Dictionary of The Bible - V To Z - James Hastings

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VAGABOND.Gn4:12afugitiveandavagabondshaltthoubeintheearthi.e.awanderer,asAVAc19:12certainofthevagabondJews,RVstrolling.
Inbothplacesthewordisusedinitsolderandliteralmeaning(fromLat.vagari,towander).
VAHEB.AnunknownlocalityinAmoriteterritory(Nu21:14).
VAIL,VEIL.InAVthiswordisspelledvailandveil,inRVuniformlyveil.SeeDRESS,5(b)alsoTABERNACLE,5(d),andTEMPLE,9.12.
VAIZATHA.OneofthetensonsofHaman(Est9:9).
VALE,VALLEY.ValeisfoundinAVasthetr.oftwoHeb.wordsmeqandshephlahvalleyrepresentsfiveHeb.words,biqah,gai,nachal,meq,
shephlah,andtheGr.phara[n]gx.Forshephlah(alowlyingtractofground)andbiqah(abroadplain)seeart.
P LAIN,andfornachal(wady)seeart.BROOK.
1.Thewordgai(AVandRValwaysvalley)referstoanarrowgorge,aglenorravine.AconsiderablenumberofsucharenamedintheOT,e.g.thevalleyof
Hinnom,besideJerusalemofIphtahel,betweenZebulunandAsherofZeboim,S.E.ofGibeahofSalt,etc.,whileseveralothervalleysarementionedwithouta
specialnamebeingattachedtothem.
ThereferenceinPs23:4tothevalleyoftheshadowofdeathmaybesimplyfigurativeofaplaceofperilandloneliness,or,asGunkelholds,theplacethroughwhichthe
ancientHebrewssupposedthesoulhadtopassonthewaytotheunderworld.
IntheApocrypha,valleyisthetranslationofphara[n]gxandauln,theformerappearingintheNT(Lk3:5).
2.Thewordmeq(generallytr.valleybutvaleinAVofGn14:3,8,10,37:14andalsoinRVofGn14:17,Jos8:13,15:8,18:15,1S17:2,19,21:8)
meansliterallydepression,andisahighlanderswordforavalleyashelooksdownintoit,andisappliedtowideavenuesrunningupintoamountainouscountry
liketheValeofElah,theValeofHebron,andtheValeofAijalon(HGHL384).Thusthemeqisbroaderthanagaiandnotsobroadorextensiveasabiqah
(plain).AconsiderablenumberofvalesarementionedintheOT,e.g.ofSiddim,ofShaveh,ofHebron,ofAchor,ofAijalon,etc.
Othervalesarementionedwithoutspecialnamesbeingattachedtothem.Thefertilityofthevale(1S6:13,Is17:5)anditssuitabilityforcavalryoperations(e.g.
Jos17:16,Jg1:18,34etc.)arefrequentlyreferredto.
W.F.BOYD.
VANIAH.OneofthesonsofBani,whohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:36)=1Es9:34Anos.
VANITY.Therootideaofthewordisemptiness.SkeatsuggeststhattheLat.vanus(perhapsforvacnus)isalliedtovacuusempty.InEnglishliterature
vanitysignifies(1)emptiness,(2)falsity,(3)vainglory.Themoderntendencyistoconfineitsusetothelastmeaning.Butvanityinthesenseofemptyconceit
isnotfoundintheEnglishBible.
1.IntheOT.(1)Vanityismostfrequentlythetr.ofhebhel,breathorvapour.TheRVrightlygivestheliteralrenderinginIs57:13:abreath(AVvanity)
shallcarrythemallaway.Thewordnaturallybecameanimageof,whatisunsubstantialandtransitoryinPs144:4manissaidtobelikeabreath(RVm),because
hisdaysareasashadowthatpassethaway.InEcclesiastesvanityoftenoccursitconnoteswhatisfleeting,unsatisfying,andprofitless.
Vanityofvanities(1:2,12:8)isthesuperlativeexpressionoftheideaofthefutilityoflife.Jeremiahregardsidolsasvanity,becausetheyaretheworkof
delusion(10:15),liesandthingswhereinthereisnoprofit(16:19).(2)AnotherHeb.word(ven),whoserootmeaningisbreathornothingness,istwice
renderedvanityintheRV,andisappliedtoidols(Is41:29,Zec10:2).ButvengenerallydescribesmoralevilaswhatisnaughtyandworthlesstheRVtherefore
substitutesiniquityforvanityinJob15:35,Ps10:7cf.Is58:9.(3)Morefrequently,however,vanityisthetr.ofshav,whichalsosignifieswhatisnaught.In
theOTitisusedtosetforthvanityasthatwhichishollow,unreal,andfalse.InPs41:6RVmhespeakethfalsehoodispreferablebuttheAVhespeakethvanity
exemplifiesthecloseconnexionbetweenvainoremptywordsandlies(cf.Ps12:2,144:8,Job35:13,Pr30:8,Ezk13:8,22:28).(4)Vanityoccurstwiceasthe
renderingofrqemptiness,andreferstowhatisdestinedtoendinfailure(Ps4:2,Hab2:13).(5)IntheRVitisusedforthwaste,butthemarginalalternative
inallpassagesbutone(Is59:4)isconfusion(Is40:17,23,44:9).
2.IntheNT.Vainistherenderingof(a)kenosempty,(b)mataiosworthless.Whentheformerwordisused,stressislaidontheabsenceofgood,
especiallyinessentialqualities.ThetruethoughtissuggestedbytheRVmvoidin1Co15:10,14,58.ApartialexceptionisJa2:20arareexampleofthe
absoluteuseoftheword.Thevainmanisnotonlyoneinwhomthehigherwisdomhasfoundnoentrance,butheisalsoonewhoispuffedupwithavain
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absoluteuseoftheword.Thevainmanisnotonlyoneinwhomthehigherwisdomhasfoundnoentrance,butheisalsoonewhoispuffedupwithavain
conceitofhisownspiritualinsight(Trench,NTSynonyms,p.181).Evenheretheprimarynegativeforceofthewordisclearlydiscerniblethemansconceitis
vain,thatistosay,hisconceptionofhimselfisdevoidofrealcontent.Heisamanwhocannotbedependedon,whosedeedsdonotcorrespondtohiswords
(Mayor,Com.inloc.).kenosisthewordrenderedvainintheNT,exceptinthepassagescitedinthenextparagraph.
Whenvainisthetr.ofmataios,asin1Co3:20,15:17,Tit3:9,Ja1:26,1P1:18(cf.theadverbMt15:9,Mk7:7),morethannegativeblameisimplied.By
givingprominencetoobjectlessnessitdenoteswhatispositivelytoberejected,bad.InBiblicalGreekthewordis,inthestrongestsense,theexpressionofperfect
repudiation(Cremer,Bib.Theol.LexiconofNTGreek,pp.418,781).In1Co15:14thereference(kenos)istoahollowwitness,ahollowbelief,toagospel
whichisevacuatedofallreality,andtoafaithwhichhasnogenuinecontent.Butinv.17thereference(malaios)istoafaithwhichisfrustrate,orvoidof
result,becauseitdoesnotsavefromsin(cf.Findlay,EGT,inloc.).
VanityoccursonlythreetimesintheNT(Ro8:20,Eph4:17,2P2:18)itisalwaysthetr.ofmataiots,whichisnotaclassicalword,butisoftenfoundinthe
LXX,especiallyastherenderingofhebhelbreath(seeabove).WhenSt.Pauldescribesthecreationassubjecttovanity(Ro8:20),hehasinmindthemarringof
itsperfectionandthefrustrationofitsCreatorspurposebysinnevertheless,thegroaningsofcreationare,tohisear,theutteranceofitshopeofredemption.When
hesaysthattheGentileswalkinthevanityoftheirmind(Eph4:17),heisdwellingonthefutilityoftheirintellectualandmoralgropings,whichistheresultof
theirwalkingindarkness(v.18).In2P2:18theintimateconnexionbetweenunrealityand
boastfulnessinspeechiswellbroughtoutinthegraphicphrase,greatswellingwordsofvanity.Howpitifulthecontrastbetweenthehighsoundingtalkofthe
falseteacherswhowerethemselvesbondservantsofcorruption,andyethadtheeffronterytopromiselibertytothosewhominrealitytheywerebringinginto
bondage(v.19).
J.G.TASKER.
VASHNI.Samuelsfirstbornson,accordingtoMTof1Ch6:13(Eng.28),whichisfollowedbyAV.RV,followingtheSyr.(seemg.),andonthestrengthofv.
18(33)andthe||1S8:2,suppliesJoelasthenameofSamuelsoldestson,andsubstitutesandthesecondAbiahforVashniandAbiah.
VASHTI(Est1:9,11etc.).SeeESTHER[BOOKOF],3.
VAUORWAW.ThesixthletteroftheHebrewalphabet,andassuchemployedinthe119thPsalmtodesignatethe6thpart,eachverseofwhichbeginswith
thisletter.
VEDAN.InRVthenameofacountryorcitythattradedwithTyre(Ezk27:19).AVhasDanalso.Thepassageissocorruptthatnocertainlycorrectreadingisat
presentattainable.Cf.
UZAL.
J.F.MCCURDY.
VEIL.SeeVAIL.
VERMILION.SeeCOLOURS,4.
VERSIONS.SeeENGLISHVERSIONS,GREEKVERSIONSOFOT,TEXTOFNT,TEXTVERSIONSANDLANGUAGESOFOT,VULGATE,etc.
VESSELS.SeeHOUSE,9MEALS,5.Forthevesselsofthetabernacle(AV)RVhassometimesfurniture,sometimesinstruments,accordingtothe
context(cf.Nu1:50with3:26).
FortheTemplecf.1Ch9:29inAVandRV.InGn43:11vesselsisequivalenttosaddlebags.In1Th4:4vesselprobablystandsforbodyratherthanwife,an
alternativefavouredbymany(seeMilligan,Thess.,adloc.).
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
VESTRYoccursonlyin2K10:22himthatwasoverthevestry,astherenderingofawordofuncertainmeaning.Cf.22:14keeperofthewardrobe.
VESTURE.InAVthiswordoccursastherenderingbothofwordsdenotingdressorraimentgenerally,asGn41:42,Ps22:18,andofspecialwordsforthe
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VESTURE.InAVthiswordoccursastherenderingbothofwordsdenotingdressorraimentgenerally,asGn41:42,Ps22:18,andofspecialwordsforthe
plaidlikeuppergarmentofantiquity,asDt22:12(seeF RINGES),Rev19:18,16(RVheregarment),forwhichseeDRESS,4(a).
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
VIALoccursinOTonlyin1S10:1AV,and2K9:1,3RV(AVbox)foranoilflask.InNT,RVhassubstitutedbowlforvialthroughout(Rev5:8,15:7,
16:1ff.).Thephialwasaflatvessel,resemblingasaucer,speciallyusedforpouringlibationsofwineuponthealtarofadeity.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
VILLAGE.FortheOTvillagesandtheirrelationtothemothercity,seeCITY,andcf.
F ORTIFICATIONANDS IEGECRAFT,adinit.InallperiodsofHeb.historythecultivatorsofthesoillivedforgreatersecurityinvillages,thecultivatedandpastureland
ofwhichwasheldincommon.Solitaryhomesteadswereunknown.TheNTwritersandJosephusalsodistinguishbetweenacity(polis)andavillage(km),the
distinctionbeingprimarilyadifferencenotofsizebutofstatus.ThusinMk1:38thewordrenderedtownsisliterallyvillagecities(othersrendermarket
towns),i.e.placeswhicharecitiesasregardspopulationbutnotasregardsconstitutionalstatus.WhenJosephustellsusthattheveryleastofthevillagesof
Galileecontainedabove15,000inhabitants(BJIII.iii.2[Niese,43]),heis,moresuo,drawingaverylongbowindeed!
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
VINE,VINEYARD.
TheusualHeb.wordforvineisgephen,usedofthegrapevineeverywhereexceptin2K4:39,wheregephensdeh(lit.fieldvine)referstoawildgourdvine.Another
word,srq(Is5:2,Jer2:21),orsrqh(Gn49:11),referstosuperiorvineswithpurplegrapes.
Thevine(Vitisvinifera)issupposedtobeanativeoftheshoresoftheCaspian,buthasbeencultivatedinPalestinefromtheearliesttimes,asiswitnessedbythe
extensiveremainsofancientvineyards.Theclimateispeculiarlysuitedtothegrape,whichreachesperfectionduringtheprolongedsunshineandthedewynightsof
latesummer.Vinesspeciallyflourishonthehillsidesunsuitedforcereals(Jer31:5,Am9:13).Viticulture,whichlanguishedforcenturiesundertheArabs,has
recentlybeenrevivedbytheGermanandJewishcolonies,andmillionsofimportedvinesofchoicestrainhavebeenplanted.Asinthecaseoftheolive,theculture
ofthevineneedsapeaceful,settledpopulation,astheplantsrequireseveralyearscarebeforebearingfruit(Zeph1:13),andconstantattentioniftheyareto
maintaintheirexcellencehencetositunderonesownvineandfigtreewasafavouriteimageofpeace(1K4:25,Mic4:4,Zec3:10).Insomedistrictstoday
vinesaretrainedoveratrellisatthefrontdoor,makingacoolsummerresort.TheIsraelitesfoundPalestinereadyplantedwithvineyards(Dt6:11,Jos24:13,Neh
9:25).ThestepstakeninmakingavineyardaredescribedindetailinIs5.Thelandmustbefenced(cf.Ps80:12),thestonesgatheredout,thechoicestpossible
plantsobtained.Awinepresswascutintherock,andawatchtower(Is5:2,Mt21:33)wasbuilttoguardagainstintruders.Theselastincludedfoxes(orjackals)
(Ca2:15)andboars(Ps80:13).Insuchatowertheownersfamilywillprobablypassallthegrapeseasonduringthevintagealargeproportionofthepeopleareto
befoundlivinginthevineyards.Everyspringthesoilbetweenthevinesmustbedugorploughedupandtheplantspruned(Lv25:3,4,Is5:6)neglectofthisleads
torapiddeteriorationofthegrapesonlytheslothfulmancouldpermithisvineyardtobeovergrownwiththornsandnettlesandthestonewallthereoftobe
brokendown(Pr24:3031).Theclustersofgrapesareoftenenormous(cf.Nu13:23).Whenthevintageisoverandtheleavesturnsereandyellow,thevineyards
haveaverydesolatelook(Is34:4).ThefailureofthevintagewaslookeduponasoneofGodsterriblepunishments(Ps78:47,Jer8:13,Hab3:17),anda
successfulandprolongedvintageasasignofblessing(Lv26:5).Ofthevastquantitiesofgrapesproducedinancienttimesalargeproportionwas,withoutdoubt,
convertedintodibs(Arab.)orgrapehoney(cf.Heb.dbash=honey),aformofthick,intenselysweetgrapejuice,whichisstillmadeinconsiderablequantities
inSyria,butwhichmusthavebeenmuchmoreimportantinthedayswhencanesugarwasunknown.Manyreferencestohoneyprobablyrefertothisproduct
ratherthantothatofthebee.
IsraeliscomparedtoavineinEzk15,17,Is5,andPs80.ThevineleafwasafavouritedesignonJewishcoins.ThenumerousreferencestothevineintheNT
(e.g.Mt20:1ff.,21:28,33ff.,Jn15)pointtothecontinuedimportanceofviticultureinthosedays.
VineofSodom(Dt32:32).Ifthereferenceistoanyparticularplantwhichisverydoubtfulthemostprobableisthecolocynth(Citrulluscolocynthis)see
GOURD.Theapplesizedfruitofthecuriousosher(Calotropisprocera)hasbeensuggestedbutthoughthisanswerswelltothedescriptionbyJosephus(BJIV.viii.
4)ofthefruitsofSodomwhichvanishintoashes,sosubstantialatree,withitscorklikebarkandlargeglossyleaves,couldinnosensebecalledavine.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
VINEGAR.ThelightwineofBibletimes,inconsequenceoftheprimitivemethodsofmanufacturetheninvogue(forwhichseeW
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VINEGAR.ThelightwineofBibletimes,inconsequenceoftheprimitivemethodsofmanufacturetheninvogue(forwhichseeWINEANDS TRONODRINK),
turnedsourmuchmorerapidlythanmodernwines.Inthisconditionitwastermedchmets(lit.sour[stuff]),andwasused,mixedwithwater,asadrinkbythe
peasants(Ru2:14).TheNaziritesvowofabstinenceincludedalsovinegarofwineandvinegarofstrongdrink,i.e.ofallintoxicatingliquorotherthangrape
wine(Nu6:3).TheJewishchmetscorrespondedtotheRomanposca,thefavouritedrinkofthesoldiers,whichthosechargedwithourLordscrucifixionoffered
HimonthecrossEVvinegar(Jn19:29f.,butnotMt27:34,seeRV).
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
VIOL.SeeMUSIC,etc.,4(1)(b).
VIOLET.SeeCOLOURS,5.
VIPER.SeeS ERPENT.
VIRGINusuallyrepresents(a)Heb.bthlh,anunmarriedmaiden.Thewordisfrequentlyappliedtocountries,oftenwiththeadditionofdaughter,e.g.
Israel(Jer18:13,Am5:2),Zion(2K19:21,La2:13),Babylon(Is47:1),Egypt(Jer46:11).InJl1:8itisusedofayoungwidow.Dt22:23ff.haslawsforthe
protectionofvirginsv.13insistsontheimportanceofvirginityinabride.(b)InIs7:14ararewordalmhisused(RVmmaiden).TheOTusageisindecisiveas
towhetheritisconfinedtotheunmarried(e.g.Ex2:8,Ca1:3,6:8masc.1S17:56,20:22).TheArab.rootmeanstobemature,andtheAram.doesnotconnote
virginity.Thewordapparentlymeansoneofmarriageableage,andiscertainlynotthewordwhichwouldnaturallybeusedifvirginitywerethepointtobe
emphasized.LXXhasparthenos(virgin)soMt1:23butthecomplaintsofJustinandIrenusagainstthelaterJewishtr.nenis(damsel)arehardlyjustifiable.
AmodernviewholdsthatIsaiahwasadoptingthelanguageofacurrentmythologicaltradition,andintendedthewordtoconveytheideaofadivinemother(note
thevirgin,RVm).
(c)Rev14:4usesthewordofmen,probablymetaphorically,implyingchastity,notcelibacycf.
2Co11:2.Ac21:9isprobablythegermofthelaterorderofvirgins.ForVirginbirthseepp.589b,705a.
C.W.EMMET.
VIRTUE.InMk5:30,Lk6:19,8:46thewordvirtueisusedwiththeantiquatedmeaningofpower,orpowerfulinfluence(Gr.dynamis).
VISION
1.InOT.Initsearlierformthevisioniscloselyassociatedwithbeliefindreams(wh.see)asthenormalvehicleofDivinerevelation.Thetwowordsare
repeatedlyusedofthesameexperience,thedreambeingrathertheform,thevisionthesubstance(e.g.Dn1:17,2:28,4:5,cf.Jl2:28).Thecommonphrasevisions
ofthenightembodiesthesameconception(Dn2:19,Job4:13,Gn46:2cf.1S3:115,Ac16:9).Inthedarkness,whentheeyeisclosed(Nu24:3,4)andthe
naturalfacultiesaresuspendedbysleep,Godspeakstomen.Afurtherstageisthebeliefinanexaltedconditionofquickenedspiritualdiscernment(ecstasyAc
11:5,22:17,cf.Gn15:12[LXX]),detachedfromthedreamstateandfurtheredbyfasting,prayer,andselfdiscipline(Dn10:29,cf.Ac10:911).Butinthelater
OTbooksneitherecstasynortheobjectivevision,withitsdisclosureincrypticsymbolismoffuturehappenings(Daniel),orofthenatureandpurposesofGod
(Ezekiel,Zechariah),hasaplaceinthenormallineofdevelopmentofmansconceptionofthemethodsofDivinerevelation.Theearlierprophetshadalready
attainedtotheideaofvisionasinspiredinsight,ofrevelationasaninwardandethicalwordofGod(Is1:1,2:1etc.cf.1S3:1,Ps89:19).Theirprophetic
consciousnessisnotbornofspecialtheophanies,butratherofaresistlesssenseofconstraintuponthemtodiscernanduttertheDivinewill(Am7:14,16.Is6:5,Jer
1:6,Ezk3:1216).Ecstasiesandvisualappearancesaretheexception(Am7:19,8:1,Is6,Jer1:1113).InIs22:1,5ghizzynvalleyofvision(EV)is
possiblyamistakeforg
Hinnm,ValleyofHinnom.
2.InNT.St.Pauloncemakesincidentalreferencetohisvisions(2Co12:1),andperhapsconfirmstheobjectivecharacteroftherevelationtohimonthe
roadtoDamascus(Gal1:1117,1Co9:1,15:8).VisionsarealsorecordedinLk1,2,Ac10,11,16andthetermisonceappliedtotheTransfiguration(Mt17:9
Mk.Lk.thethingswhichtheyhadseen).ButtheNTvisionispracticallyconfinedtotheApocalypticimageryoftheBookofRevelation.
S.W.GREEN.VOPHSI.ThefatheroftheNaphtalitespy(Nu13:14).
VOWS.Incommonwithmostpeoplesoftheancientworld,themakingofvowswasoffrequentoccurrenceamongtheIsraelites.Theunderlyingideain
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VOWS.Incommonwithmostpeoplesoftheancientworld,themakingofvowswasoffrequentoccurrenceamongtheIsraelites.Theunderlyingideain
makingavowwastopropitiatetheDeitythiswasdoneeitherbypromisingtodosomethingforHim,ortopleaseHimbytheexerciseofselfdenial.Vowswere
madefromavarietyofmotives:JacobvowsavowaccordingtowhichhewillpleaseJahwehbybecomingHisworshipper,onconditionthatJahwehwillkeephim
safeduringhisjourneyandgivehimfoodandraiment(Gn28:2022).JephthahvowstooffertoJahwehthefirstpersonheseescomingoutofhishouseonhis
returnfrombattle,providedheisvictorious(Jg11:30,31).HannahvowsthatifJahwehgivesherason,shewilldedicatehimtotheserviceofGod(1S1:11).
Thesecasesaretypical:ineachsomethingispromisedtoGod,onconditionthatGodwilldosomethingforhimwhomakesthevow.Buttherewasanotherclassof
vowswhichwereofamoredisinterestedcharacterthemoststrikingherewouldbetheNaziritevow,accordingtowhichamanundertooktoleadastrenuously
austerelife,whichwassupposedtoapproximatetothesimplelifeofthepatriarchsthatwasdoneoutofprotestagainstthecurrentmodeoflife,whichhadbeen
largelyadoptedfromtheCanaanitesindeed,theNaziritevowimplied,andwasintendedtobe,alifeofgreaterloyaltytoJahweh.
TherearetwowordsinHebrewforavowthoughtheydonotnecessarilycorrespondtothetwoideasjustmentioned:neder,whichisavowwherebyamandedicates
something,evenhimself,toGodissar,avowbywhichamanbindshimselftoabstainfromenjoyment,ortoexerciseselfdenial,inhonourofJahweh.
VowswereclearlyofverycommonoccurrenceinIsrael,indeeditwouldalmostseemasthoughatonetimeitwasdeemedgenerallyincumbentonmentomake
vowsthiswould,atallevents,explainthewordsinDt23:22,Butifthoushaltforbeartovow,itshallbenosininthee.Avowhavingoncebeenmadehadtobe
keptatallcosts(Dt23:21,23,Nu30:2,Jg11:35)though,asregardswomen,theymightbeabsolvedbyfatherorhusband,undercertainconditions,fromfulfilling
avow(Nu30:18).Fromtheexpressionusedinconnexionwiththemakingofavow,tobindthesoul(Nu30:2),itwouldseemthattheideawasthatifthevow
wasbrokenthelifewasforfeitedtotheDeitytowhomthevowhadbeenmadethewarning,therefore,ofPr20:25,Ex5:5(4),needed.
InmakingavowinwhichsomethingwaspromisedtoJahweh,onlysuchthingscouldbepromisedasweretrulythepropertyofhimwhovowedforthisreason
amanmightnotpromiseafirstlingorthelike,asthatwasalreadythepropertyofJahweh(cf.Lv27:2629).
InlatertimesthespiritinwhichvowswereobservedappearstohavedegeneratedMalachispeakssternlyofthosewhomakeavow,andinfulfillingitsacrifice
untotheLordablemishedthing(1:14).Another,andstillworse,misuseofvowsmeetsusintheGospels:thespuriouspietyofsomemeninducedthemtovow
giftstotheuseofthesanctuary,buttheyneglected,inconsequence,themostobviousdutiesofnaturalaffectionwhenamanutteredtheword
Corbaninreferencetoanypossessionofhis,itmeantthatitwasdedicatedtoGod.Moneythatshouldhavegonetothesupportofagedparentswaspronounced
tobeCorban,thesonfelthimselfrelievedofallfurtherresponsibilityregardinghisparents,andtookhonourtohimselfforhavingpiouslydedicatedhissubstance
toGod(seeMt15:5,Mk7:9ff.).
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
VULGATE.1.ThepositionoftheLatinVulgate,asaversionoftheoriginaltextsoftheBible,hasbeendealtwithinthetwoarticlesontheTextoftheOTand
theNT.Butitsinterestandimportancedonotendthere.JustastheLXX,apartfromitsimportanceasevidenceforthetextoftheOT,hasahistoryasanintegral
partoftheBibleoftheEasternChurch,soalsodoestheVulgatedeserveconsiderationastheBibleoftheChurchintheWest.AlthoughtheEnglishBible,towhich
wehavebeenaccustomedfornearly300years,isinthemainatranslationfromtheoriginalHebrewandGreek,itmustberememberedthatforthefirstthousand
yearsoftheEnglishChurchtheBibleofthiscountry,whetherinLatinorinEnglish,wastheVulgate.InGermanytheconditionsweremuchthesame,withthe
differencethatLuthersBiblewasstillmoreindebtedtotheVulgatethanwasourAVwhileinFrance,Italy,andSpainthesupremacyoftheVulgatelaststothisday.
Inconsidering,therefore,thehistoryoftheVulgate,weareconsideringthehistoryoftheScripturesintheforminwhichtheyhavebeenmainlyknowninWestern
Europe.
2.Thetextualarticlesabovementionedhaveshownthat,whenJeromesBiblicallabourswereatanend,aboutA.D.404,theLatinBibleasleftbyhimwasa
verycomplexstructure,thepartsofwhichdifferedveryconsiderablyintheirrelationstotheoriginalGreekandHebrewtexts.TheCanonicalBooksoftheOT,
exceptthePsalms,wereJeromesfreshtranslationfromtheMassoreticHebrew.ThePsalmswereextantinthreeforms(a)theRoman,Jeromesslightlyrevised
editionoftheOL,whichstillhelditsowninafewchurches(b)theGallican,hismorefullyrevisedversionfromtheHexaplartextoftheLXXand(c)theHebrew,
hisnewtranslationoftheMassoretictextoftheseitwasthesecond,notthethird,thatwastakenintogeneraluse.Ofthedeuterocanonicalbooks,orApocrypha,
JudithandTobit,withtheadditionstoDaniel,wereinJeromesveryhastyversiontheremainder,whichhehadrefusedtotouch(asnotrecognizedbythe
Massoreticcanon),continuedtocirculateintheOL.TheGospelswereJeromessomewhatconservativerevisionoftheOLtherestoftheNTwasamuchmore
superficialrevisionofthesame.TheLatinBible,therefore,whichweknowastheVulgatewasnotwhollyJeromeswork,stilllessdiditrepresenthisfullandfinal
viewsonthetextualcriticismoftheBibleand,naturally,itdidnotforalongtimeacquirethenameofVulgate.Thevulgataeditio,ofwhichJeromehimself
speaks,isprimarilytheGr.LXX,andsecondarilytheOLasatranslationofit.Itisnotuntilthe13thcent.thattheepithetisfoundappliedtoJeromesversionby
RogerBacon(who,however,alsousesitoftheLXX)anditwascanonized,sotospeak,byitsuseinthedecreeoftheCouncilofTrent,whichspeaksofitashc
ipsavetusetvulgataeditio.Bythattime,however,itdifferedinmanypointsofdetailfromthetextwhichJeromeleftbehindhimanditisofthehistoryof
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ipsavetusetvulgataeditio.Bythattime,however,itdifferedinmanypointsofdetailfromthetextwhichJeromeleftbehindhimanditisofthehistoryof
Jeromesversionduringthisperiodofsometwelvehundredyearsthatitisproposedtospeakinthepresentarticle.
3.Jeromescorrespondenceandtheprefacesattachedbyhimtotheseveralbooksofhistranslation(notablythoseprefixedtothePentateuch,Joshua,Ezraand
Nehemiah,Job,Isaiah,andtheGospels)sufficientlyshowthereceptiongiventohisworkbyhiscontemporaries.Hecomplainsconstantlyandbitterlyofthe
virulenceofhiscritics,whochargehimwithdeliberateperversionsofScripture,andrefusetomakethemselvesacquaintedwiththeconditionsofhistask.
EspeciallywasthisthecasewiththeOT.IntheNTJeromehadrestrainedhiscorrectingpen,andmadealterationsonlywhenthesenserequiredit[Itacalamo
temperavimusuthistantumqusensumvidebanturmutarecorrectis,reliquamanerepateremurutfuerant(Prf.adDamasum)]andthougheventhesewere
sufficienttocausediscontentamongmanyreaders,theopeningsgiventoadversecriticismwererelativelyinsignificant.ButinthecaseoftheOTthebasisofthe
OLrenderingtowhichpeoplewereaccustomedwastheLXX,thedifferencesofwhichfromtheMassoreticHebrewareoftenverywide.When,therefore,readers
foundwholepassagesomittedortransposed,andthemeaningsofverymanysentencesalteredbeyondallrecognition,theybelievedthatviolencewasbeingdone
tothesacredtextnorweretheypreparedtoadmitasaxiomaticthesuperiorityoftheHebrewtexttotheGreek,theOToftheJewstotheOToftheChristians.Even
Augustine,whocommendedandusedJeromesrevisionoftheGospels,questionedtheexpediencyofthefarreachingchangesmadeintheOT.
4.NorwasJeromestranslationassistedbyauthoritytooustitspredecessor.Neveruntil1546wasitofficiallyadoptedbytheRomanChurchtotheexclusion
ofallrivals.ItistruethattherevisionoftheGospelswasundertakenattheinstanceofPopeDamasus,andwaspublishedunderthesanctionofhisnameandthe
GallicanversionofthePsalmswasquicklyandgenerallyadopted.ButthenewtranslationoftheOTfromtheHebrewhadnosuchshadowofofficialauthority.It
wasanindependentventureofJeromes,encouragedbyhispersonalfriends(amongwhomweresomebishops),andderivingweightfromhisreputationasa
scholarandfromthesuccessofhispreviouswork,butinnosenseofficiallycommissionedorofficiallyadopted.Itwasthrownontheworldtowinitswaybyits
ownmerits,withthestrongweightofpopularprejudiceagainstit,anddependentforitssuccessontheadmissionofitsfundamentalcriticalassumptionofthe
superiorityoftheMassoreticHebrewtotheLXX.Itisnottobewonderedatifitsprogressingeneralfavourwasslow,andifitstextwasgreatlymodifiedbeforeit
reachedthestageofuniversalacceptance.
5.Theextantevidence(consistingofoccasionalstatementsbyecclesiasticalwriters,andtheirascertainablepracticeinBiblicalquotations)isnotsufficientto
enableustotraceindetailtheacceptanceofJeromesversioninthevariousLatinspeakingcountries.Gaul,asitwasthefirstcountrytoadopthissecondPsalter,
wasalsothefirsttoaccepttheVulgateasawhole,andinthe5thcent.theuseofitappearstohavebeengeneraltherebutGaul,itmustberemembered,fromthe
pointofviewofChristianliterature,wasatthistimeconfinedmainlytotheprovincesoftheextremesouth.IsidoreofSeville,however,testifiestothegeneraluseof
theVulg.byallchurches,asbeingalikemorefaithfulandmorelucidthanitspredecessors.Inthe6thcent.itisprobablethatitsusewasgeneralamongscholars.
VictorofCapua,about541,findingaLatinversionoftheDiatessaronaccordingtotheOLtext,andbeingdesirousofmakingitgenerallyknown,hadittranscribed,
withthesubstitutionoftheVulg.fortheOL.GregorytheGreat(d.604)usedtheVulg.asthebasisofhiscommentaryonJob,butspeaksofbothversionsas
existingandrecognizedbytheChurch(Novamtranslationemdissero,sed,utcomprobationiscausaexigit,nuncnovamnuncveterempertestimoniaassumout,
quiasedesApostolicautraqueutitur,meiquoquelaborstudiiexutraquefulciatur).Ontheotherhand,PrimasiusisevidenceofthecontinueduseoftheOLin
AfricaandaconsiderablenumberoftheextantfragmentsofOLMSSareofthe6thcent.orlaterdate[seeTEXTOFMT,20].Ingeneralitisprobablethattheold
versionwasretainedbythecommonpeople,andbysuchoftheclergyastooklittleinterestinquestionsoftextualscholarship,longafterithadbeenabandonedby
scholars.Inanycase,itiscertainthattheVulg.wasneverofficiallyadoptedinearlytimesbytheRomanChurch,butmadeitswaygraduallybyitsownmerits.The
continuanceoftheOLinsecludeddistrictsisillustratedbythefactthatCod.Colbertinus(c)waswrittenaslateasthe12thcent.inLanguedoc,andCod.
Gigas(goftheActs)inthe13thcent.inBohemia.
6.Althoughthismethodofofficialnoninterferencewasprobablynecessary,inviewofthefactthatJeromesversionoftheOTwasaprivateventure,andone
whichprovokedmuchhostilecriticism,andalthoughintheendthenewtranslationgainedthecreditofacompletevictoryonitsmeritsasthesuperiorversionfor
generaluse,neverthelessthepriceoftheseadvantageswasheavy.IftheVulgatehadenjoyedfromthefirsttheprotectionofanofficialsanction,whichSixtusand
Clementultimatelygavetotheprintedtext,itwouldhavecomedowntousinamuchpurerformthanisactuallythecase.Undertheactualconditions,itwas
peculiarlyexposedtocorruption,bothbytheordinarymistakesofscribesandbycontaminationwiththefamiliarOL.Insomecaseswholebooksorchaptersina
Vulg.MScontainanOLtextforsomereasonwhichisquiteobscure,Mt.especiallytendedtoremainintheearlierform.ThusCodd.g:1,h,r:2allhaveMt.inOL,
andtheremainingEvv.inVulgate.Cod.GigasisOLinActsandApoc.,Vulg.intherestoftheBible.Cod.poftheActsisOLinAc1:113:6,28:1630,whilethe
restofthebookisVulg.Codd.ff:1,g:2oftheGospelsandffofCath.Epp.havetextsinwhichOLandVulg.aremixedinvariousproportions.EvenwhereOL
elementsdonotentertoasufficientextenttobenoteworthy,MSSoftheVulg.tendtodifferveryconsiderably.Intheabsenceofanycentralauthoritytoexercise
control,scribestreatedthetextwithfreedomorwithcarelessness,anddifferenttypesoftextgrewupinthedifferentcountriesofWesternEurope.Itiswiththese
differentnationaltextsthatthehistoryoftheVulg.intheMiddleAgesisprincipallyconcerned.
7. Duringthe5thand6thcenturies,whenJeromesversionwaswinningitswayoutwardsfromthecentreoftheLatinspeakingChurch,theconditionsovera 6/10
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7.Duringthe5thand6thcenturies,whenJeromesversionwaswinningitswayoutwardsfromthecentreoftheLatinspeakingChurch,theconditionsovera
largepartofWesternEuropewereillfittedforitsreception.Gaul,inthe5thcent.,wasfullyoccupiedwiththeeffortfirsttoopposeandthentoassimilatethe
heathenFrankishinvadersandeveninthe6thitwasasceneofalmostperpetualwarandinternalstruggles.Germanywasalmostwhollypagan.Britainwasinthe
throesoftheEnglishconquest,andtheancientBritishChurchwassubmerged,exceptinWalesandIreland.OutsideItaly,onlyVisigothicSpain(Arian,butstill
Christian,untilabout596)andCelticIrelandwerefreelyopenatfirsttotheaccessoftheScripturesandinthesetwocountries(cutoff,astheysubsequentlywere,
fromcentralChristendombytheMoorishinvasionofSpainandtheEnglishconquestofBritain)thetwoprincipaltypesoftextcameintobeing,which,invarious
combinationswithpurertextsfromItaly,arefoundinthedifferentMSSwhichhavecomedowntothepresentday.FromtheVisigothickingdomtheSpanish
influencesmadetheirwaynorthwardintotheheartofFrance.IrishmissionariescarriedtheBiblefirstintosouthernScotland,thenintoNorthumbria,theninto
northernFranceanduptheRhineintoGermany,penetratingevenintoSwitzerlandandItaly,andleavingtracesoftheirhandiworkin
MSSproducedinallthesecountries.MeanwhileRomewasaconstantcentreofattractionandinfluenceandtoandfromItalytherewasanunceasingstreamof
travellers,andnotleastbetweenItalyanddistantBritain.ThesehistoricalfactsfindtheirillustrationintheVulg.MSSstillextant,whichcanbeconnectedwiththe
variouschurches.
8.Inthe6thand7thcent.theprimacyofmissionaryzealandChristianenterpriserestedwiththeIrishChurchbutinthelatterpartofthe7thandthefirsthalf
ofthe8thcent.theChurchofNorthumbriasprangintoprominence,andaddedtothegiftswhichithadreceivedfromIonaaspiritofChristianscholarshipwhich
gaveitforatimethefirstplaceinChristendominthisrespect.IntheproductionofthisscholarshipthearrivalofTheodoreofTarsusasarchbishopofCanterburyin
669happilycooperated,ifitwasnotachiefstimulusforTheodoreandhiscompanionsbroughtwiththemfromItalycopiesoftheLatinBibleinapurertextthan
Irelandhadbeenabletoprovide.ThereisclearevidencetoshowthatthecelebratedLindisfarneGospels(YinWordsworthsnumeration)wascopiedfromoneof
theseMSS,andthesamewasprobablythecasewithanotherNortherncopyoftheGospelsnowintheBritishMuseum(Royal1Bvii.).ThegreatCod.Amiatinus
(A)itself,thebestsingleMSoftheLatinBibleinexistence,waswritteninNorthumbriabefore716,andmusthavebeencopiedfromMSSbroughtfromItalyeither
byTheodoreorbyCeolfridofJarrow,bywhoseorderitwasmade.OtherMSS(notablyandS),writteninthenorth,arecloselyakintothese,andmusthe
derivedfromthesamesourceandthiswholegroupofMSSfurnishesthebesttextoftheVulg.nowavailable.ThecentresofEnglishscholarship,towhichthispre
eminenceinBiblicalstudywasdue,werethetwinmonasteriesofWearmouthandJarrow,ofwhichthemostfamousmemberswereCeolfridandBedebuttheir
influencespreadwidelyoverNorthumbria,andwasrenownedinthemoredistantpartsofEnglandandwesternEurope.
9.Tothisrenownitwasduethat,whenakingatlastaroseinFrancewithadesiretoimprovethereligiouseducationofhiscountry,heturnedtoNorthumbria
forthenecessaryassistancetocarryoutthereform.ThekingwasCharlemagne,andthescholarwhomheinvitedtohelphimwasAlcuinofYorkandtherecordof
theirjointachievementconstitutesthenextchapterinthehistoryoftheVulgate.AlcuincametoFrancein781,andwasmademasteroftheschoolsattachedto
CharlemagnescourtatAixlaChapelle(Aachen).HewassubsequentlymadetitularabbotofTours,andin796heobtainedleavetoretiretothatmonastery,where
hespentthenineremainingyearsofhislife(d.805)inestablishingtheschoolofcalligraphyforwhichTourswaslongfamous.Hisworkinconnexionwiththe
LatinBiblefallsintotwostages.TotheearlierpartofhislifeatAixbelongs,inallprobability,thebeginningofaseriesofmagnificentcopiesoftheGospels,of
whichseveralhavesurvivedtothepresentday.Certainly,theydatefromaboutthisperiod,andhavetheirhomeinthecountryoftheRhineandtheMoselle.They
areobviouslymodelledontheAngloCelticMSS,ofwhichtheLindisfarneGospelsisthemosteminentexample.PrefixedtoeachGospelisaportraitofthe
Evangelist(intheByzantinestyle),afullpageofelaboratedecoration,andanothercontainingthefirstwordsoftheGospelinhighlyornamentalillumination.The
EnglishMSSexceltheirFrenchsuccessorsinelaborationandskillofworkmanshipbuttheFrenchbookshaveanaddedgorgeousnessfromthelavishuseofgold,
thewholeofthetextbeingwritteningoldletters,sometimesuponpurplevellum.Hencethewholeseriesofthesebooks(theproductionofwhichcontinuedthrough
thegreaterpartofthe
9thcent.)isoftendescribedastheGoldenGospels.
10.TheimportanceoftheGoldenGospelsgroupofMSSisartisticratherthantextual,andalthoughtheirdependenceuponAngloCelticmodelsisobvious,
theirconnexionwithAlcuinpersonallyisonlyhypothetical.ItisotherwiseinbothrespectswithanothergreatgroupofMSS,whicharedirectlyduetothe
commissiongivenbyCharlemagnetoAlcuintoreformthecurrenttextoftheVulgate.Abouttheendof796,AlcuinestablishedtheschoolofTours,andsentto
YorkforMSStoenablehimtocarryouthiswork.OnChristmasDayof801hepresentedtothekingacompleteBible,carefullyrevised.Severaldescendantsof
thisBiblearestillinexistence,andenableustojudgeofAlcuinswork.TheydifferfromtheGoldenGospelsinbeingcompleteBibles,andinbeingwritteninthe
beautifulsmallminusculewhichatthistime,under
Charlemagnesinfluence,supersededthetorturedandunsightlyscriptoftheMerovingianandLombardictraditions,andofwhichTourswasoneoftheprincipal
homes.TheMS.whichappearsmostaccuratelytorepresenttheeditionofAlcuinatthepresentdayistheCod.VallicellianusatRome(WordsworthsV)withthis
WordsworthandWhiteassociatethe
CarolineBible(Add.MS10546[WordsworthsK]IntheBritishMuseum),andtherearesome8or10otherMSS(writtenmostlyatTours),besidesseveralothers7/10
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CarolineBible(Add.MS10546[WordsworthsK]IntheBritishMuseum),andtherearesome8or10otherMSS(writtenmostlyatTours),besidesseveralothers
containingtheGospelsonly,whichinvaryingdegreesbelongtothesamegroup.IntexttheseMSSnaturallyshowagreataffinitytotheNorthumbrianMSSheaded
bytheCod.Amiatinus,andthereisnoquestionthatAlcuinintroducedintoFranceafarpurertextoftheVulgatethananywhichithadhithertopossessed.
11.Alcuinsattempt,however,wasnottheonlyonemadeinFranceatthisperiodtoreformthecurrentBibletext.Anothereditionwasalmostsimultaneously
producedinwesternFrancebyTheodulf,bishopofOrleansandabbotofFleury(about795821)butitscharacterwasverydifferentfromthatofAlcuin.
TheodulfwasaVisigoth,probablyfromSeptimania,thelargedistrictofsouthernFrancewhichthenformedpartoftheVisigothickingdomofSpainanditwasto
SpainthathelookedformaterialsforhisrevisionoftheLatinBible.TheMSwhichrepresentshiseditionmostfully(Paris,Bibl.Nal.9380)hasatextclosely
connectedwiththeSpanishtypeofwhichtheCodd.CavensisandToletanusarethemostprominentexamples,exceptintheGospels,whichareakinrathertothe
Irishtypeandacontemporaryhandhasaddedanumberofvariants,whichareoftenAlcuinianincharacter.WiththisMSmaybeassociatedavolumeatPuy,and
Add.MS24124intheBritishMuseum,whicharecloselyakintotheParisMS,butfollowsometimesitsfirstandsometimesitssecondreadingthelatter(especially
initscorrections)hasbeenusedbyWordsworthandWhitealongwiththeParisMStorepresenttheTheodulfianedition.Allarewritteninanextremelyminute
Carolineminuscule.
12.Inspite,however,ofthelabourspentupontheseattemptstoimprovethecurrenttextoftheVulgate,theforcesofdeteriorationweremorepowerfulthan
thoseofrenovation.Theodulfsedition,whichwasaprivateventure,withouttheadvantagesofImperialpatronage,hadnowidesphereofinfluence,andleftno
permanentmarkonthetextoftheVulgate.Alcuinshad,nodoubt,muchgreaterauthorityandeffectyetitsinfluencewasonlytransient,andevenatToursitself
theMSSproducedwithinthenexttwogenerationsshowaprogressivedeparturefromhisstandard.Ontheotherhand,thestudyoftheScriptureswasnow
definitelyimplantedontheContinent,andthenumberofcopiesofthemproducedinFranceandGermanyshowsagreatincrease.Duringthe9thcent.splendid
copiesoftheGoldenGospelscontinuedtobeproducedinthevalleyoftheRhine,andAlcuiniantextsatTourswhileanewcentreofScripturestudyand
reproductioncameintoexistenceinSwitzerland,atthefamousabbeyofSt.Gall.Thelibraryandscriptoriumofthismonastery(manyoftheinmatesofwhichwere
EnglishorIrishmonks)firstbecamenotableunderabbotGozbert(816836),andperhapsreachedtheheightoftheirimportanceunderabbotHartmut(872883).
ManycopiesoftheBiblewerewrittenthere,andtheinfluenceofSt.GallpermeatedalargeportionofcentralEurope.Here,too,wasproducedbyWalafridus
Strabo,deanofSt.Gallbefore842,theoriginalformoftheGlossaOrdinaria,thestandardcommentaryontheBibleintheMiddleAges.
13.AfterAlcuinandTheodulfnoimportanteffortwasmadetorecovertheoriginaltextoftheVulgate,thoughsomeattemptinthisdirectionwasmadeby
Lanfranc,ofwhichnotracesseemtosurvivebutthehistoryofitsdiffusioncantosomeextentbefollowedbythehelpoftheextantMSS,whichnowbeginto
increasegreatlyinnumber.ThetraditionoftheGoldenGospelswascarriedintoGermany,wherecopiesoftheGospelswereproducedonasmallerscale,withless
ornamentation,andinaratherheavyCarolineminuscule,whichclearlyderivetheiroriginfromthissource.InFranceitself,too,thelaterrepresentativesofthis
schoolareinferiorinsizeandexecutiontotheirpredecessors.SpainandIrelandhadbythistimeceasedtobeofprimaryimportanceinthecirculationofBible
texts.InEnglandanewdeparturewasmade,onahigherscaleofartisticmerit,inthefineGospelsandServiceBooksproducedatWinchesterbetweenabout960
and1060,thechiefcharacteristicsofwhicharebroadbandsofgoldformingaframeworkwithinterlacedfoliage.Thesedetails,however,relatemoretothehistory
ofartthantothatoftheBible,andwithregardtothespreadoftheknowledgeoftheScripturesthereisnothingofImportancetonoteinthe10thand11thcents.
beyondtheincreaseofmonasteriesinallthecountriesofwesternEurope,inthescriptoriaofwhichthemultiplicationofcopiesproceededapace.
14.Inthe12thcent.themostnoteworthyphenomenon,bothinEnglandandonthe
Continent,isthepopularityofannotatedcopiesofthevariousbooksoftheBible.TheordinaryarrangementisfortheBibletexttooccupyasinglenarrowcolumn
downthecentreofthepage,whileoneithersideofitisthecommentarybutwherethecommentaryisscanty,theBiblicalcolumnexpandstofillthespace,andvice
versa.ThemainstapleofthecommentaryisnormallytheGlossaOrdinariabutthis,beingitselfacompilationofextractsfrompreexistingcommentaries(Jerome,
Augustine,Isidore,Bede,etc.),lentitselfreadilytoexpansionorcontraction,sothatdifferentMSSdiffernotinconsiderablyintheircontents.Thevariousbooksof
theBiblegenerallyformseparateMSS,orsmallgroupsofthemarecombined.
Simultaneouslywiththese,someverylargeBibleswereproduced,handsomelydecoratedwithilluminatedinitials.OfthesethebestexamplescomefromEngland
ornorthernFrance.Theseareofthenatureofditionsdeluxe,whilethecopieswithcommentariestestifytotheextenttowhichtheBiblewasatthistimestudied,at
anyrateinthelargermonasteriesandthecataloguesofmonasticlibrarieswhichstillexistconfirmthisimpressionbyshowingwhatalargenumberofsuch
annotatedMSSwerepreservedinthem,nodoubtforthestudyofthemonks.
15.Afurtherstepinadvancewastakeninthe13thcent.,whichistobeattributedapparentlytotheinfluenceoftheUniversityofParisthenattheheightofits
renownandtheintellectualcentreofEurope.ThepresentchapterdivisionoftheBibletextissaidtohavebeenfirstmadebyStephenLangton(archbishopof
Canterbury,12071228),whileadoctoratParisandthe13thcent.(probablyundertheinfluenceofSt.Louis)witnessedaremarkableoutputofVulgateMSSof
thecompleteBible.HithertocompleteBibleshadalmostalwaysbeenverylargevolumes,suitableonlyforliturgicalusebutbytheadoptionofverythinvellum
andverysmallwritingitwasnowfoundpossibletocompressthewholeBibleintovolumesofquitemoderatesize,comparablewiththeordinaryprintedBiblesof
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today.Forexample,onesuchvolume,containingthewholeBiblewithamplemargins,measures51/231/21inches,andconsistsof471leaves.Fromthe
appearanceoftheseBibles(hundredsofwhicharestillextant)itisevidentthattheywereintendedforprivateuse,andtheytestifytoaremarkablegrowthinthe
personalstudyoftheScriptures.ThetextsoftheseMSSseemtoembodytheresultsofarevisionatthehandsoftheParisdoctors.Correctoria,orcollectionsof
improvedreadings,wereissuedatParisabout1230,andatotherplacesduringthiscent.,thebestbeingtheCorrectoriumVaticanum,
socalledfromaMSintheVaticanLibrary.Thisrevision,however,wassuperficialratherthanscientific,andisofimportanceinthehistoryoftheVulgatemainly
becauseitestablishedthenormaltextwhichwascurrentatthetimeoftheinventionofprinting.ThesesmallBibleswereproducedalmostasplentifullyinEngland
asinFrance,andinanidenticalstyle,whichcontinuedwellintothe14thcentury.
16.AftertheParisianrevisionofthe13thcent.noimportantmodificationofthetextorstatusoftheLatinBibletookplaceuntiltheinventionofprintingtwo
centurieslater.ThefirstbooktobeprintedinEuropewastheLatinBible,publishedin1456byGutenbergandFust(nowpopularlyknownastheMazarinBible,
fromthecircumstancethatthefirstcopyofittoattractnoticeinmoderntimeswasthatinthelibraryofCardinalMazarin).IntypethisBibleresemblesthe
contemporarylargeGermanBibleMSSintextitistheordinaryVulgateofthe15thcentury.DuringthenextcenturyBiblespouredfromthepress,butwithlittleor
noattemptatrevisionofthetext.SomeMSSwereconsultedinthepreparationoftheComplutensianPolyglotbuttheonlyeditionsbeforethemiddleofthe16th
cent.whichdeservethenameofcriticalarethoseofStephanusin1540andHenteniusin1547,whichlaidthefoundationsofthemodernprintedVulgate.Itis,
however,totheactionoftheCouncilofTrentthatthegenesisofanauthorizedtextisultimatelydue.Soonafteritsmeeting,in1546,adecreewaspasseddeclaring
thatthevetusetvulgataeditiooftheScriptureswastobeacceptedasauthentic,andthatitshouldbeprintedinthemostaccurateformpossible.Itwasfortyyears,
however,beforethisdecreeborefruit.SixtusV.,inhisshortpontificateoffiveyears(158590),notonlycausedtheproductionofaneditionoftheGreekOT
(1587),butin1590issuedaLatinBiblewhichhedeclaredwastobeacceptedastheauthenticeditiondemandedbytheCouncilofTrent.Thiseditionwasthework
ofaboardofrevisersappointedforthepurpose,butSixtushimselfexaminedtheirresultsbeforetheywerepublished,andintroducedalargenumberofalterations
(rarelyforthebetter)onhisownauthority.TheSixtineedition,however,hadhardlybeenissuedwhenitwasrecalledin1592byClementVIII.,attheinstance,it
isbelieved,oftheJesuits,withwhomSixtushadquarrelledandinthesameyearaneweditionwasissuedundertheauthorityofClement,withaprefacebythe
famousJesuitBellarmin,inwhich(toavoidtheappearanceofaconflictbetweenPopes)thesuppressionoftheSixtineeditionisfalselystatedtobeduetothe
abundanceinitofprinterserrors,andtohavebeencontemplatedbySixtushimself.TheClementinerevisersinmanyinstancesrestoredthereadingsofSixtus
board,whichSixtushimselfhadalteredandthegeneralresultoftheirlabourswastoproduceatextresemblingthatofHentenius,whiletheSixtineeditionwas
nearertothatofStephanus.ThebullinwhichtheClementineeditionwaspromulgatedforbadeanyfuturealterationofthetextandanyprintingofvariousreadings
inthemargin,andtherebystereotypedtheofficialtextoftheVulgatefromthatdayuntilthis.
17.ClementsbullpracticallyclosedthetextualcriticismoftheVulgateintheRoman
Church,thoughVallarsiwasabletoprintanewtextinhiseditionoftheworksofSt.Jeromein1734,andVercellonepublishedacollectionofvariousreadingsin
186064.ThecourseofcriticismoutsidetheRomancommunioncanbebrieflysketched.Bentley,withthehelpofhisassistants,madelargecollectionsforan
editionoftheVulgate,butwasunabletocarrythroughhistask.Lachmann,inthesecondeditionofhisGreekNT(184250),addedatextoftheVulgate,basedon
acollationoftheCod.AmiatinusandafewotherselectedMSS.Corssenin1885printedarevisedtextofGal.asasampleofanewNT,buthascarriedhis
enterprisenofurther,beingperhapsdeterredbytheappearanceofthegreatOxfordeditionnowinprogress.Thisedition,plannedbyBishopJ.Wordsworthof
Salisbury,andcarriedoutbyhimwiththeassistanceoftheRev.H.J.Whiteandothers,givesarevisedtextoftheVulgatewithafull
criticalapparatusandintroductions.ThefourGospelsandActshavenowappeared(18891905)itistobehopedthatnothingwillpreventthecompletionofthe
entirework,whichwillestablishthecriticismofatleasttheVulg.NTonafirmfoundation.AverybandytextoftheNT,withWordsworthandWhitesvariantsin
themargin,hasbeenproducedbyE.Nestle(1907).QuiterecentlyithasbeenannouncedthatPopePiusx.hasentrustedtheBenedictineorderwiththerevisionof
theVulgatetext.ItissatisfactorytoknowthattheyproposetodevotethemselvesinthefirstinstancetotheOT.
L ITERATURE.TheProlegomenatoWordsworthsandWhiteseditionart.byBp.WestcottinSmithsDBart.byH.J.WhiteinScrivenersIntrod.toCrit.ofNT:4,with
descriptionof181oftheprincipalMSS,andart.VulgateinHastingsDBandespeciallyS.BergersHist,delaVulg.pendantlespremierssiclesdumoyenge(1893).
SpecimensoftheprincipalclassesofMSSmentionedinthepresentarticlemaybeseeninFacsimilesfromBiblicalMSSintheBritishMuseum(1900).Thebesteditionofthe
ClementineVulgateisthatofVercellone(1861).Forfullerbibliography,seeBerger,op.
cit.,andWhitesart.inHastingsDB.
F.G.KENYON.
VULTURE.1.dh,Lv11:14,dayyhordayyth,Dt14:13AVinbothpassagesRVhaskite.2.ayyh,Job28:7AVRVfalcon.Thesewordscertainly 9/10
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VULTURE.1.dh,Lv11:14,dayyhordayyth,Dt14:13AVinbothpassagesRVhaskite.2.ayyh,Job28:7AVRVfalcon.Thesewordscertainly
refertosomeofthesmallerbirdsofprey:thelargervulturesareincludedinnesher,forwhichseeEAGLE.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
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WAFER.S EEBREAD,end.
WAGES.UndertheconditionsoflifeinPalestineinOTtimes,workontheland,atalltimesthechiefoccupation,wasdoneforthemostpartbythepeasant
andhisfamily,assisted,inthecaseofthewelltodo,byafewslaves.Thehiredservantswerenevernumerous,andmainlyaliens.Wehavenoinformationasto
thewagesofsuchfieldlabourers.Dt15:18seemstosaythatahirelingcostthefarmertwiceasmuchasaslave,andsincethelatterreceivedonlyhiskeepandhis
fewclothes,itfollowsthattheformerwillhaveearnedtheequivalentthereof,overandabove,inwages.Thefirstdefiniteengagementdisregardingthespecial
caseofJacobandLabanwithstipulatedwagesisthatoftheLevitewhomMicahhiredashisdomesticchaplainfor10shekelsayear,withasuitofappareland
hisvictuals(Jg17:10).ThenextinstanceisTobitsengagementoftheangelRaphaelashissonstravellingcompanionforadrachmadayandallfound(To5:14).
ThisamountinTobitsdaynearlyashillingwouldprobablybeequalinpurchasingpowertothreeshillingsatthepresentday.FromtheNTwehavethefamiliar
caseofthelabourersinthevineyardwhoreceivedadenariusfortheirdayslabour(Mt20:1ff.seeMONEY,6,7(b)).
Informationisnowavailableastothewagesofdifferentclassesofhirelings,fromdoctorstotailors,inBabyloniac.B.C.2000,fromtheCodeofHammurabi
(seeHastingsDB,Ext.Vol.592f.,606f.S.A.Cook,TheLawsofMosesandtheCodeofHammurabi,171ff.),butitisperiloustocomparetoocloselythehighly
developedsocialconditionsofBabylonia,evenatthisearlyperiod,withthesimplerformsofHebrewlife,sayunderthemonarchy.Astillbetterreflexionofthe
actualconditionsoflabourinthevalleyoftheEuphratesisfoundinthenumerouswrittencontractsthathavebeendecipheredinrecentyears,aspecimenofwhich
willbegivenbelow(seeesp.Johns,Bab.andAssyr.Laws,ch.xxv.WagesofHiredLabourersMeissner,Ausd.altbab.Recht,13f.).TheCodeofHammurabi(
273)enactsthatafieldlabourershallreceivefromthebeginningoftheyear(April)tothefifthmonththeperiodoflongerdaysandharvestoperations6she
(180she=1shekel)perdayandfromthesixthmonthtotheend,5she.Atbestthisisonlyashekelamonthbut,accordingtoMeissner,thisearlyintroductionof
astandardwagedidnotleadtoariseofwages,foronlyonveryrareoccasionsdotheseexceed6shekelsayearinadditiontofoodandclothing.Itwascustomary
togiveasum,probablyashekel,asearnestmoney,theremainderbeingpaidatstipulatedintervals,dailyormonthly,orinalumpsumattheexpiryofthe
engagement.
Brickmakersandtailorsaretoreceive5sheaday(274),andherdsmenthenamenqdistheBabylonianformofthatdenotingtheoccupationofAmos,the
prophet8gurofcornayear,thegurbeingworthprobablyaboutashekel.Inothercasesaswell,itwascustomarytopayingrain,Frequently,ashasbeensaid,a
writtencontractwasdrawnup,specifyingthewagesandtheperiodofengagement.AnexamplemaybegivenfromMeissner(op.cit.14):
AsirRamman,thesonofLibitUrra,hashiredShamashbelilifromthepriestessofthesun,
Achatani,thedaughterofShamashkhazir,foroneyear.Hewillpay31/2shekelsasyearlywages.Hewillfindhisownclothes.Hewillbeginworkonthe4thofthemonthDur
Ramman,andwillfinishandleaveinthemonthMamitu.
InOTtimeswehearalsoofyearlyengagements(Lv25:53),buttheDeuteronomicLawenjoinsdailypaymentofwages,incasesofpovertyatleast(Dt24:15,
cf.Lv19:13).DetailsoftheconditionsofhireandthemutualobligationsofmasterandservantatamuchlaterperiodaretobefoundintheMishna(seeesp.Baba
meza,vi.andvii.).
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
WAGGON.S EECART,AGRICULTURE,3.
WAILING.S EEMOURNINGCUSTOMS.
WALLET.S EEBAG.
WALLS.InPalestinetheprincipalcitieswereprotectedbysurroundingwalls,sometimesofgreatsize.ThatofGezer,forinstance,wasfourteenfeetthick.
Thesewallswerebuiltofstones,setinmud,orelseofbrick.Thewallsofhousesweregenerallyillbuiltstructuresofthesamematerials.Thechoiceofmaterial
variedwiththelocality:Lachish(TellelHesy),forexample,wasalmostentirelyabricktowninGezerbrickistheexception.Seealsoartt.CITYF ORTIFICATION,1
HOUSE,4.ForthewallsofJerusalem,whichmaybetakenastypicalofacitywall,seeJERUSALEM.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
WAR.1.InthedaysbeforethemonarchythewarsoftheHebrewtribesmusthaveresembledthoseofearlyGreece,whenthetwoarmiesstartedout,marched1/28
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WAR.1.InthedaysbeforethemonarchythewarsoftheHebrewtribesmusthaveresembledthoseofearlyGreece,whenthetwoarmiesstartedout,marched
tilltheymet,hadafightandwenthome.Rarely,asinthecaseofthecampaignagainstSisera(Jg4),wasitnecessarytosummonalargerarmyfromseveraltribes.
FromthedaysofSaulandDavid,withtheirlongstruggleagainstthePhilistines,warbecametheaffairofthewholenation,leading,also,totheestablishmentofa
standingarmy,oratleastofthenucleusofone(seeARMY).InthereignofSolomonwehearofacompleteorganizationofthekingdom,whichundoubtedly
servedamoreseriouspurposethantheprovidingofvictualsforthekingandhishousehold(1K4:7).
Earlyspring,afterthewinterrainshadceased,wasthetimewhenkingsgoouttobattle(2S11:1).Thewarhorn(EVtrumpet),soundedfromvillageto
villageontheirhilltops,wasinallperiodsthecalltoarms(Jg6:34,1S13:3,2S20:1).HowfartheexemptionsfrommilitaryservicespecifiedinDt20:58were
inforceunderthekingsisunknownthefirstexpressattestationis1Mac3:55.
2.War,fromtheHebrewpointofview,wasessentiallyareligiousduty,begunandcarriedthroughunderthehighestsanctionsofreligion.Israelswarsofold
werethewarsofJ(Nu21:14),andwasnotJahwehTsbth,especiallytheGodofIsraelsbattlearray(1S17:45).?
HispresencewiththehostwassecuredbythearkofJaccompanyingthearmyinthefield(2S11:11,cf.1S4:3ff.).Asanindispensablepreliminary,therefore,
ofeverycampaign,thesoldierssanctifiedthemselves(Jos3:5)byablutionsandotherobservancespreparatorytoofferingtheusualsacrifices(1S7:9,13:9).The
menthusbecameGodsconsecratedones(Is13:2RV),andtoopenacampaignisinHeb.phrasetoconsecratewar(Jl3:9,Jer6:4etc.).Is21:5anointthe
shield(cf.2S1:21)iscommonlytakentoalludetoapracticeofsmearingshieldswithoil,thathostileweaponsmightmorereadilyglanceoff(see,foranother
explanation,MartiorDuhm,Jesaia,adloc.).
Toascertainthepropitiousmomentforthestart,andindeedthroughoutthecampaign,itwasusualtoenquireoftheLordbymeansofthesacredlot(Jg1:1,1
S23:2andoft.),andinanageofmoreadvancedreligiousthought,bythemouthofaprophet(1K22:6ff.).Stilllateracampaignwasopenedwithprayerand
fasting(1Mac3:47ff.).
Asregardsthecommissariat,itwasprobablyusual,asinGreece,tostartwiththreedaysprovisions,thesoldiers,fortherest,helpingthemselvesfromfriends(cf.
however,thevoluntarygifts,2S17:27ff.)andfoes.Thearrangementbywhichtenmenoutofeveryhundredweretoldofftofetchvictualforthepeople(Jg
20:10),isfirstmetwithinalatedocument.
3.Asthearmyadvanced,scoutsweresentouttoascertaintheenemyspositionandstrength(Jg1:24[AVspies,RVwatchers],1S26:4,1Mac5:38).
Wheretheelementofsecrecyenters,wemaycallthemspies(soJos2:1RV,2S15:10,1Mac12:28cf.Gideonsexploit,Jg7:11ff.).
LittleisknownofthecampsoftheHeb.armies.Themenwereshelteredintentsandbooths(2S11:11thisreference,however,istoalengthysiege).The
generalcommandingprobablyhadamoreelaboratepavilion(1K20:12,16,seeTENT).TheobscuretermrenderedbyRVplaceofthewagons(1S17:20,26:5,
7)isderivedfromarootwhichjustifiesusinsupposingthattheHebrewcampswereround,ratherthansquare.Ofthe20Assyriancampsrepresentedonthebronze
platesofthegatesofBalawat,4arecircular,14almostsquare,and2havetheirlongsidesstraightandtheirshortsidescurvedoutwards.Twogatesarerepresented
atoppositeends,betweenwhichabroadroaddividesthecampintotwoalmostequalparts(Billerbecku.Delitzsch,DiePalasttoreSalmanassars,II.[1908],104).
TheHebrewsdividedthenightintothreewatches(Jg7:19,1S11:11).
4.ThetacticsoftheHebrewgeneralswereassimpleastheirstrategy.Usuallythebattlewassetinarraybytheopposingforcesbeingdrawnupinlinefacing
eachother.Atagivensignal,eachsideraiseditsbattlecry(Jg7:21,Am1:14,Jer4:19)asitrushedtothefrayforthewildsloganofformerdays,theIronsidesof
theJewishCromwell,JudastheMaccabee,substitutedprayer(1Mac5:33)andthesingingofPsalms(2Mac12:37).Itwasacommonpracticeforageneralto
dividehisforcesintothreedivisions(Jg7:16,1S11:11,2S18:2,1Mac5:33).Afavouritepieceoftacticswastopretendflight,andbyleavingabodyofmenin
ambush,tofallupontheunwarypursuersinfrontandrear(Jos8:15,Jg20:36).AsexamplesofmoreelaboratetacticsmaybecitedJoabshandlingofhistroops
beforeRabbathammon(2S10:911),andBenhadadsmassingofhischariotsatthebattleofRamothgilead(1K22:31)thecampaignsofJudasMaccabus
wouldrepayaspecialstudyfromthispointofview.Therecallwassoundedonthewarhorn(2S2:23,18:16,20:22).
5.Thetendermerciesofthevictorsinthosedayswerecruel,althoughthetreatmentwhichtheHebrewsmetedouttotheirenemieswas,withfewexceptions
(e.g.2K15:16),nottobecomparedtowhatBenzingeronlytooaptlydescribesastheAssyriandevilries.ItisoneofthegreatestblotsonourRVthat2S12:31
shouldstillreadasitdoes,insteadofasinthemargin(seeCent.Bible,inloc).TheHebrewwars,ashasbeensaid,werethewarsofJ,andtoJofrightbelonged
thepopulationofaconqueredcity(seeBAN).EventhehumaneDeuteronomicCodesparesonlythewomenandchildren(Dt20:13f.).Thecaptivesweremostly
soldasslaves.
Aheavywarindemnityorayearlytributewasimposedontheconqueredpeople(2K3:4).Thebootyfelltothevictorioussoldiery,theleadersreceivingaspecial
share(Jg8:24ff.,1S30:26ff.).Thementhattarriedbythestuffinotherwords,whowereleftbehindasacampguardsharedequallywiththeircomrades
whowentdowntothebattle(1S30:24f.,alawfirstintroducedbyDavid,butafterwardscharacteristicallyassignedtoMoses,Nu31:27).Thereturningwarriors
werewelcomedhomebythewomenwithdanceandsong(Ex15:20ff.,Jg11:34,1S18:6etc.).ThepietyoftheMaccabanagefoundamorefittingexpression
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werewelcomedhomebythewomenwithdanceandsong(Ex15:20ff.,Jg11:34,1S18:6etc.).ThepietyoftheMaccabanagefoundamorefittingexpression
inaserviceofthanksgiving(1Mac4:24).SeealsoARMY,ARMOURARMS,F ORTIFICATIONAND
S IEGECRAFT.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
WARSOFTHELORD,BOOKOFTHE.AworkquotedinNu21:14f.tosettleapointwithregardtotheboundaryofMoabandAmmon.Thequotationsin
vv.17,18,2730areprobablyfromthesameoriginal.ThisistheonlymentionofthebookintheOT.ItisnotlikelythattheworkisidenticalwiththeBookof
Jashar.ItprobablyconsistedofacollectionofsongscelebratingthevictoriesofIsraelovertheirneighbours.ThesonginEx15:119describingtheLordasa
manofwarhasbeenthoughttobederivedfromit.Thedateoftheworkisunknown.Asitdealswiththeheroicage,itlikelyoriginatedintheperiodimmediately
following,andithasbeendatedinthereignofOmri(Stade),andbyothersasearlyasthetimeofDavidorSolomon.IfNu21:2730refertothewarsofOmri,we
mustregardtheworkasaproductoftheN.kingdom.
W.F.BOYD.
WASHPOT.OnlyPs60:8=108:9,asafigureofcontempt.Thepot(sr)wasalsousedforboiling(seeHOUSE,9).
WATCH.SeeTIME.
WATCHMAN.S EECITY.
WATCHTOWER.S EEVINE.
WATER.ThescarcityofwaterintheEastlendsitaspecialvalue.Itspresenceinsomeformisessentialtolife.Thefruitfulnessofthelanddependsonthe
quantityavailableforwatering.TheJordan,withitsgreatsprings,istoolowfortheirrigationofanythingbutthevalley.TherearemanyfountainsinPalestine,but
mostfailinsummer.Theaverageannualrainfallapproaches30inches.ButthisisconfinedtothemonthsfromApriltillOctoberandthewaterwouldrushdown
theslopestothesea,wereitnotcaughtandstoredforfutureuse.Thelimestoneformation,withitsmanycaves,madeeasytheconstructionofcisternsand
reservoirstocollecttherainwater:thencesuppliesweredrawnasrequiredduringthedrymonths.
Whereverwaterisfound,thereisgreeneryandbeautyallthroughtheyear.
IntheMaritimePlainplentifulsuppliesofwaterarefoundondigging(Gn26:13ff.).Tofillupthewellswouldmakethedistrictuninhabitable.Invadingarmies
wereattimesreducedtosorestraitsbythestoppingofwells(2K3:19,25),ordiversionandconcealmentofthestreamfromafountain(2Ch32:3f.).
Theearliestuseofwaterwasdoubtlesstoallaythethirstofmanandbeast.Refusalofdrinktoathirstymanwouldbeuniversallycondemned(Gn24:17f.,Jn
4:7).Itisheldameritoriousacttosetavesselofwaterbythewaysidefortherefreshmentofthewayfarer.Thesamerightdoesnotextendtoflocks(Gn24:19f.),for
whichwatermustoftenbepurchased.Useandwonthaveestablishedcertainregulationsforthewateringofanimals,infringementofwhichfrequentlycausesstrife
(Gn29:2ff.,Ex2:16ff.cf.Gn26:20etc.).Theartofirrigation(wh.see)wasemployedinancientdays(Ps1:3,65:10,Ezk17:7etc.),andreacheditsfullest
developmentintheRomanperiod.Tothistimealsobelongmanyruinsofmassiveaqueducts,leadingwatertothecitiesfromdistantsources.
Cisternsandspringsarenotcommonproperty.Everyconsiderablehousehasacisternforrainwaterfromroofandadjoiningareas.Importanceisattachedto
plunginginthebucketsbywhichthewaterisdrawnup,thispreventingstagnation.Thesprings,andcisternsmadeintheopencountry,arethepropertyofthelocal
familyortribe,fromwhomwater,ifrequiredinanyquantity,mustbebought.Themouthofthewellisusuallycoveredwithagreatstone.Drawingofwaterfor
domesticpurposesisalmostexclusivelytheworkofwomen(Gn24:11,Jn4:7etc.).
Incrossingthedesert,wateriscarriedinbottlesofskin(Gn21:14).
Theliving,i.e.flowingwaterofthespringisgreatlypreferredtothedeadwaterofthecistern,anditstandsfrequentlyforthevitalizingInfluencesofGods
grace(Jer2:13,Zec14:3,Jn4:10etc.).ManyScripturereferencesshowhowthecool,refreshing,fertilizingqualitiesofwaterareprizedinathirstyland(Pr25:26,
Is44:14,Jer17:8,Lk16:24etc.).Waterisfurnishedtowashthefeetandhandsofaguest(Lk7:44).Topourwateronthehandsistheofficeofaservant(2K3:11)
.Thesuddenspatesoftherainyseasonarethesymbolofdanger(Ps18:16,32:6,Is28:17etc.),andtheirswiftpassingsymbolizeslifestransiency(Job11:18,Ps
58:7).WaterisalsothesymbolofweaknessandInstability(Gn49:4,Ezk21:7etc.).Cf.CITYJERUSALEM,I.4.ForWatergateseeNETHINIM,p.654a.
W.EWING.
WATEROFBITTERNESS.SeeJ
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WATEROFBITTERNESS.SeeJEALOUSY.
WATEROFSEPARATION.SeeREDHEIFER.
WATERPOTS.SeeHOUSE,9.
WATERSPOUTS.OnlyPs42:7Deepcallethuntodeepatthenoiseofthywaterspouts(RVmcataracts).Thereferenceisprob.tothenumerousnoisy
waterfallsinastreamswollenbythemeltingofthesnow.
WAVEBREAST,WAVEOFFERING.SeeS ACRIFICE,2(13),12.
WAX.SeeEDUCATION,p.205aWRITING,6.
WAY
1.OTusage.(a)Ofaroadorjourney(1S6:9,12,2K3:20,Jer2:18).(b)Figuratively,ofacourseofconductorcharacter(Job17:9,Ps91:11),eitherina
goodsenseasapprovedbyGod
(Dt31:29,Ps50:23,Is30:21),orinabadsenseofmansownchoosing(Ps139:24,Is65:2,Jer
18:11).(c)OfthewayofJehovah,Hiscreativepower(Job26:14),Hismoralruleandcommandments(Job21:14,Ps18:30,Pr8:32).
2.NTusage.(a)Intheliteralsense(Mt4:16,10:5,Ac8:25).(b)Figuratively,asinOTofhumanconduct,orGodspurposeforman(Mt21:32,Ac14:16,
Ro11:33,1Co4:17,Ja5:20).Butthegospelgreatlyenrichedtheethicalandreligiousimportoftheword.ThoughJesuswasaddressedasonewhotaughttheway
ofGodintruth(Mt22:16),HeHimselfclaimedtoshowthewaytotheFatherbecauseHeistheWay,theTruth,andtheLife(Jn14:4,5,6).ByHimthetwo
worldswereunited(Westcott).ThisisequivalenttotheApostolicdoctrinethatChrististhegospel(Mk1:1,Ro15:18).InHe9:8,10:20thereisthesimilarthought
thatJesusbyHislife,death,andexaltationhasopenedawaywherebymenmayenterintotheholypresenceofGod,andenablesthemalsotowalktherein.InActs
theWayisusedwiththedistinctivemeaningoftheChristianfaithandmanneroflife,whichistheonlywaythatleadstosalvation(9:2,19:9,23,24:22).Thisis
thewayoftheLordsooftenreferredtointheOT,ofwhichJesusbecamethefinalandperfectrevealer.ThedevelopmentoftheconceptionmaybetracedinAc
16:17,18:25,26.
R.A.F ALCONER.
WAYMARK.InJer31:21(20)thevirginofIsraeliscalledontosetupwaymarksandmakeguidepoststomarkthewayforthereturningexiles.TheHeb.
wordtr.waymarkapparentlymeansasmallstonepillar,similartoourmilestones,withanindicationofroutesanddistances.
WEALTH.ThiswordisusedinScriptureoccasionallyintheElizabethanandprimarysenseofwellbeing(e.g.1S2:32,Est10:3etc.),butgenerallyinthe
moreusualsenseofaffluentpossessions(e.g.Gn34:29,Dt8:17,18,Ac19:25etc.).
1.PalestineisdescribedinDt8:78asrichnotonlyincerealbutalsoinmineralwealthbutthismaybeadescriptionmorepoeticthanliteral.Itis,however,
frequentlyspokenofasflowingwithmilkandhoney(Ex3:8,etc.etc.)productswhichwereinancienttimesconsideredthemarksoffertilelands.Thewealthof
Israelincreasedasthecountrydevelopedandunderthemonarchyitreacheditsheight.Theincreasedprosperitydidnot,however,leadtoincreasedrighteousness.
IfinthetimesofIsaiahthelandwasfullofsilverandgold,itwasalsofullofidols(Is2:7,8):therulingclassesoppressedthepoor(5:3,Mic2:2),drunkenness
(Is5:11,Mic2:11)andaudacityofsin(Is5:13)wererampant.ThenationalpovertythatfollowedupontheExilehadbeenremovedbeforethebirthofourLord,as
exemplifiedbythemagnificentbuildingsofHerod.ThroughouttheOTandNTmanyinstancesofwealthyindividualsoccur:e.g.Abram(Gn13:2),Nabal(1S
25:2),Barzillai(2S19:32),Zacchus(Lk19:2),JosephofArimatha(Mt27:57).
2.IntheOTthepossessionofwealthisgenerallyregardedasevidenceofGodsblessing,andsoofrighteousness(Ps1:3,4etc.).Butthestubbornfactsofthe
godlybeingcalleduponsometimestosuffer,andofthewickedsometimesflourishing,ledtoadeeperviewandthelimitedpowerandtransitorinessofwealthwere
realized(Ps49cf.37,73.Job21,Jer12etc.).IntheNTtheproblemdoesnotpresentitselfsokeenlyas,inthefullbeliefofafuturelife,thedifficultyresolved
itself.Butthegeneralconducivenessofvirtuetoearthlyprosperityisinculcatedandwearetaughtthatgodlinessisprofitableforthislifeaswellasforthatwhichis
tocome(1Ti4:8cf.Mt6:33,Mk10:30).
3.OurLordspositionregardingwealthmustbededucedfromHispracticeandteaching.AsregardsHispractice,itisclearthat,untilHecommencedHis
ministry,HeobtainedHislivelihoodbylabour,toilingasacarpenterinNazareth(Mk6:3).DuringHisministry,HeandtheTwelveformedafamilywithacommon
purse.Thisstore,composed,nodoubt,ofthepersonalpropertyofthoseoftheirnumberwhooriginallyhadwealth,wasreplenishedbygiftsofattacheddisciples 4/28
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purse.Thisstore,composed,nodoubt,ofthepersonalpropertyofthoseoftheirnumberwhooriginallyhadwealth,wasreplenishedbygiftsofattacheddisciples
(Lk8:3).Fromitnecessaryfoodwaspurchasedandthepoorwererelieved(Jn4:8,13:28).ChristandHisApostlesasaband,therefore,ownedprivateproperty.
WhenourLorddispatchedtheTwelveonaspecialtourforpreachingandhealing,andwhenHesenttheSeventyonasimilarerrand,Hecommandedthemtotake
withthemneithermoneynorfood(Mt10:10,Lk10:4)butthesewerespecialinstructionsonspecialoccasions,anddoubtlessontheirreturntoHimtheformer
systemofacommonpursewasrevertedto(cf.Lk22:36).
AsregardsChriststeaching,itisimportanttobalancethosesayingswhichappeartobehostiletoanypossessionofwealth,withthosewhichpointintheother
direction.Ontheonehand,wefindHimbiddingarichyoungmansellhisallandgivetothepoor(Mk10:21),andthentellingHisdisciplesthatitiseasierfora
cameltogothroughaneedleseyethanforarichmantoentertheKingdomofGod.HepicturesapossessorofincreasingwealthhearingGodsay,Thoufoolish
one,thisnightisthysoulrequiredofthee(Lk12:20)Hefollowsbeyondthegravethehistoriesofarichmanandabeggar,placingtherichmaninaplaceof
tormentandthepoormaninAbrahamsbosom(Lk16:19f.).ButthereistheothersideforwefindthatHesympathizeddeeplywiththoseenduringpoverty,
assuringthemoftheirFatherscare(Mt6:32),preachingespeciallytothemthegospel(Mt11:5),andpronouncinguponthemintheirsorrowsaspecialbenediction
(Lk6:20).HeshowedthatHedesiredthatallshouldhaveasufficiency,bybiddingall,richandpooralike,prayfordailybread.IfHetaughtthatricheswere
indeedanobstacletoentranceintotheKingdomofGod,Healsotaughtthatitwasthefew(whetherrichorpoor)thatsucceededinenteringit(Mt7:14).IfHetold
oneyoungmantosellallthathehad,clearlyHedidnotintendthiscounseltobeapplicabletoall,forHeassuredofsalvationZacchus,whogavebutthehalfof
hisgoodstothepoor(Lk19:8,9).Ifthebuilderoflargerbarnsistermedthefoolishone,hisfollyisshownnottohavebeenmereacquisitionofwealth,butthat
acquisitionapartfromrichestowardGod(Lk12:21)andifDivesisinHades,itisevidentthatbeisnottheremerelybecauseofhisriches,forLazarusliesinthe
bosomofAbraham,thetypicalrichJew.Further,intheparablesofthePoundsandtheTalents(Lk19:12,Mt25:14)Heteaches,underthesymbolismofmoney,
thatmenarenotownersbutstewardsofalltheypossesswhileintheparableoftheUnjustStewardHepointsoutoneofthetrueusesofwealthnamely,torelieve
thepoor,andsotoinsureawelcomefromthemwhentheeternaltabernaclesareentered(Lk16:9).
Fromtheforegoingwemayconcludethat,whileourLordrealizedthatpovertybroughtsorrow,HealsorealizedthatwealthcontainedanIntenseperilto
spirituallife.Hecametoraisetheworldfromthematerialtothespiritualandwealth,astheverytokenofthematerialandtemporal,wasblindingmentothe
spiritualandeternal.Hethereforeurgedthosetowhomitwasaspecialhindrance,toresignitaltogetherandchargedalltoregarditassomethingfortheuseof
whichtheywouldbeheldaccountable.
4.IntheApostolicChurch,initsearliestdays,wefindhermembershavingallthingscommon,andtherichersellingtheirpossessionstosupplythewantsof
theirpoorerbrethren(Ac2:44,45,4:3437).ButthisactiveenthusiasmdoesnotnecessarilyshowthattheChurchthoughtthepersonalpossessionofwealth,in
itself,unlawfulorundesirableforthecaseofAnaniasclearlyindicatesthattherighttothepossessionofprivatepropertywasnotquestioned(Ac5:4).Laterinthe
historyoftheChurchwefindSt.Jamesinveighingagainsttheproudandheartlessrich(Ja2:18,5:15),andSt.Paulwarningmenofthespiritualdangersincident
totheprocuringorpossessingofwealth(1Ti6:9.10,1719cf.Rev3:17).
CHARLEST.P.GRIERSON.
WEAPONS.SeeARMOURARMS.
WEASEL(chled,Lv11:29).Anuncleananimal.SincetheHeb.rootchladmeanstodig,andtheArab,khuldisthemolerat,itispracticallycertain
thatthislatteristhecorrecttranslationofchled.Cf.MOLE.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
WEAVING.SeeS PINNINGANDWEAVING.
WEDDING.SeeMARRIAGE.
WEDGE(ofgold).SeeMONEY,p.628b.
WEEDS.1.sph,Jon2:6,referringtoseaweeds(cf.thedesignationyamsphseaofweeds,appliedtotheRedSea[wh.see]).2.Gr.chortos,Sir40:16,
usedinthesameindefinitesenseasEng.weeds.
WEEK.SeeTIME.
WEEKS,FEASTOF.SeeP
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WEEKS,FEASTOF.SeeP ENTECOST.
WEEPING.SeeMOURNINGCUSTOMS.
WEIGHTSANDMEASURES.SincethemostimportantofallancientOrientalsystemsofweightsandmeasures,theBabylonian,seemstohavebeenbased
onaunitoflength(themeasuresofcapacityandweightbeingscientificallyderivedtherefrom),itisreasonabletodealwiththemeasuresoflengthbefore
proceedingtomeasuresofcapacityandweight.AtthesametimeitseemsprobablethatthemeasuresoflengthinuseinPalestinewerebasedonamoreprimitive,
and(sofarasweknow)unscientificsystem,whichistobeconnectedwithEgypt.TheBabyloniansystemassociatedwithGudea(c.B.C.3000),onstatuesofwhom
ascale,indicatingacubitof30digitsor19inches,hasbeenfoundengraved,wasnotadoptedbytheHebrews.
I.MEASURESOFLENGTH
TheHebrewunitwasacubit 1/6ofareed,Ezk40:5),containing2spansor6palmsor24fingersbreadths.Theearlysystemdidnotrecognizethefootorthe
fathom.Measurementsweretakenbothbythe6cubitrodorreedandthelineorfillet(Ezk40:3,Jer31:39,52:21,1K7:15).
TheancientHebrewliteraryauthoritiesfortheearlyHebrewcubitareasfollows.Thecubitofaman(Dt3:11)wastheunitbywhichthebedsteadofOg,king
ofBashan,wasmeasured(cf.Rev21:17).Thisimpliesthatatthetimetowhichthepassagebelongs(apparentlynotlongbeforethetimeofEzekiel)theHebrews
werefamiliarwithmorethanonecubit,ofwhichthatinquestionwastheordinaryworkingcubit.SolomonsTemplewaslaidoutonthebasisofacubitafterthe
first(orancient)measure(2Ch3:3).NowEzekiel(40:5,43:13)prophesiesthebuildingofaTempleonaunitwhichhedescribesasacubitandabandsbreadth,
i.e.7/5oftheordinarycubit.AsinhisvisionheispracticallyreproducingSolomonsTemple,wemayinferthatSolomonscubit,i.e.theancientcubit,wasalso7/5
oftheordinarycubitofEzekielstime.Wethushaveanordinarycubitof6,andwhatwemaycall(byanalogywiththeEgyptiansystem)theroyalcubitof7hands
breadths.ForthisdoublesystemiscuriouslyparalleltotheEgyptian,inwhichtherewasacommoncubitof0.450m.or17.72in.,whichwas6/7oftheroyalcubit
of0.525m.or20.67in.(thesedataarederivedfromactualmeasuringrods).AsimilardistinctionbetweenacommonandaroyalnormexistedintheBabylonian
weightsystem.Itsobjecttherewasprobablytogivethegovernmentanadvantageinthecaseoftaxationprobablyalsointhecaseofmeasuresoflengththeexcess
oftheroyaloverthecommonmeasurehadasimilarobject.
WehaveatpresentnomeansofascertainingtheexactdimensionsoftheHebrewordinaryandroyalcubits.Thebalanceofevidenceiscertainlyinfavourofa
fairlycloseapproximationtotheEgyptiansystem.Theestimatesvaryfrom16to25.2inches.Theyarebasedon:(1)theSiloaminscription,whichsays:Thewaters
flowedfromtheoutlettothePool1200cubits,or,accordingtoanotherreading,1000cubits.Thelengthofthecanalisestimatedat537.6m.,whichyieldsacubit
of0.525to0.527m.(20.67to20.75in.)or0.538m.(21.18in.)accordingtothereadingadopted.Furtheruncertaintyisoccasionedbythepossibilityofthe
number1200or1000beingonlyaroundnumber.TheevidenceoftheSiloaminscriptionisthusofamostunsatisfactorykind.(2)Themeasurementsoftombs.
SomeoftheseappeartobeconstructedonthebasisoftheEgyptiancubitothersseemtoyieldcubitsof0.575m.(about22.6in.)or0.641
m.(about25.2in.).Thelasttwocubitsseemtobeimprobable.Themeasurementsofanothertomb(knownastheTombofJoshua)seemtoconfirmthedeductionof
thecubitofabout0.525
m.(3)Themeasurementofgrainsofbarley.Thishasbeenobjectedtoformorethanonereason.ButtheRabbinicaltraditionallowed144barleycornsofmedium
size,laidsidebyside,tothecubitanditisremarkablethatarecentcarefulattemptmadeontheselioesresultedinacubitof17.77in.(0.451m.),whichisthe
Egyptiancommoncubit.(4)RecentlyithasbeenpointedoutthatJosephus,whenusingJewishmeasuresofcapacity,etc.,whichdifferfromtheGreekorRoman,is
usuallycarefultogiveanequationexplainingthemeasurestohisGreekorRomanreaders,whileinthecaseofthecubithedoesnotdoso,butseemstoregardthe
HebrewandtheRomanAtticaspracticallythesame.TheRomanAtticcubit(11/2ft.)isfixedat0.444m.or
17.57in.,sothatwehavehereacloseapproximationtotheEgyptiancommoncubit.Probablyin
JosephustimetheHebrewcommoncubitwas,asascertainedbythemethodsmentionedabove,
0.450m.andthedifferencebetweenthisandtheAtticRomanwasregardedbyhimasnegligibleforordinarypurposes.(5)TheMishna.Nodataofanyvaluefor
theexactdeterminationofthecubitaretobeobtainedfromthissource.Fourcubitsisgivenasthelengthofaloculusinarockcuttombithasbeenpointedout
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that,allowingsome2inchesforthebier,andtaking5ft.6in.to5ft.8in.astheaverageheightoftheJewishbody,thisgives4cubits=5ft.10in.,or171/2in.to
thecubit.OnthecubitinHerodsTemple,seeA.R.S.Kennedyinart.
Temple(p.902b),andinartt.inExpTxx.[1908],p.24ff.
ThegeneralinferencefromtheabovefivesourcesofinformationisthattheJewshadtwocubits,ashorterandalonger,correspondingcloselytotheEgyptian
commonandroyalcubit.
Theequivalentsareexpressedinthefollowingtable:
RoyalSystem. CommonSystem.

Metres. Inches. Metres. Inches.
Fingersbreadth 0.022 0.86 0.019 0.74
Palm=4fingers 0.088 3.44 0.075 2.95
Span=3palms 0.262 10.33 0.225 8.86
Cubit=2spans 0.525 20.67 0.450 17.72
Reed=6cubits 3.150 124.02 2.700 106.32

Partsandmultiplesoftheunit.Theordinarypartsofthecubithavealreadybeenmentioned.Theyoccurasfollows:thefingersbreadthordigit(Jer52:21,
thedaktylofJosephus)thepalmorhandsbreadth(1K7:26,Ezk40:5,43,43:13etc.)thespan(Ex28:16,39:9etc.).Aspecialmeasureisthegmed,which
wasthelengthoftheswordofEhud(Jg3:16),andisnotmentionedelsewhere.Itwasexplainedbythecommentatorsasashortcubit(henceEVcubit),andithas
beensuggestedthatitwasthecubitof5palms,whichismentionedbyRabbiJudah.TheGreeksalsohadashortcubit,knownasthepygn,of5palms,thedistance
fromtheelbowtothefirstjointofthefingers.Thereed(=6cubits)istheonlydefiniteOTmultipleofthecubit(Ezk40:5).ThisistheakainaoftheGreekwriters.
Thepaceof2S6:13isprobablynotmeanttobeadefinitemeasure.Alittleway(Gn35:16,48:7,2K5:19)isalsoindefinite.Syr.andArab,translatorscompared
itwiththeparasang,butitcannotmerelyforthatreasonberegardedasfixed.Adaysjourney(Nu11:31,1K19:4,Jon3:4,Lk2:44)anditsmultiples(Gn30:36,
Nu10:33)areofcoursealsovariable.
TheSabbathdaysjourney(Ac1:12)wasusuallycomputedat2000cubits.ThiswasthedistancebywhichthearkprecededthehostoftheIsraelites,andit
wasconsequentlypresumedthatthisdistancemightbecoveredontheSabbath,sincethehostmustbeallowedtoattendworshipattheark.Thedistancewas
doubledbyalegalfiction:ontheeveoftheSabbath,foodwasplacedataspot2000cubitson,andthisnewplacethusbecamethetravelersplacewithinthe
meaningoftheprescriptionofEx16:29therewerealsoothermeansofincreasingthedistance.TheMt.ofOliveswasdistantaSabbathdaysjourneyfrom
Jerusalem,andthesamedistanceisgivenbyJosephusas5stadia,thusconfirmingthe2000cubitscomputation.ButintheTalmudtheSabbathdaysjourneyis
equatedtothemilof3000cubitsor71/2furlongsandthemeasurethreescorefurlongsofLk24:13,beinganexactmultipleofthisdistance,seemstoindicatethat
thismayhavebeenoneform(theearlier?)oftheSabbathdaysjourney.
Inlatertimes,aByzantinewriterofuncertaindate,JulianofAscalon,furnishesinformationastothemeasuresinuseinPalestine(Provincialmeasures,derivedfromthework
ofthearchitectJulianofAscalon,fromthelawsorcustomsprevailinginPalestine,isthetitleofthetable).Fromthisweobtain(omittingdoubtfulpoints)thefollowingtable:
1. Thefingersbreadth.
2. Thepalm=4fingersbreadths.
3. Thecubit=11/2feet=6palms.
4. Thepace=2cubits=3feet=12palms.
5. Thefathom=2paces=4cubits=6feet.
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5. Thefathom=2paces=4cubits=6feet.
6. Thereed=11/2fathoms=6cubits=9feet=36palms.
7. Theplethron=10reeds=15fathoms=30paces=60cubits=90feet.
8. Thestadiumorfurlong=6plethora=60reeds=100fathoms=200paces=400cubits=600feet.
9. (a)Themillionormile,accordingtoEratosthenesandStrabo=8 1/3stadia=8331/3fathoms.
(b)Themillionaccordingtothepresentuse=71/2stadia=750fathoms=1500paces=3000cubits.
10.Thepresentmillionof71/2stadia=750geometricfathoms=8331/3simplefathomsfor9geometricfathoms=10simplefathoms.
Wemayjustifiablyassumethatthe3000cubitsof9(b)aretheroyalcubitsof0.525m.ThegeometricandsimplemeasuresaccordingtoJulianthusworkoutasfollows:
Geometric.Simple.
Metres.Inches.Metres.Inches.
Fingersbreadth0.0220.860.0200.79
Palm0.0883.440.0803.11
Cubit0.52520.670.47318.62
Fathom2.10082.681.89074.49
Measuresofarea.Forsmallermeasuresofareathereseemtohavebeennospecialnames,thedimensionsofthesidesofasquarebeingusuallystated.For
landmeasures,twomethodsofcomputationwereinuse.(1)Thefirst,asinmostcountries,wastostateareaintermsoftheamountthatayokeofoxencouldplough
inaday(cf.theLatinjugerum).ThusinIs5:10(possiblyalsointhecorrupt1S14:14)wehave10yoke(tsemed)ofvineyard.Althoughdefiniteauthorityis
lacking,wemayperhapsequatetheHebrewyokeoflandtotheEgyptianunitoflandmeasure,whichwas100royalcubitssquare(0.2756hectaresor0.6810acre).
TheGreekscalledthismeasurethearoura.(2)Thesecondmeasurewastheamountofseedrequiredtosowanarea.Thusthesowingofahomerofbarleywas
computedatthepriceof50shekelsofsilver(Lv27:16).ThedimensionsofthetrenchwhichElijahdugabouthisaltar(1K18:32)havealsorecentlybeen
explainedonthesameprinciplethetrench(i.e.theareaenclosedbyit)isdescribedasbeinglikeahouseoftwoseahsofseed(AVandRVwronglyasgreatas
wouldcontaintwomeasuresofseed).ThismeasurehouseoftwoseahsisthestandardofmeasurementintheMishna,andisdefinedastheareaofthecourtof
theTabernacle,or10050cubits(c.1648sq.yds.or0.1379hectares).Othermeasuresofcapacitywereusedinthesameway,andthesystemwasBabylonianin
origintherearealsotracesofthesamesystemintheWest,undertheRomanEmpire.
II.MEASURESOFCAPACITY
Thetermshandful(Lv2:2)andthelikedonotrepresentanypartofasystemofmeasuresinHebrew,anymorethaninEnglish.TheHebrewmeasurepar
excellencewastheseah,Gr.saton.FromtheGreekversionofIs5:10andothersourcesweknowthattheephahcontained3suchmeasures.Epiphaniusdescribes
thesehorHebrewmodiusasamodiusofextrasize,andasequalto11/4Romanmodius=20sextarii.Josephus,however,equatesitwith11/2Romanmodius=24
sextarii.AnanonymousGreekfragmentagreeswiththis,andsoalsodoesJeromeinhiscommentaryonMt13:33.Epiphaniuselsewhere,andotherwriters,equate
itwith22sextarii(theBab.ephahiscomputedat66sextarii).Thesehwasusedforbothliquidanddrymeasure.
Theephah(thewordissuspectedofEgyp.origin)of3sehswasusedfordrymeasureonlytheequivalentliquidmeasurewasthebath(Gr.bados,batos,
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Theephah(thewordissuspectedofEgyp.origin)of3sehswasusedfordrymeasureonlytheequivalentliquidmeasurewasthebath(Gr.bados,batos,
keramion,choinix).TheyareequatedinEzk45:11,eachcontaining1/10ofahomer.TheephahcorrespondstotheGr.artabe
(althoughinIs5:10sixartabaigotoahomer)ormetrtes.Josephusequatesitto72sextarii.Thebathwasdividedintotenths(Ezk45:14),thenameofwhichis
unknowntheephahlikewiseintotenths,whichwerecalledmerorissaron(distinguishfromhomer=10ephahs).Againtheephahandbathwerebothdivided
intosixths(Ezk45:13)the1/6bathwasthehin,butthenameofthe1/6ephahisunknown.
Thehomer(Ezk45:11,Hos3:2)orcor(Ezk45:14,Lk16:7Gr.koros)contained10ephahsorbaths,or30sehs.(Thetermcrisusedmoreespeciallyfor
liquids.)Itcorrespondedto10Atticmetrtai(soJos.Ant.XV.ix.2,thoughhesaysmedimnibyaslip).ThewordcrmaybeconnectedwiththeBab.gurorguru.
ThereadinglethekwhichoccursinHos3:2,andbyVulgateandEVisrenderedbyhalfahomer,isdoubtful.Epiphaniussaysthelethekisalargemer
(gomer)of15modii.
Thehin(Gr.hein)wasaliquidmeasure=1/2seh.InLv19:36theLXXrendersitchous.ButJosephusandJeromeandtheTalmudequateitto2Atticchoes=
12sextarii.Thehinwasdividedintohalves,thirds(=cab),quarters,sixths,andtwelfths(=log).Inlatertimestherewereasacredhin=oftheordinaryhin,and
alargehin=2sacredhins=3/2ordinaryhin.TheEgyp.hen,ofmuchsmallercapacity(0.4551.)istobedistinguished.
Theomer(Grgomor)isconfinedtodrymeasure.Itis1/10ephahandisthereforecalledassaronorissaron(AVtenthdeal).Epiphaniusequatesit
accordinglyto71/5sextarii,Eusebiuslessaccuratelyto7sextarii.Eusebiusalsocallsitthelittlegomorbuttherewasanotherlittlegomorof12modii,socalled
indistinctionfromthelargegomorof15modii(thelethekofEpiphanius).Josephuswronglyequatesthegomorto7Attickotylai.
Thecab(2K6:25,Gr.kabos)wasbothaliquidandadrymeasure.FromJosephusandtheTalmuditappearsthatitwasequalto4sextarii,or1/2hin.Inother
placesitisequatedto6sextarii,5sextarii(greatcab=11/4cab),and1/4modius(Epiphanius,who,accordingtothemeaningheattachestomodiushere,may
mean4,5,51/2,or6sextariil).
Thelog(Lv14:10,12)isameasureofoiltheTalmudequatesitto1/12hinor1/24seh,i.e.
11
/4cab.Josephusrendersthe/4cabof2K6:25bytheGreekxestesorRomansextarius,andthereisotherevidencetothesameeffect.
Ameasureofdoubtfulcapacityisthenebetofwine(Gr.versionofHos3:2,insteadoflethekofbarley).Itwas150sextarii,bywhichmaybemeantordinary
sextariiorthelarger
Syriansextariiwhichwouldmakeit=3baths.Thewordmeanswineskin.
Wethusobtainthefollowingtable(showingamixeddecimalandsexagesimalsystem)ofdryandliquidmeasures.Wherethenameoftheliquiddiffersfrom
thatofthedrymeasure,theformerisaddedinitalics.Wherethereisnocorrespondingliquidmeasure,thedrymeasureisasterisked.
Theolderportionofthissystemseemstohavebeenthesexagesimal,themerand1/10bathandthelethek(ifiteveroccurred)beingintrusions.
Home1
rorcor
*21
Lethek
Ephah1051
,bath
Seh301531
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Seh301531
1
/66030621ephah,hin
Omer100501031/312/31orissaron,1/10bath.
1
1
/2hin1206012421/51
Cab18090186314/511/21
1 /4 240 120 24 8 4 23/8 2 11/3 1
hin
1 360 180 36 12 6 33/5 3 2 11/2 1
/2
cab,
1
/8hin
1 720 360 72 24 12 71/5 6 4 3 2 1
/4
cab,
log
*1/8 1440 720 144 48 24 142/5 12 8 6 4 2 1

cab
Whenwecometoinvestigatetheactualcontentsofthevariousmeasures,weare,inthefirstinstance,thrownbackonthe(apparentlyonlyapproximate)
equationswiththeRomansextarius(Gr.xestes)anditsmultiplesalreadymentioned.Thetogwouldthenbetheequivalentofthesextarius,thebathofthemetrtes,
thecab(of6logs)ofthePtolemaicchous.Iflogandsextariuswereexactequivalents,theephahof72logswould=39.39litres,=nearly82/3gallons.Thisison
theusualassumptionthatthesextariuswas0.5451.or096Imperialpints.Buttheexactcapacityofthesextariusisdisputed,andacapacityashighas0.562l.or
0.99imperialpintisgivenforthesextariusbyanactuallyextantmeasure.Thiswouldgiveasthecapacityoftheephahbath40.46l.or71.28pints.Butitishighly
improbablethattheequationoflogtosextariuswasmorethanapproximate.Itismoreeasytoconfoundcloselyresemblingmeasuresofcapacitythanoflength,
area,orweight.
Nameof(1)Lg=0.505 (2)Ephah=65 (3)Lg=0.99Rough
Measure. 1. Pints. Pint. Approximation
onBasisof(3).

Litres. Gallons. Litres. Gallons. Litres. Gallons.
363.7 80.053 369.2 81.25 405 89.28
Homer
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(cor) 11
bushels
Lethek 181.85 40.026 184.6 40.62 202 44.64
51/2
bushels
36.37 8.005 36.92 8.125 40.5 8.928 9gallons
Ephahbath
Seh 12.120 2.668 12.3 2.708 13.5 2.976 11/2pecks

Greathin 9.090 2.001 9.18 2.234 10.08 2.232
21/4
gallons
Hin 6.060 1.334 6.12 1.356 6.72 1.488 11/2

gallons
Sacredhin 4.545 1.000 4.59 1.117 5.04 1.116 9pints
Omer 3.657 0.800 3.67 0.813 4.05 8.893 71/5pints

1 /2
3.030 0.667 3.06 0.678 3.36 0.744 6pints
hin
Cab 2.020 0.445 2.05 0.451 2.25 0.496 4pints
1
/2hin 1.515 0.333 1.53 0.339 1.68 0.372 3pints
1
/2cab 1.010 0.222 1.02 0.226 1.12 0.248 2pints
Log 0.505 0.111 0.51 0.113 0.56 0.124 1pint

1 1 /2
/2cab 0.252 0.055 0.26 0.056 0.28 0.062 pint
Othermethodsofascertainingthecapacityoftheephaharethefollowing.WemayassumethatitwasthesameastheBabylonianunitof0.505l.(0.89pint).Thiswouldgivean
ephahof36.37l.,ornearly8gallonsor66.5sextariioftheusuallyassumedweight,andmoreorlesssquareswithEpiphaniusequationofthesehor 1/3ephahwith22sextarii.Or
wemayconnectitwiththeEgyptiansystem,thus:boththeephahhathandtheEgyptianPtolemaicartabeareequatedtotheAtticmetrtesof72sextarii.Now,inthecaseofthe
artabethisisonlyanapproximation,foritisknownfromnativeEgyptiansources
(whichgivethecapacityintermsofavolumeofwaterofacertainweight)thattheartabewasabout36.45l.,oralittlemorethan64pints.Othercalculations,asfromapassageof
Josephus,wherethecorisequatedto41Attic(GrcoRoman)modii(i.e.656sextarii),givethesameresult.Inthispassagemodiiisanalmostcertainemendationofmedimni,the
confusionbetweenthetwobeingnaturalinaGreekMS.
Thereareplentyofothervagueapproximations,rangingfrom60to72sextarii.ThoughthepassageofJosephusisnotquitecertaininitstext,wemayacceptitashavingthe
appearanceofprecisedetermination,especiallysinceitgivesaresultnotmateriallydifferingfromothersourcesofinformation.
Intheabovetable,thevaluesofthemeasuresaregivenaccordingtothreeestimates,viz.(1)log=Babylonianunitof0.505l.(2)ephah=65pints(3)log= 11/28
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Intheabovetable,thevaluesofthemeasuresaregivenaccordingtothreeestimates,viz.(1)log=Babylonianunitof0.505l.(2)ephah=65pints(3)log=
sextariusof0.99pint.
ForeignmeasuresofcapacitymentionedinNT.Settingasidewordswhichstrictlydenoteameasureofcapacity,butareusedlooselytomeansimplyavessel
(e.g.cupinMk7:4),thefollowing,amongothers,havebeennoted.Bushel(Mt5:15)isthetr.ofmodius,whichrepresentsseh.Firkinisused(Jn2:6)to
representtheGreekmetrtes,theroughequivalentofthebath.MeasureinRev6:6representstheGr.choinixofabout2pints.
III.MEASURESOFWEIGHT
ThesystemofweightsusedinPalestinewasderivedfromBabylonia.Egyptdoesnotseemtohaveexertedanyinfluenceinthisrespect.Thechief
denominationsinthesystemwerethetalent(Gr.talanton,Heb.kikkarmeaning,apparently,aroundcakelikeobject),themina(Gr.mna,Heb.manehtr.pound
in1K10:17andelsewhere,thoughpoundinJn12:3,19:39meanstheRomanpoundof327.45grammesor5053.3grstroy),andtheshekel(Gr.siklosorsiglos,
Heb.sheqel,fromshqat,toweigh).Theshekelfurtherwasdividedinto20gerahs(gerahapparently=theBabyloniangiru,asmallweightofsilver).
[Referencestoshekelsorotherdenominationsofpreciousmetalinpreexilictimesmustbetouncoinedmetal,nottocoins,whichareoflaterorigin.]Forordinary
purposes60shekelsmadeamina,and60minatalentbutforthepreciousmetalsaminaof50shekelswasemployed,althoughthetalentcontained60min,as
intheothercase.Thereweretwosystems,theheavyandthelight,theformerbeingdoubleofthelatter.TheevidenceofcertainextantBab.weightsprovesthat
therewasaverycomplexsystem,involvingatleasttwonorms,oneofwhich,theroyal,usedforpurposesoftaxation,washigherthantheother,thecommon.For
ourpurposes,wemayhereconfineourselvestothecommonnormintheheavyandlightsystems.Itmay,however,bementionedthatthekingsweight,
accordingtowhichAbsalomshairweighed200shekels(2S14:26),isprobablytobereferredtothisroyalnorm.CombiningtheevidenceoftheextantBab.
weightswiththeevidenceoflatercoinsofvariouscountriesoftheancientworld,andwiththeknowledge,derivedfromastatementinHerodotus,thattheratioof
goldtosilverwasas131/3to
1,weobtainthefollowingresults:
Heavy. Light.

GrainsTroy. Grammes. GrainsTroy. Grammes.
Talent 757,380 49,077 378,690 24,539
Mina 12,623 818 6,311.5 409
Shekel 252.5 16.36 126.23 8.18

3,366.6 218.1 1,684.3 109.1
Valueofthegold
shekelinsilver
336.6 21.81 168.4 10.91
i.e.,tenpiecesof
silverof
Orfifteenpieces 224.4 14.54 112.2 7.27

ofsilverof
N.B.Oneheavytalent=98.154lbs.avoirdupoisoneheavymina=1.636lb.avoirdupois.
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N.B.Oneheavytalent=98.154lbs.avoirdupoisoneheavymina=1.636lb.avoirdupois.
Nowthepiecesof1/10and1/15ofthevalueofthegoldshekelinsilverweretheunitsonwhichwerebasedsystemsknownastheBabylonianorPersicandthe
PhnicianrespectivelythereasonforthenamesbeingthatthesetwostandardsseemtohavebeenassociatedbytheGreeks,thefirstwithPersia,whosecoinswere
struckonthisstandard,thesecondwiththegreat
Phniciantradingcities,Sidon,Tyre,etc.ForconveniencesakethenamesBabylonianandPhnicianmayberetained,althoughitmustberememberedthat
theyareconventional.Theabovetablegivestheequivalentsinweightsonthetwosystems,bothforthepreciousmetals(inwhichtheminaweighed50shekels)
andfortrade(inwhichitweighed60shekels).
Babylonian.Phnician.
Heavy. Light.Heavy. Light.
Grains. Grammes. Grammes.
Grains.GrammesGrains.GrammesGrains.
. .
Shekel336.6 21.81 168.410.91 224.414.54 112.2 7.27

1090.5 8,420545.25 11,220727 5,610 363.5
Minaof5016,830
shekels
1308.68 10,098 13,464 6,732 436.23
Minaof6020,196 654.34 872.45
shekels
65,430 504,900 673,200 336,600 21,810
Talent of 3000 1,009,80 32,715 43,620
shekels0
78,520.77 403,920 26,173.59
Talent of 3600 1,211,76 605,88039,260.3 807,84052,347.1
shekels0 8 8
TheevidenceofactualweightsfoundinPalestineisasfollows:1.2.3.ThreestoneweightsfromTellZakary,inscribedapparentlynetseph,andweighing
10.21 grammes= 157.564 grainstroy.

4.Aweightwiththesameinscription,fromnearJerusalem,weighing8.61grammes=134.891grainstroy.
5.AweightfromSamariainscribedapparently1/4netsephand1/2shekel,weighing2.54grammes=39.2grainstroyyieldinganetsephof9.16grammes=
156.8grainstroy.Thishasbeendatedinthe8thcent.B.C.andalltheweightsareapparentlyofpreexilicdate.ThereareotherweightsfromGezer,whichhave,
withoutduecause,beenconnectedwiththenetsephstandardandasecondsetofweightsfromGezer,Jerusalem,Zakary,andTellelJudeidehmaybeignored,as
theyseemtobearCyprioteinscriptions,andrepresentastandardweightof93grammesmaximum.SomeadditionmustbeallowedtoNos.2and3oftheabove
mentionednetsephweights,forfracture,andprobablytoNo.4,whichispierced.Thehighestoftheseweightsissome10grainsor0.7grammeslessthanthelight
Bab.shekel.Itprobably,therefore,representsanindependentstandard,oratleastadeliberatemodification,notanaccidentaldegradation,oftheBab.standard.
WeightsfromNaucratispointtoastandardofabout80grains,thedoubleofwhichwouldbe160grains,whichisnearenoughtotheactualweightofourspecimens
(maximum1571/2grains).Weneednothereconcernourselveswiththeoriginofthisstandard,orwiththemeaningofnetsephtherecanbenodoubtofthe
existenceofsuchastandard,andthereismuchprobabilitythatitisconnectedwiththestandardwhichwasinuseatNaucratis.ThreeweightsfromLachish(Tellel13/28
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existenceofsuchastandard,andthereismuchprobabilitythatitisconnectedwiththestandardwhichwasinuseatNaucratis.ThreeweightsfromLachish(Tellel
Hesy)alsoindicatetheexistenceofthesame80grainstandardinPalestine.ThestandardinuseatthecityofAradus(Arvad)forthecoinageisgenerallyidentified
withtheBabylonianbutastheshekelthereonlyexceptionallyexceeds165grains,it,too,mayhavebeenanapproximationtothestandardweareconsidering.But
inHebrewterritorytherecanbenodoubtthatthisearlystandardwasdisplacedaftertheExilebyaformofthePhnicianshekelof14.54grammes,or224.4
grains.Ithas,indeed,beenthoughtthatthisshekelcanbederivedbyacertainprocessfromtheshekelof160grainsbutonthewholethederivationfromthegold
shekelof126.23grainssuggestedaboveispreferable.
TheevidenceastotheactualuseofthisweightinPalestineisasfollows:FromEx38:25f.itappearsthattheHebrewtalentcontained3000shekels.Now,
Josephusequatestheminausedforgoldto21/2Romanpounds,whichis12,633.3grainstroy,or818.625grammesthisisonly10grainsheavierthantheheavy
minagivenabove.FromJosephusalsoweknowthatthekikkarortalentcontained100min.Thetalentforpreciousmetals,aswehaveseen,contained3000
shekelsthereforetheshekelshouldbe10012633/3000grains=421grains.Wethushaveaheavyshekelof421grains,andalightoneof210.5grains.Thereis
otherevidenceequatingtheHebrewshekeltoweightsvaryingfrom210.48to210.55grains.ThisisgenerallysupposedtobethePhnicianshekelof224.4grains
inaslightlyreducedform.ExactlythesamekindofreductiontookplaceatSidoninthecourseofthe4thcent.B.C.,where,probablyowingtoafallinthepriceof
gold,theweightofthestandardsilvershekelfellfromabout28.60grammes(441.36grains)to26.30grammes(405.9grains).Achangeintheratiobetweengold
andsilverfrom131/3:1to121/2:1wouldpractically,inacountrywithacoinage,necessitateachangeintheweightoftheshekelsuchasseemstohavetakenplace
hereandalthoughtheJewshadnocoinageoftheirownbeforethetimeoftheMaccabees,theywouldnaturallybeinfluencedbytheweightsinuseinPhnicia.
Thefullweightshekeloftheoldstandardprobablyremainedinuseastheshekelofthesanctuary,forthatweightwas20gerahs(Ezk45:12,Ex30:13),which
istranslatedintheLXXby20obols,meaning,presumably,20Atticobolsofthetimeandthisworksoutat224.2grains.Thisshekelwasusednotonlyforthe
silverpaidfortheransomofsouls,butalsoforgold,copper,andspices(Ex30:23,24,38:24ff.)infact,thePriestsCoderegardeditasthepropersystemforall
estimations(Lv27:25).Thebeka=1/2shekelismentionedinGn24:22,Ex38:26.
ForeignweightsintheNT.Thepoundofspikenard(Jn12:3)orofmyrrhandaloes
(19:39)isbestexplainedastheRomanlibra(Gr.litra)of327.45grammes.ThepoundinLk19:13f.isthemoneyminaor1/60oftheRomanAttictalent(seeart.
MONEY,7(j)).ThetalentmentionedinRev16:21alsoprobablybelongstothesamesystem.
Forfurtherinformationseeesp.A.R.S.Kennedy,art.WeightsandMeasuresinHastingsDB,withbibliographytheregiven.RecentspeculationsontheHeb.
systems,andpublicationsofweightswillbefoundinPEFSt,1902,p.80(threeformsofcubit,18in.,14.4in.,and10.8in.)1902,p.175(Conderongeneral
systemofHebrewweightsandmeasures)1904,p.209(weightsfromGezer,etc.)1906,pp.182f.,259f.(Warrenontheancientsystemofweightsingeneral)
ComptesRendusdelAcad.desInscr.1906,p.237f.(ClermontGanneauonthecapacityofthehin).
G.F.HILL.
WELL.SeeCISTERN,F OUNTAIN,WATER.
WEN.SeeMEDICINE,p.600a.
WENCH.Thisword,oncegoodEnglish,wasusedbytheBishopsBibleof1568,andwastransferredtoAVat2S17:17.SoWyclifatMt9:24Goyeaway,
forthewencheisnotdead,butslepith.
WHALE.1.tannn.SeeDRAGON(4).2.dggdl,thegreatfishofJon1:17,isintheLXXandinMt12:40renderedinGr.byktosandtr.whale,though
theGr.wordhasamuchwidersignificance.Itisimpossibletosaywhatkindoffishisintendedinthenarrative.See,further,art.JONAH.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
WHEAT(chitth,Gn30:14,Ex34:22etc.sitos,Mt3:12,13:25,29,30,Lk3:17,16:7,22:31etc.).ThewheatofPalestineismostlyofthebeardedvarieties
itisnotonlyeatenasbread,butalsoboiled,unground,tomakethepeasantsdishburghul,whichisinturnpoundedwithmeatinamortar(cf.Pr27:22)tomake
thefestivedelicacykibbeh.WheatisgrownalloverthevalleysandplainsofW.Palestine,thoughtoalessextentthanbarley,butitiscultivatedinthelargest
quantitiesintheNuqraorplainoftheHauran,oneofthefinestgraingrowingcountriesintheworld.ThewheatharvestoccursfromApriltoJuneitstimewas
lookeduponasoneofthedivisionsoftheyear(Ex34:22,Jg15:1,1S12:17).Theexpressionsfatofwheat(Ps81:16mg.,147:14mg.)andthefatofkidneysof14/28
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lookeduponasoneofthedivisionsoftheyear(Ex34:22,Jg15:1,1S12:17).Theexpressionsfatofwheat(Ps81:16mg.,147:14mg.)andthefatofkidneysof
wheat(Dt32:14)refertothefinestflourofwheat.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
WHEEL.ThevariouspartsofacartorchariotwheelareenumeratedinconnexionwiththebronzewheelsofSolomonslavers(1K7:30,32f.).InRVv.33
reads:Andtheworkofthewheelswasliketheworkofachariotwheel:theiraxletrees,andtheirfelloes,andtheirspokes,andtheirnaveswereallmolten(cf.AV).
Incartsandchariotstheessentialpartswere,ofcourse,ofwood.Thefelloesweremadeinsegmentsdowelledtogether.Forillustt.seeWilkinson.Anc.Egy.i,234
ff.ThefinestspecimenofaRomanchariotwheelasyetfoundhasthefelloe,whichisformedofasinglepieceofwoodbent,andthenaveshodwithiron,the
latterbeingalsobushedwithiron(Scott,Hist.Rev.,Oct.1905,p.123,withillust.).Forthepotterswheel,seeP OTTER.Wellsandcisternswerealsofurnishedwith
wheels,overwhichtheropepassedfordrawingupthewaterbucket(Ec12:6).SeealsoCART,CHARIOT.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
WHIRLWINDrepresentstwoHeb.wordssphh(Job37:9,Pr1:27etc.,alsotr.storminJob21:13,Ps83:15,Is29:6etc.),andsaarorsrh(2K2:1,
Job38:1,Jer23:19etc.,alsotr.tempest,andstormywind,Ps55:8,83:15,107:25,Ezk13:13etc.)Thewordsdonotnecessarilymeanwhirlwind,andare
appliedtoanyfuriousstorm.Fromthecontext,however,incertainpassages,wegatherthatwhirlwindisintendedaviolentwindmovinginacirclerounditsaxis
(2K2:1,11,Job38:1etc.).Itoftenworksgreathavocinitspath,asitsweepsacrossthecountry.Drawingupsand,dust,straw,andotherlightarticlesasitgyrates,
itpresentstheappearanceofagreatpillaranobjectoffeartotravellersanddwellersinthedesert.Passingoverthesea,itdrawsupthewater,andtheburstingof
thecolumncausesthewaterspout.GodspaketoJobfromthewhirlwind(Job40:6)themodernArabianregardsitwithsuperstitiousdread,astheresidenceof
demons.
W.EWING.
WHITE.SeeCOLOURS,1.
WHITEOFANEGG(EVJob6:6,RVmjuiceofpurslain).Theallusionshouldperhapsbeunderstoodtobethejuiceofsomeinsipidplant,probably
Portulacaoleracea,L.,thecommonpurslane.Whiteofanegg(lit.,onthisview,slimeoftheyoke)isstill,however,acceptedbymanyinterpreters.
WHORE.ThistermisgenerallyreplacedinRVbyharlot(wh.see).
WIDOW.Widowsfromtheirpovertyandunprotectedness,areregardedinOTasunderthespecialguardianshipofGod(Ps68:6,146:9,Pr15:25,Dt10:18,
Jer49:11)andconsequentlydueregardfortheirwantswaslookeduponasamarkoftruereligion,ensuringablessingonthosewhoshowedit(Job29:13,31:16,
Is1:17,Jer7:6,7,22:3,4)whileneglectof,crueltyorinjusticetowardsthemwereconsideredmarksofwickednessmeritingpunishmentfromGod(Job22:9,10,
24:20,21,Ps94:6,Is1:23,10:2,Zec7:10,14,Mal3:5).TheBookofDeut.isespeciallyrichinsuchcounsels,insistingthatwidowsbegrantedfulljustice(24:17,
27:19),thattheybereceivedasguestsatsacrificialmeals(14:29,16:11,14,26:12f.),andthattheybesufferedtogleanunmolestedinfield,oliveyard,and
vineyard(24:19f.).See,further,
INHERITANCE,i.2(c)MARRIAGE,6.
TheearliestmentionofwidowsinthehistoryoftheChristianChurchisfoundinAc6:1,wheretheGrecianJewsmurmuredagainsttheHebrewsbecausetheir
widowswereneglectedinthedailydistributionofalmsorfood.IncourseoftimethesepensionersbecameanexcessiveburdenonthefinancesoftheChurch.We
thusfindSt.Pauldealingwiththematterin1Ti5:316,wherehechargesrelativesandChristianfriendstorelievethosewidowswithwhomtheyarepersonally
connected(vv.4,8,15),sothattheChurchmightbethemoreabletorelievethosewhowerewidowsindeed(i.e.widowsinactualpovertyandwithoutanyone
responsiblefortheirsupport)(vv.3,5,16).Hefurtherdirectsthatnonebeenrolledaswidowsexceptthosewhoweresixtyyearsofage,ofunimpeachable
character,andfullofgoodworksandheaddsthattheyoungerwidowsshouldberefused(i.e.notenrolled)forexperiencehadshownthattheywaxedwanton
againstChristand,remarrying,rejectedtheirfirstfaith.SinceitcouldnothavebeentheApostleswishthatonlywidowsoversixtyshouldreceivepecuniary
helpfromtheChurch(formanyyoungwidowsmightbeingreatpoverty),andsincehecouldnotdescribetheremarriageofsuchawidowpensionerasarejection
ofherfaith,itfollowsthatthelistofwidows,fromwhichtheyoungerwidowsweretobeexcluded,wasnotthelistofthosewhowereinreceiptofChurchrelief,but
ratheralistofthose,fromamongthepensionerwidows,whowereconsideredsuitablebyageandcharactertoengageofficiallyinChurchwork.
ThereforewemayseeinthispassageaproofoftheexistencethusearlyinthehistoryoftheChurchofthatecclesiasticalorderofWidowswhichwefind
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ThereforewemayseeinthispassageaproofoftheexistencethusearlyinthehistoryoftheChurchofthatecclesiasticalorderofWidowswhichwefind
mentionedfrequentlyinpostApostolictimes.
CHARLEST.P.GRIERSON.
WIFE.SeeF AMILY,2MARRIAGE.
WILDERNESS,DESERT.ThesetermsstandforseveralHeb.andGr.words,withdifferentshadesofmeaning.
1.midbr(fromdbar,todrive)meansproperlythelandtowhichthecattleweredriven,andisusedofdrypasturelandwherescantygrazingwastobe
found.Itoccursabout280timesinOTandisusuallytr.wilderness,thoughwehavedesertaboutadozentimes.Itistheplacewherewildanimalsroam:pelicans
(Ps102:6),wildasses(Job24:5,Jer2:24),ostriches(La4:3),jackals(Mal1:3)andiswithoutsettledinhabitants,thoughtownsorsettlementsofnomadictribes
maybefound(Jos15:61,62,Is42:11).ThistermisusuallyappliedtotheWildernessoftheWanderingsortheArabiandesert,butmayrefertoanyotherwaste.
Specialwastetractsaredistinguished:wildernessofShur,Zin,Paran,Kadesh,Maon,Ziph,Tekoa,Moab,Edom,etc.
2.rbh(probablyfromawordmeaningdry)signifiesadry,desolate,unfertiletractofland,steppe,ordesertplain.Asapropername,itisappliedto
thegreatplainincludingtheJordanValleyandextendingS.totheGulfofAkabah,theArabah.butitisappliedalsotosteppesingeneral,andtranslated
wilderness,desert,andsometimesinpl.plains,e.g.ofMoab,ofJericho.
3.chorbh(fromaroottobewasteordesolate)isproperlyappliedtocitiesordistrictsonceinhabitednowlyingwaste,andistranslatedwastes,deserts,
desolations,thoughitisonceusedoftheWildernessoftheWanderings(Is48:21).
4.tsiyyhmeaningdrygroundistwicetranslatedwildernessinAV:Job30:3(RVdryground),Ps78:17(RVdesert,RVmadryland).
5.thhasthespecialmeaningofawilddesolateexpanse.InJob6:18itisthewastewherethecaravansperish,itisappliedtotheprimevalchaos(Gn1:2),
alsototheWildernessoftheWanderings(Dt32:10wastehowlingwilderness).
6.TheNTtermsareermosandermia,theformerbeingusedeitherasnounorasadjective,withplaceorcountryunderstood.Generallythenounistr.
wilderness,theadjectivedesertintheEnglishversions.
OndesertsnamedinNTseeartt.onrespectivenames.
W.F.BOYD.
WILDOLIVE.SeeGRAFTING,OLIVE.
WILDOX.SeeUNICORN.
WILL.WillandwouldareoftenindependentverbsinAV,andbeingnowmerelyauxiliaries,theirforceisliabletobemissedbytheEnglishreader.Thus
Mt11:14ifyewillreceiveit(RVifyearewillingtoreceiveit)Jn1:43JesuswouldgoforthintoGalilee(RVwasmindedtogoforth).
WILL.SeeP AUL,p.692aTESTAMENT.
WILLOW(rbm,Lv23:40,Job40:22,Ps137:2,Is15:7,44:4[cf.Arab.gharabwilloworpoplar]tsaphtsphh,Ezk17:5[cf.Arab,safsafthe
willow]).Mostofthereferencesaretoatreegrowingbesidewater,andapplywelltothewillow,ofwhichtwovarieties,SalixfragilisandS.alba,occur
plentifullybywatercoursesintheHolyLand.Sometravellersconsiderthepoplar,especiallythewillowlikePopuluseuphratica,ofthesameNat.Ord.(Salicace)
asthewillows,moreprobable.Tristram,withoutmuchevidence,consideredthattsaphtsphhmightbetheoleander,whichcoversthebanksofsomanystreams.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
WIMPLE.OnlyIs3:22AVRVshawls.Theprecisearticleofdressintendedisunknown.
WIND.ThewindsinHeb.aredesignatedbythefourcardinalpointsofthecompass.Southwind,e.g.,maybeeitherS.,S.W.,orS.E.andsowiththeothers.
CoolwindscomefromtheN.,moistwindsfromthewesternsea,warmwindsfromtheS.,anddrywinds,oftenladenwithfinesand,fromtheeasterndeserts.
Warmthandmoisture,therefore,dependmuchuponthedirectionofthewinds.Duringthedryseason,fromMaytillOctober,theprevailingwindsarefromtheN.
andN.W.theydomuchtotempertheheatofsummer(Ca4:16,Job37:9).InSept.andOct.,E.andS.E.windsarefrequentblowingfromthedeserts,theirdry 16/28
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andN.W.theydomuchtotempertheheatofsummer(Ca4:16,Job37:9).InSept.andOct.,E.andS.E.windsarefrequentblowingfromthedeserts,theirdry
heatcausesthefurnituretocrack,andmakeslifeaburden(Hos13:15).Later,thewindsfromtheS.prolongthewarmthofsummer(Lk12:55)thentheW.and
S.W.windsbringtherain(1K18:44,Lk12:54).Eastwindsearlierintheyearoftenworkgreatdestructiononvegetation(Ezk17:10).Undertheirinfluencestrong
plantsdroop,andflowersquicklywither(Ps103:19).
Ofthegreatestvalueforalllivingthingsistheperpetualinterchangeoflandandseabreezes.Atsunriseagentleairstirsfromthesea,crossestheplain,and
creepsupthemountains.Atsunsetthecoolingairbeginstoslipdownseawardagain,whiletheupperstratamovelandwardfromthesea.Themoisturethuscarried
ashoreisprecipitatedinrefreshingdew.
Thetempestuouswind(Ac27:14),calledEuroclydonorEuraquilo(wh.see),wastheE.N.E.windsoprevalentintheeasternMediterranean,calledbysailors
todaytheLevanter.
W.EWING.WINDOW.SeeHOUSE,7.
WINEANDSTRONGDRINK.Takentogetherinthisorder,thetwotermswineandstrongdrinkarecontinuallyusedbyOTwritersasanexhaustive
classificationofthefermentedbeveragestheninuse(Lv10:9,1S1:15,Pr20:1,andoft.).TheallbutuniversalusageinOTinNTstrongdrinkismentioned
onlyLk1:15istorestrictwine(yayin)tothebeveragepreparedfromthejuiceofthegrape,andtodenotebystrongdrink(shkr)everyothersortof
intoxicatingliquor.
1.Beforeproceedingtodescribethemethodsbywhichwineinparticularwasmadeintheperiodcoveredbythecanonicalwritings,itwillbeadvisableto
examinebrieflythemorefrequentlyusedtermsforwineandstrongdrink.Thisexaminationmaybeginwiththetermshkr,whichinvirtueofitsrootmeaning
alwaysdenotesintoxicatingdrink.Inaformerstudyofthissubject(WineandStrongDrinkinEBilv.col.5309f.),thepresentwriterhasgivenreasonsfor
believingthatamongtheearlySemitesanamesimilartoshkrandtheBabylonianshikaruwasfirstgiventothefermentedjuiceofthedate,andthatfrom
signifyingdatewinethenamepassedtoallotherfermentedliquors.Atalaterperiod,whentheancestorsoftheHebrewsbecameacquaintedwiththevineandits
culture,theIndoGermanictermrepresentedbytheGreekoinos(withthedigamma,woinos)andtheLatinvinumwasborrowed,undertheformyyin,todenotethe
fermentedjuiceofthegrape.Theoldertermshkrthenbecamerestricted,aswehaveseen,tointoxicantsotherthangrapewine.
Anotherimportantterm,ofuncertainetymology,onwhich,inDriverswords,muchhasbeenwrittennotalwayswisely,istrsh,inourEVsometimes
renderedwine,sometimesnewwine,butinAmer.RVconsistentlynewwine.Strictlyspeaking,trshisthefreshlyexpressedgrapejuice,beforeandduring
fermentation,technicallyknownasmust(fromLat.mustum).Inthissenseitisfrequentlynamedasavaluedproductofthesoilwithfreshoil(Dt7:13,11:14
etc.),thatis,theraw,unclarifiedoilasitflowsfromtheoilpress,towhichitexactlycorresponds.InsomeOTpassages,however,andnotablyHos4:11,where
trshisnamedwithyayinandwhoredom,astakingawaytheunderstanding(RV),itevidentlydenotestheproductoffermentation.Henceitmaybesaidthattrsh
isappliednotonlytothemustinthewinefat(see3),buttonewwinebeforeithasfullymaturedandbecomeyayin,or,asDriversuggestsinhiscarefulstudy
oftheOToccurrences(JoelandAmos,79f.),toalightkindofwinesuchasweknow,fromtheclassicalwriters,thattheancientswereinthehabitofmakingby
checkingthefermentationofthegrapejuicebeforeithadrunitsfullcourse(seealsothediscussioninEBiiv.5307f.).
Oftherarerwordsforwinementionmaybemadeofchemer(Dt32:14,and,inacognateform,Ezr6:9,Dn5:1ff.),whichdenoteswineastheresultof
fermentation,fromarootsignifyingtoferment,andss,apoeticalsynonymoftrsh,andlikeitusedbothofthefreshjuiceandofthefermentedliquor(seeJl
1:5,Is49:26)inAm9:13itisrenderedsweetwine,whichsuggeststhegleukos(EVnewwine)ofAc2:18.Referencemayalsobemadetothepoetical
expressionthebloodofthegrape(Gn49:11,Dt32:14)andtothelaterfruitofthevine(Mt26:29and||)oftheGospelsandtheMishna.
2.ThePromisedLandwaspreeminentlyalandofwineandvineyards(2K18:32),asisattestedbythewidelyscatteredremainsoftheancientpresses.A
normalwinepressconsistedofthreeparts,tworockhewntroughsatdifferentlevelswithaconnectingchannelbetweenthem.Theuppertroughorpressvat(gath
thewinefatofIs63:2,elsewheregenerallywinepress)hadalargersuperficialarea,butwasmuchshallowerthanthelowertroughorwinevat(yeqeb,Is5:2,
cf.RVm).TherelativesizesmaybeseenfromatypicalpressdescribedbyRobinson,ofwhichtheuppertroughmeasured8feetsquareandwas15inchesdeep,
whilethelowerwas4feetsquareand3feetdeep.ThedistinctionbetweenthetwoisentirelyobscuredinEV,andisnotalwayspreservedintheoriginal.
Thegrapeswerebroughtfromtheadjoiningvineyardinbaskets,andwereeitherspreadoutforafewdays,withaviewtoincreasetheamountofsugarand
diminishtheamountofwaterinthegrapes,orwereatoncethrownintothepressvat.Theretheywerethoroughlytroddenwiththebarefeet,thejuiceflowing
throughtheconductingchannelintothelowerwinevat.Thenextprocessconsistedinpilingthehusksandstalksintoaheapinthemiddleofthevat,andsubjecting
themasstomechanicalpressurebymeansofawoodenpressbeam,oneendofwhichwasfixedintoasocketinthewallofthevatoroftheadjacentrock,whilethe
otherendwasweightedwithstones.
WhiletheabovemaybeconsideredthenormalconstructionofaHebrewwinepress,itisevident,bothfromtheextantspecimensandfromthedetailed
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WhiletheabovemaybeconsideredthenormalconstructionofaHebrewwinepress,itisevident,bothfromtheextantspecimensandfromthedetailed
referencestowinemakingintheMishna,thatthenumberoftroughsorvatsmightbeashighasfour(seethepressdescribedandillustratedinPEFSt,1899,41ff.),
oraslowasone.Theobjectofathirdvatwastoallowthemusttosettleandclarifyinthesecondbeforerunningitoffintothethird.Whereonlyonevatisfound,
itmayhaveservedeitherasapressvat,inwhichcasethemustwasatoncetransferredtoearthenjars(seenextsection),orasawinevattoreceivethemust,the
grapeshavingbeenpressedinalargewoodentrough,suchastheEgyptiansused(Wilkinson,Anc.Egyp.i.385withillust.).Thisarrangementwouldobviouslybe
requiredwhereasuitablerocksurfacewasnotavailable.Insuchacase,indeed,arockhewntroughofanysortwasdispensedwith,avatforthewoodenpress
beingsuppliedbyalargestonehollowedoutforthepurpose,anexcellentspecimenofwhichwasfoundatTellesSafi,andisfiguredinBlissandMacalisters
Excavations,etc.,p.24(see,forfurtherdetails,theindexofthatwork,underVats).
3.Returningtothenormalpresssystem,wefindthatthemustwasusuallyleftinthewinevattoundergothefirstortumultuousfermentation,afterwhichit
wasdrawnoff(Hag2:16,lit.baledout),or,wherethevathadaspout,simplyrunoff,intolargejarsorintowineskins(Mt9:17and||)fortheafterfermentation.
ThemodernSyrianwinesaresaidtocompletetheirfirstfermentationinfromfourtosevendays,andtobereadyforuseattheendoftwotofourmonths.Inthe
Mishnaitisordainedthatnewwinecannotbepresentedatthesanctuaryforthedrinkofferinguntilithasstoodforatleastfortydaysinthefermentingjars.
Whenthefermentationhadrunitsfullcourse,thewinewasrackedoffintosmallerjarsandskins,thelatterforobviousreasonsbeingpreferredbytravellers(Jos
9:4,13).Atthesametime,theliquorwasstrained(Mt23:24cf.Is25:6winesontheleeswellrefined,i.e.strained)throughametaloreathenwarestrainer,or
throughalinencloth.Inthefurthercourseofmaturing,inordertopreventthewinefromthickeningonthelees(Zeph1:12RVm),itwasfromtimetotimedecanted
fromonevesseltoanother.TheeventenorofMoabitehistoryiscomparedtowinetowhichthisprocesshasnotbeenapplied(Jer48:11f.).Whensufficiently
refined,thewinewaspouredintojarslinedwithpitch,whichwerecarefullyclosedandsealedandstoredinthewinecellars(1Ch27:27).TheLebanon(Hos14:7)
andHelbon(Ezk27:18),totheN.W.ofDamascus,weretwolocalitiesspeciallycelebratedfortheirwines.
Itmaybestatedatthispointthatnotracecanbefound,amongthehundredsofreferencestothepreparationanduseofwineintheMishna,ofanymeans
employedtopreservewineintheunfermentedstate.ItisevenimprobablethatwiththemeansattheirdisposaltheJewscouldhavesopreservedithadtheywished
(cf.ProfessorMacalistersstatementastotheimpossibilityofunfermentedwineatthisperiod,inHastingsDBii.34b).
4.Ofallthefermentedliquors,otherthanwine,withwhichtheHebrewsarelikelytohavebeenfamiliar,theoldesthistoricallywasalmostcertainlythatmade
fromdates(cf.1).These,accordingtoPliny,weresteepedinwaterbeforebeingsenttothepress,wheretheywereprobablytreatedastheolivesweretreatedin
theoilpress(seeOIL).DatewinewasgreatlyprizedbytheBabylonians,andissaidbyHerodotustohavebeentheprincipalarticleofAssyriancommerce.
IntheMishnathereisfrequentmentionalsoofciderorapplewine,madefromthequinceorwhateverotherfruittheappleoftheHebrewsmaysignify.The
onlywine,otherthanthefruitofthevine,mentionedbynameinOTisthesweetwineofpomegranates(Ca8:2RVm).Likethedates,thesefruitswerefirst
crushedintheoilmill,afterwhichthejuicewasallowedtoferment.IntheMishna,further,wefindreferencestovariousfermentedliquorsimportedfromabroad,
amongthemthebeerforwhichEgyptwasfamed.AstrikingandunexpectedwitnesstotheextenttowhichthewinesoftheWestwereimportedhasrecentlybeen
furnishedbythehandlesofwinejars,especiallyofamphorfromRhodes,whichhavebeenfoundinsuchnumbersinthecitiesexcavatedinSouthernPalestine
(seeBlissandMacalister,op.cit.131ff.,andmorefullyPEFSt,1901).
5.TheHebrewwineswerelight,andinearlytimeswereprobablytakenneat.Atallevents,thefirstclearreferencetodilutingwithwateriscontainedin2Mac
15:39:Itishurtfultodrinkwineorwateralone,butwinemingledwithwaterispleasant,andinNTtimesthismaybetakenasthehabitualpractice.Thewineof
Sharon,itissaid,wasmixedwithtwopartsofwater,beingalighterwinethanmost.Withotherwines,accordingtotheTalmud,theproportionwasonepartofwine
tothreepartsofwater.
TheminglingormixingofstrongdrinkdenouncedbyIsaiah(5:22)hasreferencetotheancientpracticeofaddingaromaticherbsandspicestothewinein
ordertoaddtoitsflavourandstrength.SuchwasthespicedwineofCa8:2.OurSaviouronthecross,itwillberemembered,wasofferedwinemingledwith
myrrh(Mk15:23,cf.Mt27:34RV).
6.Theuseofwinewasuniversalamongallclasses(seeMEALS,6),withtheexceptionofthosewhohadtakenavowofabstinence,suchastheNaziritesand
Rechabites.Thepriestsalsohadtoabstain,butonlywhenondutyinthesanctuary(Lv10:9).Alibationofwineformedthenecessaryaccompanimentofthedaily
burntofferingandofnumerousotherofferings(cf.Sir50:15RV:Hestretchedouthishandtothecup,andpouredofthebloodofthegrapeatthefootofthe
altar).
TheattitudeoftheprophetsandotherteachersofIsrael,includingourLordHimself,totheordinaryuseofwineasabeverageisnodoubtaccuratelyreflectedin
thesayingofJesusbenSira:winedrunkinmeasureandtosatisfyisjoyofheartandgladnessofsoul(Sir31:29RV).Atthesametime,theywerefullyalivetothe
danger,andunsparinglydenouncedthesin,ofexcessiveindulgence(see,e.g.,Is5:11ff.,22ff.,28:18,Hos4:11,Pr20:1,23:2932etc.).Inthealteredsocial
conditionsofourownday,however,itmustbeadmittedthattheruleofconductformulatedbySt.Paulin1Co8:312(cf.Ro14:1321)appealstotheindividual18/28
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conditionsofourownday,however,itmustbeadmittedthattheruleofconductformulatedbySt.Paulin1Co8:312(cf.Ro14:1321)appealstotheindividual
consciencewithgreaterurgencyandinsistencethaneverbeforeintheexperienceofJeworChristian.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
WINEFAT,WINEPRESS,WINEVAT.SeeWINEANDS TRONGDRINK,2.
WINK.Towinkat,i.e.passover,isusedofGodinAc17:30ThetimesofthisignoranceGodwinkedat,andWis11:23Thouwinkestatthesinsof
men.ItisagoodexampleofthecolloquiallanguageoftheEnglishVersions.
WINNOW.SeeAGRICULTURE,3.
WISDOM.ThegreatliterarylandmarksofthewisdomteachingaretheBooksofProverbs,Job,SongofSongs,Ecclesiastes,Sirach,andtheWisdomof
Solomon.Thisliterature,initspresentformatleast,belongstothelatterhalfofthePersianperiodandtotheGreekperiodofJewishhistory.Butbehindthislatest
andfinestproductoftheHebrewmindtherelayalongprocessofgermination.Inthepreexilichistorytherearetracesofthepresenceofthewisdomelement
fromearlytimes.ThisprimitivewisdomwasnotregardedasanexclusivelyIsraelitishpossession,butwassharedwithothernations(1K4:30,31,Gn41:8,Jg
5:29,Jer10:7,Ezk27:8).InIsraelitwasconfinedneithertorank(1K10:28,Dt16:19,Job32:9)nortosex(2S14:1ff.,20:22)butitwasparticularly
characteristicoftheelders(Dt1:16,Job12:12,32:7),andincourseoftimeseemstohavegivenrisetoaspecialclassofteachersknownastheWise(Jer
18:18).
EarlyWisdomwasvariedincharacterandofaswideascopeastherangeofhumanactivities.Itthusincludedthemostheterogeneouselements:e.g.
mechanicalskill(1K7:14),statecraft(5:12),financialandcommercialability(Ezk28),politicaltrickery(1K2:6),commonsenseandtact(2S14,20:1422),
learning(1K3:1628),militaryskillandadministrativeability(Is10:13),piety(Dt4:6),andthecreativeenergyofGod(Jer10:12).Inshort,anycapacity
possessedinanexceptionaldegreewasrecognizedaswisdom,andwasregardedasthegiftofGod.Buttherewasalreadymanifestamarkedtendencytomagnify
theethicalandreligiouselementsofwisdom,whichlatercametotheirfullrecognition.
InpreexilicIsrael,however,wisdomplayedarelativelysmallpartinreligion.Thevital,progressivereligiousspiritexhausteditselfinprophecy.Herewas
laidthefoundationofallthelaterwisdom.Notonlylaidtheprophetshanddowntheliteraryformsthroughwhichthesagesexpressedthemselves,e.g.riddle(Jg
14:1418),fable(9:315),parable(2S12:13,Is5:15),proverb(1S10:12,Jer31:29),essay(Is28:2329),lyric,address,etc.,buttheyalsowroughtoutcertain
greatideasthatwerepresupposedinallthelaterwisdom.Thesewere:(a)monotheism,whichfoundfreecourseinDeuteronomy,Jeremiah,andDeuteroIsaiah
(b)individualism,ortheresponsibilityoftheindividualbeforeGodforhisownsinsandforthesinsofnooneelsethegreatmessageofEzekieland(c)the
insistenceofGoduponrightcharacterastheonlypassporttoHisfavouratruthproclaimedbyallthegreatprophets.WiththefallofJerusalem,however,andthe
destructionoftheJewishState,theknellofprophecywassoundedtheresponsibilityforshapingthereligiousdestinyofIsraelnowfellintothehandsofthepriests
andsages.
Thepriestrespondedtothecallfirst,butsoughttohealthewoundsofIsraellightly,bypurificationandelaborationoftheritual.Thetrueheiroftheprophetwas
thesage.Hefoundhimselfconfrontedwithanewworlditwashistointerpretitreligiously.Theoldworldviewoftheprophetwasnolongertenable.New
problemswerecallingforsolutionandoldproblemsbecomingevermorepressing.Thetaskofthesagewastoadjustthetruthslefttohimbytheprophetstothe
newsituation.Itwashistofindtheplaceofreligioninthatsituationandtomakeitthedominantelementtherein.Thegreatestsourcesofdangertotruereligion
were:(a)anorthodoxywhichheldtheancienttraditionsinviolableandrefusedtoseethefactsofthepresent(b)thescepticismanddiscouragementarisingoutof
themiseriesofthetimewhichseemedtodenythejusticeandgoodnessofGodand(c)theinroadsofGreekcivilizationwhichseemedtothreatenthewholefabric
ofJudaism.Indeed,thesagesthemselvesdidnotwhollyescapebeinginfluencedbythesetendencies:witnesstheorthodoxyofthebulkoftheBookofProverbs,
thescepticismofEcclesiastes,andtheGreekelementsintheWisdomofSolomon.Totheseconditionsthesages,eachinhisownway,addressedtheirmessage.
ThewritersofProverbs,forthemostpart,standfirmlyupontheoldpathsinthemidstofmentalandmoralchaosandfluxtheyinsistuponadherencetotheoldstandardsof
truthandgoodness,andtheypromisesuccesstoallwhoheedtheirinstruction.Forthemprosperityistheproofofpiety.Thisistheoldpropheticrecipefornationalsuccessmade
operativeinthelivesofindividuals.Throughitthesagesinformalltheordinaryprocessesofcommoneverydaylifewithreligiousmeaning.Theirphilosophyoflifeissimple,but
shallow.Theyfailtorealizethattherewardofpietyisnotinthemarketplace,butinthesoul.
TheweaknessofthistraditionalpositionisexposedbytheBookofJob,whichpointsoutthefactthattherighteousmanisoftenthemostsorelyafflicted,andseekstoreconcile
thisfactwithbeliefinthejusticeandgoodnessofGod.Butnosolutionoftheagelongproblemofsufferingisprovided:thesuffererisratherbiddentotakerefugeinhisfaithin
Godsgoodnessandwisdom,andtorealizethat,justasthemysteriesofGodsvisibleuniverseeludehisknowledge,soalsoisitfutileforhimtoattempttopenetratethegreater
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Godsgoodnessandwisdom,andtorealizethat,justasthemysteriesofGodsvisibleuniverseeludehisknowledge,soalsoisitfutileforhimtoattempttopenetratethegreater
mysteriesofGodsprovidence.LethimbecontentwithGodHimselfashisportion.
SongofSongsillustratesthehumanityofthesages.Itconcernsitselfwiththegreatestofallhumanpassionslove.Whethertobeinterpretedasadramaorasacollectionof
lyricssuchasweresungatweddingsinSyria,itextolsthenobilityandloyaltyoftruelove.Inaperiodwhenthelicentiouscustomsofthepaganworldwerefindingeager
acceptanceinJudah,suchapowerfulandbeautifulvindicationofthecharacterofunselfishlovewasurgentlyneeded,andwascalculatedtoplayanimportantpartinthepreservation
oftruereligion.
Ecclesiastesistheproductofmanyminds,withmoreorlessconflictingviews.Buttheyareallconcernedwiththeproblemofpracticalscepticism:DoesGodcarefortruthand
goodness?Isthereanyreligiousmeaningintheuniverse?Theheartofthebookmeetsthisquestionfairlyandsquarely.Theironhasenteredtheauthorsownsoul.Hedesiresto
helpthoseinthesamesituationwithhimself.Hewouldgivedoubting,falteringsoulsabasisforfaith.Recognizingandgivingfullweighttothemanydifficultiesthatbesetthe
religiouspointofviewandtendtodrivementodespair,heholdsfasttohisbeliefinGodslovingcare,andthereforecounselshisfellowstoputonacheerfulcourageandperform
theirallottedtaskswithjoy.Thisistheonlywaytomakelifeworthliving,andworthlivingtothefull.
SirachandWisdomofSolomonarebothproductsofthelifeanddeathstrugglebetweenJudaismandGreekthought.TheauthoroftheformerishospitabletoGreeksociallife,
butrigidinhisadherencetotheoldHebrewidealsofmoralsandreligion.HeseekstoarouseloyaltytoandenthusiasmfortheseintheheartsoftheJews,whoareinconstantdanger
ofyieldingtotheseductiveandpowerfulinfluencesofGreece.ThesamepurposeanimatestheauthoroftheWisdomofSolomon.Butheismoreliberalinhisattitudetoforeign
influences.Hewelcomestruthfromanydirection,andthereforedoesnothesitatetoincorporateGreekelementsinhisfundamentallyHebraicviewoflifeandduty.Hethusenriches
theconceptionofwisdomfromeverysource,andseekstoshowthatthisHebrewidealisimmeasurablysuperiortotheboastedGreeksophia.
Hebrewwisdombyitsverynaturecouldhavenofellowshipwithphilosophy.Theaimsandmethodsofthetwowerefundamentallydifferent.Inthewordsof
BishopWestcott,theaxiomsoftheonearetheconclusionsoftheother.Forphilosophy,Godistheconclusionforwisdom,Heisthemajorpremise.
PhilosophershaveeverbeenseekingafterGodifhaplytheymightfindhim.ThemindofthesagewassaturatedwiththethoughtofGod.Philosophystartswith
theworldasitis,andseekstofindroomforGodinitwisdomstartedwithGodandsoughttoexplaintheworldintermsofGod.Wisdom,furthermore,was
practicalandmoralphilosophywasspeculativeandmetaphysical.Theinterestsofwisdomwereintenselyhuman.Theywereconcernedwithlivingquestionsand
concreteissues.Theproblemsofthesageweresurchargedwithemotiontheyweretheoutcomeoftroubledfeelingsandperturbedwillonlyinslightmeasurewere
theytheproductoftheintellect.Itisnotsurprising,therefore,thatwisdompresentsnocarefullydevelopedsystemofthought.Theheartknowsnologic.Wisdom
careslittleforaplanoftheuniverseItleavesallsuchmatterstoGod.ItseeksonlytoenablementoloveandtrustGodandtowalkinHisways.
TheHebrewconceptionofwisdomdevelopedalongtwolines.WisdomhaditshumananditsDivineaspects.Insofarasitwashuman,itdevoteditselftothe
considerationofthegreatproblemsoflife.Itwasidentifiedwithknowledgeofthelawsandprinciples,observanceofwhichleadstothesuccessfullife.Thesewere
allsummarizedintheformula,thefearoftheLord.Laterinthehistoryoftheidea,thissubjectiveexperiencewasexternalizedandobjectifiedand,underthe
growinginfluenceofthepriestlyritual,wisdomcametobedefinedasobservanceoftheMosaicLaw(Sir19:2024,24:23).
OnitsDivineside,wisdomwasatfirstconceivedofasanattributeofGodwhichHegenerouslysharedwithmen.Then,astheconceptionofGodgrew
broaderanddeeper,largeareasofwisdomweremarkedoffasinaccessibletoman,andknownonlytoGod(Job28).Stillfurther,wisdomwaspersonifiedand
representedasthecompanionofGodinallHiscreativeactivities(Pr8:2231)andwas,atlast,undertheinfluenceofGreekthought,personalized,or
hypostatized,andmadetofunctionasanintermediarybetweenmanandGod,carryingoutHisbeneficentpurposestowardstherighteous(Wis8:1,3,4,9:4,9,11,
18,10:1,4).
Uponthewhole,thewisdomelementmustbeconsideredthenoblestexpressionoftheHebrewspirit.ItwasinlargeparttheresponseofJudaismtotheinflux
ofWesterncivilization.ItdemonstratedirrefutablythevitalityoftheHebrewreligion.WhentheformsandinstitutionsinwhichHebrewidealismhadclotheditself
wereshatteredbeyondrestoration,wisdomfurnishednewchannelsfortheexpressionoftheideal,andkeptthepassionforrighteousnessandtruthburning.When
JudaismwasbroughtfacetofacewiththeGentileworldoneveryhand,wisdomfurnisheditwithacosmopolitanmessage.Nationalistic,particularistic,transitory
elementswerediscarded,andemphasiswaslaiduponthegreatfundamentalconceptsofreligionadaptedtotheneedsofallmeneverywhere.Wisdomthus
becameofthegreatestimportanceinthepreparationforChristianity,theuniversalreligion.
JOHNMERLINP OWISS MITH.
WISDOM,BOOKOF.Seeprecedingart.andAPOCRYPHA,14.
WISEMEN.SeeMAGIand,fortheWise,WISDOM.
WIST.SeeWIT.
WIT.Thevb.towit,whichmeanstoknow,isusedinAVinmostofitsparts.ThepresenttenseisIwot,thouwottest,hewotorwotteth,wewotthepast
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WIT.Thevb.towit,whichmeanstoknow,isusedinAVinmostofitsparts.ThepresenttenseisIwot,thouwottest,hewotorwotteth,wewotthepast
tense,Iwist,hewist,yewisttheinfinitive,towit.In2Co8:1occursthephrasedotowit,i.e.maketoknowwedoyoutowitofthegraceofGod.Thesubst.
witmeansinAVknowledgeitoccursonlyinPs107:27attheirwitsend.Witty,whichisfoundinPr8:12,Jth11:23,Wis8:19,hasthesenseofknowing,
skilfulandwittingly(Gn48:14)isknowingly.
WITCH,WITCHCRAFT.SeeMAGICDIVINATIONANDS ORCERY.
WITHEREDHAND.SeeMEDICINE,p.599a.
WITH(E)SinJg16:17representsatermwhichprobablymeansbowstringsofgreengut.TheEng.wordmeansasuppletwigfromawillow(seealsoCORD).
WITNESS.ThisistherenderingofHeb.danddahandoftheGr.martys,martyria,andmartyre,andcompoundsofthisroot.Theprimitiveideaofthe
Heb.rootistorepeat,reassert,andwefindthewordusedinthefollowingconnexions:(1)Witnessmeaningevidence,testimony,sign(ofthings):aheapof
stones(Gn31:44),theSongofMoses(Dt31:26),Jobsdisease(Job16:8),thestonesetupbyJoshuaatShechem(Jos24:27).SointheNTthedustonthefeetof
thediscipleswastobeawitnessagainsttheJews(Mk6:11).(2)Witnesssignifyingthepersonwhowitnessesorcantestifyorvouchforthepartiesindebatee.g.
GodiswitnessbetweenJacobandLaban(Gn31:50)soJobsays,Mywitnessisinheaven(Job16:19,cf.also1S12:5ff.,Jer29:23,42:5).IntheNTGodis
calledonbySt.Paultowitnesstohistruthandthepurityofhismotives(Ro1:9,2Co1:23etc.).Akintothismeaningwehave(3)Witnessinalegalsense.Thus
wefindwitnessestoanactofconveyancing(Jer32:10),toabetrothal(Ru4:9),whileinallcivilandcriminalcasestherewerewitnessestogiveevidence,and
referencestofalsewitnessesarefrequent(cf.Pr12:17,19:59,21:28,25:18etc.).SeealsoJUSTICE(II.),2OATHS.IntheNTtheApostlesfrequentlyappearas
witnesses(martyres)ofthelife,death,andresurrectionofJesus(Lk24:48,Ac1:8,2:32,3:15etc.).Theheroesofthefaitharecalledthecloudofwitnesses(He
12:1),andJesusHimselfisthefaithfulwitness(martyr)inRev1:6,3:14(cf.1Ti6:13).Cf.alsoartt.ARK,1TABERNACLE,7(a).
W.F.BOYD.
WITTY.SeeWIT.
WIZARD.SeeMAGICDIVINATIONANDS ORCERY.
WOLF.
InAVwolfisalwaystr.ofzeb(cf.Arab,zeebwolf),Gn49:27,Is11:6,65:25,Jer5:6,
Ezk22:27,Hab1:8,Zeph3:8.Cf.alsopropernameZeeb,Jg7:25.Foriyym(tr.wolvesinIs13:22RV)andtannmseeJACKAL.TheNTtermislykos(Mt7:15,
10:16,Lk10:3,Jn10:12,Ac20:29).
ThewolfofPalestineisavarietyofCanistupus,somewhatlighterincolourandlargerthanthatofN.Europe.Itisseldomseentoday,andnevergoesinpacks,
thoughcommonlyincouplesitcommitsitsravagesatnight,hencetheexpressionwolfoftheevening(Jer5:6,Zeph3:3)itwasoneofthegreatestterrorsofthe
lonelyshepherd(Jn10:12)persecutorsarecomparedtowolvesinMt10:18,Ac20:29.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
WOMAN
1.InOT(ishshh,woman,wifenqbh[Lv15:33,Nu31:15,Jer31:22],female)womanspositionisoneofinferiorityandsubjectiontoman(Gn
3:13)andyet,inkeepingwiththeviewthatideallysheishiscompanionandhelpmeet(2:1824),sheneversinksintoameredrudgeorplaything.Inpatriarchal
times,Sarah,Rebekah,andRachelstandsidebysidewiththeirhusbands.IntheeraofthedeliverancefromEgypt,MiriamisrankedwithMosesandAaron(cf.
Mic6:4).Inthedaysofthejudges,Deborahisnotonlyaprophetess(wh.see),asotherwomeninIsraelwere,butisherselfajudge(Jg4:4).Underthemonarchy,
JezebelintheNorthernKingdomandAthaliahintheSouthern,affordillustrationsofthepoliticalpowerandinfluencethatawomanmightwield.Inreligious
matters,wefindwomenattendingtheFeastsalongwithmen(1S1:1ff.etc.),takingpartwiththeminactsofsacrifice(Jg13:20,23etc.),combinedwiththeminthe
choralserviceoftheTemple(Ezr2:65etc.).AndthoughintheDeut.codewomanspositionisoneofcompletesubordination,herrightsarerecognizedand
safeguardedinawaythatpreparesthesoilforthegrowthofthosehigherconceptionswhichfindutteranceinMalachisdeclarationthatdivorceishatefulto
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safeguardedinawaythatpreparesthesoilforthegrowthofthosehigherconceptionswhichfindutteranceinMalachisdeclarationthatdivorceishatefulto
Jehovah(2:16),andinthepictureofthevirtuouswifewithwhichtheBookofProverbsconcludes(ch.31).See,further,F AMILY,
MARRIAGE.
2.InNT(gyn,woman,wifethleia[Ro1:26,27],femalegynaikarion[dimin.fr.gyn,2Ti3:6],EVsillywomen).Owingtotheinfluenceof
Rabbinism,Jewishwomenhadlostsomeoftheirearlierfreedom(ct.withthesceneatthewellofHaran[Gn24:10ff.]thesurpriseofthedisciplesbythewellof
SycharwhentheyfoundJesusspeakingwithawoman[Jn4:27]).ButJesuswroughtawonderfulchange.HedidthisnotonlybyHisteachingaboutadultery(Mt
5:27f.)andmarriageanddivorce(vv.31f.,19:3ff.),butstillmorebyHispersonalattitudetowomen,whethergoodandpurelikeHisownmother(thereisnothing
harshordiscourteousintheWomanofJn2:4cf.19:26)andthesistersofBethany,orsinfulandoutcastassomewomenoftheGospelswere(Lk7:37ff.,8:2,Jn
4).TheworkofemancipationwascontinuedintheApostolicChurch.WomenformedanintegralpartoftheearliestChristiancommunity(Ac1:14),sharedinthe
giftsofPentecost(2:1ff.,cf.v.17),engagedintasksofunofficialministry(Ro16:1f.,Ph4:2f.),andbyandbyappear(1Ti3:11)asholdingtheofficeofthe
deaconess(wh.see),andpossibly(5:3)thatofthewidow(wh.see,andcf.T IMOTHY[EPP.TO],5).St.Paulsconceptionofwomanandofmansrelationtoher
isdifficult(1Co7),butmaybeexplainedpartlybyhisexpectationoftheParousia(vv.2931),andpartlybytheexigenciesofaneraofpersecution(v.26).Ina
laterPaulineEpistlemarriagebecomesatypeoftheunionbetweenChristandtheChurch(Eph5:2233).Andifbyhisinjunctionastothesilenceofwomeninthe
Church(1Co14:34ff.)theApostleappearstolimitthepropheticfreedomofthefirstChristiandays(Ac2:4,17),wemustrememberthatheiswritingtoaChurch
setinthemidstofadissoluteGreekcity,whereChristianwomenhadspecialreasonsforcautionintheexerciseoftheirnewprivileges.Elsewhereheannouncesthe
farreachingprinciplethatinChristJesustherecanbenomaleandfemale(Gal3:28).
J.C.LAMBERT.
WONDERS.(Heb.mphth,Gr.terasusuallyinOTandalwaysinNTassociatedwith
Heb.th,Gr.smeion,Eng.sign).InOTthetermordinarilyoccurswithreferencetothemiraclesatthetimeofthedeliverancefromEgypt(Ex7:3etc.)
JehovahswondersinthelandofHam(Ps105:27).InNTitisusedofthemiracleswroughtbyJesus(Ac2:22etc.),thosedemandedofHimbythepeople(Jn
4:48)thoseoftheApostlesandtheearlyChurch(Ac2:43etc.)thosewhichshouldbewroughtbyfalseChrists(Mt24:24=Mk13:22).Itrefersprimarilytothe
astonishmentproducedbyamiraculousevent,andsoitissignificantthat,asappliedtothemiraclesofJesus,itisalwaysconjoinedwithsomeotherterm.His
miracleswerenotmereprodigiesexcitingastonishment,butsignsandwonders,thatappealedatthesametime,throughtheirevidentialvalue,tothereasonand
spirit.AndyetJesuspreferredtheintuitivefaiththatisindependentalikeofwondersandofsigns(Jn4:48).See,further,MIRACLES,S IGN.
J.C.LAMBERT.
WOOD.SeeF OREST,alsoWRITING,6.
WOOL.Woollenstuffsweremuchusedforclothes(LV13:47ff.,Pr31:13etc.)mainly,however,foroutergarments.Forunderwear,linenwaspreferred,as
beingcoolerandcleaner.Wool,fallingswiftlyapreytomothsandlarv(Is51:8etc.),wasnotusedforwrappingthedead.Agarmentofmingledwoolandlinen
mightnotheworn(Lv19:19,Dt22:11).Josephussaysthiswasreservedexclusivelyforthepriests(Ant.IV.viii.11).Dyedwoolisreferredto(He9:12,cf.Lv
14:4f.),butitsnaturalcolour,white,makesitthecriterionofwhitenessandpurity(Ps147:16,Is1:18,Dn7:9,Rev1:14).Woolwasavaluablearticleofcommerce
(Ezk27:18),anditfiguresinthetributepaidbykingMesha(2K3:4).
W.EWING.
WORD.ApartfromthepersonaluseofWordasatitleofChrist(seeLOGOS),itsBiblicalinterpretationpresentsfewdifficulties.BothintheOTandinthe
NTtheoriginaltermsemployedmaypassfromthemeaningspeechtosignifythesubjectmatterofspeech.Insomepassagesthereisuncertaintyastowhether
thetr.shouldbewordorthing.Forexample,1K11:41RVmhasorwords,ormattersasalternativestotheactsofSolomon.InAc8:21thouhastneitherpart
norlotinthismatterprobablymeansinthematterindispute,whichwasthecovetedpowerofimpartingthegiftsoftheHolySpiritbuttheRVmwordis
preferredbysomeexpositors,whothinkthatthereferenceistothewordpreachedbytheApostlesanditsattendantblessings(cf.Mk1:45,Lk1:2).TheEVretains
wordinMt18:16and2Co13:1,althoughDt19:15reads:Atthemouthoftwowitnesses,oratthemouthofthreewitnesses,shalleverymatterbeestablished.
J.G.TASKER.
WORLD
1.InOT.Ingeneralitmaybesaidthatthenormalexpressionforsuchconceptionofthe
UniverseastheHebrewshadreachedistheheavensandtheearth(Gn1:1,Ps89:11,1Ch16:31),andthatworldisanequivalentexpressionforearth.Sofar22/28
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UniverseastheHebrewshadreachedistheheavensandtheearth(Gn1:1,Ps89:11,1Ch16:31),andthatworldisanequivalentexpressionforearth.Sofar
asthereisadifference,theworldisratherthefruitful,habitableearth,e.g.,theearthistheLords,andthefulnessthereoftheworld,andtheythatdwelltherein
(Ps24:1cf.50:12,90:2,Is34:1).ThereligioussentimentsawakenedbythecontemplationofNatureappearalsoinreferencestotheheavensandthesea(e.g.Ps8,
19,Job38,39).Butoftheethicaldepreciationoftheworld,soprominentinsomeNTwritings,thereareintheOTfewtraces.Theworldistobejudgedin
righteousness(Ps9:8,96:13,98:9),andpunishedforitsevil(Is13:11).Thetransientcharacterofitsrichesandpleasures,withtheconsequentfollyofabsorptionin
them,isperhapsindicatedbyanotherHebrewword(meaningdurationcf.onbelow)renderedworldatPs17:14(menoftheworld,whoseportionisinthis
life,cf.RVm)alsobythesamewordatPs49:1(seethewholePsalm).AwordofsimilarmeaningisrenderedworldinAVatPs73:12,Ec3:11,butRVretains
worldonlyinthelatterpassage,andgivesquiteanotherturntothesense.
TheethicalaspectoftheworlddoesnotreceiveanyfreshemphasisintheApocrypha,thoughintheBookofWisdomboththescientificinterestinregardtotheworldandthe
impulsesofnaturalreligionarenotablyquickened(7:1722,9:9,11:17,22,13:19,cf.Sir17,18).Thereisamplecontrastbetweenthestabilityoftherighteousandthevanityof
ungodlyprosperity(e.g.Wis15),butthelatterisnotidentifiedwiththeworld.Itis,noticeablethatintheApocryphathewordkosmos,whichintheLXXmeansadornment,
hasreacheditssenseofworld,conceivedasabeautifulorderintheNTthisbecomestheprevalentword.
2.InNT.(1)ain(on),age,isusedoftheworldinitstimeaspect:humanhistoryisconceivedasmadeupofages,successiveandcontemporaneous,
convergingtoandconsummatedintheChrist.Theseintheirsumconstitutetheworld:GodistheirMaker(He1:2,11:3[AVandRVworlds,butworldbetter
representsthethought])andtheirKing(1Ti
1:17RVm,Rev15:3RV).Hencethephrasessincetheworldbegan,lit.fromtheage(Lk
1:70,Jn9:32,Ac15:18)andtheendoftheworld,lit.theconsummationoftheage(Mt13:39,40,49,24:3,28:20)oroftheages(He9:26).Alltheendsof
theworldsoconceivedmeetintheChristianera(1Co10:11[RVages],cf.He11:39,40).Underthistimeaspect,also,theNTwritersidentifytheirownagewith
theworld,andthis,asnotmerelyactualbutastypical,issetinnewlights.Asthisworld,thispresentworld,itiscontrastedexplicitlyorimplicitlywiththe
worldtocome(Mt12:32,Mk10:30,Lk18:30,20:34,35,Eph1:21,2:7,2Ti4:10,Tit2:12,He6:5).
Insomeofthesepassagesthereisimpliedamoralcondemnationofthisworldelsewherethisreceivesdeeperemphasis.Thecaresoftheworldchoketheword
(Mt13:22,Mk4:19):thesonsofthisworldarecontrastedwiththesonsoflight(Lk16:8cf.Ro12:2,Eph2:2
accordingtothetransientfashion[on]ofthismaterialworld[kosmos]).Thisworldisevil(Gal1:4),itswisdomisnaught(1Co1:20,2:6,3:18),itsrulers
crucifiedtheLordofglory(1Co2:8)finally,itisthegodofthisworldthathasblindedthemindsoftheunhelieving(2Co4:4).
Thisethicaluseofon=worldisnotfoundintheJohanninewritings.
(2)Butthemostfrequenttermforworldiskosmos,whichissometimesextendedinmeaningtothematerialuniverse,asinthephrasesfromthebeginning
(foundation,creation)oftheworld(e.g.Mt24:21,25:34,He4:6,Ro1:20fortheimpliedthoughtofDivinecreationcf.Ac14:17,17:24).Morecommonly,
however,thewordisusedoftheearth,andespeciallytheearthastheabodeofman.Togainthewholeworldistobecomepossessedofallpossiblematerial
wealthandearthlypower(Mt16:26,Mk8:36,Lk9:25).Becausesinenteredintotheworld(Ro5:12),itisbecomethesceneoftheIncarnationandtheobjectof
Redemption(2Co5:19,1Ti1:15,He10:5,Jn1:9,10,29,3:16,17,12:47),thescenealso,alienbutinevitable,oftheChristiandiscipleslifeanddiscipline,
missionandvictory(Mt5:14,13:38,26:13,Jn17:16,Ro1:8,1Co3:22,4:9,5:10,7:31,2Co1:12,Ph2:16,Col1:8,1P5:9,Rev11:15).Fromthisvirtual
identificationoftheworldwithmankind,andmankindasseparatedfromandhostiletoGod,therecomestheethicalsignificationofthewordspeciallydeveloped
inthewritingsofSt.
PaulandSt.John.
(a)TheEpp.ofSt.Paul.TotheGalatiansSt.PauldescribesthepreChristianlifeasslaverytotherudimentsoftheworld(4:3,cf.v.9)throughChristthe
worldiscrucifiedtohimandhetotheworld(6:14).BoththoughtsrecurinColossians(2:8,20).InwritingtotheCorinthianshecondemnsthewisdom,thepassing
fashion,thecare,thesorrowoftheworld(1Co1:20,21,3:19,7:31,33,34,2Co7:10cf.ainabove),anddeclarestheDivinechoicetorestuponallthatthe
worldleastesteems(1Co1:27,28,cf.Ja2:5).Thisperceptionofthetrueworthofthingsisgrantedtothosewhoreceivednotthespiritoftheworld,butthespirit
whichisofGod(1Co2:12)hencethesaintsshalljudgetheworld(1Co6:2,cf.11:32).IntheargumentofRomansthethoughtoftheDivinejudgmentofthe
worldhasincidentalplace,butintheclimaxSt.PaulconceivesofthefallofIsraelasleadingtotherichesoftheworld,andofthecastingawayofthemasthe
reconcilingoftheworld(11:12,16cf.v.32and5:1221).What.St.Paulcondemns,then,ishardlytheworldasessentiallyevil,buttheworldspiritwhichleads
toevilbyitsneglectoftheunseenandeternal,andbyitsblindnesstothetruescaleofvaluesrevealedinthegospelofChristcrucified.
(b)TheGospelandFirstEp.ofSt.John.InthesetwowritingsoccurmorethanhalftheNTinstancesofthewordweareconsidering.Thatis,thetermkosmosis
characteristicofSt.John,and,settingasidehisfrequentuseofitinthenonethicalsense,especiallyasthesphereoftheincarnationandsavingworkofChrist,we
findanethicalconceptionoftheworlddeeperinitsshadowsthanthatofSt.Paul.ItistruethatJesusistheLightoftheworld(Jn1:9,3:19,8:12,9:5,12:46),its 23/28
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findanethicalconceptionoftheworlddeeperinitsshadowsthanthatofSt.Paul.ItistruethatJesusistheLightoftheworld(Jn1:9,3:19,8:12,9:5,12:46),its
Lifegiver(6:33,51),itsSaviour(3:17,4:42,12:47)yettheworldknewhimnot(1:10),andtheFourthGospelsetsoutitsstoryofHispersistentrejectionbythe
world,inlanguagewhichattimesseemstopassbeyondamererecordofcontemporaryunbelief,andalmosttoassertanessentialdualismofgoodandevil(7:7,
8:23,9:39,12:31,14:17,30,16:11,20).Heretheworldisnotsimplytheworldlyspirit,butthegreatmassofmankindindeadlyhostilitytoChristandHis
teaching.IncontraststandHisdisciples,hisownwhichwereintheworld(13:1),chosenoutoftheworld(15:18,cf.17:6),butnotofit,andthereforehatedasHe
washated(15:18,19,17:14,16).ForthemHeintercedesasHedoesnotfortheworld(17:8).Inthe1stEp.ofSt.Johnthesamesharpcontrastsmeetus.Theworld
lieswithinthescopeofGodsredemptivepurposeinJesusChrist(2:2,4:14),yetitstandsopposedtoHisfollowersasathingwhollyevil,withwhichtheymayhold
notraffic(2:1517,cf.Ja4:4),knowingthemnotandhatingthem(3:1,13).ItisconceivedasundertheswayofapoweressentiallyhostiletoGod,theantichrist
(2:18,22,4:3cf.theprinceofthisworldJn12:31,14:30,16:11)andisthereforenottobeentreatedandpersuaded,butfoughtandovercomebythegreater
onewhoisinthediscipleofChrist(4:4,5:4,5).Faithovercomeththeworld,butSt.Johnreservesforhisclosingwordshisdarkestexpressionofapersistent
dualismofgoodandevil,lightanddarkness:WeknowthatweareofGod,andthewholeworldliethintheevilone(5:19).
TheidiomaticusesofthetermworldinJn7:4,12:19,1Jn3:17aresufficientlyobvious.Forthedifficultexpressiontheworldofiniquityappliedtothetongue(Ja3:6),see
theCommentaries.
S.W.GREEN.
WORM.1.ss,Is51:6(cf.Arab,ss,amothoraworm),thelarvaofaclothesmoth.SeeMOTH.2.rimmh(Ex16:24,Job25:6,Is14:11).3.tl,tlh
ortlaath(Ex16:20,Job25:6,Is14:11,66:24,Jon4:7etc.).Both2and3areusedtodescribethesamekindofworms(cf.Ex16:20,24),andmostreferencesare
tomaggotsandotherinsectlarvwhichbreedonputridorganicmatter.TheseareverycommoninPalestine,occurringevenonneglectedsoresand,ofcourse,on
deadbodies(Job19:26,21:26,24:20).Jonahsworm(tlh)wasprobablysomelarvawhichattackstheroots,orperhapsacentipede.ThewormsofDt28:39
wereprobablycaterpillars.4.rqb(Hos5:12AVm).InPr12:4wherethesamewordisalsotr.rottenness,itisrenderedinLXXsklx,woodworm,which
seemsappropriatetothecontext.5.zchlrets,wormsoftheearth(Mic7:17),maypossiblyrefertotrueearthworms(whicharecomparativelyrarein
Palestine),butmoreprobablytoserpents.SeeS ERPENT(10).6.sklx,Mk
9:44etc.Theexpressioneatenofworms,used(Ac12:23)indescribingthedeathofHerodAgrippaI.,wouldseemtorefertoadeathaccompaniedbyviolent
abdominalpains,suchsymptomsbeingcommonlyascribedintheHolyLandtodaytoabdominalworms
(Lumbricoides)abeliefoftenrevivedbytheevacuationofsuchwormsnearthetimeofdeath(cf.p.600a).
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
WORMWOOD(lanh,Dt29:18,Pr5:4,Jer9:16,23:16,La3:15,16,Am5:7,6:12[inthelastAVtr.hemlock]Gr.apsinthos,Rev8:11).lanhwas
somebittersubstanceusuallyassociatedwithgall(wh.see)itisusedmetaphoricallyforcalamityandsorrow.TraditionfavourssomespeciesofArtemisia(
wormwood),ofwhichseveralkindsarefoundinPalestine.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
WORSHIP.SeeADORATION,P RAISE,P RAYER,P REACHING,S YNAGOGUE,TEMPLE.InLk14:10AVworshipmeansreverence(RVglory)frommantoman.
WOT.SeeWIT.
WOULD.SeeWILL.
WRATH.SeeANGER,p.34a.
WRESTLING.SeeGAMES,p.282b.
WRITING
1.PrehistoricTheoriginofwritingisnotrecordedinGenesis,whereweshouldexpecttofindsomeaccountofit,butthisomissionmaybeintentional.
SinceGodisrepresentedaswritingontwoTablesofstone(Ex32:16f.),itmightseemimproperthatHeshouldemployahumaninvention,while,ontheother
hand,theremayhavebeennotraditionthattheartwasfirstusedonthatoccasiontheinferenceisthereforelefttobedrawnbythereader.Perhapswemayinfer
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hand,theremayhavebeennotraditionthattheartwasfirstusedonthatoccasiontheinferenceisthereforelefttobedrawnbythereader.Perhapswemayinfer
fromthephraseinIs8:1thattherewasastyleknownasDivinewriting,beingthecharacterusedintheseTables.TheTablesthemselvesscarcelyfigureinthe
historicalpartsoftheOT,neithercanwefromthePentateuchlearntheircontentswithprecisionyetthetraditionthatsuchTablesatonetimeexistedislikelytobe
trustworthy,andthenarrativesgiveninEx.andDeut.implythattherewerewholeTablesandfragmentsofTableswhichhadtobeaccountedfor.Fromthe
statementthattheywerewrittenonbothsidesafterwardsgrotesquelymisunderstoodwemayinferthattheyresembledstelinform,andperhapstheoriginal
shouldberenderedbythatword.
2.OriginofwritingamongtheIsraelites.ItisimprobablethattheOTcontainsanydocumentswhichintheirwrittenformareearlierthanthetimeof
David,whenwefirsthearofanofficialscribe(2S8:17).ThequestionofthedateatwhichwritingwasfirstinuseinPalestineisabsolutelydistinctfromthatofits
earliestemploymentbyIsraelites,thoughthetwoareoftenconfused.ThereisnoevidenceofIsraeleverhavingemployedthecuneiformscriptoranyformof
hieroglyphicwriting,thoughbothmayhavebeenfamiliarinPalestinebeforetheriseoftheIsraelitishState.Probably,then,theirearliestwritingwasalphabetic,but
whencetheIsraelitesgottheartisaquestionofgreatdifficulty,neverlikelytobeclearedup.ItiscertainthatHebreworthographyisetymological,i.e.fixedin
manycasesbythehistoryofthewordaswellasbyitspronunciation,andthisbeingso,itmusthavecomedownbytraditionfromanearlierstageofthelanguage
yetofthisearlierlanguagewehavenomonuments.Thepossibilitiesare:(1)thattheIsraelitishtribescontainedmenwithwhomknowledgeofwritingwas
hereditary(2)thatwhentheysettledinCanaanhoweverweinterpretthisphrasetheytookoverthelanguage,andwithitthewritingandorthography,ofthe
earlierinhabitants(3)thatwhentheimmigrantsweresettled,teachersofthisart,amongothers,weresentfortoPhnicia.Thesecondofthesehypotheseshasmost
initsfavour,asitaccountsbestforthedifferencesbetweenHebrewandPhnicianspelling.
3.Characterofwriting.ThealphabetemployedbytheIsraelitesconsistsof22letters,writtenfromrighttoleft,servingfor28ormoresounds,not
includingvowels,whichsomeoftheconsonantsassistinrepresenting.TheOT,whichbasnogrammaticalterms,neveralludestothesesignsbynameyetwelearn
afewletternames,notfromtheirbeingemployedtodenoteletters,butfromtheiruseasnamesofobjectsresemblingthoseletters:theseareWwandTw,
meaninghookandcross(likeourTsquare,etc.),anditseemspossiblethattwomoresuchnamesmaylurkinIs28:10.FromthestoryinJg12:6itmightbe
inferredthattheletternameswerenotyetknownatthetimestillthosewhichfigureintheHebrewgrammarsmustbeofgreatantiquity,asisevincedbytheGreeks
havingborrowedthem.TheGreeknamesareevidentlytakenfromanAramaicdialect,andofthislanguagesomeofthenamesusedbytheJews(Nn,Rsh)show
traces.Thesenameshaveoftenbeenthoughttobetakenfromtheappearanceofthelettersorperhapsitshouldbesaidthattheletterswereoriginallypicturesof
theobjectswhichtheirnamesdenotebutitisdifficulttodrawupaconsistentschemebasedonthistheory.ThefamiliarorderisfoundinthealphabeticPsalms
andinLamentations,andinthecypherofJeremiah(25:26etc.,ifthetraditionalexplanationofthosepassagesbetrustworthy).Oftheexistenceofanygraphicsigns
otherthanthelettersthereisnoevidence,thoughitislikelythatthesignsusedbytheneighbouringpeoplestoexpressunits,decades,scores,andcenturieswere
knowntotheIsraelites,andtheymayalsohavehadthedividinglinebetweenwords,thoughthemistakesinthetextoftheOTduetowrongdivisionshowthatit
wasnotregularlyusedadividingpointisusedintheSiloaminscription.Isaiah,ashasbeenseen,distinguisheshumanwritingorthewritingofnshfrom
someotheranditwouldbeinaccordancewithanalogythatthespreadoftheartshouldleadtotheformationofavarietyofscripts.Thestylecurrent,asexhibited
intheinscriptionmentioned,andinaweightandafewgems,differsveryslightlyfromthatinuseinthePhniciansettlements,ofwhichthehistoryistraceable
fromthe8thor9thcent.B.C.downtoRomantimes.ThepapyrirecentlydiscoveredatElephantineshowthatinthe5thcent.B.C.adifferentandmorecursivehand
wasusedforAramaicbytheJewishexilesweshouldprobablybecorrectinassumingthatasimilarhandwasemployedforHebrewpapyrialso,inthetimeof
JeremiahandEzekiel.
Thesquarecharacter,accordingtotheJewishtradition,wassubstitutedfortheolderwriting(ofwhichavarietyispreservedintheSamaritanscript)incopiesof
theLawbyEzra,butthiscanberegardedonlyasaconjecture.ThemoderncharacterfirstappearsinHebrewinscriptionsofthe1stcent.A.D.,andasomewhat
similartypeinPalmyrenetextsofnearlythesamedateyetforcertainpurposestheolderstylewasretainedbytheJews,e.g.forcoins,whichshowtheancient
charactereveninBarCochbastime.StillthenumerouserrorsintheLXXversionwhichowetheirexplanationtotheconfusionofsimilarletters,showthatan
alphabetsimilartothatnowinusemusthavebeenemployedforwritingtheLawasearlyasthe2ndorperhapsthe3rdcent.B.C.andtheallusioninMt5:18toYod
asthesmallestletterofthealphabet,showsthattheemploymentofthisalphabetwasfamiliaratthattime.Thechangebywhichithadsupersededtheolderscriptsis
likelytohavebeengraduallyratherthansuddenlyaccomplished.Thesquarecharacterdiffersfromtheolder,amongotherthings,inthepossessionoffivefinal
forms,fourofwhichareinfactnearertheolderscriptthantheinitialformsthisinnovationseemstobeconnectedwiththepractice,adoptedfromtheGreeks,of
employingthelettersfornumeration,whenfiveextraletterswererequiredtoprovidesignsfor500900.ThatthispracticewasborrowedfromtheGreeksis
confirmedbytheRabbinicaluseoftheGr.wordgematria,geometry,todenoteit.TheexactsenseofthewordrenderedtittleInMt5:18isunknownattempts
haveattimesbeenmadetointerpretthewordfromthestrokescalledinthelaterJewishcalligraphytgn.
4.LaterhistoryofHebrewwriting.Ofothersignsaddedtotheletterstheonlykindwhichcanclaimanyconsiderableantiquityarethepuncta
extraordinaria,dotsplacedovercertainlettersorwords(e.g.andhekissedhiminGn33:4)toindicatethattheyshouldbe
expunged,atermwhichliterallymeanstopointout.ThispracticewascommontobothWesternandEasternscribesintheearlycenturiesofourera,andeven
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expunged,atermwhichliterallymeanstopointout.ThispracticewascommontobothWesternandEasternscribesintheearlycenturiesofourera,andeven
beforeandithasrightlybeeninferredfromtheoccurrenceofthesedotsthatallourcopiesoftheHebrewOTgobacktoone,ofnogreataccuracy.InBibletimes
theprocessoferasureisindicatedbyawordsignifyingtowipeout(Ex32:32),apparentlywithwater(Nu5:23),whereasinRabbinicaltimesawordwhich
probablysignifiestoscratchoutisordinarilyemployed.TheNTequivalentistosmearout,e.g.Col2:14etc.Duringtheperiodthatelapsedbetweenthefallof
JerusalemandthecompletionoftheTradition,variousruleswereinventedforthewritingoftheLaw.whicharecollectedintheTractcalledSphermthese
involvedtheperpetuationofwhatwereoftenaccidentalpeculiaritiesofthearchetype,andtheinsertioninthetextofsigns,themeaningofwhichhadincertain
casesbeenforgotten.AmuchmoreimportantadditiontothetextislaterthanthecompletionoftheTalmuds,viz.theintroductionofasystemofsignsindicatingthe
vocalizationandmusicalpitchorchant.Oftheformer,twosystemsarepreserved,anEasternandaWestern,butthefamiliarWesternsystemwongeneral
acceptance.TheinventionandelaborationofthesesystemsstandinsomerelationtotheeffortsmadebySyrianChristiansandMoslemstoperpetuatethecorrect
vocalizationandintonationoftheirsacredbooksandfacilitatetheiracquisitionandindeedtheJewishinventionsseembasedonthosealreadyemployedbySyrians
andArabs,andbothinformandinnomenclaturebearevidenceofthisorigin.Itwouldseem,however,thatthefirstemploymentofvowelsignsforaSemitic
languageistohefoundinthemonumentsofpaganAbyssinia.Weshouldexpecttheintroductionofextraneoussignsintothesacredpagetomeetwithviolent
opposition,yetofthiswehavenorecordthereis,however,evidencethattheemploymentofthesamesignsforthepunctuationofnonBiblicaltextswas
disapprovedbyaparty.TheKaraiteJewsappeartohavesavedthetextfromtheseadditionsbytheexpedientoftransliteratingitintoArabiccharacters,butthis
practicewassoonabandoned,andtheMSSwhichillustrateitbelongtoalimitedperiod.
Somerecordoftheprocessbywhichthetextwasvocalizedwouldbewelcome,forwithoutthisithastohereconstructedbyanalogiesdrawnfromthehistory
oftheKoran,whichitselfisimperfectlyknown.Thereareclearlymanycasesinwhichthevocalizationhasbeenaffectedbydogmaticconsiderationsitisnot,
however,certainthatthepunctuatorswereresponsibleforthis,asthereisevidencethatbeforetheinventionofvowelsignstherewerecaseswherefaultwasfound
withthetraditionalvocalization.ThefamiliarseriesofvariantsknownasQer,opposedtoKethbh,appearstoembodysuggestionsfortheimprovementofthe
text,datingfromvariousages.Soelaborateataskasthevocalizationmusthavebeenaccomplishedbyalargeandauthoritativecommittee,labouringforatleast
someyearsbutwhethertherewasanyreasonforsecrecyornot,thereisgroundforthinkingthateveninthe9thcent.thememoryoftheeventwasexceedingly
hazy.
5.Characterofwriters.TheOTgiveslittleinformationonsuchsubjectsasschoolsandmethodsofinstruction.InIsaiahstime(29:11,12)anordinary
Israelitemightormightnotbeabletoreadapparently,however,suchknowledgewasusualinthehigherclasses(8:2),andthesameseemstoheimpliedbyascene
inJeremiah(ch.36),whereasthepreceptsofDeuteronomyfromtheirwording(6:9)rathersuggestthattheprocessofwritingwouldbefamiliartoevery
Israelite,andinonecase(24:1)distinctlyimplyit.OfassociationoftheartofwritingwiththepriestlycastethereisperhapsnotraceexceptinNu5:23,wherea
priesthastowriteamagicalformulaandthefactthatinlatertimestheorderofscribeswasquitedistinctfromthatofpriestsshowsthattherewasnosuch
association.UnlesswearetoinferfromJg5:14thattheartofwritingwascultivatedatanearlytimeinthetribeofZebulun,itwouldappearthattheforeignpolicy
ofDavidfirstledtotheemploymentofascribe(2S8:17),suchapersondoubtlesscorrespondingwiththektibormunshiofMohammedanStates,whose
businessitistowritelettersforthesovereign,himselfoftenunacquaintedwiththeartthesepersonssetthefashionandinventthetechnicalitieswhichotherwriters
adopt.Lessdistinguishedscribesattachthemselvestoparticularindividuals,atwhosedictationtheywrite(asBaruchforJeremiah),orearntheirlivingbywriting
andreadinglettersforthosewhorequiretheservice.Closelyconnectedwiththisprofessionlsthatofcopyist,butthedevelopmentofthelatterinIsraelseemsto
havebeenpeculiar.InDeuteronomyMoseswritestheLawhimself(31:24),andthekingsaretomaketheirowncopies(17:18)ofaprofessionalcopyistoftheLaw
wedonotheartillthetimeofEzra,whoisclearlyregardedaseditoraswellascopyistandthoughthewordscribetechnicallymeansonewhocopiestheLaw,its
senseinSirach(10:5etc.)approachesthatofsavant,whileintheNTitmightberenderedbytheologian.
Publicationinancienttimeswasusuallyeffectedbyrecitation,whenceonecopywouldserveforalargecommunitybuttheemploymentofwritingaltogether
forthecompositionandperpetuationofbooksappearstohavecommencedlateinIsraelitishhistory.ThusSolomonswisdomwasspoken,notwritten(1K4:32
34),andthosewhowishedtoprofitbyithadtocomeandheartheking,whomaybethoughtofasholdingsancesfortherecitationofhisworks.InIsaiahstime
theamountofaprophecywrittenappearstohavebeenconfinedtojustsufficienttoremindthehearerofitscontent(8:1)andthismightheattestedbywitnesses.
WhenthepropheciesofJeremiahwerewrittenatlength,theprocessappearstohavebeenregardedasaninnovationofwhichsomeaccountwasrequired(36:17)
butafterthistimeitseemstohavebecomefamiliar,andinHab2:1theprophetiscommandedtowritehisprophecyclearly,toenableittobereadeasily.Ofa
writtenLaw,apartfromthetraditionoftheTwoTables,thereseemstobelittleornotracepriortothediscoveryofDeuteronomyhowtheoldercodeembodiedin
Exoduswaspreservedisnotknown.Officialchroniclesperhapsengravedonstone,butthisisuncertainseemtohavecommencedinthetimeofDavid,when
wefirsthearofanofficialcalledtherecorder(2S8:16)andtohisageorthatofhissuccessoritispossiblethatcertaincollectionsoftriballaysgoback,which
afterwardsfurnishedthebasisofprosehistorieswhosesubstanceispreservedinthePentateuchandfollowingbooksbuttheoldertheoryofthedocuments
containedinthePentateuch(e.g.Ex.13:8)isthatthememoryofeventswouldbepreservedbyceremonies,accompaniedwithexplanatoryformul,ratherthanby
writtenmonuments.Thefoundingoflibraries(cf.2Mac2:13)andcirculationofliteratureinmassesprobablybelongtopostexilictimes,whenEcclesiastescan 26/28
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writtenmonuments.Thefoundingoflibraries(cf.2Mac2:13)andcirculationofliteratureinmassesprobablybelongtopostexilictimes,whenEcclesiastescan
complainthattoomanybooksarewritten(12:12),andDanielthinksoftheOTasalibrary(9:2).Butforlegalandcommercialpurposes(aswellasepistolography)
theuseofwritingwascommoninpreexilictimes.SoJezebelsendsacircularnoteinmanycopies(1K21:8),whichbearthekingsseal,probablyinclay(Job
38:14)Job(13:26and31:35)thinksofhisindictmentaswritten,andIsaiah(10:1)appearstocondemnthepracticeofdrawingupdocumentsfraudulently.
ContractsofdivorceandpurchaseoflandarementionedbyJeremiah(3:8,32:14etc.),thelatterrequiringattestationbywitnesses.TheimagesofIs34:16,Ps
139:16etc.appeartobetakenfromthepracticeofbookkeeping,whichbenSirainthe2ndcent.B.C.sostronglyrecommends(42:7).Ofgenealogicalrollswehear
firstinpostexilictimes,butthecomparisonof1Ch9withNeh11showsthatsuchdocumentsweresometimesoldenoughtomakeitdifficultforthearchologists
tolocatethemwithcertainty.InthePersianperiodafewnewtermsforwritingsandcopieswereintroducedintoHebrew,andwehearoftranslations(Ezr4:7
writteninAramaicandtranslatedintoAramaic,wherethefirstAramaicissurelycorrupt),andofforeignscriptsbeinglearnedbyJews(Dn1:4).InEstherwe
readofanelaboratesysteminuseinthePersianempireforthepostageofroyalcommunications.
Onthewhole,weareprobablyjustifiedinassertingthatthenotionconnectedwithwritingintheclassicalperiodofHebrewliteraturewasratherthatofrendering
matterpermanentthanthatofenablingittoreachawidecircle.HencetheobjectionthatsomehavefoundtotheTwoTablesofstonebeinghiddenawayintheark
(unliketheGreekandRomandecreesengravedonpublicstel)isnotreallyavalidonethecontentsaresupposedtobegravenonthememory(Jer31:33),the
writtencopyservingmerelyasanauthentictextforpossiblereferenceincaseofdoubtlikethestandardmeasuresofourtime.Thistheoryisveryclearly
expressedinDt31:26and1S10:25,andrendersitquiteintelligiblethattheLawshouldhavebeenforgotten,andrecoveredaftercenturiesofoblivion.Such
instructionaswasgiventotheyoungwasinallprobabilitywithouttheuseofanywrittenmanuals,andintheformoftraditionstobecommittedtomemory.We
haveheardwithourearsandourfathershavetoldus(Ps44:1)istheformulabywhichtheprocessofacquiringknowledgeofancienthistoryisdescribed.The
conceptionoftheLawasabooktoberead,whereasotherliterarymatterwastobelearnedandrecitedwithoutnote,isduetothegrowthofsynagogalservices,
suchascommencedlongafterthefirstExile.EveninthetimeofJosephusitwouldappearthatacommunityratherthananindividualwasordinarilythepossessor
ofacopyoftheLaw,whencethetermtoread,asinLk10:26,istheformulaemployedinquotingtextsofScriptureonly,whereastorepeatwouldbeusedwhen
theTraditionwascited.Bothweredoubtlesshabituallycommittedtomemoryandsocited,whenceitcomesthatquotationsaresoofteninaccurate.
6.Writingmaterials.TheordinaryverbusedinHebrewforwritinghasinArabicasitsprimarysensethatofsewingorstitching,whenceitmightbe
inferredthattheearliestformofwritingknowntothepeopleswhoemploythatwordconsistedinembroideryortheperforationofstuffsandleaves.Moreprobably
thesenseofwritingcomesthroughanintermediatesignificationtoputtogether,makealist,compose,ofwhichwehaveexamplesinJg8:14,Is10:19,and
perhapsHos8:12andPr22:20thissenseispreservedinArabicinthewordkatbah,regimentorlistofmenenrolled.FromtheHeb.wordkthabh,then,we
learnnothingastothenatureofthematerialmoreisindicatedbyararerwordchqaq,lit.toscratch,whichimpliesahardsurface,suchasthatofstoneorwood
andofbooksofthissort,calculatedtolastforever,wereadinIs30:8andJob19:23,24.WoodenstavesarespecifiedasmaterialforwritinginNu17:2andEzk
37:16andapolishedsurface,probablyofmetal,inIs8:1.Theinstrument(AVpen)employedinthisfastcasehasapeculiarname:thatwhichwasemployedon
stonewascalledt,andwasofiron,withapointattimesofsomehardersubstance,suchasdiamond(Jer17:1).ThereappearstobeareferenceinJob(l.c.)tothe
practiceoffillingupthescratcheswithleadforthesakeofgreaterpermanence,butsomesupposethereferencetoberathertoleadentablets.Atsometimenearthe
endoftheJewishkingdom,theemploymentoflesscumbrousmaterialscameintofashion,andthewordforbook(spher)cametosuggestsomethingwhich
couldberolledorunrolled,asinIs34:4,whereasimileisdrawnfromthelatterprocess,andIs37:14,wherealetterfromthekingofAssyriawhichweshould
expecttobeonclayisspreadoutintheparallelnarrativeof2Kingsthisdetailisomitted.AllusionstorollsbecomecommoninthetimeofJeremiahand
Ezekiel,andthoughtheirmaterialisnotspecified,itwasprobablypapyrusbutskinsmayalsohavebeenemployed.Forwritingontheselightersubstances,reeds
andpigmentswererequiredreferencestothelatteraretobefoundinJer36:18,Ezk23:14,butoftheformer(3Jn13(pen))thereisnomentionintheOT,
thoughithasbeenconjecturedthatthenameofthegravingtoolwasusedforthelighterInstrument(Ps45:1)thelaterJewsadoptedtheGreekname,stillinusein
theEast,andvariousGreekinventionsconnectedwiththepreparationofskins.Toaninstrumentcontaininginkandprobablypens,wornatthewaist,thereisa
referenceinEzk9:2(EVinkhorn),andtoapenknifeinJer36:23.
InRomantimesparchmentappearstohavebeenlargelyusedforroughcopiesandnotes,andtothisthereisareferencein2Ti4:13.TheApostolicletterswere
writtenwithinkonpapyrus(2Co3:3,2Jn5,12etc.).Zacharias(Lk1:63)usesatablet,probablyofwoodfilledinwithwax.
Literaryworks,whenrollswereemployed,weredividedintoportionswhichwouldfillarollofconvenientsizeforholdinginthehand:onthisprinciplethe
divisionofcontinuousworksintobooksisbased,whileinothercasesacollectionofsmallpiecesbyavarietyofauthorswascrowdedintoasingleroll.Theroll
formforcopiesoftheHebrewScriptureswasmaintainedlongafterthatformhadbeenabandoned(perhapsasearlyasthe2ndcent.)forthequirebyChristiansin
thecaseofGreekandSyriaccopies.Thequirewasemployed,itwouldappear,onlywhenthematerialwasparchment,therollformbeingstillretainedforpapyrus.
PaperwasbroughtfromthefarEastbyMoslemsinthe7thcent.A.D.,whenfactorieswerefoundedatIspahanandelsewhere,andowingtoitsgreatcheapnessit
soonsupersededbothpapyrusandparchmentforordinarypurposes.TheJews,however,whowereinpossessionofasystemofrulesforwritingtheLawonthe
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soonsupersededbothpapyrusandparchmentforordinarypurposes.TheJews,however,whowereinpossessionofasystemofrulesforwritingtheLawonthe
lattermaterial,didnotreadilyadoptthenewinventionformultiplyingcopiesoftheSacredBooks.
7.Writingasaffectingthetext.Ithasoftenbeenshownthataccuracyinthemodernsensewasscarcelyknowninancienttimes,andthecasesinwhichwe
haveparalleltextsofthesamenarrativeintheBibleshowthatthecopyiststookverygreatliberties.Besidesarbitraryalterations,therewereothersproduced
accidentallybythenatureoftherolls.Thewritinginthesewasincolumnsofbreadthsuitedtotheconvenienceoftheeyeinsomecaseslineswererepeated
throughtheeyeofthescribewanderingfromonecolumntoanother.SuchacaseprobablyoccursinGn4:7,repeatedfrom3:16.Omissionswereordinarily
suppliedonthemargin,whencesometimestheywereafterwardsinsertedinawrongplace.ThereisanotablecaseofthisinIs38:21,22,whosetrueplaceis
learnedfrom2K20:7,8.Probablysomevariousreadingswerewrittenonthemarginalso,andsuchamarginalnotehasgotintothetextofPs40:7b.Ancient
readers,likemodernones,attimesinsertedtheirjudgmentofthepropositionsofthetextinmarginalcomments.Suchanobservationhasgotintothetextin2Mac
12:45itisaholyandgodlythought,andthereareprobablymanymoreinwhichthecriticismofanunknownreaderhasaccidentallygotembodiedwiththe
original:Ec10:14appearstocontainacaseofthissort.Alesstroublesomeformofinsertionwasthecolophon,orstatementthatabook
wasfinished,e.g.Ps72:20.SimilareditorialmatterisfoundinPr25:1,andfrequentlyelsewhere.Anendwasfinallyputtothesealterationsandadditionsbythe
registrationofwords,letters,andgrammaticalformscalledMassorah,ofwhichtheorigin,likeallHebrewliteraryhistory,isobscure,butwhichprobablywas
perfectedduringthecourseofmanygenerations.Yet,evenso,JewishwritersoftheLawwerethoughttobelessaccuratethancopyistsoftheKoran.
D.S.MARGOLIOUTH.
WYCLIFSVERSION.SeeENGLISHVERSIONS,7ff.
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ZAANAN.AplacementionedinMic1:11,wherethereisacharacteristicwordplay:TheinhabitressofZannwent(yzah)notout(forfearofthe
enemy).ZaannisgenerallyconsideredtobethesameasZenanofJos15:37,anunidentifiedtownintheShephlah.
ZAANANNIM.TheborderofthetribeofNaphtalipassedthroughtheterebinthin
Zaanannim(Jos19:33),andthecampofHebertheKenitewasattheterebinthinZ.whichisbyKedesh(Jg4:11).Itisprobablethattheprepositionin(bein
Heb.)ispartofthename,whichshouldthenbereadBezaanannim.Thesiteisunknown.AplausibleconjectureisthatitwasKhirbetBessum,E.ofMt.Tabor.
H.L.WILLETT.
ZAAVAN.AdescendantofSeir(Gn36:27=1Ch1:42).
ZABAD(hehathgivenoragift).Manynamesarederivedfromthisroot,bothinOTandinPalmyreneandNabataninscriptions.About36arereckoned
inOT23inChron.,andnearlyallinpostexilicbooks.InGn30:20aitisthefirstexplanationofZebulun.ThefullerformisZabdielorZebadiah(mygiftisJ
).1.1Ch2:36,37,adescendantofJudah,perhapsthesameastheZabudof1K4:6.2.1Ch7:21,anEphraimiteifthetextiscorrect,thispassageand1
Indicatethattherewassomeuncertaintyastothereckoningoftheclanprobablyintendedbythename.3.1Ch11:41,oneofDavidsvaliantmen,perhaps=1.4.
2Ch24:26,oneofthemurderersofJoash=Jozacar(2K12:21)weshouldperhapsreadZacarhere.5.6.7.Laymenwhomarriedstrangewives,Ezr10:27,33,
43(cf.1Es9:28[Sabathus],33[Sabanneus],35[Zabadeas]).
C.W.EMMET.
ZABADANS.ThenameofanArabiantribedefeatedbyJonathanMaccabus,B.C.144.
Accordingtotheaccountin1Mac12:3032,itshomewastotheN.W.ofDamascus.PerhapsZebedni,ontheAntiLebanon,about20milesonthewayfrom
DamascustoBaalbek,representstheancientname.
J.F.MCCURDY.
ZABADEAS(1Es9:35)=Ezr10:43Zabad.
ZABBAI.1.OneofthedescendantsofBebaiwhohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:28)calledin1Es9:29Jozabdus.2.FatherofBaruchwhoassistedin
therebuildingofthewall(Neh3:20).TheKerhas,perhapsrightly,Zaccai,anamewhichoccursinEzr2:9=Neh7:14,andistheoriginoftheZacchusof2
Mac10:19andtheNT.
ZABBUD(KerZaccur).Anexilewhoreturned(Ezr8:14).In1Es8:40wZaccur[aneasyslip,inHeb.,forwZabbud]isapparentlycorruptedinto
Istalcurus.
ZABDEUS(1Es9:21)=ZebadiahofEzr10:26.
ZABDI(giftofJah,orperh.mygift,orgifttomeNTZebedee).1.ThegrandfatherofAchan(Jos7:1,17,18),calledin1Ch2:6Zimri.2.ABenjamite
(1Ch8:19).3.AnofficerofDavid(1Ch27:27).4.ALevite(Neh11:17)butreadprobablyZichri,asin||1Ch9:16.
ZABDIEL(mygiftisEl).1.FatherofoneofDavidsofficers(1Ch27:2).2.AprominentofficialinNehemiahstime(Neh11:14).3.AnArabianwhoput
AlexanderBalastodeathandsenthisheadtoPtolemy(1Mac11:17).
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ZABUD.ThesonofNathan(1K4:6)cf.Zabad,1.
ZACCAI.SeeZABBAI,2.
ZACCHUS(=Zaccai,Ezr2:9,Neh7:14,lit.pure).1.AnofficerputtodeathbyJudas
Maccabusfortreachery(2Mac10:1822).2.AchiefpublicanofJerichowhoentertainedourLord(Lk19:110).Hewasarichman,aJew(v.8),ofahigher
gradethanSt.Matthew,but,likeallhisclass,hatedbyhiscountrymen.Beingshortofstature,hehadclimbedupintoafigmulberrytreetoseeJesusourLord
calledhimdownandinvitedHimselftohishouse.Onhearingthemurmuringofthepeopleatthedistinctionconferredonapublican,Zacchusjustifieshimself.
Jesuspassesthisby,butineffectrepliestothemurmurers:Ifheisasinner,Ihavecometosavehim.
A.J.MACLEAN.
ZACCUR.1.AReubenite(Nu13:4(6)).2.ASimeonite(1Ch4:26).3.AMerarite(1Ch24:27).4.AnAsaphite(1Ch25:2,10,Neh12:35).5.Oneofthose
whohelpedtorebuildthewall(Neh3:2).6.Oneofthosewhosealedthecovenant(Neh10:12),prob.sameasmentionedin13:13.7.Ezr8:14.SeeZABBUD.
ZACHARIAH,ZACHARIAS(thelatteruniformlyinRVexceptinNo.4).1.1Es1:8=Zechariah(No.19).2.1Es1:15=Hemanof2Ch35:16.3.1Es6:1,
7:3=Zechariah(No.20).4.1Es8:30,44=Zechariah(No.21).5.1Es8:37=Zechariah(No.22).6.1Es9:27,44=Zechariah(No.24).7.FatherofJoseph,
anofficerofJudasMaccabus(1Mac5:18,66).8.HusbandofElisabeth,andfatherofJohntheBaptist,apriestofthecourseofAbijah(Lk1:5)thiswasoneof
thetwentyfourcoursesofpriests,butclearlynotthehighpriest,astheApocryphalGospelcalledProtevangelionmakeshim(8).Ashewasministeringinhis
turnintheTemple,theangelGabrielappearedtohimandpredictedthebirthandfutureworkofhisson.Hisdisbeliefwaspunishedbydumbness,whichwascured
onlyonthechildbeingbroughttobecircumcisedandnamedwheninobediencetoGabrielscommandheandElisabethinsistedthatheshouldbecalledJohn.
UndertheinspirationoftheHolyGhost,ZachariascomposedtheBenedictus.Weknownothingmoreofhim.9.ThemartyrmentionedbyourLordinMt23:35,Lk
11:51.ThereferenceisclearlytothedeathofZechariah,sonofJehoiada(2Ch24:2022)andasChronicleswasthelastbookoftheJewishcanon,thephrase
fromAbeltoZechariahwouldbeequivalenttoourfromGenesistoRevelation.InMt.,however,ZachariahiscalledsonofBarachiah,andthereisthusa
confusionwithZechariahtheprophet,whosefatherwasBerechiah(Zec1:1).Allen(St.MatthewinICC,p.250)thinksthattheconfusionwasduetothetradition
oftheage.ItismorelikelytobeduetotheEvangelist,or,stillmore,toascribe,whoperhapswasmisledbythementionbyJosephusofaZachariassonof
Baruch,murderedintheTemplebytheZealots(BJIV.v.4).OrigensguessthatthefatheroftheBaptistismeantisscarcelytenable.
A.J.MACLEAN.
ZACHARY(2Es1:40)=Zechariahtheprophet.
ZADOK.1.FounderofanimportantbranchofthepriesthoodinJerusalem.ThereadingofMTin2S8:17(=1Ch18:16)beingdoubtful,thereisnodefinite
informationconcerninghisfamilyexceptinthegenealogicallistsin1Ch6:415,5053,24:3,inwhichhisdescentistracedfromEleazartheeldersonofAaron
butthesedetailsareofdoubtfulreliability.Heisfirstmentionedin2S8:17,whereperhapsheshouldbeassociatedwithAbiatharinthecorrecttext,asheisin2S
15:24ff.HewasappointedpriestbySolomoninplaceofAbiathar(1K2:26f.,35),becauseofhisownloyalty(1K1:8)andthedisloyaltyofAbiathar(v.7).From
thisitisevidentthathispositionhithertohadbeeninferiortothatofAbiathar,althoughhisnameregularlyhastheprecedenceinSamuel.FromthetimeofSolomon
thedescendantsofZadokconstitutedthemostprominentfamilyamongthepriests,thehighpriestsbeingtakenfromthemtillthetimeoftheMaccabees.ToEzekiel
theZadokitesaretheonlylegitimatepriests(40:46,43:19,44:16,48:11).2.AwarriorofDavids,ofthehouseofAaron(1Ch12:28),identifiedbyJosephus(Ant.
VII.ii.2)with1,againstallprobability.3.MaternalgrandfatherofJotham(2K15:33,2Ch
27:1).4.SonofBaanah(seeEzr2:2,Neh7:7),ahelperofNehemiahinrebuildingthewall(Neh3:4).5.SonofImmer,repairerofaportionofthewall(Neh3:29).
6.Thescribe,probablyapriest,appointedatreasurerbyNehemiah(Neh13:13)perhapstobeidentifiedwith5.7.Oneofthechiefsofthepeoplewhosealed
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thecovenant(Neh10:21).8.Ahighpriestlaterthan1(1Ch6:12[cf.Ezr7:2,Neh11:11]apassageofdoubtfulhistoricity).9.AnancestorofJosephthehusband
ofMary(Mt1:14[AVandRVSadoc]).
GEORGER.BERRY.
ZAHAM.AsonofRehoboam(2Ch11:19).
ZAIN.TheseventhletteroftheHebrewalphabet,andassuchemployedinthe119thPsalmtodesignatethe7thpart,eachverseofwhichbeginswiththis
letter.
ZAIR.AccordingtotheMTof2K8:21,Joram,inthecourseofhiscampaignagainstEdom,passedovertoZair.Intheparallelpassage,2Ch21:9,theHeb.
ispassedoverwithhisprinces,whichmaybeconfidentlypronouncedtobeacorruptionofthetextinKings.Thelatteritselfisunfortunatelynotcertainsothat
theidentificationoftheplaceinquestionisimpossible.
ZALAPH.ThefatherofHanun(Neh3:30).
ZALMON.1.ThehillnearShechemwhereAbimelechandhisfollowerscutwoodfortheburningdownofthestrongholdofBaalberith(Jg9:48).Possibly
thesamemountainismeantinPs68:14,whereasnowstormisapparentlyreferredtoascontributingtothescatteringofkingsopposedtothepeopleofJehovah.
AsthePsalmreferstoincidentsofwarsnotrelatedinthecanonicalbooks,wehavetolooktothetimesoftheMaccabeesandthemostobviousallusionistothe
retreatofthearmyofTryphoninB.C.143,whenheattemptedtorelievetheSyriangarrisoninJerusalemandwaspreventedbyaheavyfallofsnow(1Mac13:22).
2.SeeILAI.
J.F.MCCURDY.
ZALMONAH.AnunidentifiedstationoftheIsraelites(Nu33:41f.).
ZALMUNNA.SeeZEBAH.
ZAMBRI(1Es9:34)=Ezr10:42Amariah.
ZAMOTH(1Es9:28)=Ezr10:27Zattu.
ZAMZUMMIM.AnamegivenbytheconqueringAmmonitestotheRephaim,the
originalinhabitantsoftheland(Dt2:20).TheyaredescribedasapeoplegreatandmanyandtallliketheAnakim(seeart.R EPHAIM).ThenameZamzummimhas
beenconnectedwithArab.zamzamahadistantandconfusednoise,andwithzizim,thesoundofthejinnheardinthedesertatnight.Thewordmaythusperhaps
betranslatedWhisperers,Murmurers,andmaydenotethespiritsofthegiantssupposedtohauntthehillsandruinsofEasternPalestine(cf.art.
ZUZIM).
W.F.BOYD.
ZANOAH.1.AtownintheShephlah(Jos15:34,Neh3:13,11:30,1Ch4:18).ItisthemodernZanua,S.E.ofZoreah.2.Aplaceinthemountains(Jos
15:63),possiblyZantaS.W.ofHebron.
ZAPHENATHPANEAH.ThenamegivenbyPharaohtoJoseph(Gn41:45).ItshouldevidentlybereadZepnetefonkh,meaninginEgyp.Godhathsaid
helivethacommontypeofEgyp.nameinlatetimes(seeP HARAOH,2,andcf.JOSEPH,p.495a).
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F.LL.GRIFFITH.
ZAPHON(north).AcityE.ofJordan,assignedtoGad(Jos13:27).ItisnamedalsoinJg
12:1,whereZaphnahshouldberenderedtoZaphon(RVm)insteadofnorthward(AVandRV).PossiblytheTalmudictraditioniscorrectwhichidentifies
ZaphonwithAmathus,themoderoAmteh,alittlenorthoftheJabbok,atthemouthofWdyerRugeib.ZaphonisprobablyconnectedwithZiphion(Gn46:16),
or(morecorrectly)Zphon.withgentilicnameZephonites(Nu26:13),describedasasonofGad.
ZARAIAS.1.1Es5:8=Seraiah,Ezr2:2Azariah,Neh7:7.2.1Es8:2,oneoftheancestorsofEzra,calledZerahiah,Ezr7:4,andArna,2Es1:2.3.1Es
8:31=Zerahiah,thefatherofEliehoenal,Ezr8:4.4.1Es8:34=Zebadiah,Ezr8:8.
ZARAKES.Calledin1Es1:38brotherofJoakimorJehoiakim,kingofJudah,andsaidtohavebeenbroughtupoutofEgyptbyhim.Thenameapparently
isacorruption,throughconfusionofHeb.dandr,ofZedekiah,whowasabrotherofJehoiakim(2K24:17).Theverseof1Es.isentirelydifferentfromthe
correspondingpassagein2Ch36:4b.
ZARDEUS(1Es9:28)=Ezr10:27Aziza.
ZAREPHATH.TheArab.villageofSarafendliesonapromontoryabouteightmilessouthofZidon.Ontheshoreinfrontofitarethescatteredremainsof
whatmusthavebeenaconsiderabletown,theZarephathorSareptaoftheBible.ZarephathoriginallybelongedtoZidon(1K17:9),butpassedintothepossession
ofTyreaftertheassistancerenderedbythefleetofZidontoShalmaneserIVinB.C.722inhisabortiveattempttocaptureinsularTyre.InLk4:26itisagaincalleda
cityofSidon(RVinthelandofSidon).ZarephathisincludedinthelistoftownscapturedbySennacheribwhenheinvadedPhniciainB.C.701.Itwasthetown
inwhichElijahlodgedduringtheyearsoffamine(1K17:824).
ZARETHAN(Jos3:13,1K4:12,7:46).Threereadingsofthisnameappear,theothertwobeingZeredah(1K11:26,2Ch4:17)andZererah(Jg7:22).Itis
probablethatallthreenamesrefertothesameplace,andthatitmustbesoughtnearafordoftheJordanontheW.side.ThemostprobablespotisneartheJisred
DamiehatthejunctionoftheJabbokandtheJordan.
H.L.WILLETT.
ZATHOES,1Es8:32,probablystandsforZattu.ThenamedoesnotappearintheHeb.ofthecorrespondingpassageEzr8:3,tobecorrectedfrom1Es.soas
torunOfthesonsofZattu,ShecaniahthesonofJahaziel.
ZATHUI(1Es5:12)=Zattu,Ezr2:8,Neh7:13calledalsoZathoes,1Es8:32.
ZATTU.Afamilyofexilesthatreturned(Ezr2:8=Neh7:13[1Es5:12Zathui])severalmembersofthisfamilyhadmarriedforeignwives(Ezr10:27[1Es
9:28Zamoth])itsheadsealedthecovenant(Neh10:14(15)).SeealsoZathoes.
ZAZA.AJerahmeelite(1Ch2:38).
ZEALOT.SeeCANANAN,MESSIAH(p.610af.),P HARISEES.
ZEBADIAH1.2.TwoBenjamites(1Ch8:15,17).3.OneofthosewhojoinedDavidatZiklag(1Ch12:7).4.OneofDavidsofficers(1Ch27:7).5.Anexile
whoreturnedwithEzrassecondcaravan(Ezr8:8)calledin1Es8:34Zarias.6.Apriestwhohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:26)calledin1Es9:21Zabdeus.
7.AKorahite(1Ch26:2).8.OneoftheLevitessentbyJehoshaphattoteachinthecitiesofJudah(2Ch17:8).9.AnofficerofkingJehoshaphat(2Ch19:11).
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ZEBAH(victim).AMidianiteking,mentionedtogetherwithZalmunna,whowaskilledbyGideonastheresultofbloodrevenge(Jg8:1821)bothkings
had,however,beenpreviouslyovercomeinbattlebyGideon,whochampionedtheIsraelitesagainsttheirMidianiteoppressors.Thisvictorymusthavebeenofvital
andfarreachingconsequencetotheIsraelites,foritismorethanoncecommemoratedlongafterasalandmarkinthenationshistory(Is9:4,10:26,Ps83:11).The
deathofZebahandZalmunnaisverygraphicallydescribed.GideoncommandsJether,hiseldestson,toslaythem,butbeingonlyayouthheisafraidsothekings
askGideonhimselftokillthemhedoesso,andtakesthecrescentsfromthenecksoftheircamels.ThislastactionmayconceivablyImplyakindlyremembranceof
thekingsonthepartofGideon,forfrom8:19itwouldseemthatitwasonlyreluctantly,andfromasenseofduty,thatheslewthem.
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
ZEBEDEE.FatherofJamesandJohn,husbandofSalomeacomparativelyrichfisherman,forhehadhiredservants(seee.g.Mk1:20,15:40cf.Mt
27:56).
A.J.MACLEAN.
ZEBIDAH(KethbhandRV)orZEBUDAH(KerandAV).ThemotherofJehoiakim(2K23:36).
ZEBINA.OneofthesonsofNebowhohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:43).
ZEBOIIM.OneofthefivecitiesofthePlain(Gn10:18,14:2,8,Dt29:23(22),Hos11:8
[AVandRVhereZeboim]).Thesitehasnotbeenidentified.See,further,P LAIN[CITIESOFTHE].
ZEBOIM.1.TheravineofZebim(ravineofthehynas)isnamedin1S13:18indescribingtheroutefollowedbyoneofthebandsofPhilistine
maranders.Itisprob.theWdyelKeltoroneofitsbranches.ThenameWdyabDab(hynagorge)isstillappliedtoaravineinthisneighbourhood.The
samelocalityappearstobereferredtointheZeboimofNeh11:34.2.Hos11:8.SeeZEBOIIM.
ZEBUDAH.SeeZEBIDAH.
ZEBUL.AlieutenantofAbimelech(wh.see),whowasleftbyhimasgovernorofShechem.HecleverlyassistedhismasterinsuppressingtherevoltofGaal
(Jg9:2641).Theepisodeisobscure,butheapparentlyactedloyallyfromthefirsthavingnoforceathiscommand,hewasobligedtousecraft.Thisisclear,ifvv.
42ff.belongtoadifferentnarrative.
C.W.EMMET.
ZEBULUN.AccordingtoOTtradition,ZebulunwasthetenthsonofJacob,andthesixthofLeah(Gn30:20E).
Theoriginalformofthenameisuncertain,therebeingsomeevidenceinfavourofZebulon,andevenZebul.Themeaningofthenameislikewisedoubtful.Gn30:20presentsa
doubleexplanation.Oneofthese(apparentlyEs)connectsitwiththeverbzbadtoendowtheother(Js)derivesitfromzbaltodwell,becauseLeahsaid,Nowwillmy
husbanddwellwithme(soAVandRVfollowingtheVulg.habitabit).TheAssyr.meaningofzablu,however,carry,exalt,affordsamoresuitablerenderingforthisisolated
useoftheHebrewverb,fortheremark,Nowwillmyhusbanddwellwithme,appearsrathergratuitousandpointlessaftershehadbornehimsixsons.Thephrase bthzebul,1K
8:13,moreover,impliesaconnotationofzbldifferentfromthatofdwell,forthecontextimmediatelydefinesitspurposeasaplacefortheetodwellin.Zebulishereusedofthe
dwellingofGod,elsewhereofthesunandmoon,and,therefore,probablydesignatedoriginally,inharmonywiththeAssyrian,aloftyabode,abthhar,ormountainsanctuary,
suchasisreferredtoinDt33:19asbeingintheterritoryofZebulunandIssachar.Ifso,thenameZebulun,whileetymologicallyrelatedtozbl,isratherofgeographicalimportinits
historicapplicationtothetribe.
AccordingtoGn46:14,ZebulunistheprogenitorofthreetribalfamiliesthroughhisthreesonsSered,Elon,andJahleel,whowentdownintoEgyptwiththe
othersonsandgrandsonsofJacob.ThefirstandlastofthesenamesarenotablylikethetownnamesSaridandNahalal,whichwereallottedtoZebulunaccordingto
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Jos19:10f.ThereisnonamecorrespondingtoEloninthispassage,butthenamesofsevenofthetwelvecitiesspokenofhavebeenlost.
AtthetimeoftheSinaicensusthemaleZebulunitesfrom20yearsoldandupwardsnumbered57,400,andtheirlotonthemarchwascastontheeastofthe
Tabernacle,withJudahandIssachar(Nu1:31f.P).Allofthese,asinthecaseofthemenoftheothertribes,diedbeforethenextcensusintheplainsofMoab,
where,nevertheless,thetotalreached60,500(Nu26:27,64P).
TheboundarylinemarkedoffbylotinJos19:1024givesonlythesouthernandeasternborders,andisdifficulttofollow.StartingonthesouthwithSarid(Tell
Shadud?),aboutfivemilesS.W.ofNazareth,itreachedJokneam,eightmilesdueW.,onthefarthersideoftheplainofEsdraelon.Itextendedaboutthesame
distanceeastwards,reaching,atthewestofMt.Tabor,Daberath(which,however,in21:28felltoIssachar),andthen,ifthetextandidentificationsarecorrect,
whichisimprobable,turnedsharplywestagaintoJaphia.Thenceitcontinuedinanortheasterlydirection,passingGathhepherandRimmon,andacrosstheplain
untilitreachedHannathon,knowntoBabylonians,c.B.C.1400,asHinnatuni,whichatthattimewasheldbyAmenhotep.Theremainingstatement,andthe
goingsoutthereofwereatthevalleyofIphtael,wouldindicatethatthelineturnedatHannathoninasouthwesterlydirection,perhapstowardsJefat.Therewould
thusbenodistinctlynorthernborder,butonlyanorthwestern.ThewesternisleftundefinedbutasAsherismadetoreachtoCarmel,anditsS.E.pointtojoin
ZebulunatthevalleyofIphtahel(vv.26,27),thereisnoroomleftfortheaccessofZebuluntothesea.JacobsSong,however,usesthesameexpression(Gn
49:13)asisusedofAsherinJg5:17,andapparentlyextendsthebordertoSidon.IntheBlessingofMosesitissaidthatZebulunandIssacharshallsuckthe
abundanceoftheseas(Dt33:18).This,asisclearfromtheinclusionofIssachar,impliesonlythattheirpositionwillbesuchastoenablethemtoobtainthe
mercantileandotheradvantagesoftheseatraffic.ThedelimitationsofthetribalboundariesinJoshuaareveryindefinite,andofteninconflictwithoneanotherand
withotherdata.Ofthefivecitiesmentionedin19:15Bethlehemistheonlyonewhosesiteisidentifiedwithcertainty.ThemodernMalulmayrepresentNahalal,
oneofthefourcitieswhich,accordingtoJos21:34f.(P),wasgivenbytheZebulunitestothesonsofMerarl(Levites).Roughlyspeaking,ZebulunlaytotheN.E.of
Carmel,betweenIssacharontheS.E.andAsherontheN.W.
ZebulunsharedinthenaturalrichnessandfertilityoftherestofGalilee,andthegreatwayofthesea(theviamarisoftheCrusaders)whichranthroughits
territory,andfromAccotoDamascus,broughtitintotouchwiththeouterworldanditsproducts.
InthewaragainstJabin10,000menofZebulunandNaphtaliwentwithBarakagainstSisera,andinthebattle,whoseissueswereofdecisiveimportancetothe
tribesofIsrael,theyimmortalizedthemselvesbytheirbravery(Jg4:10).They,liketheothertribes,failed,however,todriveouttheCanaanitesfromsomeoftheir
citystrongholds.Oneoftheminorjudgescamefromthistribe,viz.Elon,whoheadedthetribesintheanarchicandtroubloustimeprecedingthekingdom(Jg
12:11).Inlaterhistory,Zebulun,liketheothernortherntribes,playedanunimportantrle.Accordingto2K15:29,itwouldappearthatthefateoftheothertribesof
GalileeovertookthistribeinthedaysofPekah,whentheAssyriankingTiglathpilesercarriedthemcaptivetoAssyria.Seealsoart.TRIBES.
JAMESA.CRAIG.
ZECHARIAH.1.BrotherofNeranduncleofSaul(1Ch9:37)calledZecherin1Ch8:31.2.AsonofMeshelemiah(1Ch9:21,26:2,14).3.ALevite
musician(1Ch15:18,20).4.ApriestinthetimeofDavid(1Ch15:24).5.ALevite,ofthefamilyofKohath(1Ch24:25).6.ALevite,ofthefamilyofMerari(1
Ch26:11).7.FatherofIddo(1Ch27:21).8.OneoftheprincesofJudahinthedaysofJehoshaphat(2Ch17:7).9.ALevite,oneofthesonsofAsaph(2Ch
20:14).10.SonofJehoshaphat(2Ch21:3).11.SonofJehoiadathepriest(2Ch24:20).AfterJehoiadasdeath,Zechariahreprovedtheidolatersandannounced
Godsjudgmentagainstthem.
HewasstonedwithstonesatthecommandmentofthekinginthecourtofthehouseoftheLord.Hisdyingwords,TheLordlookuponitandrequireit,werelong
remembered.SeealsoZACHARIAH(No.9).12.Aprophet,livingintheearlierpartofUzziahsreign(2Ch26:5).13.SonofJeroboamII.(2K14:29,15:8,12).See
nextarticle.14.AmanofhighreputeinIsaiahsday(Is8:2).Whenfaithfulwitnesseswererequiredtoattestasolemnpropheticroll,thisZech.waschosenalong
withUriahthepriest.HeisdescribedassonofJeberechiah,andmaypossiblybethesameastheAsaphitementionedin2Ch29:13.15.ThefatherofAbior
Abijah,themotherofkingHezekiah(2K18:2,2Ch29:1).16.AreformingAsaphiteunderHezekiah(2Ch
29:13).17.HeadofahouseoftheReubenites(1Ch5:7).18.ALevite,oneofthesonsof
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Kohath(2Ch34:12).19.OneoftherulersoftheTempleunderJosiah(2Ch35:8[1Es1:8
Zacharias]).20.Theprophet(seeZECHARIAH[BOOKOF]).21.OneofthefamilyofParosh(Ezr8:11[1Es8:30Zacharias]).22.SonofBebal(Ezr8:11[1Es8:37
Zacharias]).23.OneofthechiefmenwithwhomEzraconsultedattheriverAhava(Ezr8:15cf.1Es8:44prob.=No.21).
24.AdescendantofElam(Ezr10:26,44[1Es9:27Zacharias]).25.AdescendantofPerez
(Neh11:4).26.AShilonite(Neh11:5).27.SonofPashhur(Neh11:12).28.AnAsaphite(Neh12:35).29.Apriest(Neh12:41).
ZECHARIAH,kingofIsrael,wasthelastmemberofthehouseofJehutocometothethrone,andheoccupieditonlysixmonths.Hisassassinationbeginsthe
periodofvirtualanarchywithwhichthehistoryofIsraelcomestoanend(2K14:29,15:812).
H.P.S MITH.
ZECHARIAH,BOOKOF.ThefirsteightchapterscontainthegenuinepropheciesofZechariah.Chs.914aresharplydistinguishedfromtheseinform,
language,andthought.Theyaregenerallyregardedasanonymousprophecieswhichbecameattachedtotheoriginalbook,andareoftenspokenofasDeutero
Zechariah.
I.CHAPTERS18
1.Historicaloccasion.AccordingtoEzra(5:1,6:14),theprophetsHaggaiandZechariahrousedZerubbabelandJoshuatobuildtheTemple,andthework
wentforwardprosperouslythroughtheirprophesying.ThedatesgiveninthebookitselfassignthepropheciestothesecondandfourthyearsofDarius(B.C.520,
518).Thefirstmessage(1:15)isplacedtwomonthsafterthefirstaddressofHaggai,betweenthesecondandthird.Thesection1:76:15istwomonthslaterthan
thelastaddressesofHaggai,whilechs.7,8followafteranintervalofnearlytwoyears.Thepropheciesarethusassociatedwiththeearlierpartofthefouryears
devotedtotherebuildingoftheTemple,andtheircontentsconnectthemselveswiththisoccasion.
2.Contents.ThebookopenswithanexhortationtoreturnuntoJehovah(1:16),baseduponthesadexperienceofthefatherswhohadnotheededthewordoftheprophets
toreturnfromtheirevilways.
Itisespeciallynoticeablethatthispostexilicprophet,althoughveryfamiliarwiththewordsofhispredecessors,isnotenslavedbythemheratherdrawsalivinglessonfroma
broadviewofthevitalexperiencesofthepast.Themainbodyofthebook(1:76:15)ismadeupofaseriesofeightvisionsandasymbolicaction,afterthemannerofEzekiel.In
thefirst(1:717)theprophetaeesatnight,inamyrtleshadedglen,fourhorsemenwhomtheangelthattalkswithhimdesignatesasthemessengersofJehovah.Theyreportthatallis
quietintheearth.TheangelcallsuponJehovah:HowlongwiltthounothavemercyonJerusalemandonthecitiesofJudah,againstwhichthouhasthadindignationthese
threescoreandtenyears?Inresponse,assurancecomesthatJehovahisdispleasedwiththenationswhichareatease,HeisreturnedtoJerusalem,Hishouseshallbebuilt,Hiscities
shalloverflowwithprosperity,Zionbecomforted,Jerusalemchosen.Thesecondvision(1:1821)isoffourhornsthenationswhichhavescatteredtheholypeopleandfour
smiths,whoaretocastthemdown.Next,theprophetsees(2:15)thefutureJerusalemspreadfarandwidebeyondthelimitsofheroldwalls,withJehovahasawalloffireround
abouther.Therefollowsasongthatcallsupontheexilestoreturn,picturesthediscomfitureofthosethathaveplunderedthem,andthefuturegloryofZionasJehovahsdwelling
place.
Inch.3,Joshua,thehighpriest,isseenstandingbeforeJehovahsangel,cladinfilthygarmentsandaccusedbytheSatan.Nowthesegarmentsaretakenfromhim,andheis
clothedinrichapparelasasymboloftheremovalofguilt.Joshuaispromisedfullexerciseofhispriestlyfunctionsifhewillwalkin
JehovahswaysheandthosewithhimareasignthatJehovahistobringHisservanttheBranch(cf.Is4:2,Jer23:5,33:15).Thevisionthatfollows(ch.4)isofthesevenbranched
lampoftheTemple,suppliedwithoilfromtwoolivetrees.ProbablythepromisetoZerubbabel(vv.6b10a)shouldbetransferredtotheendofthechapterthenconfusion
disappears,andthesevenlampsareinterpretedastheeyesofJehovahwhichruntoandfrothroughtheearth.Theolivetreesareexplainedasthetwosonsofoilthatstandbythe
Lordofthewholeearth.TheymustbeZerubbabelandJoshua,representativesofkingandpriest.ThesplendidpromisetoZerubbabelnowclosesthepicture,asthattoJoshuahad
closedthepreceding.Inthis,ZerubbabelisassuredthatheshallbringtheTempletocompletion,notbymightnorbypower,butbyJehovahsspirit.Theprominentplacegivenin
thesevisionstopriestandking,asessentialtothenationallife,ismostsignificant.Next,theprophetaees(5:14)thecurseofJehovahasabookthatfliesandentersthehouseof
everythiefandperjurertoconsumeit.Theseventhvision(5:611)followsnaturallyuponthepreceding.Wickedness,representedbyawoman,iscarriedawayfromthelandto
Babylonia.Jehovahscursehasfallenuponthesinners,andsinitselfisnowremovedtothelandofexile.Thelastvision(6:18)representsfourchariotsgoingforthupontheearth
ofthesetheonethatgoestothenorthexecutesthewrathofJehovahuponthosewhohaveoppressedHispeople.Thevisionsopenedwiththehorsementhatreportedtheearthas
quiettheyclosewiththechariotsthatkeeptheworldinsubjectiontoJehovah.TherefollowsthesymbolicactofcrowningJoshua(moreprobably,intheoriginaltext,Zerubbabel).
ThevisionscentreinthehopeofagloriousfutureforJerusalem,withitsTemplerestored,itsenemiesstilled,itsexilesreturned,itssinforgiven,itswickednessremoved,andwith
JehovahsspiritflowinginthroughpriestandprinceofDavidicline.Thevisionsleadontothesymboliccrowningofthepromisedruler.
Inthethirdsection(chs.7,8),Zechariahisledbyaquestionconcerningfastingtoteachthatthefastswhichhavebeenkeptintheyearsofexilearetobechangedintojoyous
feasts.Ratherthanfasttheyshouldobservetheteachingsoftheearlierprophetsconcerningjusticeandmercy.WithgloriouspromisesforthepeaceandprosperityofJerusalem,with
thenationscomingtoseekJehovah,theoriginalBookofZechariahcloses.
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thenationscomingtoseekJehovah,theoriginalBookofZechariahcloses.
3.Significance.ThehistoricalimportanceofZechariahinconnectionwiththerebuildingoftheTemplehasalreadybeennoted.Inthetransitionfrompropheticalto
apocalypticliterature,thisbookisanimportantlink.Zechariahhasalargemeasureofthespiritoftheearlyethicalprophets.Fromtheexperiencesofthepasthecandrawbroadand
deepmorallessons,withsomethingofthefreedomandconsciousnessofimmediateDivineilluminationthatdistinguishedanAmosoranIsaiah.Yet,eveninthepassageswherethis
ismostobservable,onefeelsaharkingbackthatwasnotcharacteristicoftheearlierprophecylessofvitaltouchwithpresentconditionsandwiththeGodinwhosenamehe
speaks.Thecentringofhopeinprinceandpriest,withtheconsciousnessthatthegreateraofprophecyispast,sharplydistinguishesZechariahfromhispreexilicpredecessors.In
thevisions,themachineryofapocalypse,IntroducedbyEzekiel,hasbeensomewhatdevelopedinitsfeatureofangelicintermediaries.Thecharacteristicapocalypticspirit,however,
withitsrevellinginthebloodofenemies,isnoticeablylacking.Zechariahloves,rather,todwelluponpeaceandprosperity,uponsinremoved,andtheDivinespiritinflowing.His
messageisrichandfull,forhehascaughttheethicalenthusiasmofthegreateighthcenturyprophets,andhasenricheditbythespiritualinsightofJeremiahandtheglorioushopesof
theexilicprophets.ZechariahnotonlystrovetogettheTemplebuilt,butalsourgeduponthebuildersthosemoralandspiritualtruthswithoutwhichtheTempleanditsworship
wouldbehollowmockery. II.CHAPTERS914
1.Criticalanalysis.Asearlyas1653,itwasmaintained,intheinterestoftheaccuracyofMt27:9,10,thatchs.911werewrittenbyJeremiah.Thisview
wassoonadoptedbyseveralwriters,andchs.1214wereconnectedwith911astheworkoftheearlierprophet.Nearthecloseofthe18thcentury,chs.911and
1214weredistinguishedasseparateprophecies,datedrespectively,frominternalevidence,inthetimeofHosea,andshortlyafterthedeathofJosiah.
Ataboutthesametime,theviewthat914werereallylaterthanZechariahwasadvocated.Duringthe19thcentury,eachofthethreegeneralconclusions(1)that
theentirebookistheworkofZechariah(2)that914arepreexilic(3)that914arepostZecharianfoundmanyadvocates.Inthethirdquarterofthecentury,
however,thefirstviewwaslargelyabandoned,and,afterthethoroughgoingdiscussionofStade,in18812,thethirdviewbecamealmostcompletelydominant.
Growingknowledgeofthegeneralcourseofdevelopmentofpropheticandapocalypticliteraturemakesthisconclusionmoreandmoreinevitable.Howmany
separateprophecies,bydifferenthands,maybeembodiedinthesesixchaptersisnotdeterminablewithequalclearness.Onthewhole,however,911(with13:7
9)seemdistinctfrom1214.Lessconclusivearethedatawhichindicatedistinctsectionsasbeginningat11:4and14:1.Itisnotpossibletoconnectchs.914
positivelywithanyknowneventsinthepostexilichistory.Ingeneral,thehistoricalsituationseemstobethatoftheyearsafterAlexandersconquestsanddeath,
whentheEgyptianandSyrianrulersstruggledforthepossessionofPalestine.Possiblysomeofthematerialcomesfromthetimejustbeforeorduringthe
Maccabanstruggle.
2.Contents.In9:111:2theoracleisoneofdoomuponIsraelsneighbours,withpromisesofdominionandprosperityforIsrael,restoredtoherland.Thetitleburdenof
thewordofJehovahisveryunusual,occurringelsewhereonlyinZec12:1andMal1:1.TheopeningmessageofdoomuponIsraelsneighboursbearsoutwardresemblanceto
Amos,buttheethicalgroundofAmossdenunciationisnoticeablylacking.Ifv.7isrightlyinterpretedasreferringtofoodrituallyunclean,thecontrastwiththeearlyprophetis
stillmorestriking.V.8,withitscomfortingpromise,seemstoreflectthedevastationoftheTemple,asinthepast.Thisisfollowedbythepredictionofthecomingkingofpeace
abeautifullyricwhichbreaksinsharplyuponthecontext,andisfollowedbyapredictionofsuccessfulresistancetotheGreeks,andvictorygiventhroughJehovah.Theshepherds
ofJudah,Jehovahsflock,arecondemned,andvictoryispromisedtotheflock.ThehouseofJudahshallbestrengthened,andthehouseofJosephrestoredtoitsland.In11:417,
13:79thefigureofthefalseshepherds,introducedintheprecedingsection,isworkedoutintoanallegoryofthefalseandtrueshepherd,inawaythatenablestheprophetto
illustratethefrustrationofGodsbeneficeotpurposebytheobstinacyofHispeople,aswellastheevilcharacteroftheirrulers.Thethreeshepherdscutoffinquicksuccession
stronglysuggesttheconditionsshortlybeforetheMaccabanuprising,butthehighlysymbolicandsomewhatimitativecharacteroftheprophecyrendersitprecarioustoseekany
exactpictureofimmediateconditionsourignorance,too,oflargeportionsofthepostexilicagemakesitimpossibletosaythatsomeothertimemaynothavefurnishedanequally
appropriateoccasion.
Thesecondmaindivisionofchs.914,beginningwithch.12,leadsusimmediatelyintothefamiliarapocalypticconceptionintroducedbyZephaniah,anddevelopedby
EzekielandJoel.ThenationsareassembledagainstJerusalem,theretobeconsumedthroughthepowerofJehovah.HopecentresinthehouseofDavid,andyetthishouse,itwould
seem,isnowreducedtothepositionofmerelyoneoftheimportantfamiliesofthepeople.Theclosingversesofthefirstsectioninthisdivision(13:16)indicateatimewhen
prophecyisutterlydegradedidols,prophets,uncleanspiritareevilstoberemoved.Ch.14givesanotherapocalypticvisionofthesiegeofJerusalem.Theonslaughtisterrible,and
thediscomfitureofherenemiesiswroughtonlyaftergreataffliction.Inthislittleapocalypsethevengeful,proudhopeswithwhichthewretched,persecutedJewsconsuled
themselvesthroughoutthelaterpreChristiancenturies,andonintoChristiantimes,findvividexpression.Withthesehopesthereisclearlypresentthatlate,narrow,legalisticspirit
whichfindsitsclimaxofreligiousoutlookinawiderecognitionofthefeasts,andinceremoniallycleanboilingpotsforthesacrifices.Itisevidentthattheclosingoracleofthis
collectionappendedtoZechariahcarriesusfarintothenightoflegalism.
HENRYT.F OWLER.
ZECHER(1Ch8:21)=9:37Zechariah.
ZECHRIAS.AnancestorofEzra(1Es8:1).
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ZEDAD.OneofthepointsmentionedindefiningthenorthernborderofthePromisedLandinNu34:8,andagaininEzekielsidealpicture,Ezk47:15.The
readingisuncertainnotimprobablyitshouldbeZerad.TheplacemayperhapsbeidentifiedwithKhirbetSerd,N.ofAbil,E.ofMerjAjn,towardsHermon.
ZEDEKIAH.1.SonofChenaanah,andoneofAhabsfourhundredcourtprophets(1K22:11,24,25,2Ch18:10,23,24).2.AprophetdeportedtoBabylon
withJehoiachin.Heandanother,namedAhab,aredenouncedbyJeremiah(29:2123)forgrossimmoralityaswellasforfalselyprophesyingaspeedyrestoration
fromBabylon.ItwasprobablytheiractionaspoliticalagitatorsthatbroughtonthemthecruelpunishmentofbeingroastedinthefirebyorderofNebuchadrezzar.
3.SonofHananiah,oneoftheprincesinthereignofJehoiakim(Jer36:12).4.Asignatorytothecovenant(Neh10:1).5.Seenextarticle.
ZEDEKIAH,thelastkingofJudahbeforeitsfallatthehandsoftheBabylonians,isknowntousnotonlyfromthehistoricalbooks,butalsofromreferencesin
theBookofJeremiah.HewasthethirdsonofJosiahtoassumetheroyaltitle.JehoahazwasdeposedbythePharaohJehoiakimhadatroubledreignofeleven
years,andescapedthevengeanceofNebuchadrezzarbydyingjustbeforetheBabylonianreachedJerusalem.TheyoungJehoiachinsufferedforthesinofhis
father,beingcarriedintocaptivityafterthreemonthsofbarrenkingship.WithhimwerecarriedawaythechiefmenofJudahtothenumberofeightthousand,
Nebuchadrezzarthinkingthustobreaktheseditioustemperofthepeople.OvertheremnantleftbehindZedekiahwasmadeking.Hisearliername,Mattaniah,was
changedtoZedekiah(meaningrighteousnessofJahweh),toindicatethattheBabylonianmonarch,inpunishingthetreacheryofJehoiakim,hadtheGodofJudah
onhisside(2K24:17).WearetoldbyEzekiel(17:13,19)thatZedekiahtookanoathofallegiancetohissuzerain.ForZarakesof1Es1:38seeZARAKES.
Nebuchadrezzarsconfidencethatthepeoplewouldbesubmissiveaftertheseverelessontheyhadreceivedwasdisappointed.Thenewmenwhocametothe
frontwereasheadstrongas,andevenmorefoolishthan,theirpredecessors.TheywereblindtotheludicrousInsufficiencyoftheirresources,anddeterminedto
playthegameofpoliticsagainstthegreatnationsoftheworld.ThecourtofZedekiahwasthecentreofintriguesagainsttheBabylonianpower,andtheplotters
werefedwithpromisesfromEgypt.Zedekiahshowedhimselfaweakman,unabletocopewiththesituation.InhisfourthyearambassadorsappearedatJerusalem
fromthesurroundingnations,toconcertcommonmeasuresagainsttheoppressor.ThemajorityoftheprophetsencouragedthemovementonlyJeremiahsawthe
madnessoftheundertaking,anddeclaredagainstit.Hisbolddeclarationofthetruthbroughtuponhimtheenmityofthecourtiers.Zedekiahseemstohavebeen
calledtoaccountbythegreatking,towhomhemadesomeexplanationwhichsatisfiedhim,oratleastlulledsuspicionforatime.Themovementitselfcameto
nothingatthistime.ButinZedekiahsninthyearrenewedpromisesfromEgyptinducedtheJerusalemitestorevolt,andZedekiahwastooweaktorestrainthem.
Nebuchadrezzarrepliedpromptlybymarchinginpersonagainsttherebels.Jerusalemwasastrongholdinwhichthepeoplehadconfidence,andtheyseemalsoto
havebelievedfanaticallythatJahwehwouldintervenetoprotectHisTemple.ThisfaithwasraisedtoahighpitchbytheapproachofanEgyptianarmyunder
PharaohhophraforNebuchadrezzarwascompelledtoraisethesiegetomeetthenewenemy.Theexpressionofthepeoplesconfidencethattheyhadgotfrom
JahwehallthattheydesiredisseenintheindecenthastewithwhichtheyreducedagaintoslaverytheservantswhomtheyhadsetfreeinordertoobtainHisfavour
(Jer34:8ff.).
Thejoywasshortlived.TheEgyptianswerehardlyaseriousproblemtoNebuchadrezzar,andsoonlefthimfreetoresumethesiege,whichhedidwithenergy.
Thestronglyfortifiedcitywasdefendedbyitsinhabitantswiththecourageofdespair,andheldoutayearandahalf.Duringthistimetheysufferedallthehorrorsof
siege,famine,andpestilence.Jeremiah,whostillpredicteddisaster,wasarrested,andwouldhaveperishedinhisdungeonhaditnotbeenforthecompassionofone
ofthekingsslaves(Jer38).Zedekiah,whobelievedinhim,consultedhimbystealth,butcouldnotnervehimselftofollowtheadvicehereceived.Whenatlastthe
wallwasbreached,thekingattemptedtoescapetotheJordanvalley,hopingthustogaintheeasterndesert.ButhewasovertakenandcarriedtoNebuchadrezzar.
Thevictor,consideringthatforbearancehadceasedtobeavirtue,slewthecaptivekingschildrenbeforehiseyes,thenblindedthekinghimselfandcarriedhim
awayinchainstoBabylon.ThekingdomofJudahhadcometoanend(2K25:4ff.).
H.P.S MITH.
ZEEB.SeeOREBANDZEEB.
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ZELA(H).ABenjamitecity(Jos18:28),wherewasthefamilyburyingplaceofSaul(2S21:14[hereRVneedlesslyconfusesbywritingZelah]).Itssitehas
notbeendiscovered.
ZELEK.OneofDavidsheroes(2S23:37=1Ch11:39).
ZELOPHEHAD.AManassitewhodiedduringthewildernessjourneyings,leavingnomaleissue.Hisfivedaughterssuccessfullyassertedtheirclaimtothe
inheritanceoftheirfather(Nu26:23,27:17,36:212,Jos17:3,1Ch7:15).
ZELZAH.In1S10:2SamueltellsSaulthathewillfindtwomenbyRachelssepulchreintheborderofBenjaminatZelzah.Nosuchplaceisknowntous,
andthereferenceisstrangeafterthedefinitementionofRachelssepulchre.TheLXXdoesnotregarditasapropername,andtr.leapingfuriouslyandthe
Vulgatereadsinthesouth.Neitherofthesecanbecorrect.PossiblytheGreekoftheLXXisatransliterationofsomeHeb.word,whichwasnotunderstoodand
wasthentransformedintosomethingsignificantinGreek.Themeaningremainsuncertain.
W.F.BOYD.
ZEMARAIM.AcityofBenjamin,apparentlyinthevicinityofBethel(Jos18:22).Itproh.
gaveitsnametoMt.Zemaraim,inthehillcountryofEphraim(2Ch13:4).ItisgenerallyidentifiedwithesSumratothenorthofJericho.
ZEMARITE,THE.AcollectivedesignationofoneoftheCanaanitecommunitiesinGn10:18,namedalongwiththeArvadite,andthereforepresumablyin
NorthernPhnicia.ItstandsprobablyforthepeopleofSimirra,animportantcityinthetimeofthelaterAssyrianempireand
theseatofanAssyrianprovince.ItseemstobementionedalsointheAmarnalettersunderthenameSumur.PerhapsweshouldcomparethemodernSumra,
betweenRuwd(Arvad)andTarabuls(Tripolis).
J.F.MCCURDY.
ZEMIRAH.AsonofBecher(1Ch7:8).
ZENAN.SeeZAANAN.
ZENAS.Alawyer(i.e.learnedinJewishlaw,cf.v.8)whomSt.PaulasksTitustosendtohimfromCrete,withApoilos(Tit3:13).Thenameisperhapsa
contractionfromZenodorus.
A.J.MACLEAN.
ZEPHANIAH.1.Theprophet(seenextart.).2.AKohathite(1Ch6:36).3.Sonof
MaaseiahthepriestinJerusaleminthetimeofZekediahthekingandJeremiahtheprophet(Jer21:1,29:25,29,37:3).AsnextinranktoSeraiah,grandsonof
Hilkiah(1Ch6:14),Zeph.iscalledsecondpriest(2K25:18).OntheoccasionofthefinaloverthrowofJerusalemhewasputtodeathatRiblah(Jer52:24ff.).4.
ThefatherofoneJosiahinBabylon(Zec6:10,14).
ZEPHANIAHisthetitleofthe9thsectionoftheHebrewcollectionofpropheticliterature,entitledTheTwelveProphets,whichwasprobablycompiledinthe
3rdcent.B.C.(seeMICAH[BOOKOF]).Likeothersectionsofthiswork,itcontainsbothearlierandlatermaterials,thoughthesecannotalwaysbeseparatedfromone
anotherwithcertainty.InthemaintheBookofZephaniahconsistsofaprophecyofjudgmentdeliveredbyZephaniahaboutB.C.627.
1.Theprophet.Accordingtothetitleofthebook(1:1),ZephaniahprophesiedinthereignofJosiah(B.C.639608).Sincetheallusionsinch.1pointtothe
continuanceuncheckedoffalseworshipssuchasthoseofthehostofheavenwhichhadprevailedinJudahunderthepreviouskingsManassehandAmon,we
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mayinferthatZephaniahprophesiedintheearlierpartofJosiahsreign,beforetheReformationoftheyear621,whichenforcedthelawsofDeuteronomy.Two
furtherinferenceswithregardtoZephaniaharejustifiableif,asisprobable,thegreatgreatgrandfatherofZephaniahwaskingHezekiah(1:1.cf.Expositor,1900
(July),pp.7680):(1)Zephaniahwasofroyaldescent(2)likeJeremiah(Jer1:6),Zephaniahwhenhebegantoprophesywasayoungmansayofsome25years.
2.Thebook.TheBookofZephaniahoughtnottobereadasacontinuouswhole.Ch.3isseparatedfromchs.1,2byaverymarkedbreak.Chs.1and2
formnotimprobablyasingleprophecy,which,however,appearstohavebeenmoreorlessamplifiedbysubsequenteditorscertainlyinsomeplaces,especiallyat
thebeginningofch.2,ithasbeenrenderedobscurebytextualcorruption.Initspresentformthisprophecypredictsasnearathandajudgmentthatistoinvolvethe
wholeworld(1:2f.alsov.18,iflandshouldratherbetranslatedearth)anditdescribesindetailhowitwillaffectJudah(1:417(18)),Philistia(2:47),Moab
andAmmon(2:810),Ethiopia(2:12)andAssyria(2:1415).ThegroundofjudgmentinthecaseofJudahisfoundintheprevalenceoffalseworship(1:4,5),of
foreignfashions(1:8f.)anddisregardofJahweh(1:12)inthecaseofMoabandAmmon,inthecontemptuoustauntswithwhichtheyhadupbraidedJudah(2:8
10)(suchtauntsas,accordingtoEzekiel[25:111],thesepeopleshurledattheJewsaftertheFallofJerusalemin586B.C.)inthecaseofAssyria,inher
presumptuousarroganceandselfconfidence(2:15).Accordingtothegeneralopinion,Zephaniah,likeJeremiah,whowasprophesyingatthesametime,expected
theScythianstobetheinstrumentsofthisjudgment:forataboutthistimehordesofthesebarbarianswerepouringintoAsia.AccordingtoMarti,Zephaniahs
originalprophecyconfineditselftoapredictionofadestructiveinvasionbytheScythians,who,comingfromthenorth,wouldfirstsweepthroughJudah,then
southwardsthroughPhilistiatoEthiopiaintheextremesouth,andthen,turningbackwards,wouldoverwhelmtheAssyrianempire.ThereferencestoMoaband
Ammon,andthetoucheswhichuniversalizethejudgment,mustinthiscaseowetheirinsertionintoZephaniahsprophecytolatereditors.Manyalsothinkthatthe
promisesinchs.1,2(seechiefly2:3,7)arelaterthanZephaniah.
Ch.3contains(1)adescriptionofthesinsofJerusalem(3:17)thismaybeaseconddenunciationofZephaniahs,paralleltoch.1andparticularizingrather
differentsins,orapropheticdescriptionofJerusalematalaterdate(2)adescriptionofauniversaljudgmentfromwhichonlythegodlyremnantofJudahwill
escape(3:8,1113cf.2:3)(3)adescriptionofthegloryoftheJewsafterJahwehhasdeliveredthemfromcaptivity(3:1420).Allofch.3maybeofpostexilic
origin,andthethirdsectioncanscarcelybepreexilic.Insertedinthemidstofthesecondsectionaretwoverses(3:910)which,like2:11,predictthatJahwehwill
beuniversallyworshippedthesealsoareprobablyofpostexilicorigin.
ItseemsclearthatZephaniah,liketheprophetsofthe8thcent.andhisowncontemporary,Jeremiah,was,primarily,aprophetofjudgmenttocomeuponhis
ownpeople.InthisrespecthedifferedfromtwoprophetsofthesamegenerationNahumandHabakkuk,bothofwhom,however,probablyprophesiedafterthe
ReformationofJosiah.NahumisentirelyconcernedwithjudgmentonAssyriaHabakkukisperplexedbywhattoZephaniahmighthaveappearedthefulfilmentof
hisprophecythepresenttroublesofJudah.Zephaniahmarksnonewdepartureinpropheticactivityorthought,butbyhismoralearnestness,andhisinsistenceon
theneedforsinglehearteddevotiontothedemandsofJahwehforrighteousness,heperformedforhisowngenerationtheservicerenderedacenturyearlierby
Isaiah,whoseinfluenceonhisthoughtandteachingisobvious(cf.particularly1:1417withIs2:12ff.).
Owingmoreespeciallytotextualcorruption,partsofthebook,evenintheRV,areunintelligible:seeDriver,MinorProphets,vol.ii.(CenturyBible)G.A.Smith,Bookofthe
TwelveProphets,vol.ii.pp.3574(containingatranslationfromacriticallyemendedtext)seealsoA.B.DavidsonsCommentaryontheAVintheCambridgeBible.
G.B.GRAY.
ZEPHATH.SeeHORMAH.
ZEPHATHAH.Anunknownlocalitynamedonly(ifthetextiscorrect)in2Ch14:10(9.
ZEPHI(1Ch1:36)orZEPHO(Gn36:11,15).AsonofEliphaz,andoneofthedukesofEdom.
ZEPHON,ZEPHONITES.SeeZAPHON.
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ZER.AfencedcityofNaphtali(Jos19:35).ItfollowsZiddim(properlyHazziddim[withart.]),whichmaybethemodernHattin,N.W.ofTiberias.The
identityofZerisquiteuncertain.
ZERAH.1.OneofthesonsofReuel(Gn36:13,17,1Ch1:37).ThenameappearsagainasthatofthefatherofJobab,oneoftheearlykingsofEdom(Gn
36:33,1Ch1:44).2.TheyoungerbornofthetwinsonsofJudahbyTamarhisdaughterinlaw(Gn38:30).HegiveshisnametotheZerahites(Nu26:24).Ofthis
familywasAchanthesonofZabdi(Jos7:1)orZimri(1Ch2:6).Zerahssonsarementionedin1Ch9:6,andPethahiah(Neh11:24)isoneofhisdescendants.He
findsaplaceinthegenealogyofourLord(Mt1:3).3.AsonofSimeon,andthefounderofafamilyofZerahiteswithinthattribe(Nu26:13,1Ch4:24)calledalso
Zohar(Gn46:10,Ex6:15).4.ALevitename,bornebyaGershonite(1Ch6:21)andbyaKohathite(1Ch6:41).5.ThenameoftheCushite(2Ch14:915)who
invadedJudahinthereignofAsa.Thestoryofthisinvasionisunknowntosecularhistory,andrestssolelyupontheauthorityoftheChronicler.Therehasbeen
muchcontroversyastoitshistoricity,andthequestionisstillinvolvedinobscurity.InanycasethenumbersinthetextofChron.(580,000meninAsasarmy,
1,000,000inZerahs)areincrediblylarge.
ZERAHIAH.1.Apriest,anancestorofEzra(1Ch6:6bis.51,Ezr7:4[1Es8:2Zaraias,2Es1:2Arna]).2.ThefatherofEliehoenai,Ezr8:4[1Es8:34
Zaraias].
ZERED.Thetorrentvalley(nachal)ofZeredisnamedintheitineraryofIsraelsjourneyings,Nu21:12,immediatelypriortotheircrossingoftheArnon,and
inDt2:13asthepointthatmarkedthecloseofthe38yearswanderings.ItisprobablyeithertheSailSaideh(theprincipalconfluentoftheArnonfromtheS.E.)
ortheWdyKerak.
ZEREDAH,ZERERAH.SeeZARETHAN.
ZERESH.ThewifeofHaman(Est5:1014,6:13).
ZERETH.AJudahite(1Ch4:7).
ZERETHSHAHAR.AReubenitetown(Jos13:19).Itssitehasnotbeenidentified.
ZERI.SeeIZRI.
ZEROR.AnancestorofSaul(1S9:1).
ZERUAH.ThemotherofJeroboam(1K11:26,12:24b).
ZERUBBABEL(meaninguncertain,perhapsoffspringofBabeltheformZorobabelisusedintheApocrypha).ThesonofShealtiel,andrelatedtothe
houseofDavid.HewastheleaderofoneofthebandsthatreturnedfromtheCaptivity(Ezr2:2,Neh7:7),andwasatonetimepechahorgovernorofJudah(Hag
1:1etc.).OnthequestionofhisIdentitywith
Sheshbazzar,seeS HESHBAZZAR.AstheservantoftheLord,andasHisspeciallychosenone,heisdesignatedasonewhoistobespeciallyhonouredinthedayof
theLord,forwhichreasonheiscalledthesignet(Hag2:23).BothHaggalandZechariahpointtoZerubbabelandthehighpriestJoshuaasthosewhoaretore
buildtheTemple(Hag1:18,2:918,Zec4:114)thiswasdone,thoughafterconsideraabledelayowingtoenemiesoftheJewsitwasonlyafteraspecialappeal
hadbeenmadetoDariusthattheworkwasproceededwithunimpeded(Ezr6:1ff.).FromZechariahsfourthnightvision(Zec3:1ff.,esp.vv.810)welearnthat
ZerubbabelwaslookeduponasthecomingMessiahinthisnightvisionitispointedoutthatJoshuaandhisfellowsareapledgeandanearnestofthenear
approachoftheMessiahtheBranch,asheisherecalledthestonewhichistoadornhiscrownisready,andJahwehHimselfisabouttoengravethereonafitting
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inscriptionwhentheMessiahcomes,Godwillobliterateallguiltfromthepeople,andpeaceshallrestupontheland(seeBRANCH).AlthoughZerubbabelisnot
mentionedherebyname,acomparisonofthepassagesZec3:810,4:114,6:913makesitreasonablycertainthatheisintended.
ThisperiodofJewishhistorypresentsnotafewverydifficultproblemsoneoftheburningquestionshasreferencetotherespectivepartsplayedinthe
rebuildingoftheTemple,andthereorganizationoftheJewishStategenerally,bythereturnedexiles,andbythepeopleofthelandwhohadbeenleftbehindwhen
therestwerecarriedofftoBabylonthisquestionhasanimportantbearingonthesubsequenthistoryofJudaism.
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
ZERUIAH.ThemotherofDavidsofficersAbishai,Joab,andAsahel,whoarealwaysreferredtoassonsofZerulah.Thefathersnameisnevermentioned,
andhemayhavediedearlyorthemothermayhavebeensoremarkableawomanthatherhusbandsnamewasnotpreservedorwehaveasurvivaloftheancient
customoftracingkinshipthroughthefemaleline.
In1Ch2:16ZeruiahandAbigailarecalledsistersofthesonsofJesse,butin2S17:25AbigailiscalledthedaughterofNahash.ItseemsmoreprobablethatforNahashin2
S17:25weoughttoreadJesse,thanthatJesseswifehadpreviouslybeenmarriedtoNahashtheAmmonite.Accordingtothisview,ZeruiahwouldbethedaughterofJesseand
sisterofDavid.
W.F.BOYD.
ZETHAM.AGershoniteLevite(1Ch23:8,26:22).
ZETHAN.ABenjamite(1Ch7:10).
ZETHAR.AeunuchofkingAbasnerus(Est1:10).
ZEUS.SeeJUPITER.
ZIA.AGadite(1Ch5:13).
ZIBA.Aservant,probablyafreedman,ofSaul.HeappearsbeforeDavid(2S9:111),possessing15sonsand20servants,andisconsultedastothe
existenceofanymembersofthehouseofSaul.HeinformsDavidoftheretreatofMephibosheth,towhomDavidrestoresthelandsofhisfatherandappointsZiba
steward.OnDavidsflightfromJerusalem(2S16:14)Zibafollowedhimwithprovisions,andaccusedMephiboshethoftreachery.Hereceivedagrantofhis
masterslands,butonDavidsreturnMephiboshethwasabletoclearhimselfandwasallowedtoretainahalf(2S19:2430).
W.F.BOYD.
ZIBEON.SeeANAH.
ZIBIA.ABenjamite(1Ch8:9).ThisandthenameZibiahmayheconnectedwithzbh,fem.zbyyahgazelle,astotem.
ZIBIAH.ThemotherofJoashofJudah(2K12:1(2)=2Ch24:1).SeealsoZIBIA.
ZICHRI.1.AgrandsonofKohath(Ex6:21,misspeltinmodernedd.ofAVZithri,althoughed.of1611hascorrectlyZichri).2,3,4,5.FourBenjamites(1
Ch8:19,23,27,Neh11:9).6.AnAsaphite(1Ch9:15||Neh11:17[seeZABDI,No.4]).7.AdescendantofEliezer(1
Ch26:25).8.AReubenite(1Ch27:16).9.AJudahite(2Ch17:16).10.FatherofacaptaininJehoiadastime(2Ch23:1).11.AmightymanofEphraim(2Ch
28:7).12.Apriest(Neh12:17).
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ZIDDIM.SeeZER.
ZIDON(NTSidon).AboutmidwaybetweenBeyroutandTyre,ontheedgeofafertilestripofplainstretchingfromthemountaintotheshore,asmallrocky
promontoryjutsintothesea.HerestoodtheancientcityofZidon.Thesitewaschosendoubtlessbecauseoftheexcellentharbourformedbyaseriesofsmallislets,
ashortdistancefromtheshore,whichprotectedshippinglyingbythecity.Inoldtimestheisletswerejoinedtogetherbyartificialembankments.Thisharbourlayto
theN.ontheS.wasasecondone,largerbutlesssecure,knownastheEgyptianharbour.ZidonappearsinScriptureasthechiefcityofPhnicia,givinghername
tothewholepeople(Gn10:15,Jg10:12etc.).WhatthetitleGreatZidon(Jos11:8etc.)signified,asdistinguishedfromLittleZidon,wecannotnowsay.They
arementionedtogetherintheinscriptionofSennacheribatalaterperiod(Schrader,KAT 2.288f.).Zidonsearlypreeminencewasduenodoubttohersuccessin
commercialenterprise,theskillandintrepidityofhermarinersandmerchants,andtheprogressofhersonsinartsandmanufactures.Theyexcelledinartisticmetal
work(Homer,Il.xxiii.743748,Od.iv.613619,xv.460)andintheproductsoftheloom,thevalueofwhichwasenhancedbythefamousdye,usedfirstbythe
Zidonians,but,byastrangefortune,knowntothelaterworldasTyrianpurple.Theplantingofcolonieswasanatural,andalmostnecessary,outcomeofher
commercialenterprise.IfshedidnotfoundAradus(Strabo,XVI.ii.13)andCarthage(Appian,deRebusPunicis,1,etc.),sheseemstoclaimonacointobethe
mothercityofMelitaorMalta,aswellasofCitlumandBerytus(Gesenius,Mon.Phn.276Rawlinson,Phn.411).PrinceZimridaofZidonappearsinthe
AmarnatabletsascontestingwithEgyptthelordshipofthecoastlands.ZidonlanascendancysucceededthedeclineoftheEgyptianpowerafterRamesesII.How
longitlastedwedonotknow.ItwasmarkedbyanunsuccessfulconflictwiththePhilistinesforthepossessionofDor,which,however,didnotnecessarilyinvolve
herdeposition(Rawlinson,op.cit.417).Israel,whohadnotdispossessedtheZidonians(Jg1:31),sufferedoppressionattheirhands(10:12).Bythetimeof
Solomon,however,Tyrehadassumedthehegemony(Jos.Ant.VIII.v.3,c.Apion,i.18).InB.C.877Zidon,withotherPhniciancities,submittedtotheAssyrian
Ashurnazirpalandsenthimpresents.ZidonsufferedunderShalmaneserII.,Tiglathpileser,ShalmaneserIV,andfinallywassubduedbySennacherib,whomade
Tubaal,acreatureofhisown,king.ArevoltunderTubaalssuccessorledtotheutterdestructionofthecity,withcircumstancesofgreatseverity,by
Esarhaddon,whobuiltanewcitycalledbyhisownname.Thenativelipsprobablypreservedtheancientname.Zidonpersists,IrEsarhaddonisheardofno
more.ThedeclineandfallofAssyriabroughtaperiodofresttoPhnicia,andrecuperationtohercities.TheattempttogainJudahfortheleagueagainstthe
growingpowerofBabylonbroughtanembassytoJerusalem,inwhichthekingofZidonwasrepresented(Jer27:3).Arevolt,apparentlyinB.C.598,joinedinby
Judah,wasstampedoutbyNebuchadrezzar.Zidonsswiftsubmissionwasduetodevastatingpestilence(Ezk28:21ff.).ThelongresistanceofTyreledtoher
destructionandhumiliation(Ezk26:8ff.),Zidononcemoreassumingtheleadership.
InthebeginningofthePersianperiodthePhniciancitiesenjoyedpracticalautonomy,andatimeofgreatmaterialprosperity.Afriendlyarrangementwith
Cambysesperpetuatedthisstateofthings,andintheGreekwarsmostvaluableassistancewasgivenbythePhnicianstothePersians.Therevoltofthe
Phnicians,headedbyZidon,aboutB.C.351,wasremorselesslycrushedbyArtaxerxesOchus.Zidonwasbetrayedintohishandsbythedespairingking,Tennes.
ToescapethecrueltiesofOchus,theinhabitantsburnedthecity,morethan40,000perishingintheflames.ThetreacheryofTenneswasmatchedbythatofOchus,
who,havingnofurtheruseforhim,puthimtodeath(Diod.Sic.XVIpassim).Thecityroseagainfromitsashes,andregainedsomethingofitsformerprosperity.
ThesonofTennesbecameking,andretainedthesceptretilltheadventofAlexander.WhilePhniciathenlostherpredominanceinthetradeoftheMediterranean,
ZidonretainedconsiderableImportanceasthepossessorofanexcellentharbour,andasaseatofPhnicianindustry.Lyingintheterritoryoftenindisputebetween
SyriaandEgypt,inthefollowingcenturiesZidonseveraltimeschangedhands.Underthe
Romanssheenjoyedtheprivilegesofafreecity.ZidonfiguresintheGospelnarratives(Mt11:21f.,15:21,Mk3:6etc.).Jesuspossiblyvisitedthecity(Mk7:31).It
appearsinAc12:20,andwastouchedatbySt.PaulinhisvoyagetoRome(Ac27:3).Itbecametheseatofabishop.ZidonsufferedheavilyduringtheCrusades.
UndertheDruseprinceFakhreddin(15951634),itsprosperityrevivedbut,inordertopreventtheapproachoftheTurkishfleet,hecausedtheentrancetothe
harbourtobefilledup,thusmakingitcomparativelyuseless.ThepresentwallsofthecitywerebuiltbyMohammedAliofEgypt(18321840).Thefortress,Kalat
elBahr,CastleoftheSea,datingfromthe13thcent.,standsonthelargestoftheislands,whichisjoinedtothemainlandbyabridgeof9arches.Thepresent
populationisabout11,000.Thechiefoccupationsarefishing,andthecultivationofthegardensandorangegrovesforwhichmodernZidonisfamous.Whilethe
oldestexistingbuildingsdatefromtheMiddleAges,therearemanyremainsofgreatantiquity,tracesofwalls,hewnstones,pillars,coins,andthereservoirscutout
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oftherock.Themostimportantdiscoveriessofarhavebeen(1855)thesarcophagusofkingEshmunazar(earlyinthe4thcent.B.C.),withthewellknown
inscription,nowinParisand(1887)thetomb,containing17PhnicianandGreeksarcophagi,highlyornamentedamongthemthatofTabnit,fatherof
Eshmunazar,andtheallegedsarcophagusofAlexandertheGreat.
W.EWING.
ZIHA.AfamilyofNethinim(Ezr2:43=Neh7:46,11:21)calledin1Es5:29Esau.
ZIKLAG.AtowngivenbyAchishkingofGathtotheoutlawedDavid(1S27:6,30:1ff.,2S1:1,4:10,1Ch12:1,20).Inthenationalregisterofcitiesitis
assignedtoJudah(Jos15:31)ortoSimeon(19:5),andismentionedalsointhepostexiliclist(Neh11:28).IthasbeenidentifiedwithZuheilqa,11m.S.E.of
Gaza,and20m.S.W.fromEleutheropolis.
H.L.WILLETT.
ZILLAH.SeeADAH,No.1.
ZILLETHAI.l.ABenjamitefamily(1Ch8:26).2.AManassitewhojoinedDavidatZiklag(1Ch12:20).
ZILPAH.AslavegirlgiventoLeahbyLahan,Gn29:24(P),andbyhertoJacobasaconcubine,30:9(J)themotherofGadandAsher,vv.1013(J),
35:26,37:3,46:16(allP).Cf.art.TRIBESOFISRAEL.
ZIMMAH.AfamilyofGershoniteLevites(1Ch6:20(5),42(27),2Ch29:12).
ZIMRAN.AsonofAbrahamandKeturah,Gn25:2=1Ch1:32.Theethnologicalsignificationofthewordisdoubtful.Thenameisderivedfromzemer,
mountainsheeporgoat,thisanimalhavingdoubtlessbeenthetotemoftheclan.
ZIMRI.1.AprinceofthetribeofSimeon,slainbyPhinehas(Nu25:614,1Mac2:26).2.SonofZerah,andgrandfatherorancestorofAchan(1Ch2:6)
calledZabdiinJos7:1.3.ABenjamite(1Ch8:36,9:42).4.Seenextarticle.5.AllthekingsofZimriarementionedinthesameverse,Jer25:25,withthoseof
ElamandtheMedesasamongthosewhoweretodrinkthecupofthefuryoftheLord.Thereisconsiderabledoubtastowhatplaceismeant,orevenastothe
genuinenessofthephrase.
ZIMRIseizedthethroneofIsraelbythemurderofhiskingElah,buthelditonlysevendaysbeforeOmri, another general of the army, asserted himself as
claimant.Omri,asiswellknown,wasthestronger,andestablishedhimselfafterdisposingoftwoopponents.ThecharacterizationofZimri,asonewhocausedIsrael
tosinbyfollowinginthewaysofJeroboam,isduetotheauthorsdesiretopronouncejudgmentonallthekingsoftheNorthernKingdom(1K16:920).H.P.
S MITH.
ZIN(Nu13:21,20:1,27:14,33:36,34:3,6,Dt32:51,Jos15:1,3).AregionpassedthroughbytheIsraelitesintheirjourneyings.Themostexactindicationof
itspositionisgiveninNu34andJos15.InNu13:21thewildernessofZinisnamedasthesouthernlimitfromwhichthespiesbegantosearchtheland.InNu
33:36itisgivenasoneofthestationsinthejourneyings.Thebriefnote,thesameisKadesh,servestoexplainthefollowingverse(Andtheyjourneyedfrom
Kadesh).Nu20:1recordsthearrivalofthechildrenofIsraelinthewildernessofZininthefirstmonth[theyearisnotstated],andthefollowingvv.213
relatetheeventswhichtookplaceatMeribah.Theremainingtwopassages,Nu27andDt32,whichareduplicates,refertothepunishmentofMosesforhisoffence
atthewatersofMeribahofKadeshinthewildernessofZin.Henceitmaybeinferred(a)thattheWildernessofZinformedpartofthesouthernboundaryof
JudahatitseasternendtowardstheDeadSea(b)thatKadeshwasincludedwithinitslimits.
TheclosesimilaritybetweentheeventsrecordedinEx17andNu20,andotherpointsofresemblancebetweenoccurrencesbeforeandafterSinai,suggestthequestionwhether15/18
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/z.htm
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TheclosesimilaritybetweentheeventsrecordedinEx17andNu20,andotherpointsofresemblancebetweenoccurrencesbeforeandafterSinai,suggestthequestionwhether
SinandZin,theSinofthepreSinaiandtheZinofthepostSinainarrative,maybevariationsdevelopedinthecourseoftradition.Thehypothesisdoesnotappearimprobable,but
thenarrativeinitspresentformindicatestworegionsbearingdifferentnames.
CF.P ARAN,S IN[WILDERNESSOF].
ZINA.SeeZIZAH.
ZION.SeeJERUSALEM,esp.11.1.
ZIOR.AtowninthehillcountryofJudah(Jos15:54).Itisprob.tobeidentifiedwiththemodernvillageSair,about6milesN.N.E.ofHebron.
ZIPH.1.AsonofJehallelel(1Ch4:16).2.AcityofSouthernJudah(Jos15:24).Itssitehasnotbeenrecovered.3.AcityinthehillcountryofJudah(Jos
15:55)fortifiedbyRehoboam(2Ch11:8).ThewildernessofZiphwasoneoftherefugesofDavidwhenfleeingfromSaul(1S23:14,15,24,26:2bis).The
gentilicnameZiphitesoccursin1S23:19,24[LXXonly]26:1,Ps54title.ZiphisTellZf,S.E.ofHebron.
ZIPHAH.AsonofJerahmeel(1Ch4:16).
ZIPHION.SeeZAPHON.
ZIPHRON.AnunknownpointonthenorthernfrontierofCanaan(Nu34:9f.)perhapsthesameasSibraimofEzk47:16.
ZIPPOR.FatherofBalak(Nu22:3,4,10,16,23:18,Jos24:9,Jg11:25).Thename,whichdoubtlessinthiscaseandinthatofZipporahhasatotemistic
significance,meanssparrow.
ZIPPORAH.OneofthedaughtersofthepriestofMidian,Ex2:21,22(J),wifeofMosesandmotherofGershom.Accordingto18:2(E),shehadanother
son.FortheincidentofEx4:24ff.seeMOSES,p.632a.
ZIV.Seeart.TIME.
ZIZ.TheascentofZizismentionedin2Ch20:16asthewaybywhichtheallied
Moabites,Ammonites,andMeunimmadetheirwayupfromEngeditoattackJehoshaphatatJerusalem.IthasbeenidentifiedasanascentnearEngedifromthe
plainoftheDeadSeatothetablelandofJudah.TheRomanroadfromEngeditoJerusalemfollowedthistrack.
H.L.WILLETT.
ZIZA.1.ASimeonitechief(1Ch4:37).2.AsonofRehoboam(2Ch11:20).
ZIZAH.AGershoniteLevite(1Ch23:11).Thename,prob.byacopyistserror,appearsinv.10asZina.
ZOAN.AcityintheN.E.ofLowerEgypt(Egyp.Zani,Gr.Tanis).ItisnowSanelHagar,oneofthemostimportantoftheancientsitesinLowerEgypt,with
ruinsofagreattemple.The21stDyn.aroseinTanis,anditwasprobablyafavouriteresidenceofthePharaohs,thoughitisnowinthemidstofabarrensaltmarsh,
withonlyafewfishermenasinhabitants.RamassesII.placedinthetempleacolossusofhimselfingranite,thegreatestknown,which
Petriecalculatesfromthefragmentstohavemeasured92feetinheight.ZoanisnotmentionedinGenesis,butelsewhere(Ps78:13,43,ls19:11,13,30,Ezk30:14)
itappearsasalmostorquitethecapitalofEgypt,perhapsasbeingtheroyalcitynearesttothefrontier.Taniswasveryancient:thecuriousreferencetoitsbuilding
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inNu13:22cannotbeexplainedasyet.
F.LL.GRIFFITH.
ZOAR.SeeP LAIN[CITIESOFTHE],LOT.
ZOBAH.AnAramancommunity,themostpowerfulofthecoalitionofSyrianStateswhichmadewaruponkingDavidwhilehewasengagedwiththe
Ammonites(2S8:10ff.).TheexactlocationisuncertainbutthiswholegroupofAramansettlementslaybetweenDamascusandtheentrancetoCleSyria.
ZobahwascertainlyeastofJordan,andprobablythemostsoutherlyofthekindredpeoples.1S14:47,whichstatesthatSaulfoughtagainstZobah,isprobably
basedonaconfusionwiththewarsofDavid.
J.F.MCCURDY.
ZOBEBAH.AJudahite(1Ch4:8).
ZOHAR.1.FatherofEphrontheHittite(Gn23:8,25:19).2.ASimeonitefamily(Gn
46:10,Ex6:15)calledinNu26:15and1Ch4:24Zerah.3.AJudahitefamily,accordingtotheKrof1Ch4:7,whichwasfollowedinAVof1611.TheKthbh
isincorrectlyreproducedinmodernedd.ofAVasJezoar,andinRVasIzhar.
ZOHELETH,STONEOF.AnobjectmentionedinconnexionwiththeattemptofAdonijahuponthethroneofIsrael(1K1:9).Itwasnearthespring
Enrogel,whichissupposedtobetheVirginsFountainintheKidronvalley.Itsname(serpentsstoneorbrilliantstone)hasnotbeenexplained,butitwas
evidentlyasacredrockorstone.
H.L.WILLETT.
ZOHETH.AdescendantofJudah(1Ch4:20).
ZOPHAH.AnAsherite(1Ch7:35,36).
ZOPHAI.AnancestorofSamuel(1Ch6:26(11))=Zuphofv.35(20)and1S1:1.
ZOPHAR.ThethirdinorderofJobsthreefriends,describedintheLXXaskingoftheMinans(Job2:11)probablythechiefofatribeonthebordersof
Iduma.Cf.art.JOB,esp.2(8).
ZOPHIM.ThefieldofZophimwasoneofthespotstowhichBalaktookBalaamtoviewIsrael,Nu23:14(JE).Itisquestionablewhetherwehaveherea
propernametheHeb.
expressionmeansliterallyfieldofviewersorlookersout.Suchplacesofwatchingwerenaturallysituatedfrequentlyonthetopsofhills.Ontheimpossible
combinationRamathaimzophimof1S1:1seeRAMAH,4.
ZORAH.AtownallottedtoJudah,accordingtoJos15:33butelsewherespokenofasDanite(Jos19:41,Jg18:2,3,11)speciallynotedasthehomeof
Samson(Jg13:2,25),whowasburiedbetweenZorahandEshtaol(16:21).ItwasfortifiedbyRehoboam(2Ch11:10),andismentionedinNeh11:29aspeopled
byJudahitesaftertheCaptivity.Thegentilicname
Zorathitesoccursin1Ch2:52,4:2andprob.2:54(wherereadZorathitesforZorites).ZorahisthemodernSurahonthenorthernsideofWdyesSurar(the
ValleyofSorek)oppositeAinShems(Bethshemesh),whichliesonthesouthernside.
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ZORITES.SeeZORAH.
ZOROASTRIANISM.SeeMAGI.
ZOROBABEL.SeeZERUBBABEL.
ZORZELLEUS(AVBerzelus,1Es5:28=BarzillaiofEzr2:51andNeh7:55).Adaughterofhis,namedAugia,ismentionedasmarriedtoAddus,the
ancestorofapriestlyfamily,whocouldnottracetheirgenealogyatthereturnunderZerubbabel.
ZUAR.FatherofNethaneltheheadofthetribeofIssachar(Nu1:8,2:5,7:18,23,10:15).
ZUPH.1.AnancestorofSamuel(1S1:1,1Ch6:35(20)calledinv.26(11)Zophai).2.ThelandofZuph(1S9:5)probablyderiveditsnamefromhaving
beenoriginallysettledbythefamilyofZuph.ThegentilicnameZuphiteprobablyunderliesthenameRamathaimzophimof1S1:1.Noknownsitecanbesaid
tocontainanycertaintraceofthenameZuph.
ZUR.1.AMidianiteprinceslainbytheIsraelites(Nu25:15,31:8,Jos13:21).2.AGibeonitefamilysettledatJerusalem(1Ch8:30,9:36).
ZURIEL.AMeraritechief(Nu3:35).
ZURISHADDAI.FatherofShelumiel,thechiefofthetribeofSimeon(Nu1:6,2:12,7:36,41,10:19).
ZUZIM.OneofthenationsdefeatedbyChedorlaomerandhisallieswhentheywentagainstthecitiesoftheplain(Gn14:5).ItisdescribedasbeinginHam.
ThisnameisreadbysomeasCham(i.e.withinitialheth,notheasinMT)andregardedaspossiblyIdenticalwithAmman(interchangebetweentheaspiratesheth
andayin),theAmmonitesbeingdescendedfromBenammi,sonofLotsseconddaughter(Gn19:35).ThisIdentificationofAmmonwithHamhasledtothe
suggestionthatZuzimandZamzummim(Dt2:2023)werethesame,bythecontractionofamandumto,whichmaybesupportedbyBabyloniananalogies.
RobinsonpointsoutthatZuzimremindsoneofZiza(Ptol.v.xvii.6),betweenBosraandLejn.
T.G.P INCHES.

Dictionary of The Bible - V To Z - James Hastings

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Dictionary of The Bible - V To Z - James Hastings

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6/29/2017 V

Fingersbreadth 0.022 0.86 0.019 0.74

Palm=4fingers 0.088 3.44 0.075 2.95

Span=3palms 0.262 10.33 0.225 8.86

Cubit=2spans 0.525 20.67 0.450 17.72

Reed=6cubits 3.150 124.02 2.700 106.32

*1/8 1440 720 144 48 24 142/5 12 8 6 4 2 1

Seh 12.120 2.668 12.3 2.708 13.5 2.976 11/2pecks

Hin 6.060 1.334 6.12 1.356 6.72 1.488 11/2

Sacredhin 4.545 1.000 4.59 1.117 5.04 1.116 9pints

Omer 3.657 0.800 3.67 0.813 4.05 8.893 71/5pints

Log 0.505 0.111 0.51 0.113 0.56 0.124 1pint

Talent 757,380 49,077 378,690 24,539

Mina 12,623 818 6,311.5 409

Shekel 252.5 16.36 126.23 8.18

Orfifteenpieces 224.4 14.54 112.2 7.27

Shekel336.6 21.81 168.410.91 224.414.54 112.2 7.27

9.5 grammes= 146.687 grainstroy.

9.0 grammes= 138.891 grainstroy.

http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/z.htm F.L .G . 3/18

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