewed in
Chapter 2, there is more evidence for the linguistic threshold hypothesis than the
with the use of learning strategies. In other words, more proficient learners are better
able to use strategies to understand oral texts than less proficient learners.
learner's strategy use or their ability to comprehend oral texts. Even though the
participants strategies were not entirely effective, it seems that they tried to use strategies
from their L1 when they listened to oral English texts. In addition, even though
290
researchers such as Liu (2002) and Jeon (2007) concluded that less proficient learners
were less likely to understand an oral text and more proficient learners were more likely
to understand oral texts, I did not identify this link in my research. Instead, I found that
task complexity, task familiarity, and the interference of listening obstacles on the
learners' ability to use their listening strategies were better predictors of their ability to
research did not either positively or negatively affect their ability to understand oral
English texts. The moderate-proficiency participants understood the texts better than
some of the high-proficiency students and the low-proficiency students understood the
texts better than some moderate-proficiency participants. In addition, it seems that the
(2000) and Sanders, Neville, and Woldorff (2002) concluded from their research that
each language has a specific way of dividing aural speech into individual words, also
known as a segmentation strategy. Cutler indicated that an L2 learner will tend to divide
aural speech in an oral English text according to the segmentation strategy of his or her
mother language. Cutler maintains that this tendency will cause problems when the
segmentation strategy of the first language is different from the segmentation strategy of
the second or third language. She does not think that an L2 learner's default
291
segmentation strategy can be changed. However, she thinks that it may be possible to
segmentation when they listen to oral English texts. Field (2003) also believes that it is
possible to train L2 learners to recognize and use the rhythm and stress segmentation
I found that Cutler's (2000) and Field's (2003) review were important for my
study since French, a syllable-timed language, has a different segmentation strategy than
English, a stress-timed language (Goyet, de Schonen, & Nazzi, 2010, p. 85). I found
strategy rather than a stress-timed segmentation strategy. I also agree with Cutler that by
teaching learners how to use a correct stress-timed listening strategy, they can learn not to
listening problems that EFL learners encounter while they listened to oral texts. Little
research has been done in this area and I only found a few researchers who explored this
area. One of these researchers, Goh (2000), uncovered problems that her ESL
participants identified in their self-reports. However, all of these problems dealt with the
comprehension of oral texts and related mostly to the cognitive processes of perception
and parsing of the auditory signal. Another of these researchers, Hasan (2000),
discovered four main areas in which Arabic speaking learners encountered listening
problems: text difficulties, task difficulties, speaker difficulties, and affective difficulties
292
they listen to oral texts corroborated Hasan's research to a large extent. Similar to Hasan,
I uncovered text obstacles and task obstacles. However, I also identified external
obstacles, such as audio and external noise. In addition, related to my findings, Hasan
Even though I believe that my research has provided some new insights into EFL
listening comprehension, it also has some limitations. First, the purpose of the research
was to examine listening strategy use of Tunisian EFL learners and obstacles that they
encountered while listening to oral English transactional texts. Further research needs to
be conducted to determine if the findings of this research can be applied to EFL listeners
in other similar contexts. Second, I conducted my research at only one site in Tunisia.
Further research should be conducted at other sites in Tunisia to determine the extent to
which the findings of my research can be applied to other Tunisian EFL learners.
research questions, but also to begin a process whereby listening comprehension teaching
of EFL learners in Tunisia can be improved. My research has provided the first step in
this process: to identify learners' strategies, to specify the listening obstacles they
encounter, and to determine the reasons that some learners are successful in the listening
process and the reasons that other learners are not successful in this process. This
293
pedagogical approaches that can help learners improve in their ability to understand oral
texts in English.
294
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APPENDIX A
Request Letter to the Director of the Gabes Campus
The Director
The Higher Institute of Languages, Gabes
Rue Ali Jemal
Gabes
Dear Sir,
I, James M. Ishler, am an English instructor at the Faculty of Liberal Arts and Humanities
in Sfax. I am also a PhD student at the Indiana University of Pennsylvania, USA. I am in the
process of writing a doctoral thesis entitled, The Listening Strategies of Tunisian University EFL
Learners: A Strategy-Based Approach to Listening to Oral English Texts. In order to complete
my doctoral thesis, I would like to conduct research with students at a Tunisian university
campus. There are two aspects of the research that I would like to investigate. The first aspect is
problems that students have when they listen to oral texts in a listening comprehension class in a
university setting. The second aspect is strategies that students use when they listen to oral texts
in a listening comprehension class in a university setting. The ultimate purpose of the research
for this thesis is to help students improve in their ability to understand oral English texts in a
university setting.
I would like to conduct this research at your campus from September to December 2008.
This research consists of five different types of data collection methods: questionnaires,
classroom observations, interviews with students, student diary writing, and a simple experiment
known as a think-aloud protocol. Most of the research would be carried out among English
students. If you agree to this research, I would ask teachers in select classes to allow me to
distribute a questionnaire to students that deals with Tunisian students' learning strategies. I
would also post an announcement, with the approval of the head of the English department,
asking for volunteers for further research. I would then choose participants from among those
students who volunteered for the research and conduct my research with those volunteers. There
are no risks or benefits, if students participate in my study.
If this research is acceptable to you, please complete and sign the bottom of this form. If
you have further questions, please call me at 24-657-222. Thank you for your consideration of
this important research.
Sincerely Yours,
James M. Ishler
PhD Candidate
Signature Date
309
APPENDIX B
Student Participant Informed Consent Form
You are being asked to participate in a study that will investigate two aspects of listening
comprehension. The first aspect is problems that students have when they listen to oral texts in a
listening comprehension class in a university setting. The second aspect is strategies that students
use when they listen to oral texts in a listening comprehension class in a university setting. Data
collected from this anonymous survey will be used as part of research for a doctoral thesis
entitled, The Listening Strategies of Tunisian University EFL Learners: A Strategy Based
Approach to Listening to Oral English Texts. The ultimate purpose of the research for this thesis
is to help students improve in their ability to understand oral English texts in a university setting.
The primary investigator, Mr. Jim Ishler, would like to conduct three types of research
with student volunteers: oral interviews, diary writing, and a listening procedure. During the
interviews, Mr. Ishler will ask participants further questions about listening comprehension
problems and strategies used during listening to English oral texts. For the diary writing, students
will be asked to write in a diary about the ways they listen to English oral texts for a period of
two months. For the listening procedure, students will listen to specific English oral texts and
report on what strategies they use while they are listening. There are no risks or benefits to you
by participating in the oral interviews, the diary writing, or the listening procedure. If you would
like to volunteer please fill in the following information and return to the English department
secretary, or contact Mr. Jim Ishler by e-mail at ishler_research@pobox.com or by phone at 21-
933-508.
I have read and understand the information on the form and I consent to volunteer to be a subject
in this study. I understand that my responses are completely confidential and that I have the right
to withdraw at any time. I have received an unsigned copy of this informed Consent Form to keep
in my possession.
Signature Date
I certify that I have explained to the above individual the nature and purpose, the potential
benefits, and possible risks associated with participating in this research study, have answered
any questions that have been raised, and have witnessed the above signature.
310
APPENDIX C
Sample of Posted Announcement for Student Volunteers
Mr. Jim Ishler, an English instructor at the Faculty of Liberal Arts and Humanities
in Sfax is seeking students studying in the English department to volunteer for a doctoral
research project. Mr. Ishler would like to conduct three types of research with student
volunteers: oral interviews, diary writing, and a listening procedure. Data collected from
this research will be used as part of research for a doctoral thesis entitled, The Listening
Strategies of Tunisian University EFL Learners: A Strategy Based Approach to Listening
to Oral English Texts. The ultimate purpose of the research for this thesis is to help
students improve in their ability to understand oral English texts in a university setting.
During the interviews, Mr. Ishler will ask participants further questions about
listening comprehension problems and strategies used during listening to English oral
texts. For the diary writing, students will be asked to write in a diary about the ways they
listen to English oral texts for a period of one month. For the listening procedure,
students will listen to specific English oral texts and report on what strategies they use
while they are listening.
There are no risks or benefits to you by participating in the oral interviews, the
diary writing, or the listening procedure. If you would like to volunteer please contact
the English department secretary for a form or contact Mr. Jim Ishler by
ishler_research@pobox.com or by phone at 21-933-508.
311
Student Volunteer Request Form
I would like to volunteer for your doctoral research project. I understand that there is no
benefit or harm to my participation and I understand that I can withdraw my participation
at any time. Furthermore, I understand that all information that is recorded, either in
writing or via audio tape, is confidential and will only be used by you, Mr. Ishler, for your
doctoral research project.
I
Phone number: _________________________
Signature Date
______________ _________
312
APPENDIX D
Observation Rubric
1. What are the students doing while they are listening to the oral text? Are they
concentrating on the text or are they showing inattention by talking to their friends,
doodling, or daydreaming?
2. What is the teacher doing while the students are listening to an oral text?
3. How does the teacher present the oral text? Does the teacher play the whole oral text
without interruption or does the teacher divide the oral text into sections? How many
times do the students listen to the oral text?
4. What kinds of exercises do the students have to assess their comprehension of the oral
text? Are the exercises content questions? Are they questions about the main ideas?
Are they close exercises? Are they tables to be completed? What other types of
assessments are used?
5. Do students seek information or answers from other students to help them complete
the assessment exercises?
6. Do students ask questions to clarify information in the text or in the assessment
exercises?
7. Does the teacher elicit responses to the assessment exercises individually? Do
students work in groups to answer the assessment exercises together?
8. What does the teacher do if the students cannot provide correct answers for the
assessment exercises? Does the teacher play the oral text again? Does the teacher
give them the answer? Does the teacher give them part of the answer and encourage
the students to finish the answer?
313
APPENDIX E
Tunisian EFL Learner Questionnaire
You are being asked to participate in a study that will investigate strategies that students
use when listening to oral texts in first and second year listening classes at three sites in Tunisia.
Data collected from this anonymous questionnaire will be used as part of research for a PhD
thesis entitled, The Listening Strategies of Tunisian University EFL Learners: A Strategy Based
Approach to Listening to Oral English Texts. The ultimate purpose of the research for this thesis
is to help students improve in their ability to understand oral English texts in a university setting.
There are no risks or benefits to you by participating in this research. If you do not wish to
participate, you may simply return the blank survey or stop at anytime, with no penalty to
yourself. If you choose to participate, completion and return of the questionnaire indicates your
consent to participate in this study.
Please do not put your name on the questionnaire. The questionnaire should take
approximately fifteen minutes to complete. Any questions or concerns should be directed to the
investigator, Mr. Jim Ishler by e-mail at ishler_research@pobox.com or by phone at 21-933-508.
Furthermore, the investigator, Mr. Jim Ishler, would like to conduct oral interviews, diary
writing, a simple listening procedure with volunteer students in order to investigate, in more
depth, some aspects of the listening strategies that international students at the ALI have. As with
this questionnaire, there are no risks or benefits to you by participating. If you would like to
volunteer, please contact Mr. Jim Ishler.
I have read and understand the information on the form and I consent to volunteer to be a subject
in this study. I understand that my responses are completely confidential and that I have the right
to withdraw at any time. I have received an unsigned copy of this informed Consent Form to
keep in my possession.
Signature Date
I certify that I have explained to the above individual the nature and purpose, the potential
benefits, and possible risks associated with participating in this research study, have answered
any questions that have been raised, and have witnessed the above signature.
314
Learning/Listening Strategy Questionnaire
Part 1: Demographics
Please circle the appropriate response below in pen. Please only circle one number.
2. How many hours per week do you spend listening to English outside of a university
context?
Less than 2 hours 2-6 hours 6-12 hours 12-20 hours + 20 hours
3. When you listen to English outside of a university context, to what types of sources do
you listen? (circle all that apply)
315
Part 3: Using Listening Strategies
All of these statements refer to the learning strategies that you use when you are listening
to an English oral texts in a university context, or when you are involved in learning in
your classes. For the following statements, please put a mark (X) in the appropriate box
below, according to the following key. Please mark only one box.
a. Always (4): This statement is always true for me or almost always true for me.
b. Usually (3): This statement is usually true for me.
c. Sometimes (2): This statement is sometimes true for me.
d. Occasionally (1): This statement is rarely true for me.
e. Never (0): This statement is never true for me or almost never true for me.
f. Not Applicable (X): This statement is not applicable for me/I've never encountered this
situation.
How often do you use the following strategies to help you understand a listening text in
your class?
Always=4, Usually=3, 4 3 2 1 0 X
Sometimes=2, Occasionally=1,
Never=0, Not Applicable=X
1 I can remember information in an
text better if I periodically repeat it
to myself using my own words.
2 When I encounter new words, I
combine them according to their
meaning.
3 I use information in the text to guess
the meanings of unfamiliar
language, or to fill in missing
information.
4 If I don't understand the goals of a
task, I ask the teacher or a fellow
student to explain them again.
5 I think about how I should
successfully complete a task.
6 It helps me when another student or
my teacher encourage me to finish a
listening task that I think is too
different.
7 I watch English language television
shows or go to English language
movies.
316
Always=4, Usually=3, 4 3 2 1 0 X
Sometimes=2, Occasionally=1,
Never=0, Not Applicable=X
8 When I am listening to English, I
think of the meaning of the words in
my language before I think of the
meaning of the English words.
9 I use the speakers tone of voice to
guess the meaning of unknown
words in a text.
10 If I do not understand something in
English, I ask the other person to
slow down or say it again.
11 Before I listen to a text, I decide
what information that I will need to
successfully complete a task.
12 When I work together with other
students, it helps me to successfully
complete a task.
13 I try to find as many ways as I can
to use my English.
14 I like to find an underlying structure
from the text that I can apply to
other situations.
15 When I hear or read new English
words, I look for an equivalent word
in my language.
16 When I listen to an text, I focus on
each word that I hear.
17 Before I listen to a text, I think
ahead and consider the information
that I will need in order to
successfully accomplish a task.
18 When I listen to an text, I focus on
the words as well as the intonation
and stress that the speaker uses.
19 While I am listening to a text, I
consciously keep in mind that
information that I need to listen for.
20 I quickly can build grammatical
structures from texts that I hear in
English.
317
Always=4, Usually=3, 4 3 2 1 0 X
Sometimes=2, Occasionally=1,
Never=0, Not Applicable=X
21 When I make a mental image of
words or ideas from a text, I can
remember the words or ideas better.
22 When a new English word is
explained to me in English, I am not
satisfied that I understand the word
until I know what the word is in my
language.
23 I keep in mind the answers I am
looking for while I am listening to a
text.
24 I ask for help from other students
when I don't understand something
in English.
25 When I want to remember a word in
English, I repeat it to myself many
times.
26 When I hear new ideas in an texts, it
helps me to understand the text if
group them with other ideas that
have a similar meaning.
27 I am actively thinking about the
important information while I am
listening to a text.
28 I think of relationships between
what I already know and new things
I learn in English.
29 When I listen to an text, I focus on
the words that I hear most clearly.
30 I look for words in my own
language that are similar to new
words in English.
31 When I can keep in my mind the
goals for a task, I find it easier to
extract information from a text.
32 I give myself a reward or treat when
I do well in English.
33 I ask questions when I don't
understand an text.
318
Always=4, Usually=3, 4 3 2 1 0 X
Sometimes=2, Occasionally=1,
Never=0, Not Applicable=X
34 When I want to remember an idea
from a text, I repeat it to myself
many times.
35 When I hear new ideas, I combine
them with other similar ideas that I
am familiar with.
36 To help me remember an text, I
mentally construct a summary.
37 I find learning English easier when I
compare it with my own language.
38 I use new English words in a
sentence so I can remember them.
39 I think about the important
information that I need to find in a
text while I am listening to the text.
40 I try to find patterns in English.
41 I plan ahead so I can successfully
complete a listening task in class.
42 I give myself a reward or treat when
I have accomplished my goals for
understanding or using English.
43 I review information that I heard in
my classes in order to remember it.
44 I use the context of an text to help
me guess the meaning of words I do
not know.
45 I put information that I have read or
heard in my own words to help me
remember it.
46 I check to see if I have been able to
successfully complete a task after I
have finished listening to a text.
47 I connect the sound of a new
English word and an image or
picture of the word to help me
remember the word.
48 I practice the sounds of English.
49 For learning English, I normally
translate words from English into
my language or from my language
into English.
319
Always=4, Usually=3, 4 3 2 1 0 X
Sometimes=2, Occasionally=1,
Never=0, Not Applicable=X
50 I notice if I am tense or nervous
when I am studying or using
English.
51 I repeat information many times
silently or audibly in order to
memorize it.
52 I use the words in a text that I know
to help me guess the meaning of
unfamiliar words.
53 I summarize information that I have
read or heard to help me remember
it.
54 After I have listened to a text, I
check that I have successfully
remembered the important
information
55 I remember a new English word by
making a mental picture of a
situation in which the word might
be used.
56 When I find similarities and
differences between my first
language and English, I find it easier
to understand texts.
57 I write down my feelings in a
language learning diary.
58 I use my background knowledge to
help me understand unfamiliar ideas
in a text.
59 I use words from my language when
I do not know an English word.
60 I usually check the information that
I have understood from a text to
verify that I have been able to
successfully complete a task that my
teacher has given me.
61 I usually make mental pictures of
situations that I hear in a text.
62 I make guesses to help me
understand unfamiliar English
words.
320
Always=4, Usually=3, 4 3 2 1 0 X
Sometimes=2, Occasionally=1,
Never=0, Not Applicable=X
63 I have clear goals before I listen to a
text.
64 I talk to someone else about how I
feel when I am learning English.
65 When I have finished listening to a
text, I compare the information I
have understood with what the
teacher asked me to find.
66 I can remember a concept from a
text better when I construct a picture
or image of that concept in my
mind.
67 It helps me to remember
information when I repeat it silently
to myself many times.
68 I try to think about the new
information that I hear in a text.
69 It's easier for me to remember
information when I take notes.
70 After I have finished listening to a
text, I know that I have been able to
extract the important information so
I can successfully answer the
questions that I have been given.
71 I concentrate on each clear word
that I hear in an text.
72 It helps me when I write down
information I hear from an oral text.
73 I use linguistic concepts from my
language to help me to understand
linguistic concepts in English.
74 I say or write new English words
several times so I can remember
them.
75 I am more confident of my ability to
understand a text when I check what
I have understood with other
students.
321
Part 4: Listening Habits Outside of Class
Please put a mark (X) in the appropriate box below. Please mark only one box
Always=4, Usually=3, 4 3 2 1 0 X
Sometimes=2, Occasionally=1,
Never=0, Not Applicable=X
76 Outside of class, I speak in English
to help me improve my
speaking/listening ability.
77 Outside of class, I listen to English
via a multimedia source (TV, radio,
internet, etc.) to help my listening
ability.
78 I have enrolled in outside oral
English courses (i.e. in language
schools) to help me improve my
listening ability.
79 I regularly go to places that are
frequented by native English
speakers (such as hotels, bars, and
discotheques) to improve my
listening ability.
80 I regularly use oral English sources
(such as tapes, videos, CD, and
DVDs) at places such as language
schools and cultural centers
322
Part 4: Open-Ended Questions
A: Please write down specific problems that you have when you listen to English oral
texts:
1.
2.
3.
4.
I greatly appreciate the time you have taken to complete this questionnaire. Thank you
for your participation.
PhD Candidate
323
APPENDIX F
Oxford Strategy Inventory for Language Learners
Never true of me: also includes 'almost never true of me'- means that the statement is very
rarely true of you.
Usually not true of me: means that the statement is very true of you less than half the
time.
Somewhat true of me: means that the statement is very true of you less about half the
time.
Usually true of me: means that the statement is very true of you more than half the time.
Always true of me: also includes 'almost always true of me'- means that the statement is
very true of you almost always.
Part: A
1. I think of the relationships between what I already know and new things I learn in English.
2. I use new English words in a sentence so I can remember them.
3. I connect the sound of an English word and an image or picture of the world to help me
remember the word.
4. I remember a new English word by making a mental picture of a situation in which the word
might be used.
5. I use rhymes to remember new English words.
6. I use flashcards to remember new English words.
7. I physically act out new English words.
8. I review English lessons often.
9. I remember the new words or phrases by remembering their location on the page, on the board,
or on a street sign.
Part: B
10. I say or write new English words several times.
11. I try to talk like native English speakers.
12. I practice the sounds of English.
13. I use the English word I know in different ways.
14. I start conversations in English.
15. I watch English language TV shows spoken in English or go to movies spoken in English.
16. I read for pleasure in English.
324
17. I write notes, messages, letters, or reports in English.
18. I first skim an English passage (read over the passage quickly) then go back and read
carefully.
19. I look for words in my own language that are similar to new words in English.
20. I try to find patterns in English.
21. I find the meaning of an English word by dividing it into parts that I understand.
22. I try not to translate word-for-word.
23. I make summaries of information that I hear or read in English.
Part: C
24. To understand unfamiliar English words, I make guesses.
25. When I can't think of a word during a conversation in English, I use gestures.
26. I make up new words if I do not know the right ones in English.
27. I read English without looking up every new word.
28. I try to guess what the other person will say next in English.
29. If I can't think of an English word, I use a word or phrase that means the same thing.
Part: D
30. I try to find as many ways as I can to use my English.
31. I notice my English mistakes and use that information to help me do better.
32. I pay attention when someone is speaking English.
33. I try to find out how to be a better learner of English.
34. I plan my schedule so I have enough time to study English.
35. I look for people I can talk to in English.
36. I look for opportunities to read as much as possible in English.
37. I have clear goals for improving my English skills.
38. I think about my progress in learning English.
Part: E
39. I try to relax whenever I feel afraid of using English.
40. I encourage myself to speak English even when I am afraid of making a mistake.
41. I give myself a reward or treat when I do well in English.
42. I notice if I am tense or nervous when I am studying English.
43. I write down my feelings in a language learning diary.
44. I talk to someone else about how I feel when I am learning English.
325
Part: F
45. If I do not understand something in English, I ask the other person to slow down or
say it again.
46. I ask English speakers to correct me when I talk.
47. I practice my English with other students.
48. I ask for help from English speakers.
49. I ask questions in English.
50. I try to learn about the culture of English speakers.
326
Strategy Inventory Statements and Modifications for Research
(Comparing Oxford's SILL (1989) with my Strategy Inventories)
327
SILL Question Number and Statement Inventory Question Number and
Statement
23. I make summaries of information that I 53. I summarize information that I have
hear or read in English. read or heard to help me remember it.
43. I write down my feelings in a language 57. I write down my feelings in a
learning diary. language learning diary.
24. To understand unfamiliar English words, 62. I make guesses to help me understand
I make guesses. unfamiliar English words.
37. I have clear goals for improving my 63. I have clear goals before I listen to a
English skills. text.
44. I talk to someone else about how I feel 64. I talk to someone else about how I feel
when I am learning English. when I am learning English.
19. I look for words in my own language that 74. I say or write new English words
are similar to new words in English. several times so I can remember them.
328
APPENDIX G
Coded Inventory
Statement Code
2 When I encounter new words, I combine them according to their CAE
meaning.
26 When I hear new ideas in an texts, it helps me to understand the CAE
text if group them with other ideas that have a similar meaning.
28 I think of relationships between what I already know and new CAE
things I learn in English.
35 When I hear new ideas, I combine them with other similar ideas CAE
that I am familiar with.
58 I use my background knowledge to help me understand unfamiliar CAE
ideas in a text.
14 I like to find an underlying structure from the text that I can apply CAR
to other situations.
20 I quickly can build grammatical structures from texts that I hear in CAR
English.
30 I look for words in my own language that are similar to new words CAR
in English.
37 I find learning English easier when I compare it with my own CAR
language.
40 I try to find patterns in English. CAR
329
Statement Code
56 When I find similarities and differences between my first language CAR
and English, I find it easier to understand texts.
21 When I make a mental image of words or ideas from a text, I can
remember the words or ideas better. CI
47 I connect the sound of a new English word and an image or picture CI
of the word to help me remember the word.
55 I remember a new English word by making a mental picture of a CI
situation in which the word might be used.
61 I usually make mental pictures of situations that I hear in a text. CI
66 I can remember a concept from a text better when I construct a CI
picture or image of that concept in my mind.
3 I use information in the text to guess the meanings of unfamiliar CIG
language, or to fill in missing information.
9 I use the speakers tone of voice to guess the meaning of unknown CIG
words in a text.
44 I use the context of an text to help me guess the meaning of words CIG
I do not know.
52 I use the words in a text that I know to help me guess the meaning CIG
of unfamiliar words.
62 I make guesses to help me understand unfamiliar English words. CIG
7 I watch English language television shows or go to English CP
language movies.
13 I try to find as many ways as I can to use my English. CP
38 I use new English words in a sentence so I can remember them. CP
48 I practice the sounds of English. CP
74 I say or write new English words several times so I can remember CP
them.
25 When I want to remember a word in English, I repeat it to myself CR
many times.
34 When I want to remember an idea from a text, I repeat it to myself CR
many times.
43 I review information that I heard in my classes in order to CR
remember it.
51 I repeat information many times silently or audibly in order to CR
memorize it.
67 It helps me to remember information when I repeat it silently to CR
myself many times.
16 When I listen to an text, I focus on each word that I hear. CSA
18 When I listen to an text, I focus on the words as well as the CSA
intonation and stress that the speaker uses.
29 When I listen to an text, I focus on the words that I hear most CSA
clearly.
330
Statement Code
68 I try to focus mostly on the new information that I hear in a text. CSA
71 I concentrate on each clear word that I hear in an text. CSA
1 I can remember information in an text better if I periodically repeat CSN
it to myself using my own words.
36 To help me remember an text, I mentally construct a summary. CSN
45 I put information that I have read or heard in my own words to CSN
help me remember it.
53 I summarize information that I have read or heard to help me CSN
remember it.
69 It's easier for me to remember information when I take notes. CSN
72 It helps me when I write down information I hear from an oral text. CSN
8 When I am listening to English, I think of the meaning of the CTX
words in my language before I think of the meaning of the English
words.
15 When I hear or read new English words, I look for an equivalent CTX
word in my language.
22 When a new English word is explained to me in English, I am not CTX
satisfied that I understand the word until I know what the word is
in my language.
49 For learning English, I normally translate words from English into CTX
my language or from my language into English.
59 I use words from my language when I do not know an English CTX
word.
73 I use linguistic concepts from my language to help me to CTX
understand linguistic concepts in English.
46 I check to see if I have been able to successfully complete a task ME
after I have finished listening to a text.
54 After I have listened to a text, I check that I have successfully ME
remembered the important information
60 When I have completed listening to a text, I usually verify that I ME
have been able to successfully complete a task that my teacher has
given me.
65 When I have finished listening to a text, I compare the information ME
I have understood with what the teacher asked me to find.
70 After I have finished listening to a text, I know that I have been ME
able to extract the important information so I can successfully
answer the questions that I have been given.
19 While I am listening to a text, I consciously keep in mind that MM
information that I need to listen for.
23 I keep in mind the answers I am looking for while I am listening to MM
a text.
27 I am actively thinking about the important information while I am MM
listening to a text.
331
Statement Code
31 When I can keep in my mind the goals for a task, I find it easier to MM
extract information from a text.
39 I think about the important information that I need to find in a text MM
while I am listening to the text.
5 I think about how I should successfully complete a task. MP
332
APPENDIX H
Questions for Group Interviews
1. What is your year at the university? How many years have you been formally studying
English?
2. On a scale of 1 to 7, with 1 being the easiest and 7 being extremly difficult, how difficult is it
for you to understand an oral text? Why?
3. What is the easiest thing you experience when you listen to an oral text and try to understand
what is being said?
4. Do you have any problems understanding an oral text? Explain.
5. Do you feel frustrated when you listen to an oral text? Why or why not?
6. What is the most frustrating thing you experience when you listen to an oral text and try to
understand what is being said?
7. Do you get anxious or afraid when you listen to an oral text in class or are asked to give
answer a teacher's question? Do you do anything to lessen any anxiety you feel?
8. Rate the following in order from biggest hindrance to understanding an English oral text to
least hindrance to understanding an English oral text speed, unclear speech, the speaker's
accent, vocabulary, background/context, unfamiliar grammar constructions, or the number of
speaker's in a text.
9. Do you have a specific plan that you follow when you listen to an oral text in class? What is
it? If not, what do you do as you listen to an oral text to try to understand it?
10. When you don't understand an English oral text, do you talk to other students or friends to
help you to understand the texts?
11. Do you ask your teacher or other students questions about an English oral text when you have
trouble understanding a text?
12. Do you find the oral texts that you listen to in class interesting? If so, what makes them
interesting? If not, why not?
13. Do you find yourself doodling, talking to your friends, or daydreaming while the class is
listening to an oral text? Why do you do this? Could anything in the class be done in a
different way to increase your interest in the text and help you concentrate more?
14. Do you find the oral texts that you listen to in class appropriate for your level (not too easy or
difficult)? If they are too easy, what makes them easy and what kind of texts would you
suggest to make your listening class more challenging? If they are too difficult, what make
them difficult and what kind of texts would you suggest to make your listening class more
rewarding?
15. Do you try to understand the English oral text in English or do you translate it into Arabic or
French to help you to understand it?
16. What is the difference for you between listening to an oral text in Arabic and English?
Between French and English? What makes listening to Arabic easier than listening to
English? What makes listening to French easier than listening to English?
17. What kind of English listening activities do you participate in outside of class? What kind of
activities do you participate in? Are these activities helpful for your listening classes?
18. Outside of class, do you spend time talking with anyone in English? If so, how much time a
week do you spend talking in English?
19. Does your teacher give you encouragement when you've answered a question or exercise
correctly? How does he or she do this?
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APPENDIX I
Tasks for Individual Interviews
Taken from Topics from A to Z: Steps to success in listening and speaking, Book 1 by I.
Schoenberg, pp. 48-49. Copyright [2002] by Pearson Education, Inc. Reprinted by
Permission of Pearson Education, Inc.
334
Part 3: Low Proficiency Tasks for Difficult Texts
A: David's Neighbors
2. David has different problems with each of his neighbors. In the blanks, write the
problem that David has with each neighbor.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Art: ____________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
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B: Preparing a Turkey
Taken from Tuning In: Listening and Speaking in the Real World by C. Numrich, pp.
103-104. Copyright [2006] by Pearson Education, Inc. Reprinted by Permission of
Pearson Education, Inc.
336
C: Women at War
Taken from Tuning In: Listening and Speaking in the Real World by C. Numrich, pp. 119-
120. Copyright [2006] by Pearson Education, Inc. Reprinted by Permission of Pearson
Education, Inc.
337
Part 4: Moderate Proficiency Visual Tasks
B: Malaysia
A: Participating in a Discussion
338
B: Strange and Unusual Things
Task 1: Main Idea
Taken from Topics from A to Z: Steps to success in listening and speaking, Book 1 by I.
Schoenberg, pp. 76-77. Copyright [2002] by Pearson Education, Inc. Reprinted by
Permission of Pearson Education, Inc.
339
C: Zoos
Task 1: Main Idea
Taken from Topics from A to Z: Steps to success in listening and speaking, Book 1 by I.
Schoenberg, p. 104. Copyright [2002] by Pearson Education, Inc. Reprinted by
Permission of Pearson Education, Inc.
340
Part 6: Medium Proficiency Tasks for Difficult Texts
341
B: Ethical Decisions
Taken from Real Talk 1: Authentic English in Context by L. Baker & J. Tanka, p. 203.
Copyright [2006] by Pearson Education, Inc. Reprinted by Permission of Pearson
Education, Inc.
342
C. Obesity
Task 1: Main Idea
Taken from Real Talk 1: Authentic English in Context by L. Baker & J. Tanka, p. 142.
Copyright [2006] by Pearson Education, Inc. Reprinted by Permission of Pearson
Education, Inc.
343
D: On the Job
Listen to an extract from a company meeting. Then complete the following tasks.
A. Comprehension Questions
i. Who is the third person who joins Gloria and Mark at the end of the dialogue? What
is the connection between him and Mark?
j. Why does Gloria make a strange sound at the end of the dialogue?
344
B. Complete the Following Table
Starting Time:
Ending Time:
Vacation:
Break Time:
Overtime:
Lunch Time:
Medical Insurance:
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E: Product Placement
Listen to the lecture. Take notes on the lecture. Then complete the following outline based
on your notes.
Taken from Real Talk 1: Authentic English in Context by L. Baker & J. Tanka, p. 176.
Copyright [2006] by Pearson Education, Inc. Reprinted by Permission of Pearson
Education, Inc.
346
F: Staying Single
Taken from Real Talk 1: Authentic English in Context by L. Baker & J. Tanka, p. 65.
Copyright [2006] by Pearson Education, Inc. Reprinted by Permission of Pearson
Education, Inc.
347
Part 7: High Proficiency Visual Tasks
A: Great Sites!
B: Strange Stories
348
Part 8: High Proficiency Tasks for Easy Texts
Taken from Tuning In: Listening and Speaking in the Real World by C. Numrich, p. 75.
Copyright [2006] by Pearson Education, Inc. Reprinted by Permission of Pearson
Education, Inc.
349
B: Stating Opinions
A: Choosing a Holiday
350
B: Credit Card Debt
Listen to the lecture. Take notes on the lecture. Then complete the following outline based
on your notes.
Taken from Real Talk 2: Authentic English in Context by L. Baker & J. Tanka, pp. 84-85.
Copyright [2006] by Pearson Education, Inc. Reprinted by Permission of Pearson
Education, Inc.
351
C. Culture Shock
Listen to the lecture. Take notes on the lecture. Then complete the following outline based
on your notes.
Taken from Real Talk 2: Authentic English in Context by L. Baker & J. Tanka, pp. 24-25.
Copyright [2006] by Pearson Education, Inc. Reprinted by Permission of Pearson
Education, Inc.
352
D. Memory
Listen to the lecture. Take notes on the lecture. Then complete the following outline based
on your notes.
Taken from Real Talk 2: Authentic English in Context by L. Baker & J. Tanka, pp. 108-
109. Copyright [2006] by Pearson Education, Inc. Reprinted by Permission of Pearson
Education, Inc.
353
APPENDIX J
Text Transcripts for Interviews
Listen. You will hear a traditional folktale. Number the pictures (1-6).
WOMAN: Once upon a time, a farmer and his three sons lived on a farm. The farmer
worked very hard in his fields. But his sons did not like to work. They were very lazy and
only wanted to have a good time. [pause]
One day, the farmer called his sons to him. He said,
FATHER: Sons, I am old. I will soon die. I'm leaving you a treasure in the fields. There's
a treasure in the fields.
FIRST SON: A treasure? Is it money?
SECOND SON: Gold?
THIRD SON: Diamonds?
FATHER: A treasure. You will find a treasure in the fields. [pause]
WOMAN: The old farmer died. His sons ran to the fields. They began digging and
digging. Soon, they dug up the whole field. But they found no treasure. [pause]
The field was already dug for planting, so they decided to plant some wheat. The wheat
grew and grew. They sold the wheat, and they made a lot of money. [pause]
But the sons still wanted to find the treasure, so they dug up the field again. Once again,
they found no treasure, so once again they planted wheat. They did this year after year.
[pause]
After many years, the sons began to enjoy working hard on their farm. They had good
lives. And they finally understood: The land was their father's treasure. The land itself
brought them a good life. [pause]
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Part 2: Low Proficiency Easy Text
Text 2. Laughter
Listening Comprehension 1
Why do we laugh? Experts say there are three explanations. First of all, we laugh when
there is a surprise. We expect one thing to happen, but something else happens. For
example, a teenager is on the telephone for thirty minutes. Her father says, "That was
short. You usually talk for two hours." The girl replies, "It was a wrong number."
Third, we laugh when we feel relief from stress. We see this a lot in movies. The tension
in a movie increases. We are very nervous. Suddenly someone says or does something
funny. We feel relief and laugh.
Listening Comprehension 2
Almost everyone says it's good to laugh. Scientists say it's good for your health, and it
makes you feel good. They say laughter is like exercise. Both laughter and exercise lower
blood pressure. They make your blood move faster and they use different muscles in the
body.
Here are two ways you can put more laughter in your life:
First of all, decide what makes you laugh. Then, meet with people who make you laugh.
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Part 3: Low Proficiency Difficult Texts
356
usually fall asleep again after they leave.
David: At least your neighbors put their garbage into the cans! Art, the guy who lives
next door to Mrs. Anderson, is sometimes such a pig. He never seems to throw
away his garbage. Whenever I walk by his door I have to hold my nose.
Ruth: Maybe you just need to start looking for a new place to live.
David: And give up my book?
Ruth: Book? What book?
David: I told you about my book didn't I? I'm writing a book about a guy who lives in an
apartment building with a bunch of crazy people. I hope it'll be a big Hollywood
movie someday.
Ruth: That sounds fantastic, but can't you write the book in a nice quiet apartment in
another building?
David: No way! Every week I get a new idea for a chapter from somebody in the
building. If I move now, I'll never be able to finish the book!
Chef Larry: When selecting a turkey, now this is debatable, but I like to give this
information out . . . because you can kind of determine where you want to go
with this. When selecting the size of a turkey . . .
Eric: Uh-huh.
Chef: . . . you have to figure at least a pound per person. Sounds like a lot, but you're
talking about a bone-in turkey, where the turkey itself represents about 30 percent
of the weight of the turkey. So, always consider at least a pound per person,
comfortably feeding everyone but also making enough for leftovers.
Eric: Exactly . . . turkey sandwiches.
Chef: Also too consider the convenience of fresh versus frozen. You know, if you're going
to be able to run around a couple of days before, like Eric said, pre-order it, make
all those arrangements, you have to plan it a little bit when you cook. Um, or
frozen, if you're able to get it on a deal. A lot of times now if you buy so many
groceries or a certain amount of groceries, they'll give you a free turkey, and it
might be frozen. So, you might just want to cook that one up. Make sure that you,
you know, you thaw it under refrigeration, which leads me to my other tips about
thawing. Always thaw under refrigeration. So, you've got to consider that the
turkey itself is going to have to sit under refrigeration for five to seven days to
defrost. Very, very important. So, if you have a frozen turkey, make sure you thaw
it under refrigeration. When you do have your turkey ready to go, when you're
ready to season it and put it in the oven or into the deep fryer, you have to rinse it
thoroughly and pat it dry. So, cold water, lots of cold water, pat it dry with paper
towels. Now here's some roasting times. These are some great hints because
sometimes you ask yourself, you know, how long to roast, you know, how long to
let the juices settle, and so on and so forth. So, for a 10 to 12 pound turkey, you
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want to go to about 2 1/2 to 3 hours. This is 10 to 12 pound turkey. A 12 to 14
pound turkey, you increase that to 2 3/4 hours to 3 1/2 hours.
Eric: At what temperature?
Chef: At about 375, Eric. Yeah, for this. 4 to 16 pounds, excuse me, 14 to 16 pounds, 3
hours. Sixteen to 18 pounds, 3 1/2 to 4 1/4 hours, 18 to 20 pounds really gets you
into that time that you need to prepare a lot ahead of time, 3 3/4 hours to 4 1/2
hours. If you have a turkey that is over 20 hours, excuse me, 20 pounds, you
almost have to cook it 20 hours, you have to cook it 4 1/2 hours.
Jamie: God!
Chef: Anyway, we'll post this information and get all this information again at our
website here.
Eric: It's really a long cooking day...it's one of those days, you know, when you go and...
Chef: It is! You gotta start early.
Eric: Yeah.
Jamie: Or even a day before, a couple of days before.
Eric: But the thing is . . . you could even pre-cook it, but of course if you pre-cook it, you
need nearly the same time to reheat it.
Chef: Right. Absolutely right.
Eric: It's just one of those things that . . . then it gets dry.
They were 12-hour shifts a day and six days a week. And sometimes you even worked on
your day off if the census was very high. And the helicopters after we opened came in all the time
everyday. It was a busy hospital. We got a lot of injured.
That was a very emotional time for me. I had just left Brian in Vietnam, and he wasn't
going to be coming home for the birth of our baby. And there I am in this belly of this airplane
with more than 100 injured soldiers, and that's what I did over there. I took care of those boys,
and I couldn't get away from it. It was there all the way home. And so I was pretty depressed on
the trip home.
Right across from me there was a blond-headed young mancouldn't have been more
than 20and he had lost both arms, and he was also blind. And he just laid there quietly the
whole trip, but at mealtime, of course, the Air Force nurse came with the tray and knelt down
beside him and fed him, and it was very emotional for me to watch him. I kept thinking, "Oh this
poor, poor boy. How is he going to get through life like this?" I thought, "Gee, if he wasn't blind
he'd see the spoon coming, or maybe if he is blind and had his hand, he could feed himself, but
this boy was blind with no hands, and he didn't know where the spoon was coming from. And I
watched her try to touch his cheek with the spoon so he could turn that way like a new baby to
learn to eat again. It was very, very sad.
Coming home wasn't a happy experience at all. Not only did I have my own difficulties
to face, I had a nation to face that didn't want to even know about me. And they told me not to
wear my uniform home just to pack it up in my suitcase and wear civilian clothes home. I faced
people all along the way of my homecoming that didn't want to even know where I came from or
what I'd been doing. And I could tell that right away. And we had lived through news bulletins
358
and all the demonstrations. We knew that we weren't appreciated at all. And so it was a very
different homecoming than some of your Second World War veterans had gotten. I didn't talk
about it. And I even came home to Indiana to a small farming community of 400 people in
northern Indiana, and they were glad to say "hi" to me, but they didn't ask me anything, and so it
all bottled up inside of me for many, many years.
Listen. What did these people do on vacation? Write W (Wei), J (Julia), K (Katie), or R (Ryan) in
the correct pictures. There is one extra picture for each pair.
Julia: Wei! Good to see you. So, how was your vacation?
Wei: Oh, it was wonderful.
Julia: What did you do?
Wei: Well, let's see. I walked around this beautiful garden.
Julia: Really? I didn't know you liked gardening.
Wei: Oh, I don't like doing gardening. It's too much work. But I love to look at beautiful flowers.
Julia: Mmm-hmm. So what else did you do, Wei?
Wei: Well, I went to some great restaurants. I ate seafood every night.
Julia: Really?
Wei: Yeah. Crab, lobster. Great food. Not too expensive either. It was just a terrific trip. So, how
was your vacation, Julia?
Julia: Well, I didn't go anywhere special.
Wei: You just rested?
Julia: Yeah. It was nice to be home and have a lot of time for things like reading. I did a lot of
that. I probably read, I don't know, four or five books. And I visited a couple of museums.
So it was relaxing, but also very interesting.
Wei: Sounds nice.
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Katie: Uh-huh. Did you have good time?
Ryan: Well, it was pretty boring, actually. It rained every day so we had to stay inside. We just
stayed home and watched TV a lot.
Katie: Oh, that's too bad.
Ryan: No, that's OK. It really was very relaxing, even though it was a little boring.
Text 7. Malaysia
Listen. People are talking about Malaysia. Which places are they talking about? Number
the pictures from 1 to 4. There is one extra picture.
2. Man: Just north of Kuala Lumpur is this famous site. These were found in a
mountainside in eighteen ninety-two. To get there, take a bus from Kuala Lumpur. You
will have to climb two hundred and seventy-two steps to reach the entrance from the bus
stop! Don't forget to buy some bananas and peanuts from the stalls near the stairs so you
can feed the many monkeys you will see on the way in.
3. Woman: This is a small island off the west coast, just south of Thailand. The warm
weather and tropical waters mean that you can swim all year. Even though many tourists
come here to enjoy the
beaches, you can still find beaches on the northwest side with very few people. However,
if you enjoy crowds, you'll love the nightlife here. The island
is also famous for its nightclubs, restaurants, and shops. It's a wonderful place for a
relaxing vacation.
4. Man: When you want a break from Malaysia's hot weather, head for this cool spot, in
the center of the island. This area's high elevation helps it stay cool all year. Visitors
enjoy taking tours of the nearby tea plantations, where tea is grown and then shipped
all over the world. If you take a walk in the nearby jungles, you'll probably see some of
Malaysia's famous butterflies.
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Part 5: Moderate Proficiency Easy Texts
Catherine: OK, so lets get started, shall we? The first item on the agenda is what are we
going to do about the decline in sales? We have to do something. I'd like to
start by asking Mark
Mark: Well, we might consider spending more money on marketing.
Catherine: Hmm. Julie, do you have any thoughts?
Julie: I think that's a good idea. More marketing means more sales.
Peter: Sorry, can I come in here?
Catherine: Yes, Peter. Of course.
Peter: I couldn't disagree more with Julie and Mark. Marketing is expensive, and we have
no guarantee that the costs will be worth it. Perhaps you can give us your opinion,
Catherine?
Catherine: Yes, well, I can see where Mark and Julie are coming from, but I have a
problem with increasing our marketing budget for the same reason that Peter
has just given. We can't be sure of the results. I propose we hire a new sales
manager. How do you feel about that, Mark?
Mark: That sounds reasonable to me. I think some new blood would be a good thing.
Julie: I have no problem with that, either.
Catherine: So, Mark and Julie both think it's a way forward. Peter?
Peter: Well, I'm afraid that's not how I see it, Catherine. Again, it means trying to spend
our way out of this crisis and I'm not very keen on that idea at all.
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Task 2: Comprehension Questions
Long necks are a sign of beauty in Myanmar. Women put large copper rings around their
necks. This makes their necks longer. The longest neck on record is 40 cm (15.75 in.).
Hoo Sateow lives in India. When he was 18, he got a haircut. Soon after, he got sick. He
never cut his hair again. His hair is now 5.15 meters long (16 ft. 11 in.).
Zoos are very old. The first zoo was built in Egypt more than 4,500 years ago. But zoos
then were different from zoos today. Early zoos were for kings and queens. Then later,
zoos opened for all rich people. These zoos were built for the fun of the rich.
In China around 3,000 years ago an emperor created a very big zoo. It was more than
1,500 acres. He gave the zoo an interesting name. He called it the Garden of Intelligence.
Ancient Greeks built zoos, too. They built them in order to study animal and plant life.
Students in Greece had to visit the zoos as part of their education. From the 1400s to the
1700s new animals were brought to Europe from different parts of the world. The first
public zoo opened in Austria in the 18th century. Soon, other countries followed. All the
animals were kept in cages. Today zoos are different. Animals aren't kept in cages. They
can move around, just like in nature. There is an open feeling for the animals and the
visitors. But some people still think zoos are not good for animals. These people believe
animals should be free. What do you think?
There are over 1,500 zoos in the world. The largest zoo is in Berlin, Germany. The Berlin
Zoo has 13,000 animals. The Bronx Zoo in New York City is the second largest zoo. It
has 6,000 animals. The oldest public zoo is the Vienna Zoo, in Austria. It opened in
1752. The second oldest zoo is the London Zoo, which opened in 1828. At first it was
used for scientific study. In 1847 it opened to the public. This was the first zoo to have a
special children's zoo.
362
Part 6: Moderate Proficiency Difficult Texts
363
Text 12. Ethical Decisions
OK, earlier we talked about the definition of an ethical dilemma... We said that it's a
situation where you're forced to make a choice that involves your beliefs about right and
wrong behavior. Now I think most people know the difference between right and wrong,
and I think most people, when they find themselves in a situation where there is a clear
difference between what's right and wrong, they will choose to do the right thing. But
what happens when the choice isn't between a right action and a wrong action but
between two actions that are both right? This is something that we all face in our lives
from time to time, isn't it? So today I want to look at three types of these right versus
right dilemmas, um we'll look at some examples, and later I'll ask you to think about what
you might do if you were in these situations. OK?
OK, so the first type of dilemma I want to describe is something I'm sure you've
encountered in your own life. It's called a truth versus loyalty dilemma. Let's suppose that
you have a good friend who is using drugs. OK, and you know about it but your friend
has asked you not to tell anyone. This immediately creates a dilemma for you, doesn't it?
On the one hand your friend asked you not to tell anybody. So you can be a loyal friend
and agree to keep his secret.
But the problem is, drugs are dangerous. Drugs are illegal. Your friend could die,
right? So do you keep quiet and keep your friend's secret or do you tell somebody, such
as his parents, and get him the help that he needs? You see both actions are good and
correct by themselves, but you can't do both. You have to choose. So what do you do?
Or here's another example, um a simpler one. Suppose your good friend is
dressing in a way that's unattractive or unprofessional. Um, it's the wrong color, uh, it
doesn't fit, or whatever. Do you tell your friend the truth, that the outfit looks bad because
you want to be helpful, or do you keep quiet because you don't want to hurt your friend's
feelings? Again, it's a situation where both choices are ethically correct, but you can only
choose to do one. OK? So those are two examples of the truth versus loyalty dilemma.
Another type of dilemma is called the self versus community dilemma. And here
there is a conflict between the needs or desires of one person and the needs or desires of a
larger group such as your family, or your class, or your town, or even your country. Let's
say that your parents want you to become a doctor. They think it's the best thing for you
and of course it would make them happy. But you don't want to be a doctor. You want to
be an artist. So you have a dilemma. On the one hand, you want to please your parents.
But on the other hand, you want to please yourself, and you can't do both. Does this
sound familiar?
Or here's another example, um, the kind of thing that you read about in the
newspaper every day. Suppose you work for a company that makes plastic toys. And you
discover that your company is spilling dangerous chemicals into a river nearby. Should
you report the company to the government in order to protect the people who live near
the factory, or should you keep quiet in order to protect yourself and keep your job? You
can't do both! Uh, by the way, this is exactly what happens in the movie Erin Brockovich,
um, if anyone has seen it. Erin Brockovich, uh, who's played by Julia Roberts, is a
secretary who discovers that the gas company is poisoning the people of the town where
364
she lives and of course they're trying to hide it, and she has to decide whether to make
this public or keep quiet in order to protect her reputation and her job. And I'm sure you
can guess what happens at the end of the movie. Anyway, so those are some examples,
then, of the self versus community dilemma.
All right, the third type of dilemma I want to describe is also something I'm sure
you have had to face in your own life. What we have here is a conflict between short-
term and long-term needs or goals. So if you're seven years old, the dilemma might be
should you eat all your candy now or save some for later? At age sixteen it might be
should you spend your money on a car now or should you save it to pay for college later?
And at the national level, the dilemma might be, um should a government keep taxes low
in order to be popular in the short term with voters, or should it raise taxes in order to pay
for new universities that will be needed five years from now? This is the kind of
dilemma, incidentally, that the United States government faces all of the time because of
the nature of the political system that we have here. So in all of these examples, what you
see is a conflict between the needs or desires of the present as opposed to the needs or
desires of the future. Both choices have certain advantages, but it's only possible to
choose one of them.
So by now I think you can begin to understand that ethical dilemmas are not easy
to resolve. Yet life is full of hard choices, isn't it, so wouldn't it be useful if there were
some strategies or guidelines we could use to think through our ethical dilemmas and
make the right choices? Well, that is exactly the topic we're going to examine next.
U.S. health officials say there is a new epidemic; it's called obesity. The World
Health Organization says the problem is global. Obesity is linked to a number of serious
health problems, such as cancer, heart disease, hypertension and diabetes. As diets higher
in fat and sugar become more widely available around the globe, fighting fat is not just a
U.S. problem.
The 2000 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, prepared by the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, found that nearly two-thirds of Americans
over the age of twenty are overweight, and more than thirty percent are obese.
The American Obesity Association says these percentages translate into
approximately 127 million American adults who are overweight, 60 million who are
obese, and 9 million who are severely obese.
Why are so many Americans overweight? Barbara Rolls, from Pennsylvania State
University, says part of the problem is the American diet. "We have a huge variety of
foods that are inexpensive. They're readily available. They're high in fat, high in energy
density, and they're in huge portions?'
Dietitian Jackie Newgent says too much of a good thing is bad for health. She
says American fastfood giants are making inroads into other countries around the world.
"It's unfortunate that, for instance, the Asian diet and the European diet, they may have
365
started as healthier diets, and they are becoming more Americanized, which actually
means they are going to get a little bit more saturated fat, and likely more trans-fat. I don't
know what the stats are on that, but that is definitely a trend."
The World Health Organization calls obesity an escalating global epidemic that it
has dubbed "globesity." WHO statistics say the number of obese adults worldwide
jumped from 200 million to 300 million, between 1995 and 2000. The health organization
also points to the rise in childhood obesity, estimating that more than 17.5 million
children under the age of five are overweight around the world.
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Mark: Oh, good. I could use the money.
Gloria: The overtime is good. We get double pay for overtime, thanks to the union. You
are going to join the union, aren't you?
Mark: Well, I'm only here for the summer. Besides, unions don't really
Gloria: Listen, college boy, after you've worked here a couple of weeks you'll be singing
a different tune. Without the union, Old Man Carson would work us to death.
Mark: Oh, come on! He can't be that bad.
Gloria: Are you kidding? He's so mean, I wouldn't be surprised if he fed his own kids
Carson's Canine Cuisine!
Mark: Dog food?!?
Gloria: Well, you know what I mean. He just doesn't care about his employees.
Mark: That can't be true.
Gloria: If he cared, we'd get better pay and benefits. Do you know that you have to work
here a year before you get medical insurance?
Mark: A whole year?
Gloria: Yeah, and there's no dental or retirement plan at all!
Mark: Well, surely you get vacation time.
Gloria: We only get one week of vacation a year, and Carson makes us take it in the
winter!
Mark: I can't believe that.
Gloria: Well, you should. He is the cheapest, meanest manoh, there he is . . . How are
you today, Mr. Carson?
Mr. Carson: Hello.
Gloria: Isn't that a beautiful tie you're wearing.
Mr. Carson: Yes, yes, thank you. Now, are you giving young Mark all the information he
needs?
Gloria: Yes, sir. And I'm sure he's going to be a fine worker.
Mr. Carson: Well, he should be. He's just like his father.
Gloria: His father, sir?
Mr. Carson: Why of course. Mark, Jr., has been around dog food all his life. All of this
will be his one day. That's why we've got him working here this summer.
Gloria: Mark, Jr., Eeeuw . . .
Today we're going to talk about a form of advertising known as product placement, and I
think the best way to explain this method of advertising is by looking at an example. Now before
we started I asked you to look at a photo ... and in this photo we see a man and a woman sitting at
a table, talking, and there's this computer in front of them. Yeah? So how many of you thought
this photo was a scene from a television program? OK. And how many thought it was an
advertisement? Good. And how many of you thought it was both?
Wow. Yeah, if you said both, you were right. Yes. This is a scene from a popular
American TV show called 24. And this program is shown without any commercials, which is not
367
very typical, but yeah, no commercials for this show. But did you notice what kind of computer
the man is typing on? An Apple, yes. Yes. And do you think it's a coincidence that he's using an
Apple and not some other computer brand? Of course not. Right. It's probably ... the Apple
computer company paid the producers of the show to "plant" their computer in this scene. This is
what we mean by product placement. It is the practice of mentioning, using, or showing a brand-
name product in a movie, film, or any other medium, so that the product actually becomes part of
the story or the action. Now, it isn't a commercial, but it is advertising.
Now you can find examples of product placement in almost any medium. I've already
mentioned television, and ... How many of you here remember Friends? Yes, huge hit. Lots and
lots of examples of product placement in this series. I'll just give you one example. There is a
well-known scene where the character named Ross is sitting at the kitchen table with a package of
Oreo cookies clearly visible. Um hmm.
Now in movies there are countless examples of product placement. And one of the
absolute most famous examples of this is the BMW Z8 driven by James Bond in the movie The
World Is Not Enough. All right. You can probably think of other examples of product placement
involving cars; almost every movie includes some kind of example of this. It's like a soft drink, or
... and if it's a soft drink, it's either Coke or Pepsi. Yeah? You get the picture. Good.
Product placement is most common in television and movies, but it's also easy
to find in video games, pop songs, and even in books. Yes, books. I was shocked to find the name
of this popular candy in the title of a book that teaches children how to count. But as product
placement has become more and more common, it's also become more controversial. OK. Now,
there are strong arguments both for and against it.
On the one hand, obviously, advertisers are in favor of product placement. Now why? Why? Well,
because it works! Right? It sells products! It works. Now here's a famous example. There's a
classic children's movie called E. T., right? You've all seen it, about this cute space alien that
makes friends with a young boy. And do you remember the alien's favorite food? It's a kind of
candy called Reese's Pieces. Well, as soon as that movie came out, sales of Reese's Pieces went
up by 65 percent. Now, eh, similarly, when you see Tom Cruise or any of those superstar guys
wearing Ray Ban sunglasses or driving a certain kind of car, you can be sure that sales of those
products are going to increase dramatically.
For consumersthat's you and me, the people who watch the shows or read the books
there's another argument in support of product placement, and that is that it makes these stories
more realistic. In real life people do drink Coke, right? You don't see them holding a can that just
says "soda" or "soft drink," right? In some cases it would just look really strange or completely
unbelievable not to use a name-brand product.
OK. Now, on the other hand there are some serious arguments against product placement. And the
main argument, according to people who oppose it, is that it exposes us to advertising against our
will. It's not like a television commercial where we have the choice of walking away or changing
channels. With product placement the product's part of the story, so we're forced to see it. And
what's even worse, opponents say, is that sometimes the product placement is so clever, so subtle,
we don't even realize that we're seeing an advertisement. Children, in particular, they may have a
very difficult time understanding the difference between advertising and entertainment. And this
was proven in a recent study at Lancaster University in England.
As a result of this research, some consumer groups are pushing for laws to restrict or even
ban product placement in media designed for children. This may happen in the future, but for
now, product placement is legal in both the U.S. and Great Britain and, in fact, it is expanding all
the time.
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Text 16. Staying Single
Susan Stamberg: "Deeply single" is how one writer put it in To Do List magazine, and
there are plenty of people who are deeply single. Unmarried by choice, living
alone by choice, or living together but just not wanting to get married. In
Portland, Oregon, Neil Lubow, age fifty-two, has been in a committed
relationship for ten years with, as he puts it, "a woman I love, honor, and indulge:'
And they live separately.
Neil: I'm not against marriage, but I think that marriage is not the only answer. I think
it's just one answer. I like my freedom, I like my independence, I like my privacy
and my solitude . . ."
SS: Neil Lubow likes living single. In Washington, D.C., Jennifer Schneider, age
thirty-one, says most of her thirty-something friends are desperately seeking a
someone, but she wonders about marriage all the time.
Jennifer: I'm not sure whether I want to get married or not, or have kids or not.
SS: Hmm. What are your questions?
Jennifer: I'm not sure of the benefits of getting married.
SS: Jennifer Schneider says, "Most people around me, especially the older generation,
assume that what is good for me is to have a family." But Jennifer says, "I'm not
ready to give in to that assumption." In La Canada, California, Terri Wild decided
when she was fairly young that she didn't want to have children, so she felt the
pressure to marry wasn't there. In her early fifties now, Terri Wild has dated over
the years, been engaged, made a full circle of friends, and never felt she had to be
in a committed relationship to feel fulfilled.
Terri: As I was pursuing my career, as the pool of eligible men dwindled, you know, I
found myself sort of making the decision that I wanted to have a full life, and if
that didn't necessarily include a husband or a long-term relationship, that was OK.
I could still pursue all the things that I wanted to do, and still have a great life.
And I feel as though I've pretty much been able to do that.
SS: Do you think there is an assumption in this society that your life is not complete
unless you're in some kind of a relationship?
Terri: Yes. I do. I've had a lot of people say, well, you know, "Don't you get lonely, don't
you worry about when you're old and alone and there's no one there to take care
of you? Don't you get uncomfortable if you wanna go out to dinner and you know,
you go out by yourself?" And I suppose there are many people who do worry
about those things, and who do feel that way, and you know certainly they're free
to make their own choices, but...
SS: But you, but that's not you?
Terri: I mean, it doesn't... first of all, I get lonely just like any other person does; I don't,
I can't think of anything more lonely than being in a marriage or relationship that's
not the right one. I think that would be awful.
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Part 7: High Proficiency Visual Texts
1.
Man: Here's that music Web site I was telling you about.
Woman: Wow! There's a lot of stuff here. Oh, click on that link. I just bought a new CD
and I want to read what the critic thinks of it.
Man: OK. . . . It says, "Don't rush out and buy this one. This CD is not the band's best."
Huh. He says he doesn't recommend it.
2.
Man: Oh, you know what I want to do? There's this old song I've been looking for. Let's
see if they have it here.
Woman: Why don't you just go to a music store and buy the CD?
Man: No, this way's a lot better. I can just choose the songs I want and put them right
onto my MP3 player. I don't have to buy the whole CD.
Woman: Hmm. Well, I think I'd rather have the CD to add to my collection.
3.
Man: Hey look! Isn't this the lead singer of your favorite band?
Woman: Oh, yeah! Oh, that's a great picture of him, too.
Man: Oh, and how exciting. It says here he's going to be online live tonight. Oooh! You
can get online and talk to your dream man.
Woman: Wow! That's amazing. I can really
communicate with famous musicians.
Man: Come on. There's no way it's the real guy. These sites just pay some part-time
worker to sit there and chat with the fans. It's a waste of time.
4.
Woman: Oh, look. Click on that.
Man: What's that?
Woman: It's like an online diary. A lot of bands have them on this site.
Man: A diary?
Woman: Yeah. The musicians write about themselves what's happening every day
all sorts of information about the band. Fans can read the musicians' personal Web logs.
Man: Huh. I don't see the point of that. I think I'd rather just listen to the music.
Woman: Well, I really enjoy reading about their everyday lives. Look. This one even has
photos of last week's concert in the park.
5.
Woman: Speaking of concerts . . . uh, didn't we have a reason for getting onto this Web
site? I guess we kind of got sidetracked. Got your credit card ready?
Man: My credit card? No way. Uh-uh. I don't like using my credit card online. I don't
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think it's safe. Maybe this link isn't such a good idea.
Woman: Oh, all right. I'll use my card. I always use this site. It's so convenient. First let's
just check what seats they still have available. I want to sit as close to the stage as
possible. Uh-oh.
Man: What's the matter? No seats up front?
Woman: It's sold out!
Man: Oh no! I guess we shouldn't have waited so long.
1. Woman: I'll never forget it. We were returning to London. We'd been on vacation in northern
Scotland. We were driving along the lake when I looked out the window and saw it. I noticed
something moving in the water. It was some sort of shape a large animal with a long neck and
a huge body. Its body was huge and dark gray, like an elephant. I guess it was about twenty-five
meters long. It was carrying something in its mouth. I couldn't tell what it was. Then it
disappeared under the water.
2. Man: This happened to my wife and me several years ago. We were driving home after a party
when suddenly we saw a strange object in the sky. We stopped the car to get a better look. It was
high up in the air and had a strange, green light. We could see these creatures definitely not
humans looking at us from the window. We were so scared. We tried to drive away, but our car
wouldn't move. There was a bright light coming from the sky, and it started to get really hot. Then
suddenly we couldn't see anything. That's the last thing I remember. We woke up still sitting in
the car. We were back home in our own driveway. We had been gone for two days!
3. Man: About ten years ago, we bought a new house. Our first guest there was my friend Bill. He
came to visit for a few days, and he stayed in the small guest room upstairs. That night, we all
went to bed around ten o'clock. Everything seemed normal, but then my wife and I heard
something in the night. It was Bill. He woke us up around midnight. He said he had heard a
strange sound coming from the closet. So, he got up to see what it was. He opened the door, and
at first he thought he was dreaming. But Bill swears he saw a woman standing there just
standing in the closet. A moment later, she disappeared.
4. Woman: I usually don't have trouble sleeping. But one night a few years ago, I just couldn't get
to sleep. Finally, around three A.M., I fell asleep, but not for long. About five A.M., I woke up. I
was sitting up in bed and screaming, "Mom, Mom, Mom!" I don't recall having a bad dream or
anything. For some reason, I just was in great need of my mother. I finally calmed down and went
back to sleep. I woke up at seven o'clock to the sound of the telephone ringing. It was my mother
on the phone. She said she'd been awake since five o'clock worrying about me. She didn't know
why, but she just wanted to make sure I was all right.
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Part 8: High Proficiency Easy Texts
I was eight years old when I realized what it was that I had to do. I was walking
down the street and I saw so many homeless men and women. I knew I had to find a way
to help. Two years later, I started a nonprofit group to feed the homeless.
Hi, my name is Amber Coffman and today I'm 20 years old. For the past 10 years,
the organization I created, Happy Helpers for the Homeless, has delivered love, food, and
clothing directly to men and women living on the streets. We've also helped other young
people discover the joy in serving others.
You know there's something you need to do in your community. But maybe you
thought, "What can I do? I'm just one person?" You'll be amazed at what a difference you
can make, if you just put your mind to it. Decide today to make that difference.
Get out and livevolunteer! (Taken from Numrich, 2006, p. 158)
David: So, I'd like to know what everyone thinks about the Board's proposal to pull out of
France and Germany? How do you feel about it, Inessa?
Inessa: Well, David, I think it's a bold move and it's probably the way we need to go, se
yes, I'm in favour of it.
David: Hmm. Javier, what are your thoughts?
Javier: I agree to some extent, but there are considerable costs involved. For example ..
Ian: Sorry, can I come in here?
David: Could you let Javier finish, please Ian: Javier, you were saying?
Javier: Yes, thanks. The costs are huge. It will cost over five million just to close our
branches there and we can't guarantee the move will succeed. It's risk. I'm not
completely opposed to it but, er, you know .
David: Ian, you wanted to say something?
Ian: Yes, Javier I see your point, but, well, basically I'm not very keen on the idea at
all. As well as the costs, we need to consider our long term future. We need to
expand our European operations, not close them down!
Inessa: Perhaps we should consider just closing down the least profitable of our branches
in France and Germany.
Javier: I have no problem with that What do you think, David?
David: Well, I can see pros and cons each way. It's quite a mixed picture.
Ian: I can't agree to that, I'm afraid. Like I say, I think we need to stay in France and
Germany. That's where our future lies.
David: Right Does anyone have anything else to add? OK, then. I think I need to pass all
your thoughts on to the Board for further review. Clearly, we can't come to a
unanimous decision here. Now, shall we move on?
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Part 9: High Proficiency Difficult Texts
OK, so for the next few minutes I want to talk about the problem of credit card debt
among one particular segment of the U.S. population. That's the group of college
graduates in the 25-to 34-year-old range. Now this is the group of young adults who are
just starting out.... They're on their first or second job, maybe they're newly married or
they're just starting to have children. And for a variety of reasons, which I'll clarify in a
minute, according to statistics this generation has more debt than any other generation in
U.S. history.
So here are some facts. Between 1992 and 2001, the average credit card debt of
this group increased by 55 percent to an average of 4,008 dollars per household. During
the same period of time, this group's bankruptcy rate grew by 19 percent. OK, so... seven
out of ten, that's 70 percent of these young Americans had credit cards in 2001, and of
those 71 percent had revolving balances. Revolving balances means that they don't pay
the full amount of their bill off each month but rather they only make partial payments.
Meanwhile, the interest charges keep accumulating from month to month, and it leads to
this pit of debt that's just almost impossible to climb out of.
So now the central question I want to address is, why is this generation going into
debt and in many cases going broke? What's really causing it?
Well, first and... first and most obvious is the high cost of housing, transportation,
childcare, healthcare, all of these have risen dramatically in the last 10 to 15 years. In the
second place you have a weak labor market for this segment of the population. What I
mean by that is, a large percentage of college graduates have jobs that are either
temporary or part-time or both. In the year 2003, for example, this group-had an
unemployment rate of about ten percent.
The third factor, which may be unique to the United States, is a rising student loan
debt... Let me explain, uh, give you some background on that. Traditionally, it used to be
that one way of paying for college in the U.S. was through... was throughgovernment
scholarships or grants, which don't need to be paid back. But the amount of available
grant money has been shrinking, so this generation I've been talking about is the first
generation that is paying for college mainly through loans instead of through grants. And
to give you an idea of the impact that this has had, in 1992, 42 percent of students
borrowed money for college, and they graduated with an average debt of 9,000 dollars. In
contrast to that, in 2002, ten years later, 66 percent of students were borrowing money
and the average student loan debt had doubled, to 18,900 dollars.
So now if we combine all the factors that I've listed so far, what they add up to is a
pretty difficult financial situation, as you can see by looking at the handout of the sample
budget that I've provided for you of a typical graduate, college graduate... let's call her
Caroline, OK. All right, so Caroline actually has a pretty good job, she's making 36,000
dollars a year. But, as you can see, her monthly pay after taxes is only 2,058 dollars. And
every month, besides her ordinary living expenses, look at the amount of debt Caroline is
carrying: 182 dollars per month on her student loans and 125 dollars on her credit cards.
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You can notice that she really doesn't spend any money on luxuries, yet she has
almost nothing left at the end of the month. So what happens to Caroline if she loses her
job or has an accident or some other unexpected expense comes up? Well really, what
choice does she have but to pull out the plastic and once again add to the credit card debt
that she's already carrying.
Now as you know, the credit card companies make this a very easy thing to do.
It's remarkably easy to get a credit card in this country. Already in high school young
people start getting credit card applications in the mail. But, the problem is that typically
young adults don't have much experience with money management, and with the illusion
of "free" money that comes with owning credit cards they can quickly accumulate a debt
that may take years to pay off. So I would say that the easy availability of credit cards
together with poor money management skills is the fourth reason for the financial
difficulties of young college graduates today.
All right, are we ready to go here? OK. We've been talking about the process of
cultural adjustment, and we've seen that when people first come into contact with a new
culture, there is this euphoric period of a month or so where everything is new and
exciting and interesting.
But if someone stays in the new culture for longer than just a short visit, sooner or
later the realities of living in the new culture start to sink in, and quite unexpectedly
people may find themselves feeling angry or upset, or they might overreact to situations
that they really didn't have any trouble handling when they were "back home' So this shift
in attitude and behavior is a pretty clear signal that a person is in a new stage of the
cultural adjustment process, that's the stage we call culture shock. And that's what I'm
going to talk about right now.
So to start off, what is culture shock? It's that feeling of anxiety that overtakes you
when you realize that the rules that you thought you knew about how to get things done
don't seem to work in the new culture. In psychological terms this is known as cognitive
dissonance; cognitive dissonance, which is defined as the sense of discomfort that we feel
when our new experiences don't match what we already know or expect.
So... this dissonance or discomfort can be expressed in all kinds of strange and
unexpected symptoms. Some people develop physical symptoms such as headaches, or
over- uh huh, overeating, sleep disorders. Other people develop kind of bizarre behaviors
or fears, like maybe they worry a lot about cleanliness, or they're afraid of shaking hands
with people in the new culture. I have a friend who took his family to live overseas for a
year and his son kept complaining that the air smelled funny. That's a little weird.
So... OK, then there are the emotional symptoms of culture shock... personality changes...
irritation, anger, homesickness, loss of confidence, loneliness,depression... you know, you
wake up in the morning and feel like another person is suddenly living inside your body.
This is culture shock.
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But as terrible as all of that sounds, there are things that people can do to avoid...
well not, not avoid but you can minimize the symptoms. So, uh, first of all it's important
to recognize that culture shock is normal; OK, everyone can relax, and nearly everyone
living in a new culture goes through culture shock to a greater or a lesser degree. And, uh,
it's also helpful to know that it's temporary. Culture shock typically lasts three to six
months and then most people start to adjust and feel better.
Now a third thing that can help is for people to understand that... psychological
factors that make some people suffer from culture shock more than others. For example,
research has demonstrated that people who are open-minded, flexible, curious about new
things, uh, people who have a good sense of humor, are less affected by culture shock
than people who are more kind of rigid and judgmental. Uh, research also shows that
people who are more self-aware, who understand themselves in situations, they
understand their own strengths and weaknesses, and they're obviously going to be able to
anticipate the effects of culture shock and prepare for them better.
But even if you're not the most flexible person in the world, there are a few things
that you can do to prepare yourself for the experience of living in a new culture. First of
all, try to learn as much as you can about the new culture before you get on the plane.
Read, talk to people, watch movies, and of course try to learn a little bit of the language
before you go so you're not totally helpless when you arrive. And experts also suggest
trying to develop a support system ahead of time... so, in other words getting the names
of people and organizations that you can turn to if you need help and then contact them to
introduce yourself as soon as you arrive in the new culture.
So to, to sum things up, as I said before, everyone experiences culture shock,
some people worse than others, but there are some steps you can take to minimize the
cognitive dissonance when you arrive in the new culture and reduce the shock of culture
shock.
OK, we've been talking about how memory works, right, and what we can do to
improve our memory. So we've seen, for example, we can enhance our ability to recall
new information if we transform or extend it in some way. So, for instance, we're more
likely to remember verbal information like directions to someone's house for example uh,
if we transform it into something visual like a diagram or a map or something.
So now, another way of facilitating recall is through the use of memory techniques
called mnemonics... I'll spell that for you: m-n-e-m-on-i-c-s... OK, uh, as I said before,
mnemonics are techniques for improving memory. A little more formally, uh, they're
systematic strategies that we can use to help us remember information, especially
information that is hard to recall like you know numbers, lists, names, things like that.
So about 30 years ago, there's a psychologist named R.C. Atkinson, and he developed this
mnemonic technique to help students learn vocabulary in a foreign language. And he
called it the keyword method, and what I'd like to do now is demonstrate this method for
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you using an example from a language that none of you know. All right, so then you can
use this technique in your own language studies. Uh, anybody know Hungarian? You
speak Hungarian? No? OK, good.
Uh, so let's say you're learning Hungarian, right, and you're learning the names of
foods, and one of your target words is the Hungarian word for cabbage, which is called
kaposzta. And how can you remember that?
Well, the first step in the keyword method is to choose your key word. And a good
key word has three characteristics: One, it's a word you know very well. You're real
familiar with it. Two, it's a word that sounds like the target wordyou know, the word
you're trying to rememberor at least the first part of the target word. And number three,
the last characteristic, the third characteristic of a good key word, is that it should be
something that's easy to visualize, easy to picture, so a concrete noun or action verbs,
those make you know the best keywords.
All right let's apply those three criteria to our example, kaposzta. OK, so what's a
familiar word that sounds like kaposzta and is easy to visualize?
What comes to mind? Well, how about "cop," you know, a police officer. So that's
a good keyword because it sounds like our target word kaposzta, it's familiar, it's easy to
visualize, easy to picture.
So OK now we've got a keyword, and what's the next step? What we're going to
do is, we're going to create a mental image, a picture, that contains both the keyword, in
this case cop, and the target meaning, which is cabbage. In other words, in your mind's
eye I want you to imagine the cop and the cabbage interactingyou know, doing
something. Um, it's best if the image is moving, if it's colorful, exaggerated, silly, it's
even better. So the more absurd or ridiculous, the better. Uh, let's imagine a cop wearing a
uniform. OK, you got that? And his head is a big, green cabbage, all right? So let's give it
eyes, put a nose on it, and a mouth, cop's hat, put a cop's hat on it. OK, what else? Maybe
a mustache? A mustache?
So take that silly image and just focus on it for a minute. Hold it in your mind's
eye... OK... Really concentrate so it's fixed in your memory.
OK. Now let's suppose it's a week later, all right, and you've got to review because
tomorrow you're going to have a test on your new Hungarian vocabulary. Let's see how
you can use this keyword method to painlessly study for your test. Make it easy, right?
First you take out your list of words and, you know, there's the word kaposzta.
Immediately you think of your keyword, cop, which automatically triggers the image you
created of the cop, you know with the cabbage head, and voila! There it is! Your
definition. See how it works? So, you see the sequence? Kaposzta leads to cop; cop leads
to cabbage. Now "cop" is the bridge that connects the new word, kaposzta, with the
definition, cabbage. The association is so powerful you couldn't even forget it if you tried.
So research does prove this. It proves that students who use the keyword technique
remember vocabulary better than students who don't. But let me give you a word of
caution, in conclusion. I don't want you to think that this mnemonic or any other, you
know, techniques are magical. All right, for mnemonics to work you still have to practice
and rehearse. You have to study for the test. (Baker & Tanka, 2007b, pp. 253-255)
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APPENDIX K
Questions for Individual Interviews
Note 1: The questions that I used with the informants varied depending on what happened
during the interviews and their responses to questions I asked.
Note 2: Text 1/Task 1 was the Easy/Visual Text/Task and Text 2/Task 2 was the Difficult
Text/Task.
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APPENDIX L
Student Listening Diary Writing Guidelines
This paper has guidelines to assist you in knowing what should be included and what
should not be included in your listening comprehension diary. If you have any questions
while you are involved in the research, please contact me at:
ishler_research@pobox.com or call me at 24-657-222.
Thank you very much for being willing to participate in this research. Your diary
entries will be of great help to me and my research.
Please remember that all the information that you write in the diary is confidential and
will not be shared with your teachers or anyone else. Only I will read the entries. If I use any
information from these diaries for my doctoral thesis, I will not use your name and I will change
the information enough so that you will not be identifiable by anyone who reads my reports.
Please also remember that any information you write in your diary will not affect your
marks in your classes (either positively or negatively)
These diary entries are to be a record of your experiences listening to an oral text that
you listen to either in your classes or outside your classes (for example if you watch an
English film on television).
The overall purpose of this diary is for you to record:
1. What problems or difficulties you encountered as you listened to an oral text, and
2. What listening strategies (plans, actions, or tactics) you used to accomplish the
task in class and/or to understand the oral text you were listening to.
Definition of Terms:
1. Oral Texts Anything that you listen to in English. It may be a lecture in class, an
audio or video tape in class, or an audio or video that you listen to or watch outside of class.
2. Listening Strategies Plans, actions, or tactics you use to accomplish a task or
understand a text. For example, if your listening comprehension teacher asks you to get the
main idea from an oral text in class, how are you going to complete that task? If you have a
lecture in class, what are you going to do to try and understand the lecture and remember the
main ideas? If you watch an English program on television, how are you going to understand
and remember the main ideas so you can share the information with your friend?
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Specific Guidelines:
1. Write entries in the diary from now until the end of November.
2. Write an entry every time you listen to an English oral text. This is especially
important for oral texts in your listening comprehension classes. However, it is also
helpful for my research for you to write an entry when you listen to an English
oral text in another class or outside of the university.
3. Try to write an entry as close to the event as possible. For example, if you have a
listening task in your listening comprehension class, write an entry in your diary
as soon as you finish the task or right after the class if you cannot do it earlier.
The farther the entry is from the event, the less details you will be able to
remember. Details are important for the research.
4. Write your entries in English. Your grammar and spelling is not important.
However, writing it in English is helpful to for the research and it will also help
you to improve your written comprehension skills. If you make a mistake in
writing, just neatly cross out the mistake and continue writing. You can also use
white-out (blanco) if you want. Don't rip out the page and start over again.
5. As you write about a task or a text, try to remember what steps you went through
to accomplish the task or understand the text. The more details you can write
down, the better it is for the research.
6. Please give me a way of contacting you. I will meet you once a week at the
university to discuss your progress and answer questions you may have.
7. I will collect entries from you every two weeks and read them to make sure that
your entries are satisfactory. After reading them and making comments on them, I
will give them back to you the following week.
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APPENDIX M
Tasks for Think-aloud Protocols
A. Coming of Age
C. Night Market
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Part 2: Moderate Proficiency Tasks for Easy Texts
A. Airline Reservations
Task 1: Main Idea
Listen to the conversation. Mark the statements T (true) or F (false). Then work with
a partner and compare answers.
______ 1. The woman wants to fly to Los Angeles.
______ 2. The woman wants to buy a round-trip ticket.
______ 3. The ticket is cheaper if she stays over Saturday night.
______ 4. The woman has to buy her ticket within forty-eight hours.
______ 5. The agent reserved a ticket for the woman.
Taken from Real Talk 1: Authentic English in Context by L. Baker & J. Tanka, p. 36.
Copyright [2006] by Pearson Education, Inc. Reprinted by Permission of Pearson
Education, Inc.
381
B. Renting a Car
Taken from Real Talk 1: Authentic English in Context by L. Baker & J. Tanka, p. 162.
Copyright [2006] by Pearson Education, Inc. Reprinted by Permission of Pearson
Education, Inc.
382
Part 3: Moderate Proficiency Task for Difficult Texts
383
B. Rap Music
Listen to the lecture. Take notes on the lecture. Then complete the following outline
based on your notes.
Taken from Real Talk 1: Authentic English in Context by L. Baker & J. Tanka, p. 96-97.
Copyright [2006] by Pearson Education, Inc. Reprinted by Permission of Pearson
Education, Inc.
384
C: Why Americans Work Hard
Taken from Real Talk 1: Authentic English in Context by L. Baker & J. Tanka, p. 124.
Copyright [2006] by Pearson Education, Inc. Reprinted by Permission of Pearson
Education, Inc.
385
Part 4: High Proficiency Visual Tasks
A. Electronic Devices
Not Reprinted due to Copyright Restrictions
B. Reflexology
Not Reprinted due to Copyright Restrictions
386
Part 3: High Proficiency Tasks for Difficult Texts
Listen to the lecture. Take notes on the lecture. Then complete the following outline based
on your notes.
Taken from Real Talk 2: Authentic English in Context by L. Baker & J. Tanka, pp. 134-135.
Copyright [2006] by Pearson Education, Inc. Reprinted by Permission of Pearson
Education, Inc.
387
B. Earth Day and Environmental Problems
Listen to the lecture. Take notes. Use your notes to fill in the following chart.
388
C. How English Acquires new Words.
389
D. Two Types of Diets
Taken from Real Talk 1: Authentic English in Context by L. Baker & J. Tanka, p. 150.
Copyright [2006] by Pearson Education, Inc. Reprinted by Permission of Pearson
Education, Inc.
390
APPENDIX N
Transcription of Texts for Think-aloud Protocols
A. Coming of Age
Listen. People are talking about coming-of-age ceremonies. What countries are they talking
about? Number the pictures from 1 to 5. There is one extra picture.
1.
Man: In my country, we have Coming of Age Day. It's on the second Monday in January. The
year we turn twenty years old, we celebrate this day. We dress up. Women wear long, colorful
dresses called kimono, and men wear suits. There's a big ceremony at City Hall, and somebody
usually makes a speech. But the fun part is having a party with our friends. We're twenty. We
are finally adults!
2.
Woman: For me, becoming an adult was my Quinceaera party. Quince means "fifteen." Where I
come from, this is very important for fifteen-year-old girls. We wear pretty white dresses, and
we usually wear something pretty in our hair, too a hairpiece. First we go to church; then we
have a big party and dance. We always dance the first dance with our fathers. Quinceaera means
we are no longer little girls. We are becoming women.
3.
Wo m a n : I n m y c o u n t r y, K r o b o g i r l s w h o a r e becoming women have a ceremony
called Dipo. We go away for three weeks with our mothers and other older women to learn
about being wives and mothers. When we come back, we wear special necklaces made of glass
beads, and we walk through the village. After Dipo, we can get married.
4.
Woman: When we graduate from high school in May, students celebrate for two weeks.
Students from the same school all wear the same clothes, usually blue or red, depending on
the school. We go out with our friends and have lots celebrations parades, fireworks, parties.
Sometimes, we get pretty crazy!
5.
Man: We don't really have a special ceremony where I'm from. I guess the senior prom is
sort of like that. It's a big dance we have our last year of high school. We dress up; girls wear
formal dresses, and guys wear suits or tuxedos. The couple takes a photo together, and everybody
dances.
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B. How was Your Vacation?
392
C. Night Market
Listen. A man is talking about the Kuala Lumpur night market. What items did he
buy? Check the items. There are two extra items.
1.
Interviewer: So, Seng Yeow, where is your favorite place to shop in Kuala Lumpur?
Seng Yeow: My favorite place is the night market. Interviewer: What's that like?
Seng Yeow: It's a big outdoor area with a lot of tables and stalls all selling different
things. It's only open at night, but there are lots of lights, so you can see everything. The
market is very popular, so it gets pretty crowded.
Interviewer: What can you buy there?
Seng Yeow: Oh, almost everything! I usually go there to buy T-shirts. They've got all
kinds of T-shirts.
2.
Interviewer: So, what else can you buy at the night market?
Seng Yeow: Well, let's see. I bought this great belt there.
Interviewer: That's a nice one. Is it leather?
Seng Yeow: Yes, it is. They sell lots of nice leather shoes, too.
Interviewer: Great.
3.
Interviewer: I like your watch. Did that come from the night market, too?
Seng Yeow: Yes, actually it did. Lots of markets sell watches. Many look similar to
very expensive brands, but they are very, very cheap. All watches are cheap at the night
market.
Interviewer: I see. A good price, but still fashionable!
Seng Yeow: Yes, exactly.
4.
Interviewer: So, is everything cheap at the
night market?
Seng Yeow: Well, that's up to you!
Interviewer: What do you mean?
Seng Yeow: At the night market, you bargain for prices. The seller tells you one price,
then you offer a lower price. He lowers his price a bit, then you raise your price. If you
can agree on a good price, you buy the item.
Interviewer: It sounds difficult!
Seng Yeow: But it's worth it. For some of the more expensive things, like jewelry, you
can get a great price. I spent fifteen minutes once bargaining for a silver ring for my
mother. I got it for a very good price, and she was very happy.
393
5.
Interviewer: Fifteen minutes to buy one ring! I think that's hard work.
Seng Yeow: Well, if you get tired, you can get something to eat.
Interviewer: Oh? They sell food there, too?
Seng Yeow: Yes, all kinds. Malaysian food is a mix of Chinese food, Indian food, and of
course, there are Malay specialties.
Interviewer: Is there anything special you recommend
Seng Yeow: Oh, yes. I got some fresh fruit there yesterday. Pineapples and mangoes are
delicious this time of year. Oh, and I also recommend the Chinese fried noodles. Mmm,
they're my favorite.
Interviewer: Stop! You're making me hungry!
6.
Seng Yeow: Well, I'd better get home. My family's celebrating tonight.
Interviewer: Oh, really? What's the occasion?
Seng Yeow: It's my wife's birthday. Actually, I bought her gift at the night market.
Interviewer: Oh, what did you get her?
Seng Yeow: She really likes jewelry, so I got her this.
Interviewer: Wow! That's a beautiful necklace.
Seng Yeow: Yes, and its twenty-four carat gold. My son helped me pick it out.
Interviewer: Well, I'm sure your wife will love it.
394
Part 2: Moderate Proficiency Easy Texts
A. Airline Reservations
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A: OK. Now, if you made the reservation today, ticketing deadline would be within
twenty-four hours. So you would have until tomorrow. That doesn't guarantee the fare.
C: Hmm.
A: We can only guarantee the fare today. But, usually it holds for twenty-four hours.
C: OK, so I'd have to purchase it in twenty-four hours. OK. Urn, fine. I'd like you to book
me then. And then I'll make the decision within twenty-four hours.
B. Renting a Car
Rental Agent: Best Deals Car Rentals. How can I help you?
Customer: Hi. I'm calling to get some information about your rates.
RA: I can help you with that. When, uh, when did you need the car?
C: Well, I have some relatives... uh, relatives visiting next month from Italy.
RA: OK.
C: Uh, so I just wanted to know if you have daily rates, or weekly rates or...
RA: We have both and monthly.
C: Uh, can you tell me what they are?
RA: Yeah. Do you know what size car?
C: Well, it's four people, so what, uh, what are the different options?
RA: Well, a mid-size car for us is like a Ford Focus or a Toyota Corolla.
C: Uh-huh.
RA: And that's 39 dollars a day.
C: OK.
RA: 190 a week and 650 a month.
C: I see.
RA: Would you like me to reserve one for you?
C: Uh, well, notnot yet, I mean I'm I'm trying to see which company is best for them.
RA: Well, we're very competitive on our pricing.
C: OK.
RA: Yeah, that's number one. Second, is our service. We provide free pick-up and/or
delivery, anywhere, wherever you need it. And the rates I just quoted you do include
unlimited mileage.
C: Oh, they do?
RA: Yup.
C: Because I did see cheaper rates um somewhere, but maybe those didn't include
unlimited mileage.
RA: Yeah, and they probably have older vehicles. So pretty much the 190 a week for new
vehicles is the best I could do. But if they rent over the weekend, we do have
weekend specials as well.
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C: Um, weekend specials. What are they?
RA: Those run from Friday to Monday, and the mid-size car with the unlimited mileage
would be 30 bucks a day.
C: I see. Well, that sounds good.
RA: Yeah, those are kind of our options as far as...
C: Well, I'm sorry ... but do those rates include insurance?
RA: No, they don't.
C: Oh, they don't? How much extra...?
RA: It's 11.99 a day.
C: Uh-huh. And is tax included, or is that extra, too?
RA: Tax is not included. Tax is extra: 8.25 percent.
C: And is that OK if they don't have a local driver's license?
RA: Uh, yeah, it's fine. As long as they have a valid driver's license from somewhere.
C: Uh-hmm. And can everyone in the family drive the car? 'Cause they have two children
RA: You can have up to three drivers max. And everyone who drives has to show a
driver's license and a credit card.
C: And what about an age limit? I think they have an eighteen-year-old and a twenty-
two-year-old.
RA: We rent to twenty-one and up. The eighteen-year-old would not be able to drive.
C: I see. Well, uh, you've been very helpful. Thanks very much.
RA: You're welcome. Just give me a call when you're ready to reserve. My name's Erik.
C: Thanks Erik. I will give you a call.
RA: OK. Bye.
C: Bye.
397
C: Oh, that might be good for them. Um, and does that include insurance as well or is that
extra?
RA 2: Yes. All the insurance is included.
C: Oh, OK. Urn, and about the drivers, what's your policy about drivers under twenty-
one?
RA 2: Well, we don't rent to anyone under twenty. Do they have teenagers?
C: Uh, I think their kids are eighteen and twenty-two.
RA 2: Okay, well, twenty is the minimum and there's a surcharge of 5 dollars for under
twenty-five.
C: 5 dollars extra per day?
RA 2: Yes, that's right.
C: So anyone in the family can drive the car as long as they are over twenty.
RA 2: Yes.
C: All right. Well, I think that's all I need to know for now. Thanks very much for your
help.
RA 2: You're welcome. Thanks for calling Discount Cars.
C: Bye.
398
Part 3: Moderate Proficiency Difficult Texts
In the United States today, there are many ways to get news and information. Some
people listen to the radio; others watch TV, read books or magazines, see films, or even surf the
Internet. One of the oldest ways to get information is to read a daily newspaper. Newspapers
have been a valuable part of American life since the country was founded, and the public's
right to know what is happening by reading a newspaper without the government
controlling or changing the information is one of the main principles of American society. In
the United States, freedom of the press is a very important idea. It is illegal for the government
to either stop or try to change what newspapers say. If a newspaper prints a story that is
negative or critical of the government, the writers cannot be arrested or otherwise punished.
This is what freedom of the press means, and Americans take this right very seriously.
Newspapers are an important way to get information in this country, and when people read
a newspaper, they want to be confident that the information in it is truthful and fair. Daily
newspapers are cheap and easy to buy and are an important part of American life.
The first newspaper printed in the United States was published in the year 1690.
Since then many newspapers have come and gone, and today there are more than 1,400
different daily papers available for Americans to read. A few newspapers are national, and
can be easily purchased everywhere in the country. Examples of national newspapers
include USA Today and The Wall Street Journal. But most newspapers are called local
papers because they are published in one city or area and usually have the name of the city in
their title. Examples of local newspapers include The Philadelphia Inquirer and The Miami
Herald.
All major daily newspapers, whether they are national or local, include ads for many
kinds of goods and services. The companies and stores that advertise in a newspaper pay to
have their ads included. Some people complain that newspapers have too many
advertisements and not enough news, but, if the stores and companies did not pay for the ads,
the cost of the newspaper would be much higher for the public. Daily newspapers are cheap to
buy because the ads pay for most of the cost of publishing them.
The front page of the paper contains the headline news. These are the stories that the
newspaper publisher feels are the most important of the day and will be printed with large
headlines or titles and perhaps even include color photographs. The headline is supposed
to get your attention. If you see an interesting headline with large print, perhaps you'll be
curious and want to buy the newspaper to read the story. World newsstories about events
taking place in other countriesmight be on the front page. National newsstories from
around the United Statesmight also be found on the front page. Even local newsstories
about the town or city where the newspaper is publishedcould be on the front page. The
headline news is the information that the publishers feel the public is most interested in and they
try to present it in a way that will increase newspaper sales. Most of the headline stories start
on the front page and are continued somewhere inside the front section of the newspaper. When
you see a newspaper at a news stand or in a paper box, you can easily see what
the headline stories are, but you can only read part of them. In order to read the entire story, you
399
need to buy the paper and open it up to the inside page where the story is continued. Remember,
newspaper publishers want you to buy the paper, so they aren't going to show you the entire
story on the front page!
Since people buying and reading newspapers want information fast, a good news
article will answer the major WH-questionsWho, What, When, Where, and Why, and How
in the first or lead paragraph of the article. Readers who don't have a lot of time can get all
the basic information from the article by reading the lead paragraph. The rest of the article
will include detail information that is not as important as the facts contained in the lead
paragraph. Every paragraph after the lead paragraph contains less important information. The
last paragraph or two of a newspaper article usually contains information that is not really
important. So, for example, the first or lead paragraph of a story with the headline ESL
Student Wins Ten Million Dollar Lottery will tell you who won the lottery, where the person
won the lottery, when the person won the lottery, and how the person won the lottery. All
of the paragraphs after the lead paragraph will provide details about the lottery story.
The articles on the front page and first section of a newspaper are called straight or
objective news because the stories talk only about the facts of what happened. Newspaper
reporters writing straight news articles are not allowed to give their opinions about the events
they are reporting on. Instead, the story will give only the facts. So, for example, in the article
about the ESL student winning the lottery, the reporter can only talk about the who, what,
when, where, why, and how of the story. The reporter is not allowed to say that she or he
thinks it's good or bad that the student won the lottery, or any other opinion. Even if the
reporter has very strong feelings about a story, her or his opinion cannot be included. It is
important for the readers to decide, after reading only the facts, what they think about the
information, so the reporter's viewpoint is never included. While most of the stories in a
newspaper are straight articles, there is a special place where opinions are allowed. This
section is called the opinion or editorial page. The editorial pages are where writers are
allowed to talk about their opinions, feelings, and reactions. The newspaper editors, or
bosses, might write about how they feel about a current news story in the editorial
section. Other reporters might say why they support a political candidate or disagree with a
new law. Even newspaper readers can discuss their reactions to news stories by writing letters to
the newspaper that are published in the editorial section.
Most daily newspapers are organized by topic and include sections on world news,
national news, and local news. Additionally, you will often find parts of the newspaper
focusing on business news, classified ads, sports, cooking, and entertainment. Each section of
the newspaper is usually labeled so it's easy to find out what stories each part contains. No
matter what information you needfor example, finding out the score of a baseball game,
reading about what jobs are available, or even looking to see what the weather will be like
you can find it in a newspaper. Just look for the section that has the information you want, or use
the newspaper index on the front page to assist you.
Daily newspapers are an important information source in the United States. Because
they are protected by law, newspapers are free to print the kind of information that people
want. Most major cities have at least one newspaper, and reading the paper is a popular
daily activity for many Americans.
(Adapted from Scholnick & Gabler, 2003b, pp. 121-124)
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B. Rap Music
OK, um, we've been surveying different styles of modern music and today's topic is rap.
Why is it that when we hear a rap song, whether it's in English or Farsi or Korean or
French, we immediately know that it's rap? In other words, what are the elements or
characteristics that make this style of music so distinctive, uh, so easy to recognize?
That's the question I want to answer today.
First of all, what is rap? Well, rap can be defined as a genre of music consisting of rhyming
lyrics that are spoken or chanted over a musical background. That is to say, the two essential
components of rap are (1) rhyming lyrics and (2) musical accompaniment. Now, I'll be
addressing both of these topics but I want to start by looking at the musical aspect.
OK. As you may already know, rap music was started in the 1970s by poor, young,
African Americans in New York City. They would go around to parties and dances and rap
lyrics over music coming from vinyl records played on an old-fashioned turntable. Now a
unique element introduced around 1978 or so was a technique called scratching. And a
scratch sound is produced by moving a record back and forth with your hand while it's
playing on a turntable. It sounds kind of like whack-a whack-a whack-a. And so this
unusual sound is something that almost everybody associates with rap music.
Now as time passed, rap music became more sophisticated, and several elements
were introduced that we hear until this day. Now, those elements are the background
melody, the backbeat, and sampling.
Now the background melody, I mean the tune, is the part that you can sing. And it can be
created using any instrument or combination of instruments. Typically, though, in a rap
song the melody is not the most prominent or memorable element.
The most prominent element is the backbeat, or the rhythm. Now the backbeat is the
repetitive BOOM BOOM BOOM; it's that drum sound that you hear when you're, uh,
when you're stopped at a car next to you at a red light. It's one of the most identifiable
characteristics of rap music and it is also the thing that makes a lot of people, such as
parents, hate it.
All right, so, we have the melody and the backbeat. And then we have a wide range of
additional sounds that are mixed in using an electronic device called a sampler, and that's
why the technique is called sampling. So, in music sampling refers to taking a portion or a
piece of one recording and reusing it in a new recording. So, to give just one interesting
example, if you listen to a song called "C U when you get there" by a rap artist named
Coolio, you'll hear that the introduction to the song is taken from a 17th century classical
composition, the Pachelbel Canon. I'm sure you've heard it, it goes da da, da . . . and
I will spare you singing the rest of it, OK? But I'm sure that sounds familiar.
All right. That takes care of the musical aspect of rap, so let's now talk a little bit
about the lyrics. Now, in general rap lyrics can be divided into two broad categories,
401
gangsta rap and soft-core.
So first, gangsta rap emerged in the early 1980s as a form of protest by young black men
wanting to express their frustration at the difficult conditions in America's inner cities. So
groups like Public Enemy rapped about their realities and their lives which included
drugs, gangs, guns, and violence. Now these rappers used shocking language and spoke
about women in very negative terms, so for these reasons gangsta rap was heavily
criticized.
Now contrast, by the mid-1990s, as rap music became more and more popular, a
second type of lyrics could be heard, and these might be called soft-core. So soft-core rap
is much less violent although many songs still emphasize some of the things you'd hear in
gangsta rap such as money, cars, jewelry, and other status symbols.
However these days, quite a few rap artists are using their art to promote positive, and
encouraging messages. An example is the song "I Can," by
Nas, which has the lyric:
I know I can
Be what I wanna be
If I work hard at it
I'll be where I wanna be
Since the mid-1990s rap has entered the mainstream. It is everywhere. Rappers like Ice Cube
and Queen Latifah are acting in movies. TV ads for giant companies like McDonald's and
Macintosh computers use rap music to sell their products. But perhaps most interesting is
the fact that rap has become a worldwide phenomenon. France, for example, has officially
declared rap an art form, and it's now the second-largest market for rap music in the world.
These days rap's fans come from all social classes, races, and countries. Which is why I would
argue, in conclusion, that no other style of music except for possibly rock has brought people
together as powerfully as rap has been able to do.
Good morning, everybody. Uh, the question I want to address today is why Americans work as
hard as they do. Now, we've already seen that Americans work almost as many hours per
year as the Japanese and Koreans. And compared to Europeans, well, Americans work three to
four hundred hours a year more than people in Western Europe. They take fewer vacations and
they retire at a later age. Why is this? How do you explain that? That's what I want to talk
about for the next few minutes.
Now there are many reasons why Americans work as hard as they do. One reason has to do with
American history. The Europeans who first settled this country were religious Christians who
believed in the value of hard work, and that value has stayed with us to this day.
402
But the main reason why Americans work as hard ... why Americans work hard is that the U.S.
economic structure rewards them for it, and Americans see this as a good thing. Let me explain
to you what I mean. In the U.S. there is a very wide range of salaries, wages, within companies,
much wider than in other.. . in most other countries. For example the
president of a big U.S. company can earn anywhere from 50 to 100 times more than an average
worker. Now, my point isn't to say that this is unfair, though I think it is and many people think it
is. The advantage of a system like this is that it creates incentives for employees to work harder.
In other words, people work harder because they know that in most cases the hard work will lead
to higher pay. In Europe, on the other hand, the wage gap, I mean the difference in salary between
the highest and the lowest salaries in the company, is generally much smaller than in the U.S., so
people in Europe have less of an incentive to work hard.
So obviously most people work hard in order to make as much money as possible. And a third
reason, which is related to the previous one, the one I just mentioned, is that a lot of people work
hard to keep a job that gives them benefits. By benefits I mean things like medical insurance,
unemployment insurance, and a retirement plan. Now in most European countries, these things are
paid for by the government, so people are protected even if they lose their jobs. But in contrast, in the
U.S., benefits are normally paid by a person's employer. What that means is that in the United States,
if you lose your job, you also lose your benefits. So people are willing to work as hard as necessary in
order to hold on to jobs that offer benefits.
Another reason why Americans work hard is technology. You might be surprised to hear that
because technology's supposed to make it possible for people to work less, to give them more free
time, right? But here's the paradox: Technology actually causes people to work more than they
did twenty or thirty years ago. Now how is that so? That's because with e-mail and voicemail and
videoconferencing and telecommuting and all the other high-tech methods of communication we
have these days, it's so easy to stay in touch with the office that there's almost an expectation that
people will check in even if they're on vacation. And because good jobs are hard to find these
days, people might feel that they have to do it, that they feel pressured to stay in touch even if
they don't want to. So you see how technology sometimes forces people to work harder and
longer, whether they want to or not.
Now it might seem that Americans work hard for a lot of negative reasons, but there's one more
reason I want to mention that I think is positive. And that is that many people work hard for the
simple reason that they enjoy it! For many Americans, their work gives them an identity, meaning
they say "I'm a teacher," "I'm a bus driver," "I'm a something." Work gives these people a sense of
purpose or accomplishment, or maybe they enjoy the feeling of being part of a team. By the
way, a common question that gets asked in job interviews in this country is "Are you a team
player?" So this is something that Americans clearly value. Anyway, my point is that millions of
Americans work hard because work gives them personal rewards that go beyond just money.
So to sum up, you can see that there are a variety of reasons why Americans work hardhistorical,
economic, and personal. For many people work is a rewarding experience that gives them great
satisfaction. Other people work out of necessity, because they have to. Where work becomes a
problem is when it starts affecting people's health and family life, and that's what we're gonna talk
about next.
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Part 4: High Proficiency Texts for Visual Tasks
A. Electronic Devices
Listen. People are talking about electronic devices. What are the different parts? Label
the pictures with the correct parts from the box.
1. digital camera
Man: Hey. Check this out. I just got it yesterday.
Woman: Ooh, a digital camera. Wow! That looks like a complicated one.
Man: Well, actually, it's a lot more convenient than a traditional film camera. With a
digital camera, you can look at your pictures and decide if you want to save them
before you print them or e-mail them. You view them right here on the LCD screen.
LCD stands for "liquid crystal display." See? That's a picture of my dog.
Woman: Nice! So, how does it work? I mean, how does the camera take pictures
and store them?
Man: Well, first, the image sensor creates the pictures. The image sensor is a little
square chip inside the camera. It turns light into electricity and creates an image. Then
the flash memory stores the pictures. This is the flash memory right here on the
side. See the red button next to it? You push the button, remove the flash memory,
and then you can save, print, or e-mail your pictures.
Woman: Amazing. So, how much did it cost?
Man: Um, let's not talk about that.
2. MP3 player
Man: Tanya!
Tanya: Yeah?
Man: Can I borrow your MP3 player? I'm thinking of buying one, but I want to try yours
first.
Tanya: Sure. It's right here. Just let me explain a few things first. OK. It's on. Look at the
screen. See? That's the playlist. It displays the categories of all my songs. It's all my
favorite music I've downloaded from my computer.
Man: Cool.
Tanya: When you want to listen to music, you use the keypad to choose the songs
you want to hear. See the keypad buttons here? These are the main controls. Press the
"Play" arrow.
Man: OK. That's easy enough. What do I do next?
Tanya: Here. Put these headphones on. When you press "Play," the digital signal goes
to the digital signal processor. That's a large rectangular computer chip inside the
MP3 player. The digital signal processor turns the signal into music. Well, I think
that's all you need to know. Any questions? I said, any questions?
Man: What? Oh, sorry, I couldn't hear you. Great playlist! Um, what did you say?
3. PDA
Woman: Well, I'm all ready for my new job. I'll be on time for all my meetings
404
with my new PDA.
Man: PDA? What's that?
Woman: A personal digital assistant. You've never heard of them? They're the coolest
things. I can store addresses, schedules, take notes. They're great.
Man: Hey, that's pretty neat. Show me how it works.
Woman: OK. First, you use the stylus to select the function from the menu. The stylus is
like a little pencil. It's this thing on the side here. You use that to input the information.
You just touch it directly on the screen, like this. See? This is a special kind of screen.
It's called a touch screen. Here. Let's choose "Address book." After you select the
function, the information goes to the microprocessor. It's a little, square chip inside the
PDA. It's like the computer's brain. The microprocessor retrieves and stores
information. See? There they are, all my phone numbers and addresses! Oh, here. I'll
put in your phone number. What is it?
Man: Seven-oh-four, five-five-five, nine-one-oh-two.
Woman: Got it. Isn't this so convenient? I've got all my phone numbers in here.
Man: Great! Maybe now you'll return my phone messages!
4. GPS
Man: So, what do you think of my new car?
Woman: It's pretty high tech. What's this thing on the dashboard?
Man: That's my car's GPS. It's the navigation system. I love it! I always know exactly
where I am and where I'm going. I never get lost.
Woman: GPS?
Man: GPS stands for "Global Positioning System." See, there are satellites way up in the
sky. The satellites are always up there moving around the earth. This part here, the
part you put inside the car, is called the GPS receiver. Here's how it works. First,
satellites send radio waves to the GPS receiver. The GPS receiver reads the
information signals from several satellites in different locations. Then the receiver
uses a formula to calculate its distance and position, so you can find out the car's
exact location - anytime, anywhere.
Woman: Well, I guess it is a pretty neat device. But, it doesn't seem to work very well.
Man: What do you mean?
Woman: Uh, you were supposed to turn left back there.
B. Reflexology
Listen. People are talking about the health benefits of reflexology. Number the areas of the feet from
1 to 5. There are two extra areas.
1. Woman: Did I tell you about the reflexology class I'm taking at the Asia Center?
Man: The what class?
Woman: Reflexology. It's foot massage, from Chinese medicine.
Man: Foot massage - medicine?
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Woman: Yeah. It's wonderful. Here, let me show you what I've learned. Take off your shoes and
socks.
Man: Are you serious?
Woman: Just try it.
Man: OK.
Woman: You see, followers of Chinese medicine believe that when you massage parts of the soles of
your feet, it can affect your body in a completely different area. Do you ever have headaches?
Man: Headaches? Sometimes.
Woman: Well, in reflexology, the area on the bottom of the big toe is connected to your head. When
you get a headache, just rub the area on the bottom of your big toe. It helps relieve headaches.
2. Woman: Now let me show you another spot. This place really works for backaches. Look at the
inside of your foot. Put your fingers near the top, just under the big toe. Now rub from the top all the
way to your heel - to the end of your foot. If you ever have backaches, rub this long, narrow area
several times a day.
Man: The whole inside edge helps relieve backaches?
Woman: That's right.
4. Man: Actually, my eyes get tired from using the computer at work. Is there a place on my feet for
that?
Woman: Yes. Massaging your other toes can help tired eyes, especially the area under your two
smallest toes. Right here.
Man: Here? This area under these two toes?
Woman: Yeah, right there. That's the best spot for sore, tired eyes.
5. Woman: Do you ever have trouble with your stomach, I mean, stomachaches?
Man: Sometimes, if I eat too much spicy food.
Woman: Find the area right in the center of your foot. It's shaped like a small egg. Press on it firmly.
It can help you digest your food better and get rid of stomachaches.
Man: Here, in the middle of my foot?
Woman: Right.
Man: You know, this is pretty neat. I feel better already. But actually, you know what hurts the most?
My feet! My feet are always really sore at the end of the day.
Woman: Hmm. Maybe you need to buy bigger shoes.
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Part 5: High Proficiency Difficult Texts
A. Body Image Disorders in Men.
Now we've talked quite a lot in this course about the subject of body image disorders
in women and the rising incidence of conditions like anorexia and bulimia. And I think
we're so accustomed to thinking of these disorders as women's problems, that you might be
surprised to learn that an estimated one to two percent of Western men also suffer from
body image problems. These are often expressed in the form of a pathological concern with
body building, the abuse of muscle-building drugs like steroids, or both.
Now in contrast, in East Asian cultures, such as China, male body image disorders
and steroid abuse are extremely rare. Researchers at McLean Hospital in Boston were
interested in finding out why this cultural difference exists, why body building and
steroid use were so much more prevalent in the West than in the East, and this led them to
conduct a very interesting study, which I'd like to summarize for the next few minutes.
All right. Um, the subjects in this study were male college students from three
Western cultures, the U.S., France, and Austria. Now what the researchers did is that they
showed these male students pictures of men with varying levels of muscularity and body fat,
ranging from very slim at one extreme to really bulked up at the other, and they asked them
to choose four images: one, the image that most closely resembled their own bodies. Two,
the body of an average man of their age in their culture. Three, the body they would ideally
like to have, and four, the body they thought women would prefer the most. In addition, for
purposes of comparison, the researchers also asked a group of women to look at the pictures
and choose the body they liked best.
Then, in the next phase of the study, the researchers showed the same series of
pictures to a group of male university students in Taiwan, and asked the same questions.
Afterwards they analyzed the two sets of data looking for similarities and differences.
And what they found were two significant differences between the Western and the
Eastern group.
First, with respect to the question of what the men considered to be the ideal body
image, the Western subjects picked an ideal body that was about 28 pounds, or 13 kilos,
more muscular than they perceived themselves to be. But the Taiwanese men picked an
ideal body that was only two kilos bigger than their own.
In other words, the researchers interpreted this to mean that the Western men saw
themselves as skinny and underdeveloped whereas the Taiwanese men were basically
satisfied with the way they looked.
Second, regarding the question of which body type the men thought women
preferred, the Western men predictably guessed that women preferred a male body that
was about 30 pounds, or 14 kilos, more muscular than theirs. Yet when the researchers
asked actual Western women to choose the male body they liked, they didn't choose a
bulked up Arnold Schwarzenegger body; they chose an average body, without the extra
muscle. Conversely, the Taiwanese men guessed that women would prefer an average
body, similar to their own. And in fact, that is what the women chose.
So in short, the findings suggest that Western men may have an unrealistic or even
distorted idea of what they should look like and what women want, but that Taiwanese
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men don't seem to have this problem; and that brings me to the next part of my talk,
which is: Why? What accounts for the difference? The researchers proposed three
hypotheses.
Now, the first possible explanation may lie in the different ways that Western and
Eastern cultures have traditionally defined masculinity. You know Western cultures going
all the way back to ancient Greece and Rome have measured it in terms of muscles and
physical power. You can go to any art museum and look at the male statues for proof of
what I'm talking about. But as the researchers explain, in traditional Chinese culture,
masculinity has much more to do with things like intelligence, strength of character, and
courage, rather than muscles.
Another explanation could be the influence of the media. Studies show, for
instance, that images of undressed, muscular men are far more common in the West,
especially in the United States, than in Taiwan. And the greater exposure to these images
could be affecting Western notions of what the ideal male body ought to look like. And
finally, the third explanation, might be that the traditional role of Western men has
changed over the last generation, with more and more women working and supporting
themselves, you know, leading some men to focus on their bodies as a way of
maintaining their masculine self esteem. But in Taiwanese culture, there has been much
less of a change in the traditional family structure, at least so far. So the satisfaction that
Taiwanese men appear to feel with their bodies may be related to the security they derive
from their traditional role as breadwinner and head of the family.
Now let's examine each of these hypotheses more closely, keeping in mind that
further research is needed on all three...
1.
Air pollution is probably one of our oldest environmental problems. People in
Ancient Rome complained about dirty air over two thousand years ago! Today, air
pollution is not just found outside; polluting substances can also be trapped inside of
buildings. We sometimes hear people talk about sick buildings where air quality is a
serious concern.
Some causes of air pollution are natural, such as forest fires and volcanoes.
There's not much we can do about these sort of events. But, humans are
responsible for the two greatest sources of air pollution today: heavy industry and
automobile use. Factories and cars fill the air with poisonous gasses which are
damaging to plant and wildlife and make people sick. Did you know that, on average,
approximately 50,000 people in the United States alone die every year from diseases
related to air pollution? If we really care about the quality of the air we breathe, we
need to drive less and use public transportation more. We must make our homes
more energy efficient and practice recycling and other conservation methods on a
daily basis.
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2.
We live on the water planet. Our world is made up of 75 percent water, and without
water, there would be no life on earth. The atmosphere is not the only part of our environment
that is in danger. Water pollution is another real threat to the survival of the planet.
Water becomes polluted when poisonous chemicals, garbage, waste sewage, and
other toxins are dumped into our lakes, rivers, and other water supplies. Factories pollute the
water with chemical runoff, and people dirty the water with human waste in places where
modern sewer systems are not available.
Oil spills from huge transport ships are another source of water pollution. When
these accidents occur, the oil spills kill the birds, fish, and other animals living in the water and
disrupt the delicate food chain in our oceans, lakes, and rivers. Small life forms that fish feed
on are killed, so the fish eventually die. Without those fish to eat, other animals cannot
survive, and the terrible effects continue up to larger plants and animals until it directly
affects humans. Moreover, when freshwater bodies are polluted, less water is available to us
for drinking and for other essential life functions.
What can we do about this problem? Well, there are several things that can help to
reduce water pollution. Laws must be created to limit the dumping of dangerous materials
into our waters, and factories must be forced to pay very high fines for breaking these laws. In
addition, governments must spend more money to help to clean up waters that are already
polluted. Another step would be for manufacturers, such as those in the plastics industry, to
develop products that are biodegradablethat is, products that break down and can be recycled
back into nature. Finally, people must demand that their governments do more to protect the
source of all life: water.
3.
Today, there are more than six billion people living on the planet. Earth has become
a very crowded place, and the rise in the world population has had a negative impact on the
environment. When people move in, the land, water, and air quality suffer. A perfect
example of this problem is deforestation. Deforestation occurs when large areas of trees are
cleared away in forests and woodlands. The deforestation of tropical rain forests in places like
Brazil and Central America is of particular concern as these locations contain some of the
largest and richest forest areas in the world.
Why is deforestation happening? To meet the needs of the growing population, forests
have been destroyed to provide lumber and wood products. Additionally, deforestation has
cleared land to be used for growing food and raising livestock such as cattle. The effect of
this clearing has been deadly.
When deforestation occurs, thousands of species of plants and animals are killed.
This destruction is particularly tragic when it occurs in rain forests, because humans rely
on the rain forest for common products including coffee, bananas, chocolate, vegetables, and
spices.
Deforestation also contributes to air pollution. When trees are cut and the land cleared
through burning, millions of tons of the poison carbon dioxide are released into the
atmosphere. This increase in carbon dioxide levels has caused the average temperature on earth
to rise by several degrees, a situation that is contributing to another very serious
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environmental problem called global warming.
In order to prevent the continued deforestation of our land, people need to demand
that governments do more to protect the earth's natural resources. We must reduce our need for
wood products through our personal choices. As consumers, we must actively participate in
recycling programs and other wood-conservation activities.
OK, so, uh, we've been talking about the origins of English words, where our
vocabulary comes from. And we've talked about the way that languages borrow words
from each other. In English, for example, 75 percent of our words are imported from
other languages, mostly French and Latin.
Urn, so a language can acquire new words by borrowing them, but all languages
also have ways of coining or creating new words. And so what I want to do today in this
talk is to introduce you t o s o m e o f t h e l i n g u i s t i c g i m m i c k s , t h e techniques,
that English uses to coin new words.
Now in English the main mechanism we have for creating new words is a process
called derivation, which means we createor we derive new words from existing ones
by adding prefixes or suffixes to them. Uh, so for example, we can take the word, the root
"use," u-s-e, and by adding prefixes and suffixes we get useful, useless, misuse, unusable,
abuse, and so on. So that's an example of derivation.
But derivation isn't the only mechanism for creating new words in English, of
course. I mean how do we explain words like blog or Y2K or SARS or website or
carjacking, uh personal trainer or like metrosexual? These words are all pretty common
now but they didn't even exist 10 or 15 years ago. So to explain these terms we have to
look at some other processes that English has for coining words.
One of these is compounding. OK, so compounds are two words, like two nouns
or an adjective and a noun, that we put together to form a new word, such as website,
brainstorm, or role play. Now you notice how each part of the compound retains its
original pronunciation, but when we put the words together they form a new meaning.
And the word on the right is the one that gives the compound its core meaning, so for
example a race car is a kind of car, right, but a car race is a kind of race. OK? And
another feature of compounds which you probably noticed already is that the first word
is stressed: brainstorm, website, carjacking, and so on.
OK, so another way that new words are formed in English is by blending. Blending
is a little similar to compounding because a blend consists of two words that are combined
to form a new meaning, just like a compound. But what's different about a blend is that one
or both words undergo a sound change. So let me give you a couple of examples so you'll
see what I mean. So smog is a blend of the words smoke and fog. You'll notice how the /k/ in
smoke and the /f/ in fog drop out and the remaining sounds are combined into one word.
Another example is motel. Motel is a combination of motor and hotel. And here's a really
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cute one. When my daughter was little she used to say "stummy," which was obviously a
blend of stomach and tummy. And it's a great example of, of, of a blend because it shows
how blends often occur organically, by accident, and then some of them become actual real
new words while others don't become words.
OK, another process for forming new words is called clipping. This is when we
take a long word and clip or cut out the front or the back, so for instance telephone
becomes phone, and refrigerator becomes fridge, uh, or how about the word 'zine, which
is a really popular word nowadaysit's a clipping of magazine. And some words come
about as a result of both compounding and clipping. A great example of that is blog,
which started out as a compound of web plus log and then got shortened or clipped to just
blog. A lot of the slang you hear is created by compounding and clipping just because
these processes are so easy from a linguistic standpoint.
All right. So finally, two other sources of new words that I want to mention are
abbreviations and acronyms. An abbreviation is a word that is formed from the names
of the letters in a phrase, like UFO, unidentified flying object. Another example is Y2K,
which as you probably know stands for year 2000. But now an acronym is a little
different. In an acronym we form a word by combining the letters of a phrase into a word
which we read phonetically. We don't say the names of the letters, in other words, so for
example SARS is an acronym, it stands for sudden acquired respiratory syndrome, which is
just too much of a mouthful to say, so we use the acronym instead. Another good example
is the word yuppie, a young urban professional.
OK, so to recap, I've listed seven processes by which English acquires new words:
borrowing, deriving, compounding, blending, um clipping, abbreviating, and
acronyms. And of course there's more to say about each of these, this is just a quick
survey, but what I hope I've done is to enable you to see how inventive and flexible the
English language is, and I hope I've stimulated your curiosity to find out more
about the origins of your favorite English words.
OK, we've been talking about how memory works, right, and what we can do to
improve our memory. So we've seen, for example, we can enhance our ability to recall new
information if we transform or extend it in some way. So, for instance, we're more likely
to remember verbal information like directions to someone's house for example uh, if we
transform it into something visual like a diagram or a map or something.
So now, another way of facilitating recall is through the use of memory techniques
called mnemonics... I'll spell that for you: m-n-e-m-on-i-c-s... OK, uh, as I said before,
mnemonics are techniques for improving memory. A little more formally, uh, they're
systematic strategies that we can use to help us remember information, especially
information that is hard to recall like you know numbers, lists, names, things like that.
So about 30 years ago, there's a psychologist named R.C. Atkinson, and he
developed this mnemonic technique to help students learn vocabulary in a foreign
language. And he called it the keyword method, and what I'd like to do now is
demonstrate this method for you using an example from a language that none of you
know. All right, so then you can use this technique in your own language studies. Uh,
anybody know Hungarian? You speak Hungarian? No? OK, good.
Uh, so let's say you're learning Hungarian, right, and you're learning the names of
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foods, and one of your target words is the Hungarian word for cabbage, which is called
kaposzta. And how can you remember that?
Well, the first step in the keyword method is to choose your key word. And a good
key word has three characteristics: One, it's a word you know very well. You're real
familiar with it. Two, it's a word that sounds like the target wordyou know, the word
you're trying to rememberor at least the first part of the target word. And number three,
the last characteristic, the third characteristic of a good key word, is that it should be
something that's easy to visualize, easy to picture, so a concrete noun or action verbs,
those make you know the best keywords.
All right let's apply those three criteria to our example, kaposzta. OK, so what's a
familiar word that sounds like kaposzta and is easy to visualize?
What comes to mind? Well, how about "cop," you know, a police officer. So that's a
good keyword because it sounds like our target word kaposzta, it's familiar, it's easy to
visualize, easy to picture.
So OK now we've got a keyword, and what's the next step? What we're going to do
is, we're going to create a mental image, a picture, that contains both the keyword, in this
case cop, and the target meaning, which is cabbage. In other words, in your mind's eye I
want you to imagine the cop and the cabbage interactingyou know, doing something.
Um, it's best if the image is moving, if it's colorful, exaggerated, silly, it's even better. So the
more absurd or ridiculous, the better. Uh, let's imagine a cop wearing a uniform. OK, you
got that? And his head is a big, green cabbage, all right? So let's give it eyes, put a nose on
it, and a mouth, cop's hat, put a cop's hat on it. OK, what else? Maybe a mustache? A
mustache?
So take that silly image and just focus on it for a minute. Hold it in your mind's
eye... OK... Really concentrate so it's fixed in your memory.
OK. Now let's suppose it's a week later, all right, and you've got to review
because tomorrow you're going to have a test on your new Hungarian vocabulary. Let's
see how you can use this keyword method to painlessly study for your test. Make it easy,
right?
First you take out your list of words and, you know, there's the word kaposzta.
Immediately you think of your keyword, cop, which automatically triggers the image you
created of the cop, you know with the cabbage head, and voila! There it is! Your
definition. See how it works? So, you see the sequence? Kaposzta leads to cop; cop leads
to cabbage. Now "cop" is the bridge that connects the new word, kaposzta, with the
definition, cabbage. The association is so powerful you couldn't even forget it if you tried.
So research does prove this. It proves that students who use the keyword technique
remember vocabulary better than students who don't. But let me give you a word of caution,
in conclusion. I don't want you to think that this mnemonic or any other, you know,
techniques are magical. All right, for mnemonics to work you still have to practice and
rehearse. You have to study for the test.
Mnemonics don't eliminate the need to study, but you know they can definitely make
it easier for you to remember some kinds of information.
(Taken from Baker & Tanka, 2006b, p. 244-245)
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D. Two Popular Diets
Um, as a nutritionist, the most frequently asked question I hear in my practice is,
"What is the most effective diet?" And as we all know, one of the big reasons I'm asked this
is that obesity has become a major problem in this country recently. In fact, in twenty years
of practice, I have, unfortunately, seen an increasing number of overweight people. And
most sadly, more and more children these days are overweight. Now, we all know that there
is no shortage of advice on how to lose weight. Um, if you open any magazine, if you go on
the Internet, or whatever, you are just bombarded with ads for an amazing variety, for all
kinds of diets. You have the grapefruit diet, you have the cabbage soup diet, you have the
famous Atkins diet, and you have the raw food diet and it just goes on and on. Um, let me
tell you first that most of these are just fads. And that there is simply not enough scientific
data to back up these diets.
However, two diets that have been around a long time and that seem to work are the
low-fat diet and the lowcarb diet, or low-carbohydrate diet. So these are the two I want to
discuss today. Um, let's think about how they're different, or let me talk about how they're
different and how they really work.
First of all, let's look at the low-fat diet. This requires that you cut back on foods that
are high in fats and oils. How are you going to do this? You are going to cut back on meats,
especially red meats, cheeses, butter, and fried foods of all kinds. Now that may sound very
healthy. And you are probably thinking, "If I cut down on fats, I won't get fat!" Plus it will
lower my cholesterol and that will prevent heart disease." That's fine. But in terms of weight
loss, is it effective in the long term?
Here are some of the problems with this kind of diet. First, you have to restrict your
choice of food. And what happens is, people get bored eating the same thing over and over.
Then they get frustrated. And they stop eating what they're supposed to eat on the diet. Then
they get hungry and they overeat on certain other foods, like high-calorie foods and foods
high in sugar. So they end up gaining back most of the weight that they've lost. And that is
the main drawback.
Now, the other diet I mentioned was the low-carb diet. This is very popular in recent
years, and in some ways is just the opposite of the low-fat diet. In contrast to the low-fat
diet, with the low-carb diet you restrict your intake of carbohydrates, not fats. You know
what carbohydrates are, right? This is the substance, or component, of food that gives your
body heat and energy. So what foods are high in carbohydrates? Well, sugary foods and
starches, things like sweets, breads, pastas, potatoes, rice and corn. You're supposed to stay
away from all of these. That's because there are so many carbohydrates in these foods that
the body can only use some of them for energy, and the rest it will store as, you guessed it,
fat.
Some low-carbohydrate diets, like the famous Atkins diet, are a little extreme. Um,
the Atkins diet wants you to eliminate fruits, fruit juices, and even some vegetables. Why?
Because these foods are high in carbohydrates. So if you stop eating these foods, you're
going to lose weight really fast. And that's a big advantage of this diet. But there're some
health concerns. And this is a big "but" with this kind of diet. Nutritional experts worry
about the effects of low-carb diets on the body. What kind of effects are we talking about?
Some significant ones, like vitamin deficiencies, dehydration, kidney problems, and some
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others.
So these two diets, the low-carb diet and the low-fat diet, sound very different;
however, they are also similar in some important ways. First, both limit your food choices.
Second, both of these diets are difficult to stay on for a long period of time. And finally,
according to several studies, people either begin cheating on the diet, or they go off the diet
completely. And they gain the weight back, sooner or later.
So, to go back to my question at the beginning of the lecture, what do I tell my
patients who want to know what the best diet is? Well, my best weight-loss advice is: first,
eat sensibly. And second, get off the couch. What I mean by that is, you should reduce the
calories that you eat, but you also need to eat a well-balanced diet. That includes proteins,
carbohydrates and fats. In other words, eat from every food group, but control the size of
your portions. However, I really want to emphasize that you also need to use more calories
than you eat. You need to be active and you need to exercise several times a week. Now I
know this is not glamorous, or new or particularly exciting, but if you are really interested in
improving your health, if you really want long-term weight management, if these are your
goals, then this is the best approach for you.
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APPENDIX O
Questions for Retrospective Interviews after Think-aloud Protocols
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APPENDIX P
Sample Interview Summary Form
1. What were the main issues or themes that struck you in this interview?
2. Summarize the information you got (or failed to get) on each of the target questions
you had for this interview. (also give a code to this information)
3. Anything else that struck you as salient, interesting, illuminating, or important in this
interview?
4. What new (or remaining) target questions do you have regarding the next interview at
this site?
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APPENDIX Q
Observation Summary Form
1. What were the main issues or themes that struck you during this observation?
2. Summarize the information you got (or failed to get) on each of the target questions
you had for this observation. (also give a code to this information)
3. Anything else that struck you as salient, interesting, illuminating, or important in this
observation?
4. What new (or remaining) target questions do you have regarding the next observation
at this site?
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APPENDIX R
Listening Diary Summary Form
1. What were the strategies that the student identified as using during the diary writing?
2. What were the listening problems that the student idenfied as having during the diary
writing?
3. Summarize the important information from the diary that relates to my research
questions
4. Anything else that struck you as salient, interesting, or illuminating, as you read this
diary?
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APPENDIX S
Retrospective Interview Summary Form for Think-aloud Protocols
Site: _____________________________
1. What were the main issues or themes that struck you in this interview?
2. Summarize the information you got (or failed to get) on each of the target questions
you had for this interview. (also give a code to this information)
Corresponding
3. Anything else that struck you as salient, interesting, illuminating, or important in this
interview?
4. What new (or remaining) target questions do you have regarding the next interview at
this site?
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APPENDIX T
Researcher's Journal/Memo Summary Form
1. Summarize the important information from the entry that relates to my research
questions
2. What emergent thoughts or new questions are in the entry that I should ask in my next
interview or answer in my next observation?
3. What preliminary conclusions or thoughts are listed in the entry that I should consider
in my next interview or observation?
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