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MAP OF JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE

Kinkakuji
Kamowakeikazuchi Shrine
Ryoanji- (Fushian/Zangetsutei Teahouses
Tenryuji- jKonnichian Teahouse
Sento Palace lYuin Teahouse
Nijo Castle Hie Shrine
Saihoji' -Enryakuji
Katsura Detached' Manshuin
Palace
-Kamo Mioya Shrine
Sumiya I -Daitokuji
Wachigaiyaj -Ginkakuji
Kaijusenji - Heian Shrine
Choky uji -Kenninji
Todaiji- -Kiyomizudera
Kofukuji Rengeoin
Horyuji- -Daigoji
Miwa Shrine - Mampukuji
Taimadera - -Bydddin
Imanishi House - -Ujigami Shrine
Nakamura House -Fushimi Inari Shrine
Asukadera - Enjoji
Kawaradera-
Kuriyama House

Taku school
Kawauchi House Izumo Shrine Maruoka Castle
rMatsue Castle
Eihe
% O 'j'
Sdfukuji
Bitchu-Matsuyama Castle

urui House

IFUKL
H/YOGC
/ kKVQTC
/.'Kir

o c ^ 7

Nikaido House
Kokin Denju no Ma
Usa Shrine
Kochi Castle -
Marugame Castle -
Uwajima Castle Shizutaniko academy-
Shikoku Minzoku Hakubutsukan
Eri House-
Himeji Castle- Karako site
Kakurinji -
Onjoji -
Jodoji
Takenaka Daiku Dogukan l Chojuji
Hakogi House] Jorakuji

Kongobuji Ise Shrine


OKIN/I Hikone Castle
Shitennoji -
Meirindo school
Nihon Minka Shuraku Hakubutsukan- Joan Teahouse
Yoshimura House Inuyama Castle Y
Toshogu
Rinndji
Futarasan Shrine P a c i f i c O c e a n

Ganjoji
Torinokosanjo Shrine
Koddkan school
-Kanasana Shrine
-Shofukuji
I Tayasumon
I Shitamachi Fuzoku Shiryokan

I
Nihon Minkaen This map s h o w s the locations of all sites
Kitamura House m e n t i o n e d in the book, in addition to ma-
Toro site <? Sakuta House jor regional subdivisions and principal cit-
Emukai House ies. In the case of smaller sites contained
Daizenji w i t h i n larger ones such as subtemples
Sankeien Park
Umpoji - w i t h i n temple complexes only the lar-
I Engakuji ger entity is listed. Addresses and brief
I Kenchdji directions on h o w to reach these sites
are given in the appendix " S i t e s Mention-
ed in the T e x t . " Descriptions of all sites
can be located in the text by referring to
the index.
What is JAPANESE
ARCHITECTURE ?

Kazuo Nishi and Kazuo Hozumi


translated, adapted, and with an introduction by
H. Mack Horton

KODANSHA INTERNATIONAL
Tokyo New York'London
NOTE: With the exception of the authors' names on the title
page, all Japanese names in this book are given in the Japanese
fashion, surname before given name.

Originally published under the title Nikon kenchiku no katachi:


seikatsu to kenchiku-zokei no rekishiby Shokokusha Publishing Co.,
Ltd.

Distributed in the United States by Kodansha America, Inc.,


and in the United Kingdom and continental Europe by
Kodansha Europe Ltd.

Published by Kodansha International Ltd., 1714 Otowa


1-chome, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 112-8652, and Kodansha America,
Inc.

Copyright 1983 by Kazuo Nishi and Kazuo Hozumi.


All rights reserved. Printed in Japan.
ISBN 978-4-7700-1992-9
LCC 84-48695

First edition, 1985


First paperback edition, 1996
17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11

www.kodansha-intLcom
What is JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE ?
CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 7
W O R S H I P : T h e A r c h i t e c t u r e of B u d d h i s t T e m p l e s a n d S h i n t o S h r i n e s
Horyuji Temple and Its Symbol, the Pagoda 14
The Great Eighth-Century Temples 16
Architecture of the Pure Land Sect 18
New Medieval Forms: The Great Buddha Style 20
New Medieval Forms: The Zen Style 22
Details of the Great Buddha Style 24
Details of the Zen Style 26
The Medieval Japanese Style 28
The Golden and Silver Pavilions 30
Medieval Construction Methods 32
Temple Architecture in the Early Modern Period 34
Buddhist Architecture: Structure and Detail 36
Shinto Shrines 40
Common Shrine Styles 42
The Yomeimon Gate: Nikko Toshogu Shrine 44
Japanese Baroque 46
The Neighborhood Shrine 48
The World of the Craftsmen 49
Construction Techniques of the Edo Period 51

D A I L Y L I F E : Residential and U r b a n Architecture 53


Houses of the Jomon and Yayoi Periods 54
Reconstructing Yayoi and Tumulus-Period Dwellings 55
The Ancient Capitals 56
The Heijo and Heian Capitals 57
Heijo: First of the Great Capitals 58
Residences of the Nara Period 60
The Heian Capital 62
The Shinden Style 64
Daily Life in a Shinden Mansion 66
Commoners' Dwellings 68
Residences of the Samurai 70
A Forma] Audience in a Warrior Residence 72
The Shoin Style: Early Modern Residential Architecture 74
The Design System of the Shoin 76
Katsura Detached Palace and the Sukiya Style 78
Sukiya-Style Decor 80
Minka: Dwellings of the Common People 82
Minka Diversity 84
Provincial Towns in the Edo Period 86
Japan's Premodern Cities 88
The Edo Metropolis 90
Schools in the Edo Period 92
B A T T L E : Castles and Castle T o w n s 93
Himeji: The Grandest of the Surviving Castles 94
The Historical Development of Castles 96
Castles in Wartime 98
Castle Defense 99
The Twelve Surviving Donjons 100
Castle Towns 102
Castle Palaces 104
E N T E R T A I N M E N T : A r c h i t e c t u r e in the S u k i y a Spirit 105
The Architecture of the Tea Ceremony 106
Designing the Teahouse 108
Soan Teahouses 116
The Tea Garden 118
Staging the No Drama 120
The Structure of the No Stage 122
The Architecture of the Kabuki Theater 124
Improvements in Kabuki Theater Design 126
The Architecture of the Pleasure Quarters 128
Design in the Pleasure Quarters 130
Gracious Pastimes at a Sukiya Complex 132
Entertainment Fit for an Emperor 134

SITES MENTIONED IN THE TEXT 136


MUSEUMS AND OTHER FACILITIES OF ARCHITECTURAL INTEREST
BIBLIOGRAPHY 140
INDEX 142
INTRODUCTION

R u t h B e n e d i c t , in h e r early b u t influential i n t r o d u c t i o n to J a p a n e s e c u l t u r e ,
The Chrysanthemum and the Sword, spoke of the t e n d e n c y to see J a p a n a n d its peo-
ple in t e r m s of " b u t a l s o ' s " p a c i f i c b u t also at times warlike, c o n s e r v a t i v e
b u t also given to i n n o v a t i o n . She m i g h t h a v e m a d e reference to their architec-
t u r e as well, for the J a p a n e s e t h r o u g h the ages h a v e evolved a b u i l d i n g art t h a t
s e e m s to delight in opposites a n d c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . I n r e a d i n g t h r o u g h this over-
view of J a p a n ' s secular a n d sacred a r c h i t e c t u r e , from it origins to the e n d of
the E d o period in the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , o n e is struck a g a i n a n d a g a i n b y the
e x t r e m e s t h a t seem to c h a r a c t e r i z e the c o u n t r y ' s t r a d i t i o n a l b u i l d i n g arts.
P e r h a p s size is the most o b v i o u s case in p o i n t . In the r e a l m of religious
a r c h i t e c t u r e , there is the G r e a t B u d d h a H a l l of T o d a i j i t e m p l e , t h e largest
w o o d e n s t r u c t u r e on e a r t h after h a v i n g b e e n rebuilt at only t w o - t h i r d s of its
e i g h t h - c e n t u r y d i m e n s i o n s . N e a r l y fifty m e t e r s in h e i g h t , it h o u s e s a b r o n z e
B u d d h a large e n o u g h to hold a p e r s o n in the p a l m of its h a n d . But also t h e r e is
K a s u g a , the s h r i n e of the great F u j i w a r a family, which is c e n t e r e d o n four
m a i n s t r u c t u r e s e a c h only two m e t e r s wide b y less t h a n three m e t e r s d e e p .
T h e r e are even m i n i a t u r e shrines that fit o n a shelf in a c o r n e r of a p r i v a t e
residence or in a niche in a roadside wall. I n residential a r c h i t e c t u r e , t h e
spacious I m p e r i a l P a l a c e c o m p l e x of the H e i j o C a p i t a l in N a r a o n c e c o n t a i n e d
m o r e t h a n five h u n d r e d b u i l d i n g s o n g r o u n d s over a s q u a r e k i l o m e t e r in a r e a ,
a n d the P a l a c e of the H e i a n C a p i t a l was even l a r g e r in size. C o n s i d e r , too, t h e
s p r a w l i n g castle a n d palace of the T o k u g a w a s h o g u n s in E d o , w h o s e acres of
g r o u n d s still define t h e c e n t e r of m o d e r n T o k y o a n d h o u s e the p r e s e n t p a l a c e
of the i m p e r i a l family. S t a n d i n g a g a i n s t this e x p a n s i v e n e s s , there are t h e rows
of simple a n d u n a s s u m i n g t o w n h o u s e s that w e r e the n o r m for m e d i e v a l city
dwellers. A n d at the lower e n d of the scale is the t e a h o u s e , w h o s e influence o n
J a p a n e s e a r c h i t e c t u r e has b e e n inversely p r o p o r t i o n a t e to its tiny size. T h e
K o n n i c h i a n T e a h o u s e , for i n s t a n c e , has a p l a n c o n t a i n i n g only o n e a n d three-
q u a r t e r s tatami m a t s (one m a t is a b o u t o n e b y two m e t e r s in size), yet it
h a s b e e n viewed since its creation in the s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y as o n e of t h e
m o n u m e n t s of tea taste.
G a r d e n s , too, seem almost infinitely v a r i a b l e , from the tiny, enclosed c o u r t -
y a r d s in such t e m p l e s as the D a i s e n ' i n of D a i t o k u j i to the g r a c i o u s p a r k s of
K a t s u r a a n d S h u g a k u i n D e t a c h e d Palaces, w h i c h include w i n d i n g p a t h s for
leisurely walks as well as p o n d s large e n o u g h for b o a t i n g . T h u s , o n the o n e
h a n d , the g a r d e n can be r e d u c e d to an a l m o s t i n c o r p o r e a l e n t i t y , as in the
single flower in the d e c o r a t i v e alcove of a t e a h o u s e or the raked s a n d of a Z e n -
style " d r y l a n d s c a p e . " O n the o t h e r , it can b e e x p a n d e d n e a r l y infinitely b y
m e a n s of " b o r r o w e d s c e n e r y , " as at the S h u g a k u i n P a l a c e or at E n t s u j i t e m -
ple in K y o t o , w h o s e g a r d e n s i n c o r p o r a t e d i s t a n t m o u n t a i n s into their d e s i g n s .
N o less e x t r e m e a r e differences in h e i g h t , from the p a i r of seven-story
p a g o d a s at T o d a i j i that o n c e soared o n e h u n d r e d m e t e r s a b o v e the t e m p l e
pTecinctneaiYy t w i c e t h e h e i g h t of t h e taViest p a g o d a ieft t o d a y t o a t e a -
h o u s e d o o r so low o n e m u s t c r o u c h to pass t h r o u g h it. T o be s u r e , m o s t J a p -
a n e s e a r c h i t e c t u r e is only o n e story in height, b u t that o n e story is sur-
prisingly elastic: the G r e a t B u d d h a H a l l of T o d a i j i c o n t a i n s only o n e story,
t h o u g h the p e n t roof on the exterior m a k e s it a p p e a r from the o u t s i d e to h a v e
two.
T h e n a g a i n there a r e e x t r e m e s in plans, from the Sinitic ideal of bilateral
s y m m e t r y seen at A s u k a d e r a or S h i t e n n o j i t e m p l e s to the a l m o s t r a n d o m
l a y o u t s of m o u n t a i n t e m p l e s of the Esoteric B u d d h i s t sects, w h i c h a r e influ-
e n c e d by the exigencies of their t e r r a i n . R e s i d e n t i a l p l a n s include b o t h the rela-
tive s y m m e t r y of the ideal S h i n d e n c o m p l e x a n d the r a m b l i n g m a n s i o n s of the
l a t e r courtly a n d w a r r i o r elites, which m e a n d e r t h r o u g h theip g r o u n d s with as
little r e g a r d for s y m m e t r y as has a m o u n t a i n b r o o k .
A m o r e p r o f o u n d set of e x t r e m e s is seen i n the J a p a n e s e t r e a t m e n t of ar-
c h i t e c t u r a l surfaces. At o n e pole is t h e S u k i y a style w i t h its simplicity a n d
u n d e r s t a t e m e n t , its refined sense of design a n d exploitation of n a t u r a l , u n -
a d o r n e d m a t e r i a l s . At the o t h e r is the T o s h o g u S h r i n e at Nikko, a riot of
p o l y c h r o m y a n d s c u l p t u r e that covers n e a r l y every inch of available surface.
T h e taste for o r n a m e n t , m o r e o v e r , is not a n isolated p h e n o m e n o n t h e seven-
t e e n t h - c e n t u r y T o s h o g u w a s foreshadowed in the twelfth c e n t u r y by the
G o l d e n H a l l of C h u s o n j i with its gold-leaf walls a n d its interior of l a c q u e r a n d
mother-of-pearl, a n d in the fourteenth c e n t u r y by the G o l d e n Pavilion of
Rokuonji, its two upper stories likewise finished in sheets of goid. A mixture of
the two tastes is seen at Nishi H o n g a n j i t e m p l e , w h e r e a h u g e a u d i e n c e hall
lavishly fitted with intricately carved t r a n s o m s a n d p o l y c h r o m e d screens
w i t h gold b a c k g r o u n d s is c o n n e c t e d b y a few m e t e r s of c o r r i d o r to a cozy set
of p r i v a t e r o o m s that are the e p i t o m e of u n d e r s t a t e m e n t , i n c o r p o r a t i n g as they
do s u b d u e d ink p a i n t i n g s , plain p a p e r screens, r o u g h - h e w n posts, a n d
u n p a i n t e d w o o d w o r k . T h i s bipolarity in the t r e a t m e n t of surfaces h i n t s at
u n d e r l y i n g e x t r e m e s of a t t i t u d e t o w a r d artifice itself. T h e t e a h o u s e de-
e m p h a s i z e s the h a n d of the b u i l d e r ; the T o s h o g u flaunts it.
T h e " b u t a l s o " t h e m e holds t r u e in the m a t t e r of age a n d t i m e J a p a n is
k n o w n b o t h for the oldest e x t a n t w o o d e n b u i l d i n g s in the w o r l d , the G o l d e n
H a l l , P a g o d a , a n d I n n e r G a t e of H o r y u j i , which are t h o u g h t to d a t e to t h e e n d
of the seventh c e n t u r y , a n d for the regularity with which great p a r t s of cities
a n d t e m p l e c o m p o u n d s h a v e b e e n laid waste by fire. O n e is s t r u c k too b y the
irony that b u i l d i n g s d e v o t e d to B u d d h i s m , a religion that stresses the eva-
n e s c e n c e of all t h i n g s , are the oldest in the c o u n t r y , w h e r e a s only a h a n d f u l
of the h u n d r e d s of castles built for i m p r e g n a b i l i t y a n d p e r m a n e n c e n o w sur-
vive as originally built. T h e n there is the case of S h i n t o shrines, a n c i e n t in
history a n d design b u t traditionally d i s m a n t l e d a n d rebuilt of fresh m a t e r i a l s
at set intervals to e n s u r e ritual p u r i t y . T h e s t r u c t u r e s at Ise S h r i n e h a v e b e e n
rebuilt sixty t i m e s , the last o c c u r r i n g in 1973, m a k i n g t h e m not only very old,
b u t also very n e w . A m o n g residential s t r u c t u r e s there is o n the o n e e x t r e m e
K a t s u r a P a l a c e , w h i c h w a s e x p a n d e d a n d redesigned for decades u n d e r its suc-
cessive princely o w n e r s , a n d o n the o t h e r K a m o n o C h o m e i ' s " t e n foot s q u a r e
h u t , " w h i c h the o w n e r could d i s m a n t l e a n d r e a s s e m b l e elsewhere as the spirit
moved him.
F r o m o n e perspective, the entire course of J a p a n e s e a r c h i t e c t u r a l develop-
m e n t t h r o u g h the ages can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d in t e r m s of two poles, the n a t i v e
a n d the foreign. B u d d h i s t a r c h i t e c t u r e was, of course, i n t r o d u c e d from C h i n a ,
a n d s u b s e q u e n t d e v e l o p m e n t s on the A s i a n c o n t i n e n t were i m p o r t e d into
J a p a n by C h i n e s e e m i g r e s or J a p a n e s e t r a v e l i n g m o n k s , often with little lapse
in t i m e . C h i n e s e a r c h i t e c t u r a l styles from the Six D y n a s t i e s to the Q i n g t h u s
h a v e their J a p a n e s e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , with the a d d e d irony that J a p a n is often
t h e only place w h e r e e x a m p l e s of those C h i n e s e forms still r e m a i n .
B u t the h e a v y influence of C h i n e s e c u l t u r e a n d the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the
J a p a n e s e to stay a b r e a s t of C o n t i n e n t a l stylistic c h a n g e were c o n t i n u a l l y
t e m p e r e d by i n d i g e n o u s d e v e l o p m e n t s . A n o u t s t a n d i n g e x a m p l e of this t e n d e n -
cy is the i n v e n t i o n by n a t i v e b u i l d e r s of the h i d d e n roof, a n i n n o v a t i o n which
gives a characteristic J a p a n e s e cast to the s t r u c t u r e s u s i n g it. A n d not l o n g
after the G r e a t B u d d h a a n d Zen styles of a r c h i t e c t u r e w e r e i n t r o d u c e d , J a p -
a n e s e c a r p e n t e r s were already c o m b i n i n g e l e m e n t s from t h e m w i t h those of
earlier a r c h i t e c t u r e to n e w , eclectic effect. I n d e e d , the c o n s t a n t dialectic be-
t w e e n the n a t i v e a n d the foreign has e n g a g e d the J a p a n e s e t h r o u g h o u t their
w r i t t e n history (a history itself first recorded in C h i n e s e ) a n d inspired con-
t i n u a l efforts to isolate, or create, a p u r e l y J a p a n e s e c u l t u r a l c o u n t e r p a r t to
that which was i m p o r t e d . In the case of a r c h i t e c t u r e , the p r o b l e m of self-defini-
tion has b e e n c o m p l i c a t e d by the fact that even Ise S h r i n e , considered the
t o u c h s t o n e of native a r c h i t e c t u r a l attitudes, r e a c h e d its p r e s e n t form only after
the i n t r o d u c t i o n of C h i n e s e styles into the c o u n t r y a n d itself shows s o m e
C h i n e s e influence.
T h e r e a d e r c a n , if he or she wishes, e x p a n d the list of o p p o s i n g a r c h i t e c t u r a l
e l e m e n t s . T h e r e r e m a i n s , h o w e v e r , one last " b u t a l s o " that should b e m e n -
t i o n e d here, p e r h a p s the most i m p o r t a n t of all. T h i s is the fact that despite ex-
t r e m e s in size, p l a n , d e c o r a t i o n , age, a n d historical d e v e l o p m e n t in v a r i o u s ex-
a m p l e s of J a p a n e s e a r c h i t e c t u r e , there is a b e d r o c k of basic similarities t h a t , if
not u n i v e r s a l , still a p p l y in a great m a j o r i t y of cases. It is this core of s h a r e d
traits that allows us to speak of " J a p a n e s e a r c h i t e c t u r e " in general, instead of
isolated J a p a n e s e b u i l d i n g s . T h e s e f u n d a m e n t a l consistencies are p a r t i c u l a r l y
r e m a r k a b l e c o n s i d e r i n g the variety of climates t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e the J a p a n e s e
a r c h i p e l a g o a n d the m i l l e n n i u m a n d m o r e that separates the earliest a n d latest
e x a m p l e s of the n a t i o n ' s traditional a r c h i t e c t u r e . T h e a u t h o r s of What is
Japanese Architecture? a s s u m e a basic familiarity with m a n y of these s h a r e d
characteristics, a n d it is accordingly w o r t h w h i l e to c o n s i d e r s o m e of t h e m
here.
P e r h a p s the most f u n d a m e n t a l point of c o m m o n a l i t y b e t w e e n b u i l d i n g s
b o t h magnificent a n d h u m b l e , secular a n d s a c r e d , is the choice of m a t e r i a l s .
T h o u g h t r e a t e d in different w a y s a n d with v a r y i n g degrees of skill, n e a r l y all
s t r u c t u r e s a r e m a d e p r i m a r i l y of w o o d , with p a p e r for screens, straw for m a t s ,
p l a s t e r a n d clay for fixed walls, a n d reeds, w o o d shingles or planks, or tile for
roofs. T h e m a i n p o i n t of d e p a r t u r e from W e s t e r n a r c h i t e c t u r e , a n d i n d e e d
s o m e C h i n e s e s t r u c t u r e s as well, is t h a t stone is largely a v o i d e d , save in t e m p l e
p o d i a , castle f o u n d a t i o n s , m i n i a t u r e p a g o d a s , a n d the like.
I n a d d i t i o n , the basic s t r u c t u r e of most b u i l d i n g s is the s a m e , b e i n g b a s e d
o n the post a n d lintel s y s t e m , with t h i n , n o n - b e a r i n g walls, either m o v a b l e or
fixed, in the i n t e r c o l u m n a r b a y s . T h e only m a j o r v a r i a t i o n s a r e the thick, pro-
tective walls of w o o d , u s u a l l y covered with plaster, in storehouses a n d castles.
I n m o s t cases, the posts also s u p p o r t a raised floor.
R e s t i n g o n t h e post a n d lintel skeleton is a g r e a t roof, w h i c h is u s u a l l y t h e
m o s t a r r e s t i n g a s p e c t of t h e e x t e r i o r d e s i g n . It often a c c o u n t s for half t h e
h e i g h t of t h e e x t e r i o r e l e v a t i o n . T h e e a v e s , s u p p o r t e d b y c o m p l e x b r a c k e t s in
m o s t t e m p l e s b u t b y s i m p l e r c o n s t r u c t i o n s in d o m e s t i c s t r u c t u r e s , e x t e n d o u t
well b e y o n d t h e sides of t h e b u i l d i n g to p r o t e c t v e r a n d a s b e n e a t h . T h e i n n e r
format of m o s t b u i l d i n g s is c e n t e r e d o n a n i n t e r i o r core, from w h i c h s e c o n d a r y
spaces m a y radiate.
It is p e r h a p s b e c a u s e of t h e r e l i a n c e o n w o o d as t h e p r i m a r y m a t e r i a l a n d
t h e post a n d lintel s y s t e m as t h e b a s i c s t r u c t u r a l t e c h n i q u e t h a t J a p a n e s e a r -
c h i t e c t u r e u s u a l l y favors t h e r e c t i l i n e a r over c u r v e s a n d a r c h e s . T h o u g h o n e
d o e s see c u r v i l i n e a r forms in coved ceilings, c u s p e d w i n d o w s , a n d s u c h , t h e s e
a r e d e c o r a t i v e details of o t h e r w i s e p l a n a r c o n s t r u c t i o n s , a n d t h e c u r v e s t h a t
g r a c e t h e g a b l e s o r tips of t h e eaves o n m a n y J a p a n e s e b u i l d i n g s a r e , w i t h few
e x c e p t i o n s , m u c h m o r e g e n t l e t h a n e x a m p l e s found in C h i n a . B a r r e l v a u l t s
a r e a b s e n t , a n d the e n t a s i s ( c o n v e x i t y ) o n posts of early t e m p l e s d i m i n i s h e s in
l a t e r styles.
T h e d e e p e a v e o v e r h a n g , aside from its e x t e r i o r visual effect, l e n d s a
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d i m n e s s to i n t e r i o r s . T h e q u a l i t y of inside i l l u m i n a t i o n d o e s
v a r y , it is t r u e , a c c o r d i n g to t h e s e a s o n a n d t h e l o c a t i o n of e a c h r o o m in t h e
s t r u c t u r e , a n d it also c h a n g e s to s o m e e x t e n t o v e r t h e c e n t u r i e s , as e x t e r i o r
p a r t i t i o n s d e v e l o p from w o o d e n s h u t t e r s o r s c r e e n s to p a p e r p a r t i t i o n s .
N o n e t h e l e s s , a diffused, m e l l o w light, d a r k e n i n g t o w a r d t h e ceiling, r e m a i n s
a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l . I n his essay " I n P r a i s e of S h a d o w s " (In'ei raisan), t h e
m o d e r n novelist T a n i z a k i J u n ' i c h i r o e m p h a s i z e s the i m p o r t a n c e of this
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c in t h e f o r m a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e of all a s p e c t s of t r a d i t i o n a l
J a p a n e s e culture.
F l u i d i t y of i n t e r i o r p a r t i t i o n i n g , a n o t h e r o u t s t a n d i n g feature of J a p a n e s e ar-
c h i t e c t u r e , is p e r h a p s d e r i v e d from its r e l i a n c e o n t h e post a n d lintel s y s t e m .
L a r g e spaces c a n b e s u b d i v i d e d by n o t o n l y fixed walls, b u t also b y e i t h e r free-
s t a n d i n g s c r e e n s o r r e m o v a b l e o n e s set o n b u i l t - i n rails. A n d vice v e r s a , a
s m a l l s p a c e s u c h as t h e T a i a n T e a h o u s e c a n b e e n l a r g e d to a c c o m m o d a t e e x t r a
g u e s t s b y t h e s i m p l e e x p e d i e n t of r e m o v i n g o n e of its i n t e r i o r p a r t i t i o n s . I n
t e m p l e a r c h i t e c t u r e , while fluidity is n o t u n i v e r s a l , it is p r e s e n t in l a r g e
e n o u g h m e a s u r e to b e n o t e w o r t h y . It is p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p a r e n t in m a n y t e m p l e
b u i l d i n g s in a n d after the m e d i e v a l p e r i o d , in w h i c h a n u m b e r of different func-
tions, s u c h as r i t u a l o b s e r v a n c e s a n d s e r m o n i z i n g , a r e c a r r i e d o u t in a single
m a i n hall t h a t a c c o r d i n g l y r e q u i r e s spaces t h a t c a n b e selectively o p e n e d a n d
closed off. T h e a b b o t ' s q u a r t e r s too, w h i c h m a y serve as a r e s i d e n c e a n d lec-
t u r e hall for t h e a b b o t d u r i n g his lifetime a n d as a t e m p l e to his m e m o r y after
his d e a t h , is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by this s a m e i n t e r n a l fluidity.
T h e r e is, m o r e o v e r , a fluidity in J a p a n e s e a r c h i t e c t u r e b e t w e e n i n s i d e a n d
o u t . T h o u g h fixed walls a r e f r e q u e n t l y u s e d , t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n wall a n d
d o o r is v e r y elastic, a n d w h o l e facades in b o t h t e m p l e s a n d r e s i d e n c e s c a n b e
o p e n e d to t h e e l e m e n t s at will by folding o p e n o r s w i n g i n g u p t h e p a n e l s be-
t w e e n t h e p o s t s or b y sliding o p e n , or e v e n r e m o v i n g e n t i r e l y , t h e w o o d e n o r
p a p e r s c r e e n s . T h e v e r a n d a therefore serves as a t r a n s i t i o n a l s p a c e , r e g a r d e d
as p a r t of t h e b u i l d i n g w h e n v i e w e d from the e x t e r i o r , a n d as p a r t of t h e o u t -
side w o r l d w h e n v i e w e d from w i t h i n . I n this w a y J a p a n e s e b u i l d i n g s u s u a l l y
d e m o n s t r a t e a h i g h l y a t t u n e d c o n c e r n for i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h t h e i r n a t u r a l e n -
v i r o n m e n t . N o t only a r e these w o o d e n s t r u c t u r e s m a d e of the s a m e n a t u r a l
m a t e r i a l that form their s u r r o u n d i n g s , b u t they are set out o n their g r o u n d s to
take best a d v a n t a g e of the i m m e d i a t e t e r r a i n . W h e r e a scenic vista is not
a v a i l a b l e , as with a city dwelling or some u r b a n t e m p l e c o m p o u n d s , care is
t a k e n to i n c o r p o r a t e a r e m i n d e r of the n a t u r a l world in the form of a g a r d e n ,
n o m a t t e r how small. T h e a u t h o r s point o u t t h a t even the row h o u s e s of the
c o m m o n people in m e d i e v a l t o w n s often i n c l u d e d g a r d e n s in the rear to pro-
vide both c u l i n a r y a n d aesthetic refreshment. I n the case of temples, even K e n -
choji, with its highly u n n a t u r a l axial p l a n , has a p o n d at its n o r t h e n d a n d
j u n i p e r s to b o t h sides of its central walk. Likewise, the shrines at N i k k o , for all
their effusive d e c o r a t i o n , are laid out a m o n g rows of c e d a r trees a n d c o n t a i n
m o u n t a i n p a t h s d e s i g n e d to take artistic a d v a n t a g e of the n a t u r a l t e r r a i n .
T h o u g h such d o exist, the b u i l d i n g or c o m p l e x that m a k e s n o n o d to t h e
n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t is r a r e , i n d e e d .
O n e e l e m e n t in m o s t J a p a n e s e a r c h i t e c t u r e that keeps the fluidity of design
a n d c o n c e r n for n a t u r a l i n t e g r a t i o n from p l a y i n g h a v o c with artistic u n i t y of
expression is the system of p r o p o r t i o n a l design developed over the c e n t u -
ries. T h e a u t h o r s d e v o t e a m p l e space to the m a n n e r in which each s t r u c t u r a l
m e m b e r is related by formula to the o t h e r s t h r o u g h the use of m o d u l e s ,
t h e r e b y e n s u r i n g a s t r u c t u r a l h a r m o n y w i t h i n single b u i l d i n g s a n d from o n e
b u i l d i n g to a n o t h e r in a c o m p l e x .
A n o t h e r q u a l i t y that keeps the design of e v e n the most heavily o r n a m e n t e d
b u i l d i n g s from completely losing artistic integrity is the fact that d e c o r a t i o n
t e n d s to embellish r a t h e r t h a n disguise basic c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h i s is most ap-
p a r e n t in the spare, n a t u r a l i s t i c b u i l d i n g s influenced by tea taste. B u t even at
N i k k o , w h i c h seems to h a v e b e e n d e c o r a t e d w h e r e v e r h u m a n l y possible, t h e
basic s t r u c t u r e is u n m i s t a k a b l y evident despite the o r n a m e n t . T h e s h r i n e does
not use m a s s i v e false fronts p r o m i s i n g a completely different style from t h a t
w h i c h o n e actually finds u p o n e n t e r i n g , n o r does it a t t e m p t to d e n y the pres-
e n c e or the function of the s t r u c t u r e b e n e a t h the a p p l i q u e .
T h e s e v a r i o u s features shared by m o s t J a p a n e s e a r c h i t e c t u r e allow in t u r n a
fluidity of yet a different s o r t t h a t b e t w e e n the secular a n d the s a c r e d . P a r -
ticularly in the N a r a a n d H e i a n periods (the eighth t h r o u g h twelfth c e n t u r i e s ) ,
p r i v a t e b u i l d i n g s a n d c o m p l e x e s w e r e t u r n e d into t e m p l e s t r u c t u r e s with little
difficulty. I n that w a y L a d y T a c h i b a n a ' s m a n s i o n w a s i n c o r p o r a t e d as a
religious b u i l d i n g into H o r y u j i t e m p l e , a n d F u j i w a r a n o T a m e m i t s u ' s c o m -
plex b e c a m e a t e m p l e c o m p o u n d in its o w n right. E v e n the eastern of the two
I m p e r i a l A s s e m b l y H a l l s of the H e i j o P a l a c e was later transformed into the
L e c t u r e H a l l at T o s h o d a i j i t e m p l e . T h i s characteristic recalls the close rela-
t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n B u d d h i s t s t r u c t u r e s a n d palace a r c h i t e c t u r e in C h i n a . I n
e v e n earlier times there was a c o r r e s p o n d i n g similarity b e t w e e n S h i n t o shrines
a n d the palaces of J a p a n ' s e m p e r o r s , as the rulers were themselves c o n s i d e r e d
S h i n t o deities. E c h o e s of this b o n d still exist, i n t e r m i n g l e d with later B u d d h i s t
influences, in the p r e s e n t I m p e r i a l Palace in K y o t o .
All these s h a r e d characteristics lend a n u n d e r l y i n g u n i t y to J a p a n e s e ar-
c h i t e c t u r e despite the e x t r e m e v a r i a t i o n s we h a v e o u t l i n e d . T h e y c o n s t i t u t e in
s u m a c o n t i n u i n g t r a d i t i o n t h a t builders h a v e t u r n e d to different social, re-
ligious, a n d artistic p u r p o s e s t h r o u g h the ages, a n d t h a t c o n t i n u e to exert a
powerful influence o n J a p a n e s e architects t o d a y .
H. Mack Horton
WORSHIP
The Architecture of Buddhist Temples
and Shinto Shrines
The Shorn Pagoda of Kanndji temple towered at long last in completed splendor. As each course
of scaffolding was removed another of the pagoda's five stories appeared, until finally it stood
revealed in all its lofty glory.

The novel from which this passage is quoted (The granaries of the preliterary age, and its simple
Five-story Pagoda by Koda Rohan) takes as its theme grandeur excites the same admiration as the best of
the imperishability of artistic inspiration. The choice the Buddhist tradition. The designs of most of the
of a pagoda to symbolize this message is particularly shrine types we know today, however, took their
acute, as this structure has been the central identify- mature forms only in the eighth century, at which
ing element of the temple complex ever since the in- time J a p a n had already been heavily influenced by
troduction of Buddhism into J a p a n over fourteen Buddhism. The history of the architecture of these
hundred years ago. two faiths is thus tightly interwoven. For example,
J a p a n ' s religious architecture centers on Buddhist the Toshogu shrine at Nikko, the mausoleum of the
temples and Shinto shrines. Temple architecture was first Tokugawa shogun, looks at first glance to be
imported very soon after the introduction of the basic more of a Buddhist temple than a Shinto shrine, and
doctrines of the faith in the mid sixth century from in sheer opulence and display it rivals or surpasses
the Korean Kingdom of Paekche. For the early any Buddhist structure in J a p a n (figs. 77-79). The
Japanese, the Buddhist creed represented not only German architect Bruno Taut praised the purity and
a new and immensely profound world view, but also simplicity of Ise Shrine, but condemned Nikko's or-
one of the most impressive expressions of highly namentation as artificial. His criticism is by no means
developed culture from the Asian continent. The incontestable, but it does suggests the range and
Buddhist religion and its attendant art and architec- richness of the body of Shinto architecture.
ture was for the early Japanese a route to higher Religious architecture, particularly that of Bud-
civilization and international prestige. By the end of dhist temples, is a fitting place to begin our dis-
the sixteenth century J a p a n was building imposing cussion, for many of the basic concepts introduced
monasteries on the Continental model, and by the will apply to other Japanese building types. T h e
mid eighth century a national system of provincial temple, constructed by and large of wood but often
temples had been established with a well-developed resting on a podium faced with stone, is generally
ecclesiastical organization to maintain it. designed on the post and lintel principle, with non-
Together with sculptural and painted images, the bearing walls in the bays (ken) between each pair of
pagoda and the other buildings in the temple com- posts. Resting above is a grand roof, originally of tile
plex have served as the tangible correlatives of the but later with variations such as wood shingle, whose
idea of faith. Indeed, throughout Japanese history eaves are cantilevered far out over the verandas by
much of the best of the country's human and eco- means of a system of brackets. The brackets rest on
nomic resources has been lavished on their con- the posts beneath and sometimes in the intercolum-
struction. Especially in the classical period (eighth nar spaces as well. The core of the temple, the moya,
through twelfth centuries) and the medieval period is usually one, three, five, or some other odd number
(thirteenth through sixteenth centuries), Buddhist of bays in width by two in depth. Surrounding this
architecture took the lead in introducing new struc- central core on most structures are peripheral sec-
tural and ornamental features. Buddhist buildings tions called hisashi, usually one bay in width. Hisashi
are thus of critical importance not only to all other with separate pent roofs beneath the main roof are
Japanese architecture but to the entire corpus of called mokoshi, and they may surround the moya
Japanese art. directly or, as is more frequently the case, serve as
Shinto, "the Way of the G o d s , " is J a p a n ' s indig- tertiary spaces and border the hisashi that are under
enous religion. Not surprisingly, the roots of Shin- the main roof (figs. 1, 16). A building with a moya
to architecture go back to the very beginnings of three bays wide will thus usually have a five-bay
Japanese civilization, and Shinto shrines have their facade (in the absence of mokoshi or other additions)
own unique forms. T h e configuration of the Grand as it includes the hisashi widths on both sides.
Shrine at Ise, for example, hearkens back to the We will begin our discussion with the oldest ex-
rant temple in J a p a n , Horyuji, and use it as a start- breakdown of the regular temple plan, the growth
ing point for an introduction to the temple complex of elegant private temple complexes for Kyoto
and its main structuresthe pagoda and image aristocrats, then the introduction of the Zen and the
halltogether with the corridor and inner gate that Great Buddha styles from Sung-dynasty China and
enclose them, and the subsidiary structures outside the inevitable eclecticism that resulted in the medieval
that corridor (figs. 1-2). Thereafter we will trace era. We will end the chapter with a look at the origins
the changes that affected the temple plan and the and developments of Shinto architecture, paying
styles of the constituent structures as religious and special attention to both its unique features and those
engineering innovations occurred at home or were that show the influence of Buddhist building con-
introduced from China. These include the rise of the cepts.
so-called Esoteric mountain sects and the concurrent

moya

O- -o o
hisashi

O O O O
T h e Horyuji they built, however, was consumed by
HORYUJI T E M P L E AND fire in 670, and it is the rebuilt version that stands
ITS SYMBOL, T H E PAGODA today.
The Asuka Style The exact years of the reconstruc-
tion of Horyuji remain conjectural, with some sug-
gesting a date as late as the Nara period (710-84).
Japan's Oldest Extant Temple Complex O n the But the style of the extant structures is different from
plain of Ikaruga, just outside the ancient capital most other Nara works and shows a n u m b e r of fea-
of Nara, Horyuji temple stands in serene silence. tures that clearly belong to the Asuka era (552
Backed by gentle hills, the temple presents an im- 710). These include marked entasis (a slight convex-
age of beauty and strength synonymous with the ity) on the columns as well as cloud-pattern bracket
best in J a p a n e s e Buddhist architecture. H o r y u j i ' s arms supporting the eaves (fig. 2). T h e style also
Five-story Pagoda (Goju no To; figs. 1-2) together incorporates a thin block plate (sarato) between the
with the Golden Hall (Kondo) next to it, the Inner tops of the columns and the main bearing block
Gate (Chumon), and most of the surrounding Corri- (daito) supporting the bracketing (visible in the cor-
dor (Kairo; fig. 2) are the oldest surviving wooden ridor in the foreground of fig. 2). Also indicative of
buildings in the world and a logical starting point the " A s u k a style" are the stylized Buddhist swastika
for a discussion of Buddhist architecture in J a p a n . pattern in the ornamental railings (fig. 2) and the in-
The history of Horyuji began in A.D 587, when verted V-shaped struts beneath them (see fig. 65).
the Emperor Yomei, suffering from an illness, set T h e four oldest Horyuji structures mentioned
about to construct a temple for the worship of Bud- above incorporate these Asuka-period elements.
dhist images. His piety proved fruitless and he died T h o u g h the present corridor connects the Sutra
in the same year, but the Empress Suiko and her Repository (Kyozo), Belfry (Shuro), and Lecture
regent, Prince Shotoku, carried out his wishes and Hall (Kodo) at the north of the Golden Hall and pa-
saw the temple project through to completion in 607. goda, these three structures were originally outside
of what was then a perfectly rectangular enclosure diminution, with some seeming nearly straight from
(see fig. 7). top to bottom. Indeed, the Horyuji pagoda has the
Origins of the Pagoda The pagoda enshrines sym- most marked diminution of any extant example, giv-
bolic relics of the Buddha, and the golden hall houses ing it a sense of great stability.
his image. Running through the center of the pagoda But though the pagoda, as reliquary, was the
from uppermost roof to base is a single massive col- central structure of the monastic compound in the
umn that rests on a foundation stone, beneath which early years of Japanese Buddhism, it gradually relin-
are interred the relics which represent the bones of quished its primary position as Buddhist images and
the historical Buddha. the golden hall housing them gained in importance.
The prototype of the Japanese pagoda is the In- The pagoda became in consequence more ornamen-
dian stupa, a hemisphere of stone and earth w ith an tal than functional, as suggested by the appearance
umbrella-shaped spire above, built for the same pur- of temples such as Yakushiji and Todaiji, where
pose of venerating the relics of the Buddha. These two pagodas were built in front of a central image
relics and the stupa housing them were the only hall (see figs. 3, 8, 10).
monuments allowed by the early Indian Buddhist
church; Buddhist anthropomorphic images did not
begin to appear until centuries later. The pagodas
of China and J a p a n are said to have developed from
the Indian stupa spire.
The Pagoda as Symbol As pointed out in the in-
troduction, the pagoda is the symbol of the Buddhist
sacred precinct. Its lofty height and distinctive shape
are entirely in keeping with this role. The five stories
of the Horyuji pagoda gradually decrease in size
toward the top, though later pagodas show less

cloud-pattern
bracket arm

swastika pattern

2. Five-story Pagoda from Corridor,


Horyuji
T H E GREAT E I G H T H - C E N T U R Y TEMPLES

From One Pagoda to Two From its introduction century, then, multiple golden halls have in general
in the mid sixth century, Japanese Buddhism re- disappeared, but the single hall has achieved a posi-
ceived the support of the central government. Thus tion of parity with the pagoda. This configuration
when sculptors and carpenters arrived in J a p a n in was standard thereafter, until the capital, which was
577, temple construction proceeded at a fast pace. traditionally relocated for reasons of ritual purity on
Asukadera, generally thought to have been the first the death of each sovereign, was moved to the Fu-
temple complex constructed in J a p a n (no longer ex- jiwara Capital in 694 (see p. 56). There, as we have
tant), was begun in 588 and completed in 596. The seen, Yakushiji temple was built with not one but
pagoda was located in the center of the compound, two pagodas in the inner precinct (fig. 8). When the
with golden halls surrounding it on three sides and first truly permanent capital, Heijo, was established
a corridor enclosing the whole (fig. 4). in 710 at Nara, Yakushiji was rebuilt there accord-
The pagoda is still located in a position of ing to the same plan. Where multiple golden halls,
preeminence at Shitennoji (early seventh century; fig. then, had surrounded a central pagoda in the late
5) in front of a single golden hall, but at Kawaradera sixth century at Asukadera, multiple pagodas now
(mid seventh century; fig. 6) it stands beside the framed a more important central golden hall a cen-
southern of two golden halls. At Horyuji (built in 607 tury later.
on a different plan, burned, then rebuilt on the pres- The pagoda further declined in importance at Ko-
ent plan from 670; fig. 7) a single pagoda flanks a fukuji, a temple thought to have been moved to its
single golden hall. By the latter part of the seventh present location in the second decade of the eighth
3. Todaiji temple (conjectural)

century. There, the pagoda was moved completely


outside the main corridor (fig. 9).
Todaiji: The Great Center of State Buddhism
By the time of the Emperor Shomu (reigned 724-
49), J a p a n had come in many respects to resemble 10. Todaiji
a theocracy, with the emperor proclaiming himself
to be a servant of the " T h r e e Treasures"the
1. Golden Hall 5. Inner Gate
Buddha, the Buddhist law, and the monastic com- 2. Pagoda 6. Great South Gate
munity. Shomu decreed that a nationally sponsored 3. Lecture Hall 7. Refectory
4. Corridor 8. Monks' Quarters
temple (kokubunji) be established in each province,
and that a great central temple be raised in the
capital to oversee them. Todaiji temple was begun the original, the Great Buddha Hall is still the lar-
accordingly, and in 760 the Lecture Hall (Kodo) and gest wooden structure on earth.) Several decades
Great Buddha Hall (Daibutsuden) were completed thereafter, two seven-story pagodas, each one-hun-
(figs. 3, 10). The latter structure was of truly dred meters tall, were built to either side of the
monumental proportions, and housed a huge gilt front of the main precinct. The Great Buddha Hall
bronze image of Vairocana, the Cosmic Buddha, that stands at the center of the compound, with the Lec-
took two years to cast and three more to polish and ture Hall and Monks' Quarters (Sobo) to the north
gild. (Today, rebuilt at only two-thirds the size of and the Refectory (Jikido) to the east.
creating the " m a n y jewelled pagoda" (tahot'o\ fig. 12).
ARCHITECTURE OF Thereafter the hemispherical portion was removed,
T H E PURE LAND save for a rounded vestige above the pent roof and
below the main roof.
The World of Heian Buddhism In 794 the capital The Phoenix Hall of the Byodoin It was also in
was moved to Heian, present-day Kyoto. It would the Heian period that Pure Land (Jodo) Buddhism
remain there for the next thousand years and more first achieved popularity. Originally closely tied to
and witness the efflorescence of classical J a p a n e s e the Tendai sect in J a p a n , it captured the imagina-
culture. Appropriately enough, this epoch is called tion of aristocrats and, later, of commoners as well
the Heian period (784-1185), after the name of the with its simple doctrine of salvation and rebirth in
capital. Soon after the Heian Capital was founded, the " P u r e L a n d " through prayer to the Amida Bud-
two brilliant clerics, Saicho (767-822) and Ku- dha. Court nobles took to building private Buddha
kai (774-835), introduced new Buddhist teach- halls (jibutsudb) on their manors so as to have an im-
ings that rivalled the old "Six Sects" of the former age of Amida near at all times and encourage pious
Nara capital. Saicho's sect, Tendai, was founded meditation.
atop M t . Hiei to the northeast of the Heian Capi- In the latter half of the Heian period, the imperial
tal, and its first temple was named Hieizanji (later family and the high nobility began building entire
renamed Enryakuji). Kukai founded his new sect, temple complexes around a garden and pond, follow-
Shingon, atop M t . Koya in present-day Waka- ing the same practice used at their private villas (see
yama Prefecture, calling his temple Kongobuji. Tem- pp. 64-67). T h e villa-temples were still Esoteric in
ples of these two sects, which together are now- orientation, as Pure Land doctrines had yet to give
grouped under the rubric of Esoteric Buddhism rise to independent sects, but they were designed to
(Mikkyo), were frequently located in mountain re- reproduce on earth A m i d a ' s paradise, and fortunes
gions, in keeping with their rigorous, ascetic doc- were lavished on them in pursuit of this ideal.
trines. These Esoteric temples often abandoned the One of the finest extant examples of this Pure Land
symmetrical temple plan owing to the uneven ter- villa architecture is the Byodoin. Located in Uji, just
rain of their mountain settings. They also adopted to the south of Kyoto, it was originally the villa of
a new type of pagoda, the "jewelled p a g o d a " (hold), Yorimichi (990-1074), head of the most powerful of
characterized by a roughly hemispherical body with all Heian noble clans, the Fujiwara. T h e fact that
a pyramidal roof and spire atop it. Later the central a villa could be changed into a place of private fami-
hemispherical area was enclosed by subsidiary sec- ly worship with only a few monks in attendance sug-
tions with pent roofs (mokoshi) on the four sides, gests how different was this type of faith from the

11. Phoenix Hall, Byodoin

IH
siate-sponsored monasticism of the older Nara sects,
which continued to survive concurrently.
The most famous of the Byodoin structures is the
Phoenix Hall (Hoodo), completed in 1053 (fig. 11).
Inside is housed a gilded statue of Amida on a lotus
throne, backed by a swirling gilt mandorla (fig. 14).
Above hangs an opulent canopy, and carvings of
heavenly musicians are in attendance on the sur-
rounding walls. Members of the Fujiwara family
would sit across the pond to the east and look west at
the seated Buddha, imagining themselves reborn in
Amida's "Western Paradise." The structure hous-
ing the statue is designed as a stylized phoenix, with
winglike raised corridors to both sides and a tail to
the rear (fig. 13). The building is as elegant and light
as its appointments, the overall effect providing a fine
example of the elegant "Fujiwara style."
Amida Halls and the "Latter Days of the L a w "
The year 1051 was believed to be the fifteen-hun-
12. Tahoto, Ishiyamadera
dredth anniversary of the death of the Buddha and
the beginning of the final decline of the Buddha's
teachings. At that time, it was believed, only the
Amida Buddha had the power to save mankind, and
halls dedicated to Amida flourished in consequence.
The Phoenix Hall is one example of this trend, as
is the Golden Hall (Konjikido) of Chusonji, a tem-
ple built in 1126 by a wealthy provincial clan in nor-
thern Japan. The gilded exterior and the lacquerwork
and mother-of-pearl appointments make the Golden
Hall equal to the most magnificent Kyoto monu-
ments and show how far into the hinterlands Pure
Land belief had penetrated.

central hall

13. Phoenix Hall, Byodoin

14. Statue of Amida, Phoenix Hall, Byodoin


19). It is a square structure with three six-meter-wide of the effect of the Great Buddha style than even the
bays per side and a central altar area one bay square. Great South Gate.
The low, pyramidal roof has no curve, and the rafter Decline of the Great Buddha Style T h e Great
ends are hidden by long fascia (rafter-end covering Buddha style did not long survive its chief advocate,
boards, hanakakushiila; for other examples, see figs. Chogen. Possibly it was linked too strongly in peo-
15, 20), which obviate the necessity of finishing each ple's minds with the regime of the shogun and its
rafter-end separately and thereby increase construc- policies. More importantly, its severity apparently
tion efficiency. Inside there is no ceiling, in order that did not harmonize with Japanese tastes. But elements
the complex pattern of columns, " r a i n b o w " beams of the style, such as its very rational structural pro-
(koryo), and struts may be displayed (see fig. 18). In gram and its characteristic detailing, were absorbed
the center of the structure stand three gilt images, into other building styles and were long-lived and
which strikingly contrast with the vermilion color of influential.
the wooden structural members. The boldness and
vitality of the building may give a more complete idea
NEW MEDIEVAL FORMS
T H E ZEN STYLE

The Architecture of the Zen Sect (Zenshuyo) At not monopolized by the court, which the shogunal
the same time that Chogen was rebuilding Todaiji, regime viewed with suspicion.
another monk, Myoan Eisai (1141-1215), was in- Together with new doctrines, the Zen sect also in-
troducing the Rinzai sect of Zen Buddhism to Japan troduced a new architectural style into J a p a n , one
from China. Soon thereafter, a second Zen sect, that, like the Great Buddha style, was developed in
Soto, was brought to J a p a n by Eihei Dogen Sung China, but which is quite different in design.
(1200-1253). Eisai received the patronage of the sec- The Zen complex is in general axial in plan and
ond Kamakura shogun, Yoritomo's son Yoriie, and roughly bilaterally symmetrical. This reflects the
was able to establish temples in Kamakura and in regimentation of the Zen monk's daily life, in which
Kyoto. But Dogen declined the invitation of the each act is expected to contribute to an overall at-
shogunal regent, Hojo Tokiyori, and went instead titude of religious discipline. The Zen sect sets out
deep into the mountains of present-day Fukui Prefec- rules for not only the shape and appointments of each
ture, where he built the temple Eiheiji, the Soto head- structure, but also the scale and placement of each
quarters. Both sects were able to expand, partly building in the complex.
because their stern self-discipline and respect for in- It is, however, in the structure and ornamenta-
tuitive understanding appealed to the warrior mind, tion of the individual buildings that the identifying
and partly because the new Zen organization had characteristics of the Zen style are most apparent.
deep ties with Chinese culture and learning and was Each hall is set on a stone podium (fig. 16), and each
central square
ceiling
hidden rafter. cantilever

-exposed (base &


flying) rafters

-shrimplike
rainbow beam

hisashi pent-roof 17. Jizodo of Shofukuji

has a stone floor. The posts sit on carved stone blocks, T h e Shariden of Enkakuji temple in K a m a k u r a is
or plinths (soban), rather than directly on base stones, very similar in appearance to the Jizodo, and is
and are beveled at both top and bottom. The brackets likewise famous. T h e original burned in 1563, and
rest not only above each post, as in the Great Bud- the present structure is believed to have been moved
dha style, but in the intercolumnar spaces as well from Taiheiji, one of the five K a m a k u r a nunneries.
(compare figs. 15, 16). But the history of Taiheiji is unclear, and a precise
T h o u g h Sennyuji, a Ritsu-sect temple in Kyoto, date cannot be fixed to the Shariden.
also uses the Zen style, the mode was by and large Naturalized Design Though the Zen style was im-
limited to Zen temple complexes, from which it takes ported from Sung China, it would be a mistake to
its name. It is also known as the " C h i n e s e style" assume that J a p a n ' s extant Zen structures are perfect
(Karayo) in contradistinction to the earlier style of replicas of Chinese prototypes. Over the years Jap-
Buddhist architecture, which by the twelfth century anese carpenters altered the original designs to suit
had come to be thought of as indigenous and ac- native preferences. O n e obvious example is the roof,
cordingly called the " J a p a n e s e style" (Wayo). Like which in J a p a n is often covered with wood shingles
the Great Buddha style of Chogen, many of its in- rather than the more Chinese-style tiles and is sup-
novations were adopted piecemeal into the build- ported by a double-tiered system of rafters (fig. 17).
ings of other sects, but unlike C h o g e n ' s style, the T h e lower layer of rafters (keshodaruki) is exposed,
Zen type thrived on its own as well. and the second layer (nodaruki), which actually sup-
The Shofukuji Jizodo According to an inked in- ports the roof above, is hidden and set at a steeper
scription on one of its bracket members, the Jizodo pitch than the exposed rafters beneath. Later, the
of Shofukuji temple dates to 1407 and is thus the construction was further strengthened by the addi-
oldest Zen temple in eastern J a p a n to which an ex- tion of a cantilever (hanegi) between the two rafter
act date can be affixed. T h e structure is three bays sets.
wide by three deep and is one story tall, but the sur- Until this " h i d d e n " or " d o u b l e " roof system was
rounding area with pent roof [mokoshi-, fig. 16) gives developed in the tenth century, it had been impossi-
it the appearance of a five-by-five-bay, two-story ble to build wide spaces without having a steep drop
building. Atop rests a hip-and-gable (irimoya) roof. in the angle of the rafters over the peripheral sections
At the core of the J i z o d o is a one-bay-square section (hisashi) of a building that surrounded the core (moya).
within which stands the altar. T h e hidden roof made it possible for the pitch of the
In comparison to the Great Buddha style and the underside of the roof to be set independently of that
earlier so-called J a p a n e s e style, the Zen-style mem- of the exterior, thus allowing gently inclined ex-
bers are proportionately thinner and give the exterior posed rafters over the periphery. This eliminated
an attenuated appearance. This entails no sacrifice heavy shadows and gave a feeling of horizontality
in stability, however, thanks to a more efficient use and calmness to the outlying spaces. T h e hidden roof
of the tie beams (nuki) that pierced the columns was a J a p a n e s e innovation and its use made J a p a -
they connected. (For further discussion of details nese temple spaces quite different in feeling from
of the Zen style, see pp. 26-27.) their Chinese antecedents.
DETAILS O F T H E G R E A T BUDDHA STYLE

18. Underside of roof,


Pure Land Hall, Jodoji

19. Pure Land Hall, Jodoji

Structural Characteristics As mentioned earlier, By and large, the brackets themselves face only front
the Great South Gate of Todaiji and the Pure Land to back, and lateral arms are in general eschewed in
Hall of Jodoji are the two finest extant examples of favor of unbroken bracket ties (torihijiki) that provide
the Great Buddha style. Figures 20 and 21 show how the necessary lateral support (compare figs. 20, 23).
the bracketing system is arranged. T h e bracket arms Further structural simplification is seen in the sin-
(called sashi hijiki) are set directly into the posts (fig. gle layer of rafters that carry the roof but are masked
21), making them quite different from the conven- at the ends by the fascia mentioned previously (figs.
tional brackets which were simply placed atop the 15, 20). Nor is the more complex double roof sys-
posts (see fig. 48 for comparison). The posts are tem in evidence. Economy is exercised too in the
laterally stabilized by penetrating tie beams (nuki) rafter placement, unique to the Great Buddha style,
which pierce the center of the posts (fig. 21). These which is in fan pattern (ogidaruki) on the corners (fig.
beams provide stronger structural support than 18)thus providing more corner support than the
the c o m m o n non-penetrating tie beams (nageshi), parallel style (heikodaruki) of standard "Japanese-
which are pinned to the posts' sides. T h e posts are style" roofsbut is parallel in the center of each side
strengthened back to front by more penetrating (compare this arrangement with figs. 22, 28). As in-
beams tied into the posts at the core of the structure. dicated earlier, the complex roof construction is visi-
frog-leg
strut

5 penetrating
' tie beams

20. Great South Gate, Todaiji

21. Great South Gate, Todaiji

ble from the interior as there is no ceiling, and the before finding trees tall and thick enough to serve.
structural members thus take on an added ornamen- The Great Buddha style also uses a unique french-
tal function. The interior " r a i n b o w " tie beams (fig. curved design at the beam tips (called kibana or
21), referred to as such because they are slightly "wooden noses"; barely visible in figs. 15, 20-21)
curved and tapered at the ends, have a configuration as well as in the "frog-leg" struts (the curve not visi-
unique to the Great Buddha style, being nearly ble in fig. 21); for "wooden noses" in Zen-style struc-
round in section and bearing a groove on the under- tures, see figures 23-24, and for other frog-leg
side in the shape of a monk's staff (shakujd). struts, see page 39. Paneled doors of simple design
Decorative Details The Great Buddha style uses are used as well, and they are hung from large
structural members that are proportionately much wooden hinges (warazd) attached to penetrating tie
thicker than those used in Zen buildings. Moreover, beams at top and bottom. Similar doors, but more
the Great Buddha design demands main columns ornamented, are used in Zen-style structures (see fig.
that run the entire height of the structure. Obtain- 25).
ing the requisite lumber for the building campaign
at Todaiji was a challenging process as a result, and
Chogen's laborers went deep into the mountains
DETAILS OF T H E ZEN STYLE

The Typical Zen Monastic Plan We have already Monks' Quarters (called Sodo in Zen complexes).
seen that the Zen complex employs a characteristic North again is the D h a r m a Hall (Hatto), originally
axial layout. O n e fine example is that found in an for lectures on doctrine. At the northern extremity
extant plan of Kenchoji dated 1331, showing the tem- of the compound is the Guest Hall (Kyakuden) for
ple as it was rebuilt after a fire in 1315 (fig. 26). O n e the entertainment of important personages. It over-
enters the temple ground over an arched bridge. looks an elegant pond. In other Zen complexes this
Then, once through the M a i n Gate (Somon), one space is occupied by a hojo, the residence of the ab-
passes between rows of junipers that stand before the bot and a second area for lectures and doctrinal
Enlightenment Gate (Sammon), which corresponds discussion.
to the inner gate (chumon) of other sects. T o the east Structural and Ornamental Details T h e Jizodo of
are the bathing facilities (Yokushitsu); to the west, Shofukuji (see fig. 16) is a fine specimen of Zen-style
the latrine (Seichin). Beyond is the corridor-bordered detail. T h e windows are cusped (katomado; fig. 24),
central court, planted again with junipers, with the and the paneled and ornamented doors (sankarado)
Buddha Hall (Butsuden) at the north. T o the east are, like those of the Great Buddha style, fixed to the
of the Buddha Hall is the Tochido (hall for the wor- penetrating tie beams by hinges (waraza\ fig. 25).
ship of local deities) and to the west is the Founder's Above both windows and doors runs the transom that
Hall (Soshido). Outside the central court to the east admits light through its " b o w - s h a p e d " members.
are the temple kitchens (Kuri), and to the west the Beam ends are carved in a french-curved design
24. Cusped window,
Jizodo, Shofukuji

hinge

26. Kenchoji: 1) bridge, 2) main gate, 3) latrine,


4) baths, 5) Enlightenment Gate, 6) central court,
7) Monks' Quarters, 8) kitchen, 9) Buddha Hall,
10) Founder's Hall, 11) Tochido, 12) Dharma Hall,
13) Guest Hall, 14) pond

hinge
25. Paneled doors,
Jizodo, Shofukuji

typical of Zen structures (figs. 23-24). out around the entire structure, not simply at the cor-
The roofing system is a marvel of complex en- ners as in the Great Buddha style. At the periphery
gineering. Inside, it visually radiates from a cen- of the underside of the rool are two types of exposed
tral square ceiling (kagamitenjo) that hangs above the rafters, the base rafters (jidaruki) and flying rafters
one-bay-square central section of the structure where (hiendaruki) beyond them (figs. 17, 22). Together they
the altar stands (see fig. 17). T h e rear end of the ceil- form the visible lower roof and mask the hidden roof
ing is supported by two posts (raigobashira) that reach pitched at a steeper angle above them. A third type
up from the back of the altar beneath, but the two of rafter, the "tail rafter" (odaruki), is cantilevered
posts one would suppose to be necessary to hold up into the brackets themselves (figs. 17, 22-23; for an
the ceiling front are cut out, to provide an unblock- example of a tail rafter in a Japanese-style temple,
ed view of the altar from the entrance. Instead, the see fig. 55). T h e carved noses of these rafters con-
front end of the ceiling is supported by two short tribute to the visual complexity of the bracket system
"bottle-shaped struts" (taiheizuka) that rest on two (figs. 16, 23). T h e rafters of the pent roof do not
giant transverse beams. These beams span two bays radiate, but are instead parallel, as in the J a p a n e s e
front to back, from the two rear raigobashira posts out style.
to where the front of the building proper meets the
peripheral pent-roof section. The rafters radiate from
above this central square ceiling (fig. 22), fanning
T H E MEDIEVAL JAPANESE STYLE

Chojuji

Chojuji Despite the introduction of the newer Todaiji in 1180. Kofukuji was not rebuilt in Cho-
Great Buddha and Zen styles in the K a m a k u r a gen's new Great Buddha style because the aristo-
period (1185-1333), the older so-called J a p a n e s e cratic Fujiwara family, creators of the Phoenix Hall,
style continued to be used. O n e particularly fine ex- was by this time a venerable and conservative house,
ample of the medieval Japanese style is the Main Hall and they favored traditional design. Some struc-
(Hondo) of Chojuji temple (Koka District, Shiga tural improvements were incorporated, however.
Prefecture; fig. 27). A temple of the Tendai sect, it Today, only two buildings at Kofukuji remain
is composed of an Inner Sanctum (Naijin) and an from the post-1180 reconstruction campaign. They
O u t e r Sanctuary (Gejin; figs. 29-30), separated by are the North Octagonal Hall (Hokuendo) and
lattice doors with a diamond-pattern transom above. the Three-story Pagoda. T h e former was rebuilt by
T h e cross-section illustration shows how each of Nara-area carpenters associated with the temple, and
the two areas has its own exposed roof (keshoyaneura) they used the original Nara-period foundation stones.
above it, with a single hidden roof (noyane) built over The design of the North Octagonal Hall consequently
both, visually unifying the structure from the ex- bears a great debt to the eighth-century prototype.
terior. This shows that originally the building was T h e pagoda was rebuilt by Kyoto carpenters
composed of two more-or-less separate structures, the trained under the influence of Heian courtly taste
rear one called the Principal Hall (Shodo) and the and is accordingly more delicate and refined.
front one, the Worship Hall (Raido). The Main Hall The Eclectic Style Toward the end of the Kama-
of Chojuji has a calm appearance, thanks to the thick kura period, the J a p a n e s e style began adopting
structural members, simple bracketing, and low roof. elements from the two newer building types. T h e
The traditional paralleled rafter system (fig. 28) clear- wooden noses of beams and bracket arms might
ly contrasts with the fan raftering used in the Great adopt the Great Buddha style, or the posts support-
Buddha and Zen styles. ing the porch roof (kohai) might stand on Zen-style
The Rebuilding of Kofukuji T h e J a p a n e s e style carved plinths or be connected to the building prop-
was also used in the project to rebuild the Fujiwara er by the bulbous S-shaped "shrimplike rainbow
temple of Kofukuji, which was destroyed along with b e a m s " (ebi koryo) that often connect the pent-roof
hidden roof
area ^ ^ ^
hidden
rafter

28. Underside of roof, cantilever


Main Hall, Chojuji
exposed
rafter

exposed roofs

30. Main Hall, Chojuji

rainbow beams

29. Main Hall, Chojuji


31. Main Hall, Kakurinji

section of Zen structures to the central portion (see od (1338-1573). O n e such structure is the Golden
fig. 17 for an example). In fact, the number of pure Hall (Kondo) of Kofukuji, dated 1415. As was the
Japanese-style buildings dramatically declined in this case with the North Octagonal Hall and Three-
period. The degree of stylistic mixture thus deter- story Pagoda discussed earlier that survive from
mines whether a building is to be identified as Jap- the early Kamakura rebuilding of the temple, the
anese style or Eclectic style (Settchuyo). style was deliberately chosen because of the tem-
An Example of the Eclectic Style The Main Hall ple's ancient history and its location in the old Nara
(Hondo) of Kakurinji temple (Kakogawa City, Capital. All in all, however, the introduction of the
Hyogo Prefecture) is a particularly well-known Eclec- Great Buddha and Zen styles made a profound im-
tic style structure (fig. 31). The hall, thought to have pact on medieval builders and influenced the devel-
been built in 1397, is basically of the Japanese style, opment of a variety of new architectural effects.
with details of the Great Buddha style selectively add- Kamakura-period architecture was therefore much
ed, such as the nearly round Great-Buddha-style more stylistically varied than that of earlier periods.
" r a i n b o w " beams. The combination of these two In succeeding centuries Buddhist architectural types
styles occurs so frequently that some architectural settled into more or less fixed forms.
historians refer to it as the New Japanese style (Shin A large number of impressive medieval buildings
Wayo). In the case of the Kakurinji Main Hall, still survive, including the thirty-three-bay Main Hall
however, Zen-style elements were also blended into (Hondo) of the Rengeoin (also called the Sanju-
the design, as in the above-mentioned "shrimplike sangendo; Kyoto, 1266), which is constructed in the
rainbow b e a m s " (fig. 31). The Main Hall (Hondo) Japanese style with some details in the Great Bud-
of the Myooin temple (Fukuyama City, Hiroshima dha style. Also notable is the Five-story Pagoda of
Prefecture), built in 1321, is another example where Kofukuji (Nara, 1442), a separate structure from the
all three main medieval styles are used in combi- even older Three-story Pagoda of the same complex,
nation. mentioned earlier.
A small number of pure Japanese-style buildings
did continue to be built even in the Muromachi peri-
mitsu's villa complex, was destroyed by arson in
T H E GOLDEN AND 1950. It was rebuilt in 1955, however, and is a near-
SILVER PAVILIONS perfect re-creation of the original.
Higashiyama Culture and the Silver Pavilion In
1484, nearly a century after the construction of
the Golden Pavilion, the eighth Ashikaga shogun,
Yoshimasa, began work on his own villa in the
Eastern Hills (Higashiyama) of Kyoto. Consciously
Kitayama Culture and the Golden Pavilion basing his villa concept on the Kitayama complex of
Following the first military government (shogunate) his predecessor, Yoshimasa continued work on his
founded by Yoritomo in the late twelfth century, a mansion and garden until his death in 1490, at which
second such administration was established by the time it was converted into a temple and renamed
Ashikaga family in 1338, and the two centuries and Jishoji. Two of its structures remain today, the Silver
more of its existence are known as the Muromachi Pavilion (formally called the Kannon Hall, or Kan-
period (1338-1573). One of the finest examples of nonden; fig. 34) and a building for private worship,
the architecture of the Ashikaga is the Golden Pa- the Hall of the Eastern Quest (Togudo or Togudo).
vilion (Kinkaku), built in 1398 by the third Ashikaga As is the case with the Golden Pavilion, the first floor
shogun, Yoshimitsu (fig. 32). It was part of a sump- of the Silver Pavilion, called the Hall of Emptied
tuous villa complex located in Kyoto's Northern Mind (Shinkuden), is in residential style (fig. 35),
Hills (Kitayama), and that area gave its name to the and the top floor, the second, called as at the Golden
Kitayama culture of Yoshimitsu and his circle. The Pavilion the Tower of the Sound of Waves (Cho-
villa later became Rokuonji temple, and the pavilion onkaku), is influenced by the Zen style. Though
is formally known as the Relic Hall (Shariden). Yoshimasa may have planned to cover his pavilion
A three-story structure, the Golden Pavilion is built in silver leaf, there is no evidence that it was ever
over the villa's spacious pond and casts its reflection applied, and the building remains today of unpainted
in the water before it, to startlingly beautiful effect. wood.
The first floor of the building (fig. 33), named the During the century that separated the Golden and
Chamber of Dharma Waters (Hosuiin), is built in Silver Pavilions, there were developments in residen-
residential style. Above it, designed as a Buddha hall tial spaces (to be discussed in Chapter 2) that are
in the Japanese style, the Tower of the Sound of reflected in these two structures. This is particularly
Waves (Choonkaku) houses an image of the Bodhi- evident when the lower floors of the two structures
sattva Kannon. The third story, the Cupola of the are compared. The first story of the Golden Pavilion
Ultimate (Kukyocho), is in the Zen style of archi- is based on the Shinden style of domestic archi-
tecture and holds an Amida triad and twenty-five tecture that first took shape in the mansions of
Bodhisattvas. the Heian-period nobility (see pp. 64-67). Such
The Golden Pavilion, the sole survivor of Yoshi- Shinden structures are planned around a large cen-
paneled
doors
latticed
cusped
windows altar

Sosei kiosk

sliding
wooden
doors

veranda
33. First floor, Golden Pavilion

32. Golden Pavilion


cusped windows
with paper screens
34. Silver Pavilion

35. First floor, Silver Pavilion

paper-covered screens
with wainscoting

believed to have been inspired by the famous Sung-


dvnasty Zen text, The Blue Cliff Record (Eiyan lu). Its
Lapis Lazuli Pavilion (Ruriden), which is no longer
tral open area surrounded by peripheral rooms and extant, was the model for both the Golden and the
verandas under the eaves. Walls are composed Silver Pavilions, and its Hall of the Western Arrival
primarily of shitomidolarge, two-part reticulated (Sairaido) served as the inspiration for Yoshimasa's
shutters. In the illustration of the Golden Pavilion Hall of the Eastern Quest. Yoshimasa's garden pond
(fig. 32), the upper halves of the shitomido have been is said to have once been large enough for pleasure
raised parallel to the floor and hooked to the soffit boating, but the garden and temple grounds were
above to let in light, but the bottom halves (which reduced to their present dimensions in the Edo period
are removable) have been left in place between the (1600-1867).
posts. T h e second floor contains newer mairado slid- T h e Kitayama (1367-1408) and Higashiyama
ing wooden doors as well as latticed windows. At (1443-90) periods, symbolized respectively by the
the Silver Pavilion, though (fig. 34), the shitomido Golden and Silver Pavilions, mark the two cultural
have been entirely replaced by sliding paper-covered high points of the Muromachi era. The culture of the
screens (shoji) with high wooden wainscoting, a design periods was strongly based on Chinese taste, much
which appears to have been developed in the latter of which was introduced through the agency of Zen
part of the fifteenth century. It is not known whether monks. It was informed as well, though, by native
the Silver Pavilion used these wainscoted shoji ideals, and much of what we think of today as the
originally or whether it was fit with shoji and mairado quintessence of the Japanese artistic experience, for
in combination and then, later, redesigned with example, the tea ceremony, ink painting, and the No
wainscoted shoji. But in either case, the absence of drama, reached fruition during these years. It was
shitomido clearly reflects a later design. The plan, also the time in which some of J a p a n ' s most famous
too, has abandoned the single open room for a com- landscape gardens were made, including not only
bination of smaller spaces (compare figs. 33, 35), and that at Saihoji but also the rock gardens of Ryoanji
this configuration continues in use hereafter. and the Daisen'in of Daitokuji and the pond garden
Despite these differences, in overall conception of Tenryuji, the last another creation of Muso Soseki.
both pavilions are based on that of the Saihoji tem- The basic concept of a multistoried garden pavilion
ple and " m o s s g a r d e n " complex designed in 1339 overlooking a pond continued to be influential even
by Muso Soseki (1275-1351). Working on the site after the Muromachi period. O n e of the finest ex-
of an older Pure Land temple, Muso constructed a tant later examples is the Hiunkaku Pavilion in the
dry landscape garden at the north and added Chinese garden of Nishi Honganji in Kyoto, now thought to
elements to the original garden and pond to the have probably been built some time between 1615
south. His design revolutionized garden art and is and 1624.
36. Picture Scroll of the Legends of Ishiyamadera Temple

37. Picture Scroll of the Kasuga Gongen Miracles

Classical versus Medieval Building Most major of smaller trees, which in turn contributed to the
building projects of J a p a n ' s classical era (the eighth development of new tools and methodologies. Two
through twelfth centuries) were sponsored by the important advances in this area were the inventions
court. But with the decline in the power of the aris- of the two-man saw (oga; close to a bucksaw in ap-
tocracy and the approach of the medieval era (thir- pearance) and the bench plane (daikanna). The two-
teenth through sixteenth centuries), court-supported man saw, operated vertically (fig. 40), allowed the
building projects becamc far fewer, and the initia- manufacture of much thinner planks, and the bench
tive passed to the individual estate owners, warriors, plane, essentially an angled blade ("plane iron") pro-
and temples. jecting a fraction of an inch from a flat block of wood,
Construction techniques changed as well over the greatly improved the smoothness of the planks. It is
ages. Lumber, for example, was split with a wedge not known exactly when these two tools began to ap-
and then smoothed with an adze (chona) and a long- pear, but they are not seen in the picture scrolls of
bladed plane (yarikanna) rather than sawed as in the the Kamakura and early Muromachi periods.
Heian centuries. It was therefore easier in the medi- Construction Scenes in Picture Scrolls The Pic-
eval period to make thin planks or delicate wooden ture Scroll of the Legends of Ishiyamadera Temple (Ishi-
components. yamadera engi\ fig. 36) dates from about the early
The T w o - M a n Saw and the Bench Plane As the fourteenth century and shows a great deal about con-
medieval period wore on, it became progressively temporary construction methods. In the foreground,
more challenging to obtain the massive lumber used lumber is being brought to the site in ox carts. A
in earlier structures. The scarcity necessitated the use more unwieldy slab is being pulled in after it on
rollers. In the hut behind, workers at the right are A third instructive illustrated source is the Picture
smoothing planks with adzes in front and with long- Scroll of the Legends of Matsuzaki Tenjin Shrine (Matsuzaki
handled planes behind. At the left, other men are us- Tenjin engi), which comes down to us from about 1311
ing saws in the foreground and, again, adzes behind. (figs. 38-39). In figure 38 workers have constructed
At front center in the hut, two men split a block with a scaffold of thin, round posts with planks set on top.
wedges. The master carpenter, his left hand holding a mea-
Another valuable illustration is provided by the Pic- suring stick, uses a string weighted by a carpenter's
ture Scroll of the Kasuga Gongen Miracles (Kasuga Gongen ink pot to check whether a post is plumb. An aristo-
kenkie) painted in the late Kamakura period (fig. 37). crat, perhaps a patron of the project, sits behind and
At the far right of the picture, men pound in foun- watches the work progress. In figure 39 wedges,
dation stones where the alignment lines intersect. The adzes, and long-handled blades are shown, but the
man carrying the measuring stick on his shoulder and two-man saw has yet to appear. O n e depiction of such
pointing is probably the master carpenter. T o the left a tool is found with the caption " t w o - m a n s a w " in
of this scene, in the foreground, two men mark off the Thirty-Two Round Poem Competition on Trades (San-
a post with carpenter's squares and ink brushes. jimiban shokunin utaawase), shown here in figure 40.
Behind them two more workers inscribe a straight The poem accompanying it uses the word nokogiri
line on a plank by snapping a taut, ink-covered string for " s a w , " and the same word is used today.
to it. Another pair of workers behind them use
wedges to split a plank. In the hut in the background
more carpenters saw and notch wood.
T E M P L E A R C H I T E C T U R E IN
T H E EARLY M O D E R N PERIOD

i
pgrrffffiiiaij ~

rail j|i
H i Hiffi
p a nj^TTn'
IILJJ-1,!8' ?*&

IF^'

h"
p P i ! Pi
illtjj. i s
SPC
jfzc,
j j L - ^ g i

41. View from Middle Sanctuary toward Sanctum Sanctorum, Main Hall, Zenkoji

The Popularization of Architecture After a cen- The Main Hall of Zenkoji O n e of the most pop-
tury of civil war that racked the entire country, Japan ular pilgrimage spots in the north of J a p a n was,
was reunited in the late sixteenth century by three and still is, Zenkoji temple (Nagano City, Nagano
great generalsOda Nobunaga (1534-82), Toyo- Prefecture). Rebuilt in 1707, the Main Hall (Hondo)
tomi Hideyoshi (1536/7-98), and Tokugawa Ieyasu boasts a complex plan (fig. 43) composed of an Outer
(1542-1616). T h e latter established the Tokugawa Sanctuary (Gejin), Middle Sanctuary (Chujin), In-
shogunate, J a p a n ' s third military government. Un- ner Sanctum (Naijin), and Sanctum Sanctorum
der the Tokugawa the country was closed off from (Nainaijin). The pilgrim could enter the Outer Sanc-
most Western intercourse until the arrival of the tuary while still wearing his footwear, and then after
naval squadron of C o m m o d o r e Matthew C. Perry removing it rest on the elevated tatami-mat door of
in 1853. the Middle Sanctuary. But the most famous attrac-
Although J a p a n was largely isolated from the out- tion of the Zenkoji Main Hall is the pitch-dark tun-
side world during the Edo period (1600-1868), trav- nel beneath the Sanctum Sanctorum, through which
el within the country increased due to the long- pilgrims arc encouraged to grope their way to earn
standing peaceful conditions established under the religious merit.
shogunate. M u c h of this travel took the form ol T h e facade of the Main Hall is massive in ap-
pilgrimages by the general public to temples and pearance, but like the Jizodo of Shofukuji (see fig.
shrines, and the military government encouraged ties 16), what looks to be a two-story design is actually
between the people and various places of worship. one story plus a huge subsidiary area with a pent roof
As a result, temples began to cater to the less-refined (fig. 42). T h e Main Hall was constructed on a grand
tastes of the common folk and adopted effusive color scale to inspire the thousands of pilgrims who made
schemes and ostentatious sculpture. the trip to pray for health, domestic tranquility, com-
mercial prosperity, and other down-to-earth con- finest examples of the Obaku style is Mampukuji
cerns. In a word, Zenkoji was built as a popular at- temple in Uji , south of Kyoto, which was es-
traction, and it suits its purpose perfectly (fig. 41). tablished by the Ming emigre Yin-yuan Long-qi
Kiyomizu Temple Another temple with great (1592-1673). The main structure, the Daiyuhoden,
popular appeal is Kiyomizudera, located in southeast dates from 1668.
Kyoto. The Main Hall (Hondo) is built on the side Another impressive Obaku temple, Sofukuji (fig.
of a low but steep mountain, and it boasts a large 44), was built in Nagasaki by Chinese immigrants
stage area supported by complex and impressive scaf- from Fuzhou in Fujian Province. The Daiippomon
folding that reaches far below. This mountainside gate (not illustrated) was rebuilt in 1694 from mate-
kakezukuri foundation has been popular in temples of rials constructed in China and transported to Ja-
the Esoteric sect since the Heian period, but seldom pan. Its vivid polychromy and intricate four-tiered
employed to such arresting effect. Much of the city bracket system are touchstones of the Obaku style.
of Kyoto is visible from the temple, and the view has The introduction of the Obaku-sect style did not,
pleased thousands of pilgrims since the Edo period. of course, preclude continued building in the other
The intricate system of roofs over the various struc- building types theretofore in use. For the rebuilding
tures and connecting corridors in the complex is also of the Great Buddha Hall at Todaiji, for example,
well known. the Great Buddha style was readopted, though the
Architecture of the O b a k u Sect The Obaku sect facade of the structure was reduced from eleven bays
of Zen was first introduced into J a p a n in the mid to seven. The project, which lasted from 1688 to
seventeenth century from China. Together with the 1709, was undertaken by the monk Kokei (1648-
new sect came another style of religious architecture, 1705), who was awarded the elevated Buddhist title
that of the Ming and Qing dynasties. One of the shonin for his work.
purlin-bearing
BUDDHIST A R C H I T E C T U R E - bracket arm
S T R U C T U R E AND DETAIL

demon block

45. Demon block, West 46. Purlin-bearing


Pagoda, Taimadera bracket arm, West Pa-
goda, Taimadera

small

47. Boat-shaped bracket 48. Large block and 49. Flat three block,
arm, Main Hall, Dai- bracket arm, Dempodo, Great Lecture Hall, block, Main Hall,
sen'in, Daitokuji Horyuji Horyuji Chokyuji

52. Two-step complex, 53. Two-step complex, 54. Three-step complex,


Hokkedo, Todaiji Five-story Pagoda, Main Hall, Daizenji West Pagoda, Taima-
Kaijusenji dera

Bracketing T h e Buddhist temple has manifold uses of two basic parts, the bearing block (masu) and the
besides housing one or more images, it serves as bracket a r m (hijiki; fig. 48). T h e bearing block is
a place for ritual and worship, and as a symbol of basically a square or rectangular cube beveled at the
the Buddhist faith. T o serve these purposes, it re- bottom (the "block tail" or tojiri). W h e n set directly
quires imposing and permanent structures. T h e on a column, this component is known as a "large
grandeur of the temple is in large part created by the block" (daito; fig. 48); on a bracket arm, it is called
deep eave overhang of the dignified roof, and the a "small block" (makito; fig. 49). Bearing blocks se:
course of bracketing that supports it beneath. T h e on corner posts have more intricate bevel carving a:
bracket system is thus one of the keys to both the the block tails and are called " d e m o n blocks" (oniic
structure and the ornament of the temple, and it has in consequence (fig. 45).
undergone a long series of refinements in conse- T h e outward support of the bracket complex b
quence. provided by bracket arms. T h e y too are beveled a?
T h e bracket complex (kumimono or tokyo) consists their projecting ends, making them resemble humac
Development of the Three-Stepped Bracket
The three-step bracket is still at an early stage in its de-
velopment at the Three-story Pagoda of Yakushiji (730;
fig. 55). The design has not reached the point where all
flying
rafter base rafter
blocks are used in vertical rows of twos or threes. Bracket
arms still retain the slight tonguelike protuberance (zetsu)
rafter
on their lower corners and the understated concavity on
their upper surfaces (sasaguri:, f\g. 55), both features of
55. Three-step complex, brackets at such early sites as Horyuji. Later the zetsu and
Three-story Pagoda, Yakushi- sasaguri cease to be used.
ji (730) By the tenth century, all the blocks at the Daigoji pagoda
appear in vertical groups (fig. 56), and curved struts (shirin)
are fit between the second and third steps of the bracket
complex. A final development occurs in the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries, when each of the uppermost three-block
bracket arms has exactly six rafters above it, two per block
(fig. 5.8). Though impossible to tell from figure 57, this is
the case at the Three-story Pagoda at Jorakuji. The system,
called "six-branch placement" (rokushigake), effects a more
organic relationship between the brackets and rafters.

curved struts

56. Three-step complex, Five-


story Pagoda, Daigoji (952)
tail rafter

57. Three-step complex,


Three-story Pagoda, Jorakuji
(1400)
n n n n n n n n

58. Six-branch placement,


Kongodo, Enkyoji (1544)

elbows (hiji), whence comes their J a p a n e s e name simplest of these is the "boat-shaped bracket a r m "
"elbow w o o d " (hijiki; fig. 50). When the uppermost (funahijiki), which directly supports the beam above
bracket arm rests on the small blocks beneath and (fig. 47). When it rests on a large bearing block, it
directly supports the purlin above without the agen- is called a "large block and bracket a r m " complex
cy of more small bearing blocks of its own, it is (daito hijiki; fig. 48). Mounting three small blocks atop
called a purlin-bearing bracket arm (sane hijiki; fig. the bracket arm makes it a "flat three block" com-
46). plex (hiramitsudo; mitsudo meaning "three blocks;" fig.
T h o u g h the bracket complexes used in the J a p - 49). W h e n a second bracket arm projects from this
anese, Great Buddha, and Zen styles are all differ- assembly perpendicular to the wall to support a rafter
ent in configuration, that of the J a p a n e s e style is by means of a single bearing block, it is called a "pro-
the most basic, and its general characteristics apply jecting three-block" complex (demitsudo; fig. 50).
to the other two as well. We will therefore concen- Adding to that single block a second three-block
trate here on the Japanese-style bracket complex. The unit under a purlin creates the "projecting com-
Eave Construction
Eaves are supported by rafters (taruki), which rest on pur-
lins (keta) and are cantilevered over the bracket complexes.
purlin In early structures the load of the roof is supported direct-
ly by posts beneath. This is the case at the Higashimuro
of Horyuji (fig. 59) and the Dempodo of Horyuji (fig. 60),
both dating from the Nara period (710-84). Later,
rafter however, the burden of supporting the roof was assumed
primarily by a huge cantilever (hanegi) hidden from view.
59. Single eave, Higashimuro,
Horyuji (late 7th cen., with One example is the Worship Hall (Raido) of the East
later remodeling) Precinct (Toin) of Horyuji, rebuilt in 1231 (fig. 61). The
Worship Hall uses two sets of rafters, the exposed base
rafters (keshodaruki) below and the hidden rafters (nodaruki)
above them, carrying the roof materials. The weight-
bearing cantilever in between enables the rafters to be made
thinner and extended out further. The two sets of rafters
allow the underside of the eave to have a more gentle pitch.
Note too the single-eave raftering (hitonoki) of the Hi-
gashimuro, which uses only base rafters (jidaruki\ fig. 59),
and the double-eave raftering (futanoki) of the Dempodo
and Worship Hall, both of which have base rafters and fly-
ing rafters (hiendaruki) projecting beyond them (figs.
60-61). Flying rafters increase the curve of the eave ends.
60. Double eave, Dempodo, It is interesting as well that the Higashimuro uses no
Horyuji (739) bracketing at all (fig. 59). The Dempodo has simple boat-
shaped brackets not visible in the cross section.

hidden rafter
cantilever

(lying base
rafter rafter Cafe*
61. Double eave, Worship
Hall, East Precinct, Horyuji
(rebuilt 1231) 62. Strut and block with 63. Collared strut, Main
filigree, North Octagonal Hall, Umpoji (mid 15th
Hall, Kofukuji (1210) to mid 16th cen.)

plex" (degumi) or "one-step complex" (hitotesaki\ fig. fig. 56), to the Three-story Pagoda at Jorakuji (Shiga
51). A bracket complex with a second such assembly Prefecture, 1400; fig. 57).
projecting a second step outward to support a sec- Intercolumnar Supports Additional support for
ond purlin is called a "two-step complex" (futatesaki; the wall purlin is provided by intercolumnar supports
figs. 52-53); with a third, a "three-step c o m p l e x " (nakazonae) placed in the intervals between the bracket
(mitesaki\ figs. 54-57), and so on. In the case of the complexes that have posts supporting them. In Zen-
three-step complex, the third three-block assembly style structures, entire bracket complexes are used
is usually supported by a "tail rafter" (odaruki) can- in these intercolumnar spaces as well as above the
tilevered out over another bracket arm beneath (figs. posts themselves (see fig. 23), but in other styles
54-57). A comparison of the illustrated examples of simpler members are used. T h e most basic of these
the three-step bracket complex shows the refinement simpler elements is the "strut and block" (kentozuka),
the design underwent over time, from the Three- seen, for example, on the Phoenix Hall of the Byo-
story Pagoda at Yakushiji (Nara City, 730; fig. 55), doin (see fig. 11). O r n a m e n t a l variations of this in-
to the Five-story Pagoda at Daigoji (Kyoto City, 952; clude the strut and block with filigree (oigala; fig. 62)
64. Floriate bracket arm, 67. Open frog-leg strut,
Two-story Gate, Enjoji Jizodo, Shin Yakushiji
(1468) (1266)

65. Split strut, Golden 68. Open frog-leg strut,


Hall, Horyuji (c. Jizodo, Horyuji (1372)
680-94)

66. Open frog-leg strut, 69. Closed frog-leg strut,


Main Hall, Ujigami Second Main Hall,
Shrine (late 11th to ear- Udamikumari Shrine
ly 12th cen.) (1320)

and the "collared strut," named minozuka in Japanese nar member, the "frog-leg" strut (kaerumata), though
for the collar's resemblance to the traditional straw the origins of the latter are not precisely known (figs.
raincoat (mino; fig. 63). Strut and block assemblies 66-69). First appearing in about the twelfth cen-
are sometimes used in vertical and/or horizontal pairs tury, the frog-leg strut became progressively more
(fig. 64, top). decorative, incorporating intricate carvings of flora
The second general type of intercolumnar member and fauna. In the Edo period in particular the strut
is the "floriate bracket a r m " (hanahijiki), where a often nearly disappeared beneath coiling dragons or
standard flat bracket arm with blocks has been styl- other sumptuous ornamentation. There are two basic
ized through floral carving (fig. 64, bottom). T h e types of frog-leg struts, the " o p e n " (hon kaerumata or
third type is the "split strut" (warizuka), found either sukashi kaerumata), where the space between the legs
with straight or with slightly curved legs (fig. 65). is either empty or filled to varying degrees with carv-
T h e design, resembling the diagonal braces (.ja.su) ing (figs. 66-68), and the " c l o s e d " (ita kaerumata),
supporting the roof ridge (see fig. 30), may have been a solid piece bearing only the characteristic frog-leg
the forerunner of the last main type of intercolum- outline (fig. 69).
Nature Worship Shinto, " t h e Way of the G o d s , " T h e configuration of the early shrines is unknown,
is J a p a n ' s indigenous religion. Animistic in nature, but possibly resembled the portable shrines (mikoshi)
it worships not only anthropomorphic deities, but still carried on poles during festivals today. Indeed,
also the spirits of awe-inspiring elements of nature, the arrangement of the foundation stones at Kasuga
especially certain mountains and trees. Early shrines Shrine (see fig. 74b-d) and K a m o Shrine (see fig. 75)
used none of the monumental architecture of later suggest that their principal structures were original-
Shinto structures. Some, like Miwa Shrine (Nara ly movable.
Prefecture) and K a n a s a n a Shrine (Saitama Prefec- T h e Oldest Shinto Shrine Styles T h e main types
ture) have as their central object of worship the of Shinto shrines in use today took their final forms
mountain behind them, and thus even today have after the introduction of Buddhist architecture.
no central building corresponding to the " m a i n hall" T h o u g h influenced to varying degrees by Buddhist
(honden) used in other Shinto complexes. Instead, in temple forms, they nevertheless remain stylistical-
the case of Miwa Shrine, a massive rock called ayon- ly separate and distinct. T h e three most venerable
shiro atop M t . Miwa is the focus of the sacred pre- Shinto shrine styles are the Shimmei (fig. 70), Taisha
cinct. At the base of the mountain is a small wor- (fig. 71), and Sumiyoshi (fig. 72). Each is primarily
ship hall (haiden) and a torii, the characteristic post identified with one famous complexIse Shrine (Ise
and lintel gate that indicates a Shinto sanctuary (see City, Mie Prefecture) for the Shimmei, Izumo Shrine
fig. 83 for an illustration of a torii). (Hikawa District, Shimane Prefecture) for the Tai-
T h e Shrine Prototype Actual shrine structures sha, and Sumiyoshi Shrine (Osaka City) for the
were probably built in response to the need to sum- Sumiyoshi.
mon a deity in order to offer prayers for a bountiful Ise Shrine actually consists of two shrine com-
crop or express thanks for a good harvest. These early plexes, the O u t e r (Geku) and Inner (Naiku; fig. 73).
structures, the prototypes of the shrines we know to- T h e most important structure is the M a i n Shrine
day, are found either in a central location in a village (Shoden; figs. 70, 73) of the Naiku. Located in the
or before mountains, boulders, and other places center of the complex, it has an entrance por-
where the gods were thought to dwell. These original tico projecting from its south side. Shrines (and other
constructions were most likely temporary in nature. types of buildings as well) with entrances in the side
parallel to the roof ridge are called hirairi, "side- mously costly. Ise, therefore, is the only shrine to-
e n t e r e d , " as opposed to those entered at the gable day that is regularly rebuilt, though the practice was
end (tsumairi). Visual support for the roof ridge is pro- common at many shrine sites in the past.
vided by two massive pillars, called munamochibashira, Izumo Shrine, built for the worship of Okuninushi
that stand independently beyond the gable sides of and four lesser gods, has a similarly ancient heritage
the structure and lean slightly inward. Above the and was rebuilt twenty-five times. T h e Main Shrine
plank walls is a miscanthus (kaya) roof topped by ten ( H o n d e n ; fig. 71) is a gable-entrance structure of
roof billets (katsuogi) and, at either end, forked finials impressive size, hence the name Taisha, " G r e a t
(ichigi) that are extensions of the bargeboards. T h e S h r i n e . " Originally it may have been even larger
floor is elevated on posts. Surrounding the M a i n shrine legends say the prototype stood nearly one
Shrine and the two Treasure Houses (Hoden) to the hundred meters tall and was reached by a grand stair-
north are concentric fences, the Mizugaki, Uchi (In- case. In plan, the present Main Shrine resembles that
ner) Tamagaki, T o n o (Outer) Tamagaki, and, sur- of the Daijoe Shoden, built for the accession of each
rounding the whole, the Itagaki. new emperor. T h e Main Shrine at Izumo is thought,
T o the east of the shrine complex in figure 73 therefore, to preserve a floor plan characteristic of
stands a second lot with a small structure at the ancient domestic architecture.
center. As a rule, the shrine buildings are rebuilt on T h e third of these particularly ancient shrines,
the contiguous lot every twenty years in order to en- Sumiyoshi, consists of four nearly identical gable-
sure ritual purity for this, the shrine to the goddess entrance structures that originally overlooked the sea,
of the sun, Amaterasu, primary in the Shinto pan- as befit a place of worship of gods of sea voyages (fig.
theon. T h e sixtieth rebuilding took place in 1973. 72). Today, though, the site is surrounded by a
Once the new shrine complex is completed, the older modern urban neighborhood. Whereas the Ise and
one is dismantled, and a small structure is built over Izumo Shrines are left unpainted, the Sumiyoshi
the short "heart pillar" (shin no mihashira) over which buildings are finished in brilliant red and white.
the Main Hall used to stand. The rebuilding process,
beginning with the cutting of special lumber far in
the mountains, takes years to accomplish and is enor-
74a-d. Kasuga style: exterior of Kasugado,
Enjoji; front, side, and plan of a Main
(d) Shrine, Kasuga Shrine

The Influence of Buddhist Architecture Shinto with a roof extended at one side and lacking roof
structures began very early in their development to billets and forked finials. Its best examples are the
adopt Buddhist temple characteristics. For example, two Main Halls (Honden) at the Kamo Mioya Shrine
the straight eaves, such as those at Sumiyoshi Shrine and the Main Hall and Provisional Hall (Gonden)
(see fig. 72), which are thought to have been the norm at the Kamo Wakeikazuchi Shrine (both shrines in
for early Shinto roofs, gradually adopted the gentle Kyoto City), which were last rebuilt in 1863.
curve of Buddhist buildings. But Buddhist influ- The Kasuga style (fig. 74) is one bay in plan, with
ence was not overbearingthe hip roofs and tiles the entrance and stairs on the gable side and pro-
common in Buddhist structures were not generally tected by a long porch roof. Kasuga Shrine (figs. 74b-
adopted by Shinto builders, and neither was the d), from which the style takes its name, is thought
wattle-and-daub temple wall construction. to have been first built in the 730s at the foot of Mt.
Further Buddhist influence entered in the Heian Mikasa east of the Heijo Capital, now Nara City (see
period with the development of the honji suijaku doc- p. 56). The present configuration of four identical
trine, which holds that Shinto deities are actually one-bay Main Shrines (Honden) in a line is believ-
avatars of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. This sectarian ed to go back to at least the Heian period. The shrine
blending caused subsidiary Buddhist temples (jingu- was rebuilt every twenty years until modern times,
ji) to be built on Shinto properties, and vice versa, and the present main structures date from 1863.
Shinto shrines (chinjusha) to be constructed in tem- They resemble the Sumiyoshi style (see fig. 72) in
ple complexes. their red and white color scheme, gable entry, and
The Nagare and Kasuga Styles The Nagare style use of roof billets and forked finials, but differ in their
is the most widely used shrine type (fig. 75) and is "mailer size and hip-and-gable roof with long porch
characterized by a gable roof that slopes out over the overhang.
entrance on the non-gable side of the structure. The Two other fine examples of the Kasuga style are
design suggests a Shimmei-style building (see fig. 70) the Kasugado (fig. 74a) and Hakusando of Enjoji
temple (Ninnikusencho, Nara City), built between superb example of fine design coupled with tasteful-
1197 and 1228. They are the oldest Kasuga-style ly added Buddhist concepts is Itsukushima Shrine.
shrines extant and are thought to have been built First built on its present scale in 1168 by the great
originally as part of Kasuga Shrine, then moved to warrior Taira no Kiyomori (1118-81), Itsukushima
their present location when Kasuga was rebuilt. T h e Shrine (Hiroshima Prefecture) is built out over the
Kasuga style is the second most commonly used water (see fig. 244). At high tide its main buildings
shrine type. and connecting corridors seem to float, their ver-
Further Developments in Shinto Shrine Architec- milion members reflecting on the shallow waves. The
ture T h e Hachiman style (fig. 76) was created by use of connecting corridors is reminiscent of the
linking two Nagare-type shrines (fig. 75) back to Shinden style of aristocratic domestic architecture
front. T h e practice was first used in Buddhist struc- (see pp. 64-67).
tures to provide a separate space for worshippers. By the end of the Heian period in the twelfth cen-
Another well-known shrine configuration is the Hie tury the major shrine styles had reached maturity.
style (fig. 77), a hip-and-gable variant of the Nagare Further developments were limited to minor varia-
style, with a truncated rear roof. T h e design is the tions in configuration or style of ornamentation. Ki-
result of adding subsidiary spaces (hisashi) around all bitsu Shrine ( O k a y a m a City), built in 1425, com-
but the rear side of the central core (moya) and ex- bines its M a i n Hall (Honden) and Worship Hall
tending the roof further over those additions. Hie (Haiden) under one hip-and-gable roof, but with the
Shrine (Otsu City, Shiga Prefecture), after which the gables doubled to indicate the two spaces beneath.
style is named, contains two nearly identical main Examples of the increasing use of ornamentation in-
structures, one each in its east and west precincts. clude the Shinra Zenshindo of Onjoji temple (Shiga
O t h e r Buddhist architectural elements continued Prefecture, late fourteenth century) and most notably
to be gradually incorporated as well. These includ- the Toshogu at Nikko (Nikko City, Tochigi Prefec-
ed corridors, two-story gates, and even pagodas. One ture; see pp. 44-47).
T H E Y O M E I M O N GATE,
N I K K O T O S H O G U SHRINE

T h e Yomeimon gate is nicknamed Higurashi-no-


mon, or "Livelong-Day G a t e , " in reference to the
time one could spend in staring at its brilliant poly-
chromy and menagerie of sculptured dragons and
lions. It serves as the main entrance to the Tosho-
gu, which was built in the early seventeenth century
both as a mausoleum for the first Tokugawa shogun,
Ieyasu, and as a place of worship (reibyo) for that
deified Tokugawa patriarch. Some have criticized
the Toshogu's lack of restraint, but one cannot help
admiring the workmanship it reflects. Another fine
example of the extreme ornament at the Toshogu w cCQ
is the K a r a m o n , a gate with cusped gables, reached
78. Yomeimon gate, Nikko Toshogu
after passing through the Yomeimon (see fig. 79).
JAPANESE BAROQUE

79. Karamon, Nikko Toshogu

Toshogu

80. Nikko Toshogu, Taiyuinbyo,


and Futarasan Shrine

Taiyuinbyo
Iemitsu himself is interred in a second complex at
Nikko, the Taiyuinbyo, which, though smaller than
Ieyasu's, is quite marvelous in its own right. Built
Nikko Toshogu O n the seventeenth of the fourth in 1653, it is situated on a hill to the west of the To-
month of 1616, Tokugawa Ieyasu, victor in the last shogu (fig. 80). Both are artfully integrated into the
great battles for national hegemony, died at his contour of the land. The approaches leading to both
castle at Sumpu (Shizuoka Prefecture). His remains have been cleverly laid out so that at each bend in
were first interred at Kunozan in Shizuoka Prefec- the path the viewer is surprised by a totally new vista.
ture, then moved in the next year and enshrined The steps too have been set at strategic locations so
at Nikko, deep in the mountains of Tochigi Prefec- that as one climbs them different buildings come in-
ture, where a rededication was held on the first an- to view, as if vying with one another to impress the
niversary of his death. onlooker with their gesamlkunstwerk of color and carv-
The present appearance of the Toshogu shrine, ing. The placement of the individual structures thus
however, is primarily the result of the far-reaching contributes to a dynamic of truly Baroque effect. The
renovation project of Ieyasu's grandson, Iemitsu two mausolea are accompanied by a variety of other
(1604-51). Begun in 1634, the project was far establishments, such as Futarasan Shrine, set halfway
enough along for another rededication ceremony of between the Toshogu and the Taiyuinbyo (fig. 80).
surpassing splendor to be held in 1636, again on the Increasing Ornamentation in Shrine Architec-
anniversary of Ieyasu's death. ture The splendor and display seen at Nikko be-
81. Main Shrine of Torinokosanjo Shrine

82. Illustrations from book of proportions (kiwarisho)

gan, soon after its completion to be imitated by ment at this time of a new system, called kiwarijutsu,
shrines across the country. A case in point is the Main of building according to set proportions and modules.
Hall (Honden) of the Torinokosanjo Shrine (Nasu By virtue of this system, the dimension of any one
District, Tochigi Prefecture), built in 1783 (fig. 81). member related to those of all the other parts of the
There the tips of the tail rafters have been carved with design. These proportions were set down in books
extremely lifelike dragons, and the porch-roof sup- called kiwarisho, and if a builder simply followed those
ports and beams have been covered with carving as directions, he was assured of producing a serviceable
well. structure. The example illustrated in figure 82 shows
The trend toward decoration continued to spread a kiwarisho illustration of the proportions for a
as the Edo period progressed. The frog-leg struts that Nagare-style shrine. The shrine could be built in any
had been only lightly ornamented in earlier struc- size and be successful as long as the proportions of
tures came by the late Edo to be entirely filled with the constituent members related to each other as set
sculptural flora and fauna. The same tendency to forth in the diagrams.
elaborate was exercised on most other visible parts Clearly the kiwarijutsu system was a boon to car-
of the buildings. penters, but there is no denying that it militated
Modular Design System (Kiwarijutsu) While con- against originality of overall design. Builders there-
centrating increasingly on detailed ornamentation, fore channeled their creativity into the ornamentation
builders produced few really innovative building de- of detail. Further description of kiwarijutsu can be
signs. One reason for this was the gradual develop- found on pages 76-77.
T H E N E I G H B O R H O O D SHRINE

. The shrine precinctfocus of neighborhood life


rv -jeer -,!-,.

A Place for Worship and Recreation In days gone of the stairs, is the ablution basin (chozuya) under its
by, nearly every town or farming village had at least own roof, where one washes the hands and purifies
one shrine which served, along with the Buddhist oneself before prayer. T h e cool water is especially
temple, not only as a center of religious life but as pleasant and refreshing in the heat of summer.
a playground for children, a place of rest and relax- Across from the ablution basin is the stage where
ation for adults, and a focus of neighborhood interac- dances are performed on festival days for the delec-
tion. Behind it stood the grove of thickly growing tation of gods and men alike. The compound also
trees so characteristic of shrine compounds. Though often has a storage building for the sacred palanquin
these patches of green are slowly bowing to urban (;mikoshi) to parade the tutelary deity during shrine
sprawl, those that remain are a precious legacy. celebrations.
T h e shrine compound is marked by the char- Most shrines are arranged in more or less this way,
acteristic torii gate, whose simple yet striking design though some, like the Nikko Toshogu, are built on
long ago became one of the symbols of J a p a n e s e a grand scale, and others are nothing but a miniature
culture (fig. 83). Beyond it, one passes between the shrine set into a nook in a roadside wall. Shrine pre-
statues of a pair of " K o r e a n d o g s " (koma inu), put cincts are designed to take advantage of the natural
there to fend off evil influences. Imported centuries features of the surrounding area and each reflects
ago from the Asian continent, they were once used the care and consideration that generations of parish-
even in the Imperial Palace. T o the left, at the top ioners have lavished on it.
THE WORLD OF
THE CRAFTSMEN

84. Roofers (Scenes In and Around the Capital


[Rakuchu rakugai zu]\ reproduction in the Tokyo
National Museum)

85. Roofers (Kuwakata Keisai's Pictures of


Tradesmen [Kuwakata Keisai shokunin zukushi ])

86. Carpenters (Kitain Pictures of Tradesmen [Ki-


tain shokunin zukushi e])

T h e Age o Craftsmen T h e craftsmen who built Depictions of Craftsmen Illustrations on folding


the temples and shrines of the premodern era were screens, picture scrolls, and woodblock prints pro-
grouped into a n u m b e r of discrete specialties, in- vide fascinating glimpses into the activities of crafts-
cluding carpenters, plasterers, stone masons, and men in the early modern era. In figure 86, carpenters
sawyers. In fact, the early modern period of Japanese (idaiku) are apparently at work building a shrine, to
history, from the end of the era of the country at judge from the elevation drawing propped in the
war in the late sixteenth century until the end of the background. O n e worker, stripped to the waist, uses
Tokugawa shogunate and advent of the Meiji Res- an adze to chip away at a square beam. In front of
toration in 1868, might be called the " a g e of crafts- him another beam is being marked with a straight
m e n . " T h e J a p a n e s e word for craftsman, shokunin, line by snapping an inked string. In figures 84 and
had a wider meaning in the medieval period and ap- 85, roofers (yanefuki) are at work setting shingles. The
plied to physicians and tradesmen as well, but gradu- black dots represent rocks set on the shingles to help
ally it narrowed to denote those who worked with keep them in place. In figure 92 a stone mason (ishiku)
their hands. It was used especially frequently in ref- chisels a rock, and in figure 91 sawyers (kobiki) cut
erence to those in the building trades. long planks, with M t . Fuji in the distance. In fig-
of Tradesmen)

Tradesmen)

88. Plasterers (Kuwakata Keisai's Pictures of


Tradesmen)

ure 90 wood carvers (horimonoshi) produce delicately


rendered floral-patterned fittings for a temple or
shrine, while in figure 89 metalworkers (kaji) use
h a m m e r s and tongs to shape the red-hot metal they
have taken from the coals. T h o u g h metalworkers
are primarily known for their work on swords and
tools, they were vital to architectural projects as well,
as they produced hinges and other metal fittings, 91. Sawyers (Hokusai's Thirty-Six Views of Mt. Fu-
ji [Hokusai fugaku sanjurokkei])
not to mention nails, fashioned painstakingly one
at a time. In figure 88 plasterers (sakan) knead clay
into balls and toss them to others, who flatten them
against the wall with trowels. In figure 87 tatami
makers (tatamiya) put the finishing touches on the
woven straw tatami mats and sew decorative strips
along both sides. T h o u g h not illustrated, building
projects also called for lacquerers (nushi), workers in
fine metal ornamentation (kazarishi), and makers of
interior and exterior partitions and other wooden fit-
tings (tategu daiku). 92. Stonemason (Kuwakata Keisai's Pictures of
Tradesmen)
CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
O F T H E EDO PERIOD

93. Carpenters (Kuwakata Keisai's Pictures of Tradesmen)

Workers and Tools Some of the most telling, yet 1815), and Santo Kyoden (1761-1816). The work-
humorous, of illustrations of workmen at their var- man in the foreground of figure 93, for example, is
ious crafts are those by Kuwakata Keisai (1764 muttering "I'd like to cut it down a bit during the
1824), painted in 1804 (see figs. 85, 87-88, 90, 92, noon break." Clearly the time is just before lunch,
93). These pictures, belonging to a genre called, ap- as food boxes are being carried in at the lower left.
p r o p r i a t e l y e n o u g h , Pictures of Tradesmen (Shokunin The carpenter in the middle is using a bench plane,
zukushi e), are accompanied by the topical remarks which was invented in the late middle ages and had
of three popular writers of the Edo period, Yomo no come into wide use by the time the illustration was
Akara (1749-1823), Tegara Okamochi (1735- made.
The Sino-Japanese Illustrated Encyclopedia Very shape during the intervening centuries and continue
few of the actual tools used by carpenters remain from to be used with minor improvements by carpenters
the Edo period and illustrations are consequently an today.
important source of information on them. One of the A second source of illustrations depicting the tools
best compilations is the Sino-Japanese Illustrated En- of the era was made by the Nagasaki painter Kawa-
cyclopedia (Wakan sansai zu e) from 1713, which gives hara Keiga (1786-?). It is now in the collection
pictures of contemporary carpenter's tools, together of the National Museum of Anthropology in Lei-
with explanations (fig. 94). For " a d z e " (chona), for den, The Netherlands. Through pictures of this
example, the caption in the Encyclopedia reads, " A kind, we can more effectively understand the huge
hand axe with either a single or a double blade." amounts of skill and labor contributed by craftsmen
Most of the tools depicted have changed little in basic who worked on the monuments of the period.

o T
adze {chona)

compass
(ibunmawashi)

\
compass (divider) saws (nokogiri) large saws (oga)
hammers (kanamchi) trowels (kote)

(kompasu)

ink pot (sumitsubo) with


inking line (suminawa)

files (yasuri) chisels (nomi) awls (kin) ruler (monosashi)


long-bladed
planes
(yarikanna)

bench plane (kanna)


carpenter's square
(magarikane)

94. Tools depicted in the Sino-Japanese Illustrated


n
nail drawer (kuginuki)

Encyclopedia
bamboo ink markers
(sumisashi)
level (mizuhakari)
DAILY LIFE
Residential and Urban Architecture
Homes should be built for summer. In the winter one can live anywhere,
but dwellings unsuited to the hot months are unendurable.

Yoshida Kenko (1283?-1350?) had left the world of been another touchstone of traditional Japanese ar-
the imperial court for the contemplative life of a Bud- chitecture. Even the masters of the great castles and
dhist priest when he wrote the above remarks as part palaces of the Momoyama and Edo periods would re-
of his collection of short anecdotes and observations tire to tiny rustic tea houses when they wished to calm
entitled Essays in Idleness (Tsurezuregusa, e n t r y 55). T h e their hearts of the impurities of the outside world.
early fourteenth-century work is thought by many This chapter will look at traditional residential ar-
to be the quintessence of medieval Japanese literary chitecture from its beginnings, through the time of
expression. In it Kenko makes pronouncements on Chomei and Kenko, up to the end of the Tokugawa
a wide range of human experiences and concerns, shogunate, as well as at the villages and cities of which
from history and court usages to aesthetics and the these residences formed a part. The dwellings can
qualities of an ideal man, always with an engaging be divided along two main linesthose of the aris-
idiosyncratic subjectivity. His remarks on the ideal tocracy and those of the common folk.
house are a case in pointthey are uncompromis- The Heian-period nobles immortalized in Mu-
ingly presented, but suited only to homes near the rasaki S h i k i b u ' s The Tale of Genji (Genji monogatari)
Heian Capital in central J a p a n and certainly not to o r Sei S h o n a g o n ' s The Pillow Book (Makura no soshi)
the snowy northern hinterlands. But his statement lived in mansions built in the Shinden style, which
is nevertheless a forceful apology for the integration usually consisted of a central hall facing a pond and
of house and natural environment, a central theme bounded by hallways leading to subsidiary structures.
throughout the history of traditional Japanese ar- Logically enough, it developed out of the mansions
chitecture. of the Nara-period aristocrats and was in turn the
A century before Kenko, another medieval cour- ancestor of the second main type of upper-class
tier-turned-recluse, K a m o no C h o m e i (1155?- residential mode, the Shoin style, which continues to
1216), turned his attention to domestic architecture, strongly influence Japanese domestic architecture to-
in this case his own. The very title of his contem- day. Japanese houses therefore show a remarkable
plative essay, Tale of the Ten-Foot-Square Hut (Hojo undercurrent of design consistency from early history
ki), written in 1212, suggests the central role his to modern times.
thoughts on architecture play in his composition. The The houses of the common people were under-
evanescence of all things is the theme of his work, standably influenced by those of their superiors,
and it is evoked in the first line, familiar to nearly though to varying degrees. When the first great pal-
every Japanese: " T h e river flows on without cease, aces of the early Nara emperors were constructed,
yet its waters are never the s a m e . " It is perfect many of their subjects still lived in houses little
metaphor for the permanence of change. Chomei changed from prehistoric "pit dwellings." But in the
then illustrates this supremely Buddhist truth by later Edo period, village headmen and rich urban
recalling the great mansions of the past and the merchants often lived on a scale envied by many of
calamities that swept them all away. Faced with the their nominal superiors, the samurai.
certitude of a similar fate, Chomei recounts how he But what exactly did the houses of the early Japa-
abandoned his own home in the capital for a tiny hut, nese look like, and in what directions did they
"ten feet on either side and seven from floor to roof," subsequently develop? What was the Shinden of
deep in the mountains to the south. He called his hut Murasaki and Sei really like, or the urban spaces ex-
a hojo, the name taken from the dwelling of the In- perienced by Chomei and Kenko? The truth of
dian Buddhist sage Vimalakirti and later used to Chomei's remarks on mutability are all too amply
indicate the abbot's quarters in Zen monasteries. proven by the paucity of extant evidence. We will
Vimalakirti is said to have miraculously enlarged his nevertheless suggest some answers to these and other
modest dwelling when visited by a great host of divine questions in the following pages on the basis of re-
beings, and the Zen sect reveres his example of vir- maining structures and, much more importantly,
tue and wisdom. information gathered from contemporary literature
The lavish manors of the aristocracy notwith- and painting.
standing, the theme of simplicity and modesty has
HOUSES O F T H E J O M O N AND
YAYOI PERIODS

97. Restored Yayoi elevated storehouse

IB
99. "Rat guard"

98. Joining techniques


(conjectural)
100. Ladder
96. Typical Yayoi pit dwelling (conjectural)

Prehistoric Dwellings Shelter ranks with food and The Toro pit dwellings (fig. 95) consisted of a six-
clothing as one of the three basic necessities of life, by-eight meter oval living area. A double skirting wall
but our knowledge of primitive dwellings is still quite thirty centimeters high was first built around it and
limited. The distant ancestors of the modern Japa- the space in between the walls filled to the top with
nese appear to have sought protection from the wind earth. Though it was therefore not a pit dwelling per
and rain in natural shelters such as rocky overhangs se, since the floor was on the level of the ground out-
or caves, or in simple huts built of the wood from side, the basic idea of a sunken living area was the
nearby trees. Examples still exist of caverns or same. The dwelling was then constructed over this
rocky outcroppings that were used in the earliest foundation with four posts sunk in the ground, beams
years of the neolithic Jomon period, which dates connecting them at the top, and rafters radiating from
from the end of the last ice age (9,000-10,000 years those beams to the ground, forming the structure's
ago) to the start of the Yayoi era (200 B . C . - A . D . periphery (fig. 96). The roof was thatched with mis-
250). canthus or some other grass, and a hearth was sunk
The earliest type of house about which we have in the earth floor inside.
much information is the pit dwelling (tateana jukyo). Elevated storehouses were raised off the ground by
It was built by digging a circular pit (or a rectangular posts to protect the contents from pests (fig. 97).
one with rounded edges) fifty or sixty centimeters Wooden discs or "rat guards" (nezumigaeshi\ fig. 99)
deep and five to seven meters in diameter, then cov- were placed at the top of the posts and the entrance
ering it with a steep thatched roof. ladder to provide additional security from rodents
The Toro Site The Yayoi period brought with it (fig. 97). The ladder was carved of a single piece of
wet-rice cultivation and the sophisticated use of iron wood rather than assembled with individual rungs
tools, which in turn prompted advances in building (fig. 100). Archaeological evidence suggests that these
techniques and the development of a second type of storehouses were built of planks that overlapped at
prehistoric building that was elevated on posts. The the corners. Ingenious mortise and tenon joinery
best example of a Yayoi community is Toro in Shi- methods are believed to have been used, which sug-
zuoka Prefecture, where one can see the Yayoi pit gests that the builders of the period already pos-
dwelling (fig. 95) and elevated storehouse in conjec- sessed marked technical expertise and sophisticated
tural reconstruction (fig. 97). The settlement prob- iron tools (fig. 98).
ably contained about twenty structures originally.
R E C O N S T R U C T I N G YAYOI
AND T U M U L U S - P E R I O D
DWELLINGS
SM

104. Enlargement of

|l structure in fig. 103

105. Pottery houses

102. Edo-period 106. Sword pommel 107. Pottery shard


tatara structure

Archaeological R e m a i n s E x c a v a t i o n s have hip-and-gable house, a pit dwelling, then two ele-


clarified the plans of pit dwellings, but the positions vated buildings, the first with a gabled roof and the
of the post holes and the few surviving pieces of struc- second with the hip-and-gable variety. The dif-
tural members have been insufficient to completely ferences in style perhaps reflect different social strata
explain the roof configuration. Fortunately a number of their occupants. Buildings elevated on posts, for
of other sources of information exist, many of them example, were used not only for storehouses but also
recovered from the great keyhole-shaped funerary for shrines and chieftain's residences, due to the close
tumuli in which members of the court were buried connections between custodianship of food, divine
in pre-Buddhist J a p a n . These funeral mounds (see sanction, and temporal power. Ise Shrine is represen-
fig. I l l , upper left) give their name to the Tumulus tative of such a blend.
period (250-550 A . D . ) . One artifact is a bronze bell Eight pottery houses known as haniwa were also
from Kagawa Prefecture, on which are shown pic- excavated from the Chausuyama tumulus in Gum-
tures of people hunting and grinding grain in a large ma Prefecture, and these corroborate the designs on
mortar, as well as of what appears to be an elevated the bronze mirror (fig. 105). So too does a design
building (figs. 103-4). The ridge of the roof is sup- atop a sword pommel uncovered at the Todaijiyama
ported by two gable-end pillars (munamochibashira\ see tumulus in Nara Prefecture (fig. 106).
also figs. 70, 73), and there is a ladder leading up The Tatara Illustration O n e last place to look for
to the entrance. Similar evidence is found on a pot- hints about early construction techniques is the Te-
tery shard from the Karako site in Nara Prefecture tsuzan hisho, an Edo-period manual on iron making.
(fig. 107). The incised drawing shows two human The book contains an illustration of a temporary
figures climbing the ladder. structure called a tatara (fig. 102) that seems to cor-
A bronze mirror discovered in the Samida tumulus respond quite well with what we know of pit dwell-
in Nara shows on its back four early structures (fig. ing plans from the Toro site. Sekino Masaru used
101). Clockwise from the top they are a ground level the illustration in reconstructing the Toro structures.
NaniwaThe First Planned City Japanese im-
perial palaces were traditionally rebuilt with the death
of each sovereign for reasons of ritual purity, and
the communities that grew up around each new pal-
ace tended to develop haphazardly. With the acces-
sion of Emperor Kotoku in 645, however, a pre-
conceived plan for his new imperial city was put
into effect at Naniwa, located in present-day Osaka.
The move to Naniwa had been occasioned by the
Taika Reforms of that same year, wherein the court
undertook revolutionary legal, economic, and social
changes to modernize the country according to the
Chinese Tang-dynasty model, the most advanced in
the world at that time. As part of the effort to develop
the nation, the capital was moved outside of the Nara
Basin, the site of earlier centers of government, to
a seaside location well suited to commerce (fig. 108).
In 667, however, the capital was transferred to Otsu 108. Relative sizes and locations of early capitals
on Lake Biwa, and then soon thereafter the court
returned to the Nara area.
The Fujiwara Capital By the late seventh century, of Heijo, which was about twice as wide as its
relations with the Asian continent had necessitated southern predecessor.
a fixed center of government. A splendid capital was From Heijo to Heian The court was to remain at
accordingly built in 694 to the south of present-day the Heijo Capital for three quarters of a century, from
Nara City, on a plain surrounded by the fabled 710 to 784. The Emperor Shomu did leave Heijo for
Unebi, Kagu, and Miminashi hills. At this imperial some years, though, first commanding the establish-
city, called the Fujiwara Capital, the court presided ment of the Kuni Capital in 740, then electing to
over the burgeoning growth of the new, post-Taika move it once more to Naniwa in 744, only to have
J a p a n . Major temples such as Yakushiji were estab- a succession of earthquakes convince him to return
lished, and great poets such as Kakinomoto Hito- to Heijo in 745. For much of those years he actually
maro composed verses that were later collected into governed from yet another locale, the Shigaraki De-
J a p a n ' s oldest extant poem anthology, the Man'yo- tached Palace in present-day Shiga Prefecture (fig.
shu. The city was laid out on a rectangular grid about 108).
3.8 km north to south and 2.1 km east to west. En- Emperor K a m m u made the final departure from
trance from the north was via three thoroughfares, Heijo in 784. He established his new capital, Naga-
the Upper (Kamitsumichi), Middle (Nakatsumichi), oka, some thirty-five kilometers to the north in or-
and Lower (Shimotsumichi) Roads. der to distance the court from the growing influence
The Heijo Capital Though the Fujiwara Capital of the Nara Buddhist temples. But it soon came to
had been expected to be permanent, geographic con- be feared that an evil influence had infested the site,
siderations forced a move after less than two decades and K a m m u peremptorily quit the area in 794 to
to what is now Nara City, twenty kilometers to the found a new imperial city even farther north, which
north. This first truly permanent capital was formally he called Heian-kyo, "Capital of Peace and T r a n -
established in 710 and named Heijo-kyo, "Capital quility." Heian was to remain the capital until Em-
of the Peaceful Citadel" (see pp. 58-59). The Mid- peror Meiji (1852-1912) moved his court to Edo
dle and Lower Roads that bounded the east and west and renamed that city Tokyo ("Eastern Capital")
sides of the Fujiwara Capital led to the east and center in 1868.
T H E H E I J O AND HEIAN Imperial Palace
CAPITALS North End compound quarter

The Heijo Capital The Heijo Capital was built at


the height of a period of international commerce and
exchange throughout Asia that centered on the Tang
court and the Silk Road. Chinese prelates such as
Right C a p i t a l T Left Capital
the blind master of the Lii (in Japanese, Ritsu) sect,
Rajdmon gate
Jian Zhen (Ganjin in Japanese; 689-763), came to
Heijo to impart Buddhist teachings, and even an In- 109. Heijo Capital in Nara period
dian monk attended the ceremony that marked the
completion of the Great Buddha of Todaiji. It was
not surprising then, that Heijo was designed as a copy Imperial Palace
compound
on a smaller scale of the Tang-dynasty capital of
Changan.
The city was composed of nine strips or " z o n e s "
(jo) running east and west, each one referred to by
the number of the avenue at its southern border (fig.
109). Each zone was subdivided by north-south
avenues into eight " q u a r t e r s " (bo), numbered in
terms of how far each was removed from the central
Suzaku Avenue. That grand thoroughfare bisect-
ed the city into the "Left Capital" (Sakyo) and the
"Right Capital" (Ukyo), the latter being to the west
rather than the east for it was to the right of the
Imperial Palace, which faced south. Thus the Ninth
Zone, First Quarter, of the Left Capital was the
southernmost quarter bordering Suzaku Avenue on
the east. Each quarter was further subdivided into Market
sixteen blocks (cho), which were 120 meters on a side,
or a little narrower when bordered by a wide avenue, 110. Heian Capital in Heian period
and these were further systematically broken down
into even smaller subunits, with the result that any pletely regular in plan. The blocks too were a uniform
house lot in the capital could be pinpointed. The plan 120 meters on a side and were not affected by vary-
of the city was uniform save for a section of three half- ing street widths as they had been at Heijo. There,
quarters to the northwest, called the " N o r t h E n d " it had been the distance from the centers of two par-
(Kitanobe), and the twelve wards to the east, known allel streets that remained a constant 120 meters, but
as the " O u t e r Capital" (Gekyo). The Imperial Pal- at Heian, it was the size of each block that stayed
ace compound was also slightly irregular in plan. the same.
Living space in the Heijo Capital was appor- As at Heijo, the Heian Capital was bisected by a
tioned according to rank and power: the more influ- great avenue called Suzaku, as wide as a modern ten-
ential the resident, the larger the lot and the nearer lane highway, that ran to the Imperial Palace. Over
to the Imperial Palace. It is recorded, for example, the centuries, however, Heian, today the city of Kyo-
that the T a m u r a no Tei, mansion of the powerful to, developed asymmetrically to the north and east,
mid-Nara-period figure Fujiwara no Nakamaro and the palace, which was frequently the victim of
(706?-64), covered four blocks (one-fourth of a bo). fires, was relocated in the early fourteenth century
Important temples also covered several blocks. to the east of the Heian-period compound. The pres-
The Heian Capital The Heian Capital resembled ent palace complex contains only a fraction of the
that of Heijo in its basic grid layout, but it was corn- number of buildings it originally held.
HEIJOFIRST OF T H E G R E A T
CAPITALS
The Move from Fujiwara The court of the Nara
period (710-784) presided over a social and cultural
efflorescence unprecedented in Japanese history. Its
legal and governmental systems remained influen-
tial until the modern period, and its art and architec-
ture became the classical norm against which later
work was measured. Let us take a second look then
at the birth and configuration of the Heijo Capital.
Preparation for the move north from the Fujiwara
Capital officially began on the fifteenth day of the
second month of 708, when Empress Gemmei (661-
721) issued the proclamation of her intent. On the
twentieth of the next month, she toured the Heijo
site and then days later appointed two men to head
the bureau in charge of the building project.
The move was effected on the tenth of the third
month, 710. The empress is said to have composed
this poem on the occasion, while viewing Mayu-
migaoka, the hill on which her deceased husband,
Prince Kusakabe (662-89), was interred: "If I leave
behind / The Asuka Capital / Of the coursing birds,
/ Will I ever see again / The resting place of my
lord?" (Man 'yoshii, no. 78). The "Asuka Capital"
she left refers to Fujiwara. Work continued on the
new capital well after the empress herself had arrived,
and the strain on the treasury and labor force was
immense. In the ninth month of 711, for example,
a proclamation had to be issued forbidding corvee
laborers from absconding.
Choosing the Site The Shoku Nihongi, the second
of J a p a n ' s national histories, records that the new
capital was chosen on the basis of Chinese-style geo-
mancy. This involved divination by interpreting
cracks in tortoise shells (plastromancy), as well as satis-
fying the directional requirements of the " F o u r Birds
and Beasts" (shikin), the Cyan Dragon, Vermilion
Sparrow, White Tiger, and Dusky Warrior. These jomon (Rampart Gate) to the south, which opened
requirements stipulate a river to the east, low and on to the great Suzaku Avenue that bisected the city
damp area to the south, a long road to the west, and and ran for nearly four kilometers to the Suzakumon
a rise to the north. The site satisfied all four. More- (Vermilion Sparrow Gate) at its northern end. The
over, its location in the north of the Nara Basin made Suzakumon in turn was the main southern entrance
it convenient for commerce and strategic for govern- to the Imperial Palace (Daidairi), a compound a ki-
ing. lometer north to south by a kilometer and a quarter
The Heijo Capital and Palace As we have already east to west.
seen, Heijo was designed on a Chinese-style grid plan Within the Imperial Palace were located the East
(see fig. 109). Basically a rectangle, the capital mea- and West Imperial Assembly Halls (Choshuden),
sured 4.7 km north to south, and 4.2 km east to west, then, to the north, the Court of Government (Cho-
with additional sections extending beyond the rec- doin), with twelve buildings for the Eight Ministries
tangle to the northwest and east. At its height it is and related functions symmetrically arranged along
thought to have had a population of about two hun- the central axis. North again was the Great Hall of
dred thousand, including the immediate environs. State (Daigokuden), where the emperor supervised
The main entrance to the city was through the Ra- the governmental process. At the north of the com-
111. Imperial Palace and northern blocks of Heijo
Capital, viewed from west

pound was the Inner Palace (Dairi), containing the State, and the Inner Palace. The older compounds,
Throne Hall (Shishinden) and the imperial residence nearly vacant, border them at the west. Yet another
halls. Dozens of other offices, stables, and storehouses enclosure, the Palace of the Western Pond, is located
surrounded the main subcompounds just mentioned. at the northwest corner of the Imperial Palace com-
The Court of Government and the Great Hall pound. Beyond the compound to the northeast are
of State were dismantled when Emperor Shomu the Iwanohime-ryo, Uwanabe, and Konabe tumuli.
temporarily established the above-mentioned Kuni Much of the old Heijo Capital returned to rice
Capital in 740, then built anew to the east of their fields within four decades after Emperor Kammu
original locations when he returned to Heijo in 745. departed. Since the small city of Nara today occupies
The complexes are referred to as the First and Sec- only the eastern part of the site, archaeological in-
ond Court of Government and Hall of State for this vestigation is much easier to carry out than at the
reason. site of the Heian Capital, which is still a large me-
Figure 111 shows the northern part of the capital tropolis.
from the west. At right center are the Imperial As-
sembly Halls, followed to the left by the Court of
Government with its twelve halls, the Great Hall of
. i 11 ,
th1 M! H
lM, "I'M'i ' W '
-Vrfff lHl'1 ! !tfl^TI
' 1 i
; >! ; j

1
1 i
i i1
1 Mi i

1]
Mir I'!:* i;
i i 1''
LiiilL fill; j ill ;
II
'H TTfrnirrr ' i:
112. Original Dempodo as reconstructed by Asano 113. Present Dempodo
Kiyoshi

The Dempodo "Rich in blue-black earth, / The When first built, the structure was five bays long
capital of Nara / Is now at its height, / Even as the by four wide and was roofed with cypress bark (fig.
crimson glow / Of petals in fullest bloom." As seen 112). In front stood a wide veranda. The rear three
in this Man'yoshii poem (no. 328), the Heijo Capital bays of the house were enclosed with walls or doors,
in its efflorescence was a place of grandeur and beau- and the front two were open, save on one side, thus
ty. But today only one of its residential structures re- effecting a gradual transition from the completely
mains, the Dempodo (fig. 112) in the East Precinct open veranda to the closed interior.
of the Horyuji temple. It was moved to the temple An Excavated Nara-Period Garden Complex
in 739 from the manor of a " L a d y T a c h i b a n a , " The remains of a mansion and its garden and pond
thought to be Tachibana no Michiyo (?733), moth- have been uncovered at Amagatsuji in Nara City,
er of the Empress Komyo (701-60), consort of Em- together with the well and remnants of the outer wall
peror Shomu. (fig. 114). This discovery has greatly contributed to
The present Dempodo, which means "Hall for the our knowledge of Nara-period aristocratic residences.
Transmission of the D h a r m a , ' ' is seven bays long by It was a spacious villa located in the east side of the
four bays wide and, with its tiled roof, looks little like capital (Sakyo) at the Third Zone (Sanjo), Second
a residential building (fig. 113). It was, of course, Quarter from Suzaku Avenue, close to the mansion
given the name Dempodo after it was moved to Ho- of Fujiwara no Nakamaro. The garden is elegantly
ryuji. The presence of a wood-plank floor, however, designed, with water-smoothed stones and boulders
betrays its domestic origins, as temples of the period piled at the banks of the pond. One can easily
had floors of packed earth. Evidence obtained dur- imagine aristocrats at their ease by the pond banks
ing a dismantling for repairs has allowed architec- drinking wine and composing poetry.
tural historians to conjecture with relative certainty The Mansion of Fujiwara no Toyonari Though
it no longer remains, another Nara-period residence,
how the building originally looked.
116. Fujiwara no Toyonari's mansion
(after Sawamura Hitoshi)

core (moya)

115. Fujiwara no Toyonari's mansion


(after Sekino Masaru)

117. Fujiwara no Toyonari's mansion


(after Sekino Masaru)

that of Fujiwara no Toyonari (704?-65), can be 741 to 745, then moved to Ishiyamadera, a temple
partially reconstructed thanks to a description in a also in Omi Province, when he was exiled. But the
collection of documents entitled Shosoin monjo (figs. fortunes of the brothers turned full circle late in their
115-17). The mansion is thought to have been five livesNakamaro opposed the rise of Dokyo (?-
bays wide by three deep, with an elevated plank floor 772), a monk involved in a scandalous and self-
and no fixed interior partitions. The Shosoin monjo also aggrandizing liaison with Nakamaro's erstwhile ben-
says there was one open veranda, and Sawamura efactress Empress Koken, and was killed for his trou-
Hitoshi has reconstructed it on this basis (fig. 116). ble in 764. Toyonari, who had declined under the
But Sekino Masaru believes the Shosoin monjo was pretext of ill health to take up his Kyushu post, was
miscopied and that there were actually two veran- subsequently recalled from Naniwa and reappointed
das, making the building symmetrical back to front to the position of Minister of the Right.
(figs. 115, 117). The Forerunners of the Shinden Style Though
The brothers Toyonari and Nakamaro were two we cannot tell what function the original Dempodo
of the chief ministers of the mid Nara court. Toyonari and Toyonari mansion performed in their respective
rose to the rank of Minister of the Right in 749 and residential complexes, they are still historically valu-
stood at the center of the government, but in 757 he able as we know so little about any dwellings of that
fell out with his brother over a question of imperial time. They clearly presage the development of the
succession. Nakamaro, who enjoyed the confidence Shinden style of the Heian period (see pp. 64-67)
of Empress Koken (718-70), was the victor, and in their use of both open and closed spaces, elevated
Toyonari was exiled to a governmental post in Kyu- plank floors, and unpartitioned central sections. The
shu. Toyonari's mansion was built near the Shigaraki garden of the mansion in the eastern part of the Heijo
Palace in Omi Province (present-day Shiga Prefec- Capital (fig. 114) is also a clear forerunner of those
ture; see fig. 108) while he was in service there from in later Shinden residences.
T H E HEIAN CAPITAL

H e i a n T h e Heart of Japan Through the cen-


turies since the founding of the Heian Capital in 794,
in which it saw the arrogation of monarchical pre-
rogatives by the Fujiwara family, the establishment
of three shogunates, and near-total destruction in the
O n i n W a r of 1467-77, the city continued to be
thought of as the heart o f j a p a n . Even today it bears
the name Kyoto, " C a p i t a l C i t y , " though the em-
peror and the National Diet are located in Tokyo,
the " E a s t e r n C a p i t a l . " For most of J a p a n ' s history
it was the center not only of government but of
learning and the arts, and all other parts of the coun-
try bowed to its cultural ascendancy.
Heian was planned on an even larger scale than
Heijo, being 4.5 km east to west and 5.2 km north
to south. As at Heijo, the great Rajomon gate, made
famous in modern times as Rashomon (a later pro-
nunciation) by the author Akutagawa Ryunosuke
and then the film director Kurosawa Akira, was the
main entrance to the south, opening on to the im-
posing Suzaku Avenue that bisected the city. T h e
Left Capital later came to be also called Rakuyojo
or " L u o y a n g C i t y " and the Right Capital, C h o a n j o
or " C h a n g a n C i t y , " both names borrowed from
those of the Tang-dynasty capitals. Due, though, to
the inhospitable dampness of much of Choanjo, the
population gravitated to Rakuyojo at the east, and
the term Rakuchu, "within L u o y a n g , " came to be
synonymous for the capital as a whole. much smaller than the original, and its buildings are
Suzaku Avenue was lined with willows celebrated rebuilt versions of those of the domestic quarters,
in folk songs such as the following: " I n t o the distance which had by the mid Heian period already taken
/ All along Grand Avenue, / The light-green willows! over most of the functions of the government build-
/ The light-green willows! / See them all so laden low, ings to the south. But the style of the old Great Hall
/ Now in fullest bloom! / Now in fullest b l o o m ! " At of State can be seen today at Heian Shrine (Kyoto
its northern terminus was the Imperial Palace, 1.4 City), which was built as a two-thirds scale replica
km north to south and 1.1 km east to west, that hous- of the original. But the original roof of the Great Hall
ed the governmental and residential buildings as it was hipped and did not take on the hip-and-gable
had at Heijo, though with many additional struc- design of Heian Shrine until a rebuilding in 1072.
tures, such as the Court of A b u n d a n t Pleasures T h e Heian Shrine replica was made from informa-
(Burakuin), a complex as large as the Court of tion assembled from such secondary sources as the
Government and built as a banquet facility. " P i c t u r e Scroll of Annual Rites and C e r e m o n i e s "
The present Kyoto Imperial Palace, now used only (Nenckugydji emaki), originally painted in sixty scrolls
for accession ceremonies, is located two kilometers in about 1173 by Tokiwa Mitsunaga, at the behest
to the east of the original. The palace burned often of Emperor Goshirakawa, but now surviving only in
throughout its history, and while rebuilding took a copy ordered by Emperor Gomizunoo (1596-
place the emperor would live at the mansion of his 1680) in 1626. Only a portion of the reproduction
regent or chancellor, who usually was his maternal exists, and none of the original. Another valuable
relative. These temporary lodgings were called "town source was an Edo-period study of the Imperial
palaces" (sato dairi). By the early twelfth century, Palace, the Dai Dairi zukosho, completed in 1797 in
emperors were starting to reside permanently in these fifty parts by the expert on ancient usages Uramatsu
town palaces and return to the Imperial Palace only Mitsuyo (1736-1804).
for state occasions. Urban Culture There are a n u m b e r of theories
T h e present Imperial Palace compound is also concerning the population of the Heian Capital at
various times in its history, but it seems reasonable ing of these commercial areas were located at the
to estimate that at the height of Fujiwara power in intersections of Machi Street (modern Shimmachi
the tenth century the city held about 150,000 peo- Street), which ran north and south near the middle
ple. In the shops and residences lining the streets of of the Left Capital, and Second, Third, Fourth, and
that bustling metropolis a distinctive culture took Seventh Avenues, and Rokkakunokoji and Nishino-
shape that prized miyabi or courtly elegance, a taste koji Streets as well.
for the refined that set the capital and its residents City Dwellers The quality of life in medieval Hei-
apart from the coarser world beyond. In a societv that an can be gathered to some extent from a section of
seldom had recourse to the death penalty for aristo- a pair of screens entitled "Scenes in and around the
cratic transgressors, exile from this cultural center Capital" (Rakuchu rakugai zu\ fig. 118). The screens
was the worst fate imaginable for members of the up- are believed to have been presented to the warrior
per class. Estate owners too tended to stay in the city Uesugi Kenshin (1530-78) by the brilliant general
and left the on-site administration to deputies. Oda Nobunaga. There is more activity than usual
The Development of Commerce As had been the in the streets in the illustration for it depicts a famous
case in the Fujiwara and Heijo Capitals, there were Kyoto annual event, the Gion Festival. Young men
two areas officially set aside for markets in Heian, pull the various gaily decorated floats through the
one in either half of the city. They were accordingly streets as the population looks on. Each float was built
called the East and West Markets. With the decline and maintained by a certain neighborhood, and com-
in the southwestern part of the city, the West Market petition was fierce (and still is today) to determine
ceased to be used. Over time, the East Market too who could outfit the finest. It was, in fact, the
changed in character, developing from a place of neighborhood organizations and not the central
commerce to a location for festivals. Buying and sell- government that arranged and financed the display,
ing concurrently expanded into the city itself and suggesting how strong independent commerce had
centered at the intersections of various thoroughfares become by the late Muromachi period.
that became known for trade. Some of the most bustl-
119. Hojuji Mansion

120. Hojuji Mansion (reconstructed)

Residences of the Heian Aristocracy The Shinden and their servants. Corridors (ro) led from these tai-
style (shinden zukuri) takes its name from the shinden, noya to the pond, where they ended in small "fish-
the central structure in such complexes. T h e word ing pavilions" (tsuridono) or "fountain pavilions"
literally means "hall for sleeping." T h o u g h every (.izumidono). Midway along these southern corridors
known Shinden-style complex had its own unique were " i n n e r gates" (chumon) through which one en-
aspects, most faced south over a courtyard where tered the complex, and the corridors were accord-
ceremonies and entertainments were performed. ingly called " i n n e r gate corridors" (chiononrb). These
South of the courtyard a pond was dug with a cen- corridors were quite spacious and contained the of-
tral island reached by bridges. At the pond's pe- fices of the household staff.
riphery might be a hill, made from earth excavated Shinden residences were usually built on one-block
to create the pond, with trees planted on it. Boating lots (120 square meters), though some, like the
on the pond was a favorite form of relaxation for the Higashi Sanjo mansion of the Fujiwara, was two
fortunate residents of such mansions. blocks north to south. T h e lot was surrounded by
Shinden Buildings and Grounds The shinden hall thick earth walls (tsujibei), which were faced with
was the residence of the master of the house and placc planks on both sides and topped by tiled roofs. Gates
where he met guests and officiated at rites and fes- were set into the eastern and western walls, one be-
tivities. Projecting from one or more sides of the ing the M a i n Gate (Seimon) and the other the R e a r
shinden hall were hallways (watadono) leading to sub- Gate ( U r a m o n ) . Inside the gate was a place for ox
sidiary spaces called tainoya (literally meaning " o p - carts, the elegantly lacquered vehicles that were the
posed halls"), mostly allotted to family members preferred conveyance of the Heian aristocracy, and
also places to shelter the escorts and servants of juji Mansion, one line example of the Shinden style
guests. Most buildings were connected by hallways (figs. 119-20). It was a huge complex, with western
or corridors. The grounds were lower at the south- and northern tainova, an eastern "lesser shinden"
west. and the pond was accordingly fed by a stream which corresponded to an eastern tainoya, and east-
that flowed in from the northeast. Water flowed by ern and western fishing pavilions. The eastern of the
and large to the southwest in Heian, and this ac- two pavilions had a unique cross-shaped plan and was
counts for the dampness and consequent undesir- located not on the bank of the pond, as was usually
abilitv of that quarter of the city. the case, but actually on the island itself. It thus
Bilateral symmetry is thought by some to have helped integrate the garden and the architecture of
been the ideal for Shinden structures, but the actual the site.
examples we know of do not seem to have been so The mansion was built in what is now southeast
constructed. One possible reason for this is that the Kyoto bv Chancellor (Daijo Daijin) Fujiwara no
main hall faced south, but due to the garden and Tamemitsu (94292). He made it into a temple af-
pond the main entrance was to one side, making the ter the death of his daughter Kishi (d. 985), a favorite
opposite side the rear. The arrangement of spaces of Emperor Kazan (968-1008), who took holy
thus progressed cast to west though the buildings orders after her death. The Emperor Goshirakawa
faced south, and irregularity was the result. later added other structures nearby, such as the
The Hojuji Mansion The "Picture Scroll of An- Thirtv-Three-Bay Hall (Sanjusangendo or Rengeo-
nual Rites and Ceremonies" and other sources have in). when he assumed ownership.
allowed historians to reconstruct on paper the Ho-
DAILY LIFE IN
A SHINDEN MANSION

121. Hojuji Mansion

122. Hurdle veranda and peripheral


chamber (hisashi)

The Shinden Style as Seen in Picture Scrolls Not the Tonsured Retired Emperor Goshirakawa.
a single Shinden complex survives today, and though Aesthetic Rivalry In the section of the Picture Scroll
excavations can suggest representative building plans of Annual Rites and Ceremonies shown in figure 1 2 1 a
and garden configurations, we must rely on secon- dance is being performed in front of the Emperor
dary sources for information on elevations and in- Nijo and the Tonsured Retired Emperor Goshi-
teriors. Perhaps the best such sources are the nar- rakawa, both of whom, though not shown out of def-
rative picture scrolls (emakimono), some interspersed erence to their exalted status, sit on the decorated
with text, that provided entertainment and instruc- mats partially visible behind the front stairs of the
tion to members of the Heian and medieval upper central shinden hall. Normally, the two monarchs
classes. M a n y of these scrolls, which could reach towould be shielded by reticulated shutters (shitomido;
ten or more meters in length, are illustrated versions described on pp. 30-31), but on this day the shut-
of the literature of the day, such as The Tale of Genjiters have been removed to allow them to view the
Picture Scroll (Genji monogatari emaki) and The Pillow performance. T o the left, on the veranda of the
shinden and on the open hallway (sukiwatadono),
Book Picture Scroll (Makura no soshi emaki). O t h e r s por-
tray the lives of Buddhist saints, the history of holy members of the nobility sit and watch the dance.
places, or famous legends. Such accounts obviously T h e y wear court costumes called sokutai, with long
required the depiction of interior and exterior ar- trains (kyo), which they drape over the railings. T h e
chitectural environments, and the scrolls are conse- longer the train, the higher ranked the wearer. White
quently invaluable tools for the historian of residen- was stipulated for winter and brown (sub) or double
tial and religious buildings styles. indigo (futaai) for summer, but at observances of
Figure 121, from the Picture Scroll of Annual Rites this sort individual color preferences were counte-
and Ceremonies, shows the formal visit made at the nanced. T h e color combinations chosen for the
beginning of the year by the emperor to the residence various underrobes reflected the taste and panache
of the retired emperor and empress. T h e event, of each wearer, and such gatherings became fashion
called the chokin gybkb, involved entertainments and shows with no small element of competitiveness.
a banquet. T h e chokin gyoko depicted in the scroll T h e women that watch the proceedings through
is that of the Emperor Nijo (1143-65), which he the blinds to the right of the central staircase are also
m a d e in 1163 to the Hojuji Mansion of his father, deeply concerned with the aesthetic effect of their
bamboo sliding sliding
curtain blinds

123. Shinden interior

clothing. T h e y wear many layers of robes, with the or reclining. Swinging doors (tsumado) were often
various colors showing at the hems that are allowed employed at the ends of buildings and sliding doors
to tastefully show beneath the blinds. In a society as (yarido; fig. 124) on verandas. Exterior partitions con-
aware of aesthetic subtleties as that of the Heian sisted of the reticulated shutters noted earlier or sim-
aristocracy, a solecism in choosing one's garments ply of hanging bamboo (sudare), often with curtains
could brand the wearer as aesthetically insensitive (kabeshiro) behind. Interior partitions were occasional-
and have major consequences in terms of social ly built-in sliding screens, often with paintings (fig.
standing or even official preferment. 124). These screens were originally called shoji but
In the left foreground of the picture, a boat floats later termedfusuma. T h e word shoji changed in subse-
in the pond, and at the right, the roof of a temporary quent years to denote the sliding translucent screens
shelter for performances of court music (gagaku) is of white paper used on the exteriors of Shoin-style
visible. T h e boat has a dragon-headed prow and is residences (see pp. 74-75). Far more frequently
one of a pair customarily used; the other would bear though, interior space was divided by means of
the head of a geki, a mythical water bird said to resem- movable screens or curtains. These included folding
ble a cormorant but with white feathers. screens (bydbu; fig. 123), one-piece screens that did
Interior Decor of the Shinden Complex Picture not fold (tsuitate), curtain stands (kicho; fig 123), and
scrolls about court life, such as the Diary of Murasaki light, hanging tapestries with Chinese- or Japanese-
Shikibu Picture Scroll (Murasaki Shikibu nikki emaki) a n d style scenes (zesho or zejo). But these movable parti-
the a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d The Tale of Genji Picture Scroll tions only shielded those behind from sight and not
and The Pillow Book Picture Scroll are particularly good from sound. Nor did they protect against the cold,
sources of information about Shinden-style interiors. thus accounting for the many layers of clothing Heian
Evidence from these sources shows hurdle veran- aristocrats wore. But even with robes and such
das (sunoko en), made of wooden planks laid down heating devices as "charcoal boxes" (subitsu) and
with slight gaps between each to prevent pooling of hibachi, winters in Shinden houses were uncom-
rain water (fig. 122). They were bordered by rail- fortable.
ings (koran) elegantly curved at the ends. Floors were
also of wooden planks, but thick, movable mats of
woven straw with silk borders were used for sitting
C O M M O N E R S ' DWELLINGS

tjVA
1
JvfvS-) / ^ S * ^

V , v w
125. The town of Fukuoka

Urban Row-Houses If we know little of aristocratic the Heian Capital were even simpler in construction.
residences in premodern J a p a n , we know less about One example is the town of Fukuoka in present-day
the homes of the lower levels of society, and what Okayama Prefecture, depicted in the Picture Scroll of
information we do have is limited entirely to pictorial the Monk Ippen (Ippen Shonin eden), p a i n t e d in 1299 (fig.
sources. T h e Picture Scroll ojAnnual Rites and Ceremonies 125). Ippen (1239-89) was a traveling priest who
is helpful not only for the aristocratic dwellings pre- preached a new doctrine, that of the Ji sect, to the
viously introduced but also for depictions of how the common folk. In the section illustrated, Ippen has
rest of society lived in the late Heian period, on the arrived on market day and is being challenged by a
verge of J a p a n ' s middle ages. burly samurai who is about to draw his sword. The
The city dwellings illustrated in the scroll are of houses of the residents are little more than huts, with
the row-house type, with the facade of each unit di- posts sunk in the ground and simple plank roofs.
vided in half, the right side with a door and the left Rooms are separated by plank walls. The people are
with a wall and a window above (fig. 126). Walls are selling cloth, rice, fish, ceramic pots, and other such
made of woven strips of bamboo or thin wood, and basic commodities. In the fish stall (top, far right),
partially planked. Short curtains (noren) hang over the vendor has laid a fish on a cutting board and
the entrance at the far right. Inside is an earth floor, seems about to slice some sashimi for a customer.
though one section at the back not visible in the Behind, a man walks away carrying more fish sus-
illustration was probably raised and floored with pended from the ends of a bamboo pole resting on
planks. The roofs are also of planks, reinforced by his shoulder. The adjoining shop appears to be that
logs. of a rice vendor, who measures out his goods in a
Provincial Towns Houses in towns further from square wooden cup. The shops are so simple one
126. A street in the Heian Capital

127. A town in the suburbs of Nara

might take them for temporary huts set up just for front and rear, both with roofs of shallow pitch.
market day, but many provincial towns were most The house to the left, viewed from the front, shows
likely built this way permanently. Another section an entry with noren curtains and an earth floor behind.
of the Picture Scroll of the Monk Ippen d e p i c t s the o u t - In the rear, a cat sleeps on the step leading to the
skirts of Kamakura, the city serving as the head- raised-floor section of the house. Beside the door, a
quarters of Minamoto no Yoritomo's shogunate. It man bends over a windowsill to drive off a pair of
is a very quiet place despite its political importance, dogs. The windows are fit with small reticulated shut-
underscoring the fact that all cities were in no way ters propped up temporarily, and in the back of the
the bustling commercial centers that the Heian Cap- room is a latticelike partition. As in the case of the
ital was. houses in the other picture scrolls, the posts of these
The suburbs of Nara are portrayed in another structures are sunk directly into the ground, the roof
famous work, the Picture Scroll of the Legends of Mt. Shigi is of wooden planks, and the walls are wattle and
(Shigisan engi), believed to have been made in the daub.
twelfth century (fig. 127). In the section illustrated, The houses portrayed in these three city scenes are
we see at the far right the gable end of a row-house, far removed from the luxurious Shinden-style resi-
with people issuing from the entrance on to the street. dences of the aristocracy. It is important to remem-
The back yard is reserved for trees and a garden. The ber too that many of the more outlying towns were
side view of the house is convenient for showing its even more crude, not to mention the houses of the
construction, which consists of a central two-bay sec- poorer rural districts.
tion [moya) surmounted by a steep, plank roof and
flanked by one-bay subsidiary spaces (hisashi) to the
Medieval and Early Modern Mansions of the complex from the south through a gate, then entered
Military in the Capital The most powerful of the the residence itself via the Carriage Approach (Ku-
medieval warriors patterned their homes and many rumayose), here covered with a dark roof fit with a
of their customs after those of the descendants of the cusped gable (karahafu).
Heian-period aristocrats, who had lost actual ruling The Ninomaru Palace of Nijo Castle (fig. 129),
power but still commanded enormous prestige be- also in the Heian Capital, has the same general place-
cause of their distinguished history and cultural at- ment of buildings as the Hosokawa Mansion (see pp.
tainments. These upper-level samurai adopted the 72-73, 104, 122-23 for further discussion of Nijo
Shinden style for their own mansions, including the Castle). The castle was built from 1601 to 1603, and
added garden complex. But the Shinden style itself the Ninomaru Palace is thought to have been added
began to change in the medieval period. One major from 1624 to 1626 by the third Tokugawa shogun,
development was toward spacial division according Iemitsu, in preparation for an imperial progress by
to function, with more fixed partitions between public Emperor Gomizunoo. Originally roofs of the Nino-
and private spaces in the main hall and more separate maru Palace were not of tile but cedar bark, which
structures built for different purposes. One impor- would have made it resemble the Hosokawa Man-
tant new building that appeared particularly fre- sion even more strongly. Its various buildings are
quently in the homes of the nobility was the kaisho, divided according to purpose, with, from the bottom
literally "meeting place," for audiences and enter- right, the Carriage Approach for entering the com-
tainments with guests. plex, the Tozamurai for samurai retainers, the Shi-
The pair of screens introduced earlier showing the kidai for initial reception of guests, the Ohiroma for
Gion Festival (see fig. 118) depict in a different sec- formal audiences, the Kuroshoin for more private in-
tion the manor of the Hosokawa family, one of the terviews and daily business, and finally, just visible
powerful deputies of the Ashikaga shogun (fig. 128). at the back, the Shiroshoin for the master's personal
The constituent structures are arranged on a diagonal use. The kitchens, directly to the north behind the
in the northeast of the compound, and a garden with Tozamurai, are extant as well, as is the pond to the
a stream occupies the southwest. One approached the southwest.
129. Ninomaru Palace of Nijo Castle in Kyoto

Shiroshoin corridor
A Meeting with Ieyasu On fourth day of the and Asukai Masatsune (1569-1615; Consultant,
fourth month of 1603, Tokugawa Ieyasu, ruler of all Junior Third Rank, aged 34), a courtier, poet, and
J a p a n after his victory nearly three years earlier at scholar. Next to him sat the courtier Kajuji Mitsutoyo
the battle of Sekigahara, held an audience at Nijo (1575-1612; Consultant, Junior Third Rank, aged
Castle with members of the court and the military 28), and then Kyogoku Takatsugu (1563-1609;
houses. The meeting with Ieyasu, who had been con- Consultant, Junior Third rank, aged 39), a war-
firmed as shogun by the emperor some weeks earlier, rior who had changed sides to support Ieyasu at
was held in the Ohiroma, the most formal of the castle Sekigahara. Across from them were Hino Terusuke
rooms (fig. 130). The space was designed on three (1555-1623; Provisional Major Counsellor, Se-
levels, the jodan ( " u p p e r step"), chudan ("middle nior Second Rank, aged 48), Yamashina Tokitsune
step"), and gedan ("lower step"), and the participants (1543-1611; Former Provisional Major Counsellor,
were assigned seats according to their exact position Senior Second Rank, aged 60), a courtier, diarist,
in the hierarchy of those in attendance. and one-time stipendiary of Hideyoshi and Ieyasu,
O n the uppermost level, the jodan, were seated and then Maeda Toshinaga (1562-1614; Middle
Ieyasu and, to his left, the prelate Gien (1558- Counsellor, J u n i o r Third Rank, aged 40), one of
1626), abbot of the Daigoji Samboin and one of Ie- Hideyoshi's advisors who supported Ieyasu at Seki-
yasu's advisors. The following seating arrangement gahara and became a daimyo with vast holdings on
was recorded in his diary as well as that of Yamashina the coast of the Japan Sea. Next to him sat Matsudai-
Tokitsune, also present, which suggests how seriously ra Tadayoshi (1580-1607; Gentleman-in-waiting,
such matters of precedence were taken by the com- J u n i o r Fourth Rank, Lower Grade, aged 22), and
pany. Mori Terumoto (1553-1625; Middle Counsellor,
At Ieyasu's right, on the chudan, sat the courtier Junior Third Rank, aged 49), another of Hideyoshi's
and famous calligrapher Karasumaru Mitsunobu advisors who had opposed Ieyasu at Sekigahara but
(1544-1606; Provisional M a j o r Counsellor, Se- did not personally take part in the fighting. Last on
nior Second Rank, aged 59), Hirohashi Kanekatsu the left was Hosokawa Tadaoki (1563-1645; Con-
(1558-1623; Provisional Major Counsellor, Senior sultant, J u n i o r Third Rank, aged 39), who fought
Second Rank, aged 45), also a main figure at court, at Sekigahara with Ieyasu and also made a name for
130. Audience with Ieyasu in old Ohiroma of Nijo Castle (reconstruction with details after extant Ohiroma)

himsell as an artist, poet, and man of tea. mance of No drama, danced on a specially built stage
Below this group sat seven lower-ranked men on (see fig. 246). The No was a dramatic art form that
the gedan, also in strict order of precedence. The had reached artistic maturity through the support of
overall seating arrangement graphically demonstrates the military aristocracy, and its presentation that day
a hierarchy based by and large on office and rank, was another indication of Ieyasu's regard for the
then age. The only major exception was Matsudaira eminence of his guests.
Tadavoshi, who was accorded a higher position as Nijo Castle Ieyasu constructed the original Nijo
he was Ieyasu's fourth son. The fact that not only Castle between 1601 and 1603 on the location of
the hereditary courtiers but also the military men the Ninomaru Palace of present Nijo Castle. When
bore court titles and ranks shows the continuing Iemitsu undertook his massive remodeling program
prestige of the traditional nobility, despite their lack to prepare for Emperor Gomizunoo's stay in 1626,
of real power. The courtier Kajuji Mitsutoyo was he used many of the structural members of the
even seated above the warrior Kyogoku Takatsugu, original castle. The Ohiroma of Iemitsu's Ninomaru
though both had the same office and rank and Mi- Palace has only a jodan and gedan, but marks on
tsutoyo was eleven years younger. some of the posts show that Ieyasu's Ohiroma had
Other Manifestations of Social Hierarchy The three levels, as shown in figure 130.
titles, ranks, and ages of each man present deter- The present Ninomaru complex is a rare extant
mined not only seating arrangement but other vari- example of a palace appended to a castle compound,
ous details at the meeting. One examples is the type though only the walls of the original castle remain.
of tray each was to use to hold refreshments and It is also one of the most impressive representatives
gifts. Ieyasu and Gien use four-sided trays, so called of the opulent formal Shoin style of architecture, and
because they bear ornamented legs on all four sides. its gold and polychrome screen paintings, intricate
Those on the chudan have three-sided trays, with no transom carvings, and coved and coffered ceilings
legs at the back, and those on the gedan have two- serve as awe-inspiring symbols of the power and
sided trays. magnificence of its builders.
After the audience, Ieyasu proceeded to the far end
of the gedan, where the company watched a perfor-
T H E SHOIN STYLEEARLY
M O D E R N RESIDENTIAL
ARCHITECTURE
Shoin Origins T h e Shoin style of residential ar-
chitecture gradually developed during the Muro-
machi period (1338-1573) out of the Shinden
mode. Early Shoin-style features were found par-
ticularly frequently in the kaisho hall of Shinden com-
plexes and the abbot's quarters (hojo) of Zen
monasteries. The word shoin literally means "writing
h a l l , " and abbot's quarters often had a corner room 131. Foretable (precursor of the oshiita) and
with that name used by the abbot for study or con- decorative doors
versation. T h e earliest extant example of the style is
the Dojinsai room of the Hall of the Eastern Quest
(Togudo or Togudo) in Yoshimasa's Silver Pavilion
complex. Another early example of the type is the
Shoin of the R e i u n ' i n , a subtemple in the great Zen
complex Myoshinji in Kyoto.
Characteristics of the Shoin Style T h e most for-
mal room in a Shoin structure typically contains a
decorative alcove (tokonoma), staggered shelves (chi-
gaidana), built-in desk (tsukeshoin), and decorative
doors (chodaigamae; fig. 133). Relatively few Shoin
structures contain all four elements, however. T h e
Shoin style is also characterized by tatami mats over
the entire floor, square posts (though with slightly
beveled corners), ceilings (often coved or coved and
coffered), fusuma (plain or painted sliding screens)
between interior spaces, and shoji (white translucent
paper screens reinforced with a wooden lattice;
fig. 133) on the exterior, protected by heavy sliding
panels (amado) moved in front of them at night or in
inclement weather.
Decorative Shoin Elements T o follow the develop-
ment of the four fixtures of the Shoin stylethat is, 132. Built-in desk
the decorative alcove, staggered shelves, built-in
desk, and decorative doorswe must once again con-
sult picture scroll illustrations. O n e good resource is and are known as tokonoma. While the earlier, nar-
the Pictures of Longing for Extinction (Bokie), the bi- row variety is also sometimes called a tokonoma, it
ography of the monk Kakunyo (1270-1351). T h e is more accurately referred to as an oshiita. Original-
work is particularly valuable because its ten scrolls ly the word tokonoma referred to an entire room con-
were originally painted in 1351, but numbers one and taining a decorative alcove within it. Within the
seven were subsequently lost and then repainted in alcove are usually h u n g one or more scrolls, and be-
1482, thus allowing us to compare interior fixtures fore them are set out the " t h r e e objets" (mitsuguso-
over time. Figures 131, 134, and 137, taken from part ku)incense burner, flower vase, and candle holder
of the work painted in 1351, show prototypes of the (figs. 131, 134, 137; see also pp. 134-35).
decorative alcove, composed of a hanging scroll with T h e second of the four decorative Shoin fixtures
a thin, low foretable before it supporting various ob- is the staggered shelves (fig. 133). Originally the
jets d'art. By 1482, however, the foretable was already shelves could be moved about the room, but by the
built into the wall (fig. 135). These early-period time of the illustration in the Picture Scroll of the Kasuga
decorative alcoves are wide and shallow, only about Gongen Miracles in the fourteenth century, they were
sixty centimeters in depth. Decorative alcoves in to- already being built in (fig. 136).
day's traditional-style homes are deeperabout the T h e built-in desk alcove, the third of the Shoin
width of a tatami mat (a little less that one meter) features, usually protrudes into the veranda (fig.
135. Oshiita

134. Foretable (precursor of the oshiita)

133. Shimei no Ma of Shiroshoin, Nishi hon-


ganji
137. Strongroom and foretable (precursor of the oshiita)

133). Also called idashifuzukue ("desk for taking out uses, and together with the decorative alcove served
writings") in addition to the more common tsukeshoin, to indicate the formal quality of the room in which
such desks were designed in that manner and fit with they appeared.
shoji screens so as to admit as much light as possi- The Shiroshoin T h e Shiroshoin of the T r u e Pure
ble. T h e Pictorial Biography of the Monk Honen shows Land (Jodo Shinshu) temple Nishi Honganji ranks
a good early example of the type (fig. 132). with the Ninomaru Palace as one of the quintessen-
The last of the four fixtures is the decorative doors tial examples of the formal Shoin style. The complex,
(fig. 133). They originated as the single entrance to which some date to 1632, is to the north of the
an otherwise totally enclosed and protected sleeping Audience Hall (Taimenjo; see pp. 120-21) and
area (chodai). Such spaces were relatively secure and southwest of the more relaxed and private Kuroshoin
thus doubled as strong rooms (nando), as in the ex- (see pp. 80-81). T h e main room, the Shimei no
ample shown from the Picture Scroll of Longing for Ex- M a (fig. 133), is gloriously opulent as befits the head-
tinction, where a sword stands against the wall (fig. quarters of a popular and worldly sect. A particularly
137). T h e doors are consequently sometimes called interesting detail of the room is the ten-mat jodan
nandogamae, in addition to the more usual chodaigamae. section, which includes one extra mat that projects
These doors, and for that matter the shelves and into the gedan area. This design, known as an orejo-
built-in desk as well, came to have purely decorative dan, is of relatively old vintage.
T H E DESIGN SYSTEM
O F T H E SHOIN

reticulated shutters Carriage Approach


138. Kojoin Guest Hall, Onjoji

139. Joza no Ma of the Kojoin


Guest Hall, Onjoji
built-in desk alcove

The Early Shoin Style: The Shuden Perhaps the proach (Kurumayose) with steps below and cusped
two best-known early-period Shoin buildings are the gable (karahafu) above, instead of the later entrance
Guests Halls (Kyakuden) of two subtemples of the alcove (genkan). In addition, the decorative alcove
great Tendai monastery Onjoji (also called Mii- is of the wide and shallow oshiita type. These early-
dera)the Kojoin (fig. 138) and Kangakuin (not il- stage Shoin buildings often bear the subclassification
lustrated). The Kangakuin Guest Hall is the older " S h u d e n , " meaning " M a i n H a l l . "
of the two, dating to 1600; the Guest Hall of the T h e "Shuden P l a n " and Its Modular Design
Kojoin was built the following year. T h o u g h the System A plan for a building very like the Kojoin
Kangakuin Guest Hall has only a decorative alcove Guest Hall is found in Shomei, a collection of se-
in its main room, the equivalent room in the Kojoin cret books of builder's illustrations belonging to the
Guest Hall, the J o z a no M a , has all four main Shoin Heinouchi family, carpenters to the Tokugawa sho-
fixturesthe alcove, staggered shelves, built-in desk, gunate. T h e drawing is labeled "illustration of an
and decorative doors (fig. 139). T h e Kojoin Guest old six-by-seven-bay S h u d e n . " The word " o l d " sug-
Hall has two rows of rooms to the Kangakuin Guest gests that the style was already well-established and
Hall's three, but in general size and room layout they perhaps even obsolescent by the time the drawing was
are quite similar (fig. 140). T h e i r main facades re- executed in 1608.
semble each other even more closely. Both buildings Shomei is the oldest complete manual on designing
are typical of the Shoin style in their use of ceilings, by means of set proportions (kiwarijutsu) that survives
floors completely of tatami mats, square posts, wide (figs. 141-42). It will be recalled (pp. 46-47) that
verandas, and fusuma and shoji screens. the use of these proportions enabled the carpenter-
But a n u m b e r of details mark the two guest halls builder to achieve overall architectural harmony by
as early examples of the style. These include the trun- basing the major measurements in his design on a
cated vestige of the chiimonro corridor (fig. 140) and few set standards or modules, such as that of the
reticulated hinged shutters (shitomido) on the facades width of the bays and posts. Books containing these
(fig. 138), both reminiscent of Shinden designs (see sets of design proportions began to be written in
pp. 64-65). They also incorporate a Carriage Ap- the M u r o m a c h i period and were handed down from
bracket height six-branch rafter placement
(ia X 1.2)-, base rafter (J a)
rafters, ^ 34D-0-0-0-43-0-0-i-i:

boat-shaped -^j H|~_iI 2 3 s penetrating


bracket tie beam
rail
beveled post post
corridor Approach front cross section cross section front non-penetrating
rail
140. Kojoin Guest Hall,
Onjoji 141. Proportions for eaves (left) and brackets (after Shomei)

flying rafter support (kioi) wall purlin


. >-/2 r beveled ceiling battens = rafter width
L = bay width
a=post width (^L) 5 3 - - ceiling rail
t> = raa ( e -g-. post bevel)
c = i a (e.g., flat face of flying -rail
beveled post) rafter
d = ^ a (e.g., flat face and
one bevel of post) base rafters
wall purlin staggered
shelves
beveled post

142. Proportions for interiors


and verandas (after Shomei) inner veranda
outer veranda

generation to generation as secret texts within car- Another module that contributes to internal har-
penter families. But by the eighteenth century, print- mony is the tatami mats, rectangles about one by
ed books of design standards were widely circulat- two meters in size that cover the floors in a Shoin
ing. residence. Room area is generally expressed in terms
Shomei was compiled by Heinouchi Yoshimasa and of the number of mats it contains. Though the dimen-
his son M a s a n o b u , and bears the dates " a u t u m n , sions of the mats vary somewhat in different parts
1608" and "spring, 1610" in the colophon. T h e ex- of J a p a n , it is usually constant for all the rooms in
tant version is a copy thought to have been made a single structure, and it relates to the intercolum-
about a century later. T h e book consists of five nar span as well, which effectively imparts a propor-
chapters, covering gates, Shinto shrines, pagodas, tional unity to the whole.
Buddhist temples, and houses, with the " S h u d e n These proportions were not indicated in Shomei on
P l a n " found in the last. the drawings themselves as we have done here, but
The Mathematics of Proportional Design T h e were instead given in the text. It must also be re-
principle of design by means of interdependent membered that no carpenter ever relied exclusively
modules works as follows. If we label as L the width on these measurements. T h e y were guidelines to be
of one bay (fig. 142), i.e., the distance from the center learned, then creatively applied. Moreover, they al-
of one post to the center of the next (usually a little lowed for considerable leeway: the width of a deco-
less than two meters), then the width of the staggered rative alcove might be fixed at 1 L, 1 1/2 L, 2 L, or
shelves may also be L, as may be that from the lower even more, depending on the other design considera-
runner (shikii) to the upper runner (kamoi) into which tions of the space. In Heinouchi Yoshimasa's col-
are set the sliding screens. Likewise the decorative ophon, he wrote that the ideal carpenter was a master
alcove may be set at 2 L and the width of the posts not only of designing on paper but also of visual
at 1/10 L. Carrying the system one step further, if estimation and " h a n d s - o n " building skills. H e had
we make 1/10 L equal to a, then the post may be to be a good carver and have the talents of a painter
beveled at the corners so that the bevels measure 1/7 as well.
a (called a "seven bevel"), or 1/10 a (a " t e n bevel").
KATSURA D E T A C H E D PALACE
AND T H E SUKIYA STYLE

Musi

A Relaxed Yet Elegant Shoin Variation T h e for- much to the formation of a canon of rustic simplici-
mal Shoin style of the type seen at the Ninomaru ty that informs Sukiya dwellings. But tea ceremony
Palace of Nijo Castle was appropriate for grandiose architecture itself draws on even older traditions, such
ceremony, with its brilliantly painted walls, coved as the hermitages of medieval scholar-recluses and
and coffered ceilings, square-cut posts, and heavy cir- the simple yet refined homes of the Kyoto aristocrats
cumferential rails (nageshi; see fig. 130). But such of the early middle ages.
spaces were far too imposing for the day-to-day ac- The Katsura Detached Palace Katsura, the coun-
tivities of the members of the upper class. A differ- try villa of the Katsuranomiya line of princes begin-
ent kind of Shoin style consequently developed in ning with Hachijonomiya Toshihito (1579-1629)
concert with the formal type, substituting posts with and his son Toshitada (1619-62), has often been
rough, unbeveled corners (menkawabashira), delicate presented by J a p a n e s e and Western critics alike as
structural members, and understated decoration for the quintessence of J a p a n e s e taste. T h e complex is'
the more staid accoutrements of formal Shoin located in southwest Kyoto, near the Katsuragawa
chambers. Intimacy and caprice were the hallmarks river, and is made up of the Old Shoin, Middle
of this type of Shoin, which is frequently referred to Shoin, Music R o o m , and New Palace (fig. 143). In
as the Sukiya or Sukiya Shoin style (see also pp. the garden around it are five teahousesthe Tower
132-35). Much of the atmosphere of Sukiya struc- of Moonlit Waves (Gepparo), Pavilion of the Lute
tures was created by ideas borrowed from the ar- in the Pines (Shokintei), H u t of Smiling Thoughts
chitecture of the tea ceremony, the art of preparing (Shoiken), Pavilion of Admired Blossoms (Shokatei),
and drinking tea with mental discipline, physical con- and Hall of the Garden Forest (Enrindo).
trol, and aesthetic sensibility (see pp. 105-19). T h e T h e Old Shoin and part of the garden were built
humble tea cottage, with its coarsely finished walls, by Toshihito and date to about 1616. Toshihito's son
open ceilings, and surrounding garden, contributed is responsible for the Middle Shoin, possibly built in
moon-vie wing
platform

Old Shoin

143. Katsura Detached Palace

1641. The Music Room and New Palace are thought spacious garden pond. The grounds form an in-
to have been added by Yasuhito, third in the Ka- tegrated whole with the buildings within it. The
tsuranomiya line, in preparation for an imperial tastefully situated rocks and artfully maintained trees
progress by his father, the Tonsured Retired Em- and bushes are not meant to be the occasional ob-
peror Gomizunoo. The date 1660 was found in the ject of an admiring glance or quarter-hour's stroll,
lining of one of the fusuma screens in this section of but to be the constant, active companions of the
the residence, suggesting that it was completed or residents (see also pp. 132-33).
remodeled at about that time. The Katsura complex " T h e Katsura Teahouse" In the diary of the
was thus built by degrees, but from the first was Hachijonomiya family, the villa is called simply " T h e
meant to be used for days or weeks at a time. In the Katsura T e a h o u s e . " The family also had "tea-
beginning, what is now called the Old Shoin no doubt houses" in Misasagimura, near Uji to the southeast,
had a kitchen, bath, and toilet in the rear. Similar and Kaidemmura, close to the old Nagaoka Capital.
amenities probably were added to the Middle Shoin The latter was a short distance from Nagaoka Tem-
later as well. Bath and toilet areas still accompany mangu shrine, once called Kaiden Temmangu, and
the Music Room and the New Palace. was a convenient place from which to make shrine
Integration of Palace and Garden The Katsura visits or to hunt the rare and delicious matsutake
Detached Palace is a nobleman's private Xanadu and mushrooms. Nor did the Hachijonomiya family have
was built in the countryside to allow unimpeded re- a monopoly on such retreats. Most nobles had resi-
laxation in the midst of nature. Toshihito, Toshitada, dences for rest and relaxation to which they could
and their guests would admire the cherry blossoms repair to enjoy tea, quiet study, or the beauties of
in spring and the crimson leaves in autumn at their nature.
elegant retreat while preparing tea and enjoying
exquisite cuisine, or while floating in boats on the
SUKIYA-STYLE D E C O R

145. Twilight Room, Manshuin Lesser Shoin

144. Manshuin Greater Shoin with Lesser Shoin in alcove


background

Distinguishing Sukiya Characteristics The word


sukiya literally means "abode of refinement," and the Fivemat.
Room
most successful examples of the Sukiya style combine
the elegance of the formal Shoin style with the re-
laxed atmosphere and artistic idiosyncrasies appro-
priate to a man of taste. Each Sukiya structure is
accordingly unique, but all share certain general
characteristics. Perhaps the most important of these
is the understatement and irregularity, at times
bordering on rusticity, borrowed from tea taste. As
pointed out earlier, this accounts for the roughly
hewn posts and simple ink paintings, where paintings
exist at all. But the best Sukiya were created by social
146. Manshuin Lesser Shoin
elites, and their understated atmosphere goes hand
in hand with elegant details of the most expensive The Manshuin has two Shoin, the Greater (Dai-
kind. Many Sukiya rooms have ogee-arched (cusped) shoin) and the Lesser (Kojoin; fig. 144). The Lesser
windows (katomado\ figs. 147, 154; see also fig. 24) Shoin in particular is very well known (figs. 145
and tracerylike latticework in their transoms (figs. 46). The main room of the Lesser Shoin complex,
145, 151), intricate openwork on shelves (figs. called the Twilight Room (Tasogare no Ma; fig.
152-53), and even figured metal nail covers 145), shows the creative reconsideration of traditional
(kugikakushi; fig. 149). Sukiya rooms also show ec- Shoin elements that is a touchstone of the Sukiya
centric reinterpretations of the typical Shoin plan. style. The decorative alcove and shelves are side by
Formal Shoin rooms usually have the decorative side on the back wall and the built-in desk, project-
alcove and shelves side by side at the back wall of ing into the veranda, sits at right angles to the alcove
the jodan, with the writing desk to one side on the on a raised jodan area. Thus far, the description
veranda wall and the decorative doors across from sounds like a formal Shoin layout. But the designs
it (see fig. 133). Sukiya spaces, by contrast, almost of the constituent fixtures are quite originalthe jo-
never use the decorative doors, and they constantly dan is only two mats in size and does not include the
rethink the traditional placement of the other formal shelves. More remarkably, it is mirrored above by
Shoin fixtures (compare, for example, figs. 145, 147 a canopylike ceiling irregularly coffered to suggest
with figs. 133, 139). the pattern of the transom. The desk has an ogee-
The Manshuin One of the most congenial rep- arched window, and the shelves show a unique three-
resentations of the Sukiya style is found in north- tiered design with cupboards included as well.
east Kyoto, where the land begins to rise toward Mt. The anteroom, called the Mt. Fuji Room (Fuji no
Hiei. This is the Manshuin, a monzeki temple built Ma), is eight mats in size and is divided from the
for an abbot who was also a member of the imperial Twilight Room by a transom of most original design,
family. It was completed in 1656, after the temple including carvings in bas-relief and openwork chry-
was moved to its present location from the north of santhemums, which are the emblem of the imperial
the Imperial Palace. family (the transom is seen in fig. 145). Every detail
North Entry 148. Kuroshoin, Nishi Honganji
Room
tearoom
^ <S>
Kusari shelves
no Ma

Saya
no Ma

147. First Room, Kuroshoin, Nishi Honganji

of these two rooms has been plannedeven the nail


covers on the circumferential rails in the Mt. Fuji
Room are made in the shape of that mountain. Ap- 149. Nail covers, Kuroshoin
pended to the Mt. Fuji Room is a tiny tea chamber 150. Roof corner tile, Kuroshoin
with an area of only one mat plus another three-
quarter-length mat (the latter mat called a daime).
The Kuroshoin of Nishi Honganji Behind the
opulent Shiroshoin and the enormous Audience Hall
of Nishi Honganji (see pp. 74-75, 120-21) is a
series of rooms where the abbot of that great temple 151. Transom, 152. Openwork shelf backing,
can carry out personal interviews or take his ease. Kuroshoin Kuroshoin
Known as the Kuroshoin (figs. 147-48), the com-
plex was built a year after the Manshuin in 1657.
In the First Room (Ichi no Ma), there is a decorative
alcove (one and a half bays in width) and a built-in
desk side by side on the back wall, and shelves on
the wall adjoining at the northa definite departure
from the formal Shoin arrangement. Nor is there a
jodan. The trademark rough-hewn posts are in evi- 154. Built-in desk and
dence as is an ogee-arched window (figs. 147, 154), 153. Staggered shelves, ogee-arched window,
and the shelves, separated from the built-in desk by Kuroshoin Kuroshoin
a one-bay expanse of wall with inset shoji screens,
son, Toshitada, was also a builder and added much
are fitted with superbly crafted openwork backings
to his father's Katsura complex. Toshitada, Ryosho,
(figs. 152-53). Between the First Room and the Sec-
Ryonyo, and Umenomiya all visited Katsura when
ond Room (Ni no Ma) is a complex transom (fig.
it contained only the Old Shoin and Middle Shoin,
151, right), and both rooms have nail covers of floral
and no doubt there was a good deal of discussion on
pattern (fig. 149). Even the corner tiles (onigawara)
matters of design, resulting in mutual influence.
of the roof are molded with a design of wisteria, a
Other Well-known Sukiya Buildings Four addi-
flower used in the crest of the Nishi Honganji tem-
tional examples of superlative Sukiya styling are the
ple (fig. 150).
Teahouse (Ochaya) of Fushimi Inari Shrine (Kyo-
Family Relations and Design Influences Clearly to; said to have been moved from the Imperial Pal-
the Sukiya designs of the Manshuin Lesser Shoin and ace in 1641), the Kokin Denju no M a (Kumamoto
the Nishi Honganji Kuroshoin are remarkably sim- City, Kumamoto Prefecture; originally a study area
ilar in spirit. T h e reason is not only that they were in the mansion of Prince Hachijonomiya Toshihito,
built at much the same time, but that there was a then moved to his teahouse at Kaidemmura in the
close personal bond on the part of the builders. The Kan'ei era [1624-44], and then again to its present
first resident of the Lesser Shoin was the Priestly location in the Meiji period), the Toshintei of Minase
Prince Ryosho (1622-93), second son of the builder Shrine (Osaka City; built for an imperial progress
of the Old Shoin at Katsura, Prince Hachijonomiya by Tonsured Retired Emperor Gomizunoo in the
Toshihito, and that of the Kuroshoin was the abbot Kan'ei era), and the Rinshunkaku of the Sankeien
Ryonyo (1612-62), whose wife (monks of the True Park (Yokohama; originally built in 1649 as a villa
Pure Land sect may marry) was Toshihito's daughter of the Wakayama Tokugawa and moved to its pres-
Umenomiya. It will be recalled that Toshihito's eldest ent location in this century).

81
MINKADWELLINGS O F T H E
C O M M O N PEOPLE

Guest
Room
anteroom
Saya no Ma

Entry Alcove
Sitting Room

storeroom

Oie no Ma

Varieties of Minka T h e term minka, literally


meaning "houses of the p e o p l e , " covers a great
variety of residential types, from the great houses of
village headmen and rich merchants to the huts of
the poorest farmers. It even applies to the houses of
Shinto priests and the lower levels of the warrior and
even courtly hierarchies; in short, to all houses not
belonging to the members of the very highest social
strata in premodern J a p a n .
T h e types of minka are as diverse as their owners,
and most have been renovated or enlarged in accor-
dance with the changing needs and incomes of suc-
cessive generations of inhabitants. Most of the very
old minka that still survive belonged to village head- 155. Yoshimura House
men or other wealthy commoners, which makes it
difficult to generalize about minka as a whole. U n -
doubtedly these large minka formed a relatively small
percentage of the total. Those owned by village head- headmen of Shimaizumi village until the fall of the
men began to incorporate Shoin-style elements as the Tokugawa government in 1868.
Edo period wore on, particularly in the sitting rooms As with nearly all minka, the history of the Yoshi-
(zashiki) where representatives of the shogun's gov- mura House is incomplete, but it is said to have been
ernment were received. But the use of these upper- burnt during Tokugawa Ieyasu's Osaka S u m m e r
class accoutrements was limited, in theory at least, C a m p a i g n of 1615 when he crushed the last pocket
by sumptuary laws designed to preserve rigid class of resistance to the national hegemony he had won
distinctions. at the battle of Sekigahara fiftee.i years before. T h e
T h e Yoshimura House T h e Yoshimura House, Yoshimura House was rebuilt soon thereafter. T h e
located in Habikino City, Osaka Prefecture, pre- formal sitting room area appended to the west of the
serves the simple vitality and solidity of the best of main house is believed to have been built somewhat
the minka tradition, together with no small degree after that, and the storage and oven sections to the
of sophistication and even elegance. T h e Yoshimura east date to after 1798 (fig. 155).
family, which still owns the house today, boasts a T h e central section of the Yoshimura House is
venerable and distinguished lineage. O n e if its pa- divided, like most minka, into earth-floored (doma)
triarchs, Yoshimura Shichiemon, is listed as "over- and elevated, tatami-matted areas. T h e transition
s e e r " (mandokoro) at the head of a document dated between the two parts is made possible at the Yoshi-
1591, and he appears again as " h e a d m a n (shoya) mura House by a raised interior veranda, called the
Shichiemon" in a cadastral record of 1594. T h e suc- Hiroshiki, that projects into the earth-floored portion
cessive heads of the family retained the position as (figs. 155-56). Above, huge rough-hewn beams
156. Hiroshiki in earth-floored area, Yoshimura House

crisscross below a bamboo ceiling (sunoko tenjo)an The formal guest area is made up of two main
unexpectedly refined conception. A family of stand- rooms, the Guest Room and the anteroom, which
ing such as the Yoshimura would be expected to have are separated by an openwork transom. The Guest
a number of servants and, in a novel touch, a small Room includes a Sukiya-style decorative alcove and,
room thought to be for maids was accordingly hung projecting into an interior corridor to the north, a
over the Hiroshiki's south side. It is reached via a built-in desk with an ogee-arched window. There are
ladder of half-moon shaped rungs cut into the wall. shoji screens with high wainscoting and cleverly de-
The wooden screen with the elegant design that signed latticework, ink monochrome mural paintings,
stands on the Hiroshiki was made of a transom that and fine metal door pulls and nail covers. The posts
once divided the earth-floored section but was re- are unplaned at the corners, save for those in the cor-
moved when the house was restored. ners of the room, which arc square-cut in the formal
West of the Hiroshiki are six tatami-matted rooms manner. Outside to the north is a garden with a
for daily living and meeting with callers. A wooden- spring and a man-made hill. The total effect was most
floored storeroom is located in the middle of the appropriate for a family of prominence with impor-
northern row. In feudal times, most visitors came and tant local responsibilities.
went via doors in the earth-floored section, while In its heyday in the Edo period, the Yoshimura
important personages made formal entries via the House had a large number of subsidiary structures,
Entry Alcove Room (Genkan no Ma), which leads and today a number still survive, such as the gate-
either back toward the earth-floored area or toward house (nagayamon), fireproof storage building, and
"he sitting rooms at the far west. bulletin-board area.
M I N K A DIVERSITY

160. Nikaido House (mid 19th cen.)

157. Former Emukai House


(mid 18th cen.)

158. Kawauchi House


. .,. . (first half of 18th cen.)
161. Horiuchi House
(first half of 19th cen.)

159. Typical Kudo-style house


in Taku, Saga Prefecture 162. Kuriyama House (1607)

Regional Variations T h o u g h relatively small in region and also to the growing of silkworms carried
land area, the Japanese archipelago covers over twen- out in the upper stories. Silkworm production was
ty degrees of latitude, roughly from Maine to Miami a popular cottage industry in the area when the home
in the United States. Differing climates have given was built in 1822. T h e roof is in the Kabutoyane
rise over the years to a large n u m b e r of regional min- style, so called for its resemblance to a samurai
ka types. helmet (kabuto).
Northern H o n s h u (Tohoku) O n e characteristic North-Central Japan (Kanto and Chubu Re-
building style of northern J a p a n is the C h u m o n style, gions) M a n y of the old minka of Ibaragi, Chiba,
so named for the chumon ell that projects from the and Miyagi Prefectures have their earth-floored and
dwelling proper (shuya) in homes from Akita and tatami-matted areas under separate roofs. T h e for-
Yamagata Prefectures south to Fukushima. T h e chu- mer Sakuta House is a case in point (fig. 167). T h e
mon ell developed from the projecting corridor of the Sakuta family were important fishermen of the Ku-
same name in Shoin structures (see p. 76) and earlier jukuri area on the coast of present-day Chibu Pre-
homes. T h e ell usually includes an entrance on the fecture.
facade, earth-floored area, stable, and toilet, thus en- T h e former Kitamura House is another very old
suring access to those areas in the snowy winter residence in the region (fig. 168). A farmhouse that
months. once stood at the foot of M t . T a n z a w a outside Ha-
A variant of the style is seen in the so-called Ell dano City in Kanagawa Prefecture, it is noted for
Houses of N a m b u (Nambu no magariya) in the region its H i r o m a (literally " l a r g e r o o m " ) set on the level
of the old N a m b u fief in present-day Iwate Prefec- of the elevated tatami rooms but three-quarters cov-
ture. T h e former Kikuchi House in T o n o City is an ered by bamboo flooring.
example of this type (fig. 166). T h e ell houses in Moving toward the Sea of J a p a n , we find the Gas-
general include only a stable and earth-floored area sho style used in m a n y minka of Gifu and T o y a m a
in the ell, with an entrance not on the ell's facade Prefectures. T h e n a m e of the style is derived from
but on the side. the steep roofs of the houses, which resemble hands
Another exemplary minka of the northern area is held in an attitude of prayer (gassho). A representa-
the former Shibuya House, originally located in T a - tive example is the former Emukai House, originally
mugimata, Higashitagawa District, Yamagata Pre- located in the village of Kamitairamura, T o y a m a
fecture (fig. 164). It has large windows on its second Prefecture, in the area drained by the Shogawa river
and third floors due both to the heavy snows of the (fig. 157). As with the former Shibuya House, the
TTTl 166- Former Kikuchi House
jagiM (mid 18th cen.)

163. Former Eri House


mtiD
(late 17th cen.)

167. Former Sakuta House


(late 17th cen.)

164. Former Shibuya House (1882)

165. Imanishi House (1650) 168. Former Kitamura House


i-J (1687)

three-story structure was used for silkworm cul- the region, among them the N a k a m u r a House in
tivation. Gose City, Nara Prefecture, dated 1632. O t h e r un-
Nagano Prefecture is known for its houses in the dated houses may be older than even the K u r i y a m a
H o m m u n e style. O u r example here is the Horiuchi family residence. These include the Hakogi House
House in Shiojiri City, built by a prominent local in Kobe City and the Furui House in Hyogo Prefec-
family who served as overseers (ojoya) for the area (fig. ture. Both are familiarly known as T h o u s a n d Year
161). T h e house is nearly square in plan, with a gen- Houses (sennen'ya) and are thought to date to the late
tly sloping pitched roof of planks. T h e facade is par- M u r o m a c h i period.
ticularly noteworthy for its three-pronged roof or- Shikoku and Kyushu A n u m b e r of homes in east-
nament, called a " s p a r r o w d a n c e " (suzume odori) or ern Kagawa Prefecture have pitched roofs and par-
" s p a r r o w scare" (suzume odoshi), and for the impres- ticularly large earth-floored areas. O n e such resi-
sive half-timbering of the gable beneath. dence is the former Eri House (fig. 163). Its massive
South-Central Japan (Kinki and Chugoku Re- walls give it a very inward-looking and protected
gions) According to the certification found on the appearance.
roof ridgepole, the K u r i y a m a House, in the city of Saga and Nagasaki Prefectures are known for the
Gojo, N a r a Prefecture, dates to 1607, making it the K u d o style of minka, which has a roof with a U-
oldest minka to which a reliable date can be affixed shaped plan (fig. 159). T h e design may have been
(fig. 162). It is an imposing residence with thick developed to withstand the frequent typhoons that
plaster walls and a tiled hip-and-gable roof given add- strike southern J a p a n . The n a m e is said to be de-
ed interest by a carefully designed smoke vent. rived from the style's resemblance to a kudo oven.
Another very old town house in the region was Another example of the type is the house of the
built for the Imanishi, headmen of Imaicho, a self- Kawauchi family, but it was remodeled in later years
governing township built around a T r u e Pure Land (fig. 158). The plan shows an earlier form of the
temple (fig. 165). Walls and a moat were built to house more representative of the K u d o style.
protect the town's autonomy. T h e date 1650 was In the southern prefecture of Kagoshima, some
discovered on the ridgepole certification. T h e house minka are composed of two sections with separate
is famous for its huge tiled roof, and the complex roofs. At the Nikaido House, the section under the
system of gables gives it the name Eight-roofed style roof with the east-west ridgepole is called the O m o t e
(yatsumune zukuri). and that with the north-south ridgepole, the Nakae
There are a n u m b e r of other very old houses in (fig. 160).
PROVINCIAL T O W N S
IN T H E EDO PERIOD

Types of T o w n s Farming villages (noson), port fleets its ancient appearance today.
towns (minatomachi), temple or shrine towns (monzen- A representative post town is the former Ouchi
machi) that grew up around places of worship, post Station in Shimogomachi, Minamiaizu District,
towns (shukubamachi) that catered to the traffic along Fukushima Prefecture. Inns line both sides of the old
the great roads, and castle towns (jokamachi), all de- Aizu Nishikaido road, and their gable-entry facades
veloped to serve different purposes, and all have preserve much of their old flavor. T h e water that
unique features that are further particularized flows in fosses to both sides of the street must have
through adaptations to differing regional climates and refreshed many a weary traveler over the centuries.
topographies. T h e logic behind the organization of Other old-fashioned post towns are Motoyama, Na-
these varied communities is sometimes obvious, rai, Midono, and, perhaps most notably, T s u m a g o ,
sometimes obscure. T h e Gassho-style minka on the all ol which served travelers on the Kiso Road (also
T o n a m i Plain in T o y a m a Prefecture, for example, called the Nakasendo) that ran between Edo and
seem at first glance to stand helter-skelter within their Kyoto through the mountains of central J a p a n .
windbreak of trees, but on closer inspection prove The T o w n of Tsumago Tsumago, in present-day
to form a definite interrelated whole. Towns like this Nagano Prefecture, was one of the dozens of post
are called "dispersed communities" (sankyo shuraku). towns on the Kiso Road. As it is located in a moun-
Mitsucho, in Ibo District, Hyogo Prefecture, is a tainous region, harvests in T s u m a g o have always
typical port town. It has a long history, reaching back been scant. In modern times many young people of
to the days when it was called Murotsu and daimyo the village have gone to the cities in hopes of better
stayed at its sumptuous inns, and the town still re- employment. The town consequently has changed lit-

Sit)
169. T h e t o w n of T s u m a g o

tie over the years, and recent restoration programs originality. The result of thi
have been instituted to turn this old-fashioned quality conservatism, however, was
to historical advantage. Even telephone poles have and successful uniformity ol
been moved behind the houses and out of sight. To- occasional understated lloui
day Tsumago presents a close approximation of its mistake, though, to credit thi
appearance over a century ago. The rows of simple fortune. Instead, a clear de
houses that stand to either side of the three-to-four- or otherwiseon the part o
meter-wide road still retain their old latticed Ironts builders who contributed to t
and their plank roofs, weighted down with rocks for helped make Tsumago what
reinforcement (fig. 169). In the same way that laws ;
Urban Design The town of Tsumago does not os- pie begin to live in groups, s<
tentatiously advertise its historicity, and this under- quired when houses are ma
stated integrity is one of its most charming and aes- cities. That we continue toe
thetically effective qualities. The character of the Edo-period urban design is a
town was not planned outright but rather evolved of earlier generations in forr
over years of unself-conscious trial and error. Civic tural rules. No doubt there is
pride expressed in terms of architectural display was to take from these early towi
in any case discouraged by the officials of a leudal ban problems of the present
government dedicated to the preservation ol the
status quo, and village carpenters were of limited
Castle Towns Most of the main cities in present- general apportionment of samurai, tradesmen, and
day J a p a n developed in the early modern period as artisan homes was established beforehand, and
towns built around a central castle. Tokyo, for ex- moats, roads, and water availability were given
ample, grew up around Edo Castle, headquarters of careful consideration. The exact layout of Hikone in
the Tokugawa shoguns (see pp. 88-89). Osaka was the year 1736 is clear from an extant source entitled
centered on Osaka Castle, administered by Toyotomi " M a p of the Hikone Castle T o w n " (Hikone joka so-
Hideyoshi and later by Tokugawa Ieyasu, and so too ezu\ fig. 170). Similar visual evidence exists for many
was Nagoya built around the castle of a branch family other castle sites. One particularly valuable source
of the Tokugawa, the Matsudaira of Owari Province, is a group of city maps ordered made by the Toku-
now Aichi Prefecture. gawa shogunate. Known as the Maps of the Shoho Era
Hikone Hikone, in present-day Shiga Prefecture, (Shoho zu) or Maps of Shoho Era Castles (Shbhojo ezu) b y
had its beginnings as a castle town when the warrior virtue of their date of compilation in the first year
Ii Naokatsu established himself there in 1604. His (1644) of the Shoho era, the maps depict many of
castle remains today, overlooking Lake Biwa from the cities of the day, with a high regard for fidelity
atop a low hill (see fig. 202). At the height of its pros- and uniformity, making them a priceless legacy of
perity it was surrounded by the residences of the Ii the early days of the Tokugawa shogunate.
family's highest retainers, and then, further out, by The Port City of Nagasaki Nagasaki has a deep
the houses of stipendiaries of the one hundred to one natural harbor, and its development as an urban
thousand koku class, a koku being equal to about five center began in 1571. It flourished subsequently as
bushels of rice, the amount theoretically necessary a focus of foreign trade. In 1636 Dejima island was
to support one man for a year. The houses of the built to house the Portuguese traders who brought
townsmen radiated outward from there (fig. 170). their wares to the city. Three years later, the sho-
Temples were built around the castle's outer moat, gunate decreed the country be closed off from most
as the castle residents were well aware of their use- foreign intercourse, and the Portuguese were ex-
fulness from the point of view of defense. pelled. In 1641 the Dutch were moved to the tiny
Unlike towns such as Tsumago that took shape in man-made island from their trade mission on Hirado
an arbitrary and intuitive way, Hikone and most Island to the north, and they remained the only
other castle towns were based initially on plans. The Western traders allowed to deal with J a p a n until the

88
174. A shrine town: Kotohira

reopening of the country in the middle of the nine- The Post Town Moriyama The Map of Moriyama
teenth century. Nagasaki was thus J a p a n ' s only (Moriyama ezu) shows the Edo-period plan of that post
"window on the W e s t , " and free-thinking young town on the Kiso Road near the east coast of Lake
men made the long trip to this bastion of compara- Biwa (fig. 171). Houses line the route, which turns
tive enlightenment to learn the secrets of European ninety degrees near the center of town. The junction
science and technology. Since its inception, the city was chosen as the place for the bulletin board (ko-
has been known for its exotic flavor, lent by its Euro- satsu) by which the town fathers conveyed laws and
pean and Chinese influences. other civic information to the general populace. The
The arrival of a European mission in 1672an map shows Moriyama to be delineated by bridges
event notable for its raritywas the catalyst for the at its south and east ends. Thirty houses flank the
p a i n t i n g entitled the Nagasaki Screens of the Kambun Era north and west sides of the street and forty-one, the
{Kambun Nagasaki byobu). It gives a lively impression south and east. Several more are set back from the
of the port, with ships moored in the harbor and peo- main road to the north and south. The town had a
ple taking part in festival activities (fig. 172). number of religious establishments as well. The map
The Shrine Town Kotohira Travel in the Toku- makes it clear that while castle towns tended to de-
gawa period was regulated by the government, and velop outward in all directions from a centred fortress,
pilgrimages were one of the only excuses for leaving post towns spread quite understandably along both
home during those centuries. O n e particularly fa- sides of a highway.
mous pilgrimage center was the shrine to the god The great woodblock artist of landscapes Ando
Kompira in Kotohira, located in present-day Kagawa Hiroshige (1797-1858) depicted Moriyama in his
Prefecture (see also pp. 126-27). Then as now, the collection entitled Hiroshige's Sixty-nine Stations of the
main street of Kotohira was thronged by visitors buy- Kiso Road {Hiroshige Kiso Kaido rokujiikyii tsugi\ fig. 173).
ing souvenirs of their trip or hiring palanquins to ride When compared to the map, Hiroshige's depiction
up the hundreds of steps to the main place of wor- of the town seems to include some artistic liberties,
ship. T h e Illustrated Pilgrimage Guide to Kompira {Kom- but it nevertheless evokes Moriyama's atmosphere
pira sankei annai ezu) survives from the Edo period to quite well.
give a vivid impression of the town during those years
(fig. 174).
T H E EDO M E T R O P O L I S

Edo Castle

Kyobashi
ii 1 , u u- N
!. h o m b a s h i
Honcho Ave.

176. Odemmacho Quarter

178. Fire towers and


ladder with firebell
on watchman's sta-
tion

175. Nihombashi Quarter

177. Bulletin board,


Nihombashi Quarter

Ieyasu's City Planning O n the first day of the Planning Edo's Great Roads The design of Edo
eighth month of 1590, Tokugawa Ieyasu, still a is believed to have been heavily influenced by two
subordinate of the great warlord Toyotomi Hideyoshi distant mountains, Mt. Fuji and Mt. Tsukuba.
but master of most of north-central Japan, established Honcho Avenue, for example, one of the main ar-
himself in Edo Castle. Within a few decades the city teries in the city, was laid out on the route connect-
that grew up around it, Edo, would become one of ing Mt. Fuji with the Tokiwabashi area. Similarly,
the largest on earth, a position it would continue to the road from Kyobashi to Nihombashi was laid out
maintain after it was renamed Tokyo and made the in the direction of Mt. Tsukuba (fig. 175). Standing
center of the Meiji government in 1868. on Honcho Avenue and looking southwest, one could
But when Ieyasu took up residence in Edo, the cas- see Mt. Fuji over eighty kilometers away, and
tle was so insignificant as to lack even stone parapets, travelers from Kyobashi could glimpse Mt. Tsukuba
and the bay was close enough to lap at the founda- over sixty kilometers to the northeast.
tions of the central donjon, which leaked in the rain. Mt. Fuji in particular became a point of reference
Ieyasu is said to have chosen the site at the sugges- and cultural pride for Edoites, and famous woodblock
tion of Hideyoshi. But the future founder of the To- artists frequently incorporated it into their composi-
kugawa shogunate no doubt saw for himself that the tions. Torii Kiyonaga (1753-1815) used it, as did
small town was ideally situated for land and sea trade Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849), who made it the
and that it could control the entirety of the vast Kanto subject of a whole series of prints, the famous Thirty-
Plain. six Views of Mt. Fuji (Hokusai Fugaku sanjiirokkei; see
Immediately Ieyasu began work on his new resi- fig. 91), some of which are depicted from vantage
dence, not only expanding and strengthening the cas- points within the city of Edo. The mountain was a
tle but planning the city that was to surround and centerpiece for some of Hiroshige's prints as well,
supply it. He filled in the Hibiya Inlet that had bor- s u c h as The Prosperous Odemmacho Quarter of the East-
dered the castle, built a system of moats and canals, ern Capital (Toto Odemmacho han'ei no zu\ fig. 176).
and reduced Mt. Kanda at present-day Surugadai. The artist used the mountain as the focal point of
180. Shop with second-floor residence 181. Neighborhood watchman's
and earth-walled storehouse station and kido gate

the entire composition, and he drew the eye to it loads on poles over their shoulders. In front of the
through the use of the converging lines of the shops bridge, to the right, can be seen the gates called kido
to both sides of the thronged avenue. Mt. Fuji had ("wooden doors") that demarcated the various city
such charm for the artists of the period that some subsections and closed them off at night. Over them
were no doubt inclined to include it in pictures of stand three-story towers that commanded a good
parts of the city from which it was not in fact visible. view of the area. Kitagawa Morisada was another
But in most cases it seems likely that artists were tell- artist who focussed his talent on the city, particular-
ing no more than the truth about the dominant role ly its architecture. His collection Morisada's Random
of the mountain in the consciousness of the citizens Sketches (Morisada manko\ 1853) i n c l u d e s careful re-
of Edo. presentations of a kido gate with a watchman's sta-
The Look of Edo As Edo was the site of the sho- tion (jishimbansho) to the left (fig. 181), a two-story
gun's government and the largest city in J a p a n , il- house next to an even taller earth-walled storehouse
lustrations of it naturally proliferated. Many of these (fig 180), and even examples of fire towers (hinomi-
were in guidebooks such as the very detailed Great yagura) together with the explanation "these are built
Map oj the Roads oj Edo (Bundo Edo daiezu) printed about one per ten blocks" (fig. 178).
in 1716 from a painting by Ishikawa Tomonobu (fig. A final example of the illustrations devoted to Edo
175). Other artists chose to concentrate on city scenes is the Pictures of Famous Places in Edo (Edo meisho zue)
such as the section around Nakabashi bridge, by Saito Gesshin and others in 1836. The flourishing
d e p i c t e d , for e x a m p l e , in the Folding Screens of Scenes city is depicted therein section by section in very
in Edo (Edo zu bybbu\ fig 179). It gives a vivid and detailed representations. It also gives visual informa-
lively view of the area as it looked in the early years tion on various everyday sights in the city such as
of the Edo period, before the bridge was dismantled the local bulletin boards on which ordinances and
and the canal beneath filled in. Nakabashi was clearly notices were regularly displayed (fig. 177).
a thriving commercial center, with boats laden with
goods and men on both sides of the river carrying
Grand Processional
SCHOOLS IN T H E EDO PERIOD faculty residences Hall
lecture / t e m p l e

office
refectory f.
faculty
residences
guardhouse

184. Shizutaniko academy


182. Shizutaniko Lecture Hall

185. Scene from a temple school

=9T

183. Shizutaniko Lecture Hall 186. Taku Confucian temple

Fief Schools for Scions of the Samurai As mem- dominant social position of the samurai class.
bers of the highest of the four basic social classes into Another good example of these temples belonged
which the population of Edo J a p a n was divided, the to the Taku School of the Sagafief (fig. 186). Finished
sons of samurai families were afforded special educa- in 1708, it is the only structure of the T a k u School
tional opportunities at academies (hanko) run by their still standing. Appropriately enough, the temple is
fiefs (han). T h e Kodokan of the Mito fief and the quite Chinese in atmosphere and perhaps was direct-
Meirindo of the Owari are particularly well-known ly modeled on Chinese Confucian temples.
schools of this type. Another was the Shizutaniko of Temple Schools Children of the other three main
the Okayama fief, begun in 1670 when large numbers classes in Edo society, the farmers, artisans, and mer-
of trees were cleared to make a spacious site. Its Lec- chants, attended " t e m p l e schools" (terakoya). There
ture Hall (Kodo) was completed in 1673 and its tem- they learned the rudiments of reading, writing, and
ple to Confucius (Seido) was built on a rise to the arithmetic, the last with the aid of the abacus (soto-
east in the following year (fig. 184). T h e present Lec- ban). T h e teachers were usually samurai, monks,
ture Hall, rebuilt in 1701, is a majestic structure with physicians, or Shinto priests. T h e term " t e m p l e
a spacious plank-floored interior to accommodate a school" developed in the medieval period when
large n u m b e r of young scholars (figs. 182-83). T h e classes were held for the most part in Buddhist
temple to Confucius was rebuilt in 1684. establishments, but by the Edo period it had come
These Confucian temples, where rites in honor of to mean any school for commoner children, and
Confucius were performed, were a particular feature classes were held not only in temples but in shrines
of fief academies. This is not surprising, as the cur- and the homes of samurai. T h e lively and somewhat
ricula of these schools was overwhelmingly weighted undisciplined atmosphere of one such school was cap-
toward the study of the Chinese classics, m a n y of tured by the painter and philosopher W a t a n a b e
which are attributed to that master. It was also Con- Kazan (1793-1841) in his notebook Isso hyakutai cho
fucian doctrine, as interpreted by later thinkers, that in 1818 (fig. 185).
formed the philosophical underpinnings for the pre-
BATTLE- Gastles and Castle Towns
The sound of the bell of fetavana Temple echoes the impermanence of all things. The hue of the blossoms of the
double Sala trees proclaims the truth that those who flourish must be brought low. The proud do not long endure,
but are like the dream of a spring night. So are the mighty in the end destroyed, all as dust before the wind.

Like Kamo no Chomei's Tale of the Ten-Foot-Square thus ending the era of Ashikaga rule. Nobunaga went
Hut, the first lines of the Tales of the Heike (Heike on expanding his holdings for nearly a decade there-
monogatari) announce the theme of mutability. Yet the after, but in 1582 he died on the threshold of nation-
subject of the Tales is not reclusion but war, war be- al hegemony, murdered by a subordinate.
tween two mighty military clans, the Minamoto and Nobunaga's Azuchi Castle, built on the shore of
the Taira. The reader will recall that those two Lake Biwa in 1576-77, was as epoch-making as the
houses, also called the Genji and Heike, vied for exploits of its master. Strongholds had, of course,
national supremacy in the late twelfth century (see been built throughout Japanese history and are men-
pp. 20-21). The Tales of the Heike, J a p a n ' s greatest tioned in the earliest written records, but Azuchi
military classic, is based on their struggle and re- represented a quantum leap over the large-scale but
counts the rise of the Heike, the glory of its leader, relatively crude construction of its predecessors. Its
Taira no Kiyomori, then the string of defeats and donjon rose six stories and seven floors in height (the
final extinction of his heirs at the hands of their interior configuration was not completely reflected
enemies. The fall of the Heike in 1185 marked the on the exterior) and overlooked the surrounding
birth of the medieval era, four hundred years of in- countryside of Omi Province (present-day Shiga
stability that ended in a protracted national conflict Prefecture) from atop a rise, announcing to the world
known as the Age of the Country at War (sengoku the preeminence of its creator. The exterior was dec-
jidai). It was a time of devout popular Buddhism and orated with walls of scarlet, blue, and gold plaster,
the rise of Zen, of Sung-inspired ink monochrome and the interior bore brilliant gold and polychrome
paintings, the tea ceremony and the No drama. Most mural paintings by the great painter Kano Eitoku
of all, it was a time of struggle to attain, then retain, (1543-90). Virtually no interior surface was left un-
power. As was characteristic of that violent age, the adorned, and this effort to dazzle the eye became one
sons of Minamoto no Yoritomo, the first medieval of the touchstones of the art of the period, referred
shogun, were both assassinated, and the Kamakura to as the Azuchi-Momoyama, or simply Momoyama
shogunate passed into the control of Yoritomo's (1573-1600). Nobunaga held grand assemblies at
maternal relatives, the Hojo. The Hojo overcame at- the castle to display its opulence. Nor was he intent
tempts to overthrow them by the imperial family and only on visual effect. The introduction of firearms
the Mongol army of Kublai Khan, only to collapse by the Portuguese some decades earlier had revolu-
in a more successful imperial restoration attempt tionized warfare and required much stronger for-
in 1333 by the army of the Emperor Godaigo (1288- tifications, and this too was reflected in Nobunaga's
1339). Three years later Godaigo himself was routed edifice. He had already put his respect for firearms
by an erstwhile retainer, Ashikaga no Takauji (1305- to good use in his monumental rout of the conven-
58), who established the second shogunate of the me- tionally armed forces of Takeda Katsuyori at Naga-
dieval period, the Muromachi, in Kyoto. Godaigo shino in 1575. Azuchi Castle powerfully influenced
fled south carrying the emblems of imperial office, all subsequent castle designs. But the prototype did
beginning a period of over a half century in which not long survive its creator, and today all that is left
two courts, the Northern and the Southern, coexist- is part of the foundation stonework. Despite the thick,
ed (1336-92). But Ashikaga control was never abso- plaster-coated walls used in the castles of the time,
lute, and its daimyo deputies perpetually thirsted for they were essentially built of wood, and most even-
greater individual power. The fragile hold of the Mu- tually fell pray to fire from either battle or other
romachi shogunate over its subordinates collapsed in causes. Of the twelve donjons that survive today, only
the Onin War (1467-77), which laid waste to the two, those of Maruoka and Matsumoto, antedate the
capital and led to the Age of the Country at War. battle of Sekigahara in 1600 (see pp. 72-73).

The man who finally rose supreme out of this anar- The height of castle building was to last less than
chic century was Oda Nobunaga, a general of genius, half a century. After Tokugawa Ieyasu consolidated
audacity, and bloodthirsty cunning. After a number his hold over the country, he instituted measures in
of great victories, Nobunaga finally marched into 1615 to limit the number of castles to one per do-
Kyoto and installed a new shogun from the Ashikaga main in the interest of preserving peace and ensur-
family in 1568, only to unseat him five years later, ing continued Tokugawa rule.
187. Donjon complex of Himeji Castle, viewed from
the Caltrop Gate (Hishi no Mon) to the south

"Egret Castle" T h e donjon (tenshu) of Himeji Cas- residences of high-level retainers were located out-
tle, built atop a forty-five-meter rise called Hime- side this castle moat but were protected by another
yama, commands an expansive view of the surround- moat still further out. Then came another even larger
ing Himeji City in Hyogo Prefecture (figs. 187, 203). residential area surrounded by yet another moat. An
The thirty-one-meter donjon, the last stronghold and advancing enemy thus had to cross three moats be-
most heavily fortified castle structure, contains five fore reaching the central citadel and to force several
stories and six floors, an additional floor being built more heavily fortified gate areas before reaching the
into the fifteen-meter-tall stone foundation. This donjon complex, where fire could be concentrated on
main donjon is surrounded by three smaller ones, the them from the four donjons and connecting corridors
West D o n j o n (left of the main donjon in fig. 187), and turrets.
Northwest Donjon (left of the West Donjon), and the But the role of the castle was not only to defend
East Donjon (behind the main donjon and not visi- but to impress, and ample attention was according-
ble in the illustration). T h e four donjons are con- ly paid at Himeji to aesthetics. T h e dormers (chido-
nected by corridors (watariyagura). This central citadel rihafu), cusped gables (karahafu), gable ornaments (ge-
is surrounded by a twisting maze of walls, gates, and gyo), and cusped windows on the minor donjons all
corridors with turrets (yagura) at strategic points. T h e attest to this concern for visual effect (fig. 187). As
Ri Corridor is in the foreground of figure 187, with suggested by Himeji's nickname, " E g r e t C a s t l e , "
the Chi Turret at the far right. its walls are finished with white plaster, creating a
But this complex formed only the Central Com- stark, yet immensely powerful, impression.
pound ( H o m m a r u ) of the castleseveral subsidiary Himeji Castle's Strategic Location Himeji Cas-
compounds stretched out before it to the south and tle is located on a major route to the western prov-
west, all surrounded by walls and a great moat. T h e inces, and for that reason a n u m b e r of fortresses had
Chi Turret

been located on the site since at least the fourteenth sors of the Ikeda, the Honda. Though the main don-
century. Hideyoshi built a castle there with a three- jon seems quite close to that compound, the cleverly
story donjon in 1581. The present complex was be- designed ground plan makes it extremely difficult to
gun when Tokugawa Ieyasu invested his son-in-law reach.
Ikeda Terumasa (1564-1613) with the province of Construction and Design The six stories of Himeji
Harima (in present-day Hyogo Prefecture) for his ex- Castle's main donjon are all tied to two huge central
ploits at the battle of Sekigahara. Construction was columns that run from the foundation to the roof.
begun in 1601 and lasted until 1609, and materials This configuration gives added stability to the mul-
from Hideyoshi's old donjon were used in the new titiered structure. Viewed from outside the donjon,
design. This was particularly ironic as the castle was the basement story in the stone foundation is not visi-
meant to isolate Hideyoshi's son Hideyori in Osaka ble, but its inside walls that border the courtyard are
from lords in the west, powerful leaders who had fit with large windows to make for a more livable in-
received favor from Hideyoshi in the past and were terior. The area contains a bathing room and a toilet,
thus potential threats to Ieyasu. These included Kato and a kitchen is located in the courtyard. The inner
Kiyomasa (1562-1611) of Kumamoto, Fukushima courtyard walls are not fit with loopholes for marks-
Masanori (1561-1624) of Hiroshima, and Mori Te- men as are the outer walls. The residential part of
rumoto of Hagi. Terumoto, it will be recalled, was the donjon was designed for sieges and not meant
present at the audience with Ieyasu at Nijo Castle for long-term living, but it still has a more domestic
described earlier (pp. 72-73). Masanori was in at- quality that would be expected from the forbidding
tendance at the same conference, as was Ikeda Te- exterior.
rumasa. Another compound, the Nishinomaru, was
added to Himeji Castle in later years by the succes-
189. Conjectural reconstruction of
residence area of Asakura Castle

Ancient Fortresses At various sites from north for castle appears in the oldest of J a p a n ' s official na-
Kyushu to the coast of the Inland Sea one can find tional histories, the Nihon shoki of 720, and we know
rock walls on the slopes of certain hills. The lines of that structures built for warfare already existed in the
dressed stones stretch for several kilometers, and here Asuka period (552-710). In the eighth century the
and there are found the remains of walls and sluice Nara court began pushing its borders further north
gates. For years no one knew for certain what the into the Tohoku region, and its armies built strong-
purpose of these ancient constructions was. Some holds as they progressed, such as Dewa Stockade
believed they had delineated holy areas, and they ac- (709) and Taga Castle (724).
cordingly came to be called "sacred-precinct stones" From Mountain Castle to Flatland Castle In the
(kogoishi; fig. 188). medieval period, castles tended to be built atop
Much later, though, on the basis of scientific in- mountains or hills, where they could be easily defend-
vestigation, it became clear that these walls were the ed. They often included a fosse around the compound
remains of massive foundations, and that they had and a residential quarter as well, but tended by and
been built not as sacred precincts but as early moun- large to rely on the defensive properties of the ter-
tain castles. Possibly the technology for them was rain itself. What fortifications existed were thus quite
brought to J a p a n by Korean immigrants. It is still simple. Architectural historians have reconstructed
unknown, however, when and for what purpose these on paper one such establishment, the fortress of the
castles were built. Asakura family in Ichijodani, Echizen Province (in
Castles have a long history in J a p a n . The word present-day Fukui Prefecture). Built in 1471, the cas-

96
191. Donjon of Maruoka Castle
190. Remains of Takatenjin Castle

192. Jurakudai Castle and Palace

tie itself stood at the summit of Mt. Ichijo, and a plains. Others, called "flatland castles" (hirajiro),
residential complex was built in the valley below with were constructed on the plain itself. Himeji Castle
areas for retainers within it (fig 189). The mansion is of the flatland-mountain type, as is Maruoka,
had a garden with elegant rock formations and a the oldest extant donjon (fig. 191). Built in 1576,
spring-fed pond. Maruoka Castle has a very early-type donjon, com-
This kind of "mountain castle" (yamajiro) was posed simply of a cupola set atop a manor-style roof.
common even into the early modern period. And The grandest of the Momoyama-period flatland
most early examples resembled the castle of the castles was undoubtedly Hideyoshi's Jurakudai in
Asakura in locating the donjon on the mountain sum- Kyoto. The Jurakudai Screen (Jurakudai byobu), a folding
mit and the living area on lower ground. Another screen in the collection of the Mitsui family, shows
example of the type was Takatenjin Castle (Shizuoka a donjon with cusped windows and elegant railings
Prefecture) where Takeda Katsuyori was defeated by on its cupola, surrounded by a maze of turrets, stone
Ieyasu in 1574 and again in 1579. But only the fosse walls, and a multiroofed residential area. The whole
of the castle remains today (fig. 190). complex is encircled by a moat. The complex was
As the holdings of daimyo increased, however, taken down in 1595, however, and though a number
mountain sites proved too rugged for use as centers of temples over the succeeding years claimed to own
of domainal government and commerce. Conse- parts of it, only the screen survives to show its im-
quently "flatland-mountain castles" (hirayamajiro) mense grandeur in its entirety.
came to be built on rises in the midst of surrounding
193. Battle of Nagashino

Firearms Revolutionize Castle Construction On ferred their traditional bows, lances, and swords.
the twenty-first day of the fifth month, 1575, Takeda As touched on in the introduction to this chapter,
Katsuyori's army met the combined forces of Oda the advent of firearms wrought great changes in castle
Nobunaga and Tokugawa Ieyasu on Shitaragahara design. Nagashino Castle, typical of late Muromachi
Plain close to Nagashino Castle in what is now Aichi fortresses, is depicted at the far right of figure 193
Prefecture. The battle was uneven in terms of num- (from t h e Screen of the Battle of Nagashino [Nagashino
bersKatsuyori's 15,000 against the 30,000 of No- kassenzu byobu\). It was of wood construction and dif-
bunaga and 8,000 of Ieyasuand four hours later fered little from residential complexes. Atop one of
Katsuyori was in full retreat toward the province of the structures is a small cupola that, if it is not sim-
Kai (present-day Yamanashi Prefecture). The bat- ply a roof vent, may be a watchtower, and as such
tle was imaginatively dramatized by Kurosawa Akira constitute an embryonic donjon design with its even-
in his film Kagemusha. tual complement of loopholes for firearms and arrows
But it was not only numbers that won the day for as well as stone-drops.
Nobunaga: his forces were equipped with a large Firearms, however, required builders to pay more
number of firearms. The arquebus had been intro- attention to fireproofing. Walls were coated with
duced by the Portuguese a short three decades ear- plaster for this purpose, and made thicker as well,
lier in 1543 and had not been extensively used until with a layer of sand and pebbles in the middle to
Nobunaga, with his characteristic foresight, adopt- retard flame and projectiles. The result was the type
ed it on a wide basis. More conservative leaders pre- of construction seen at Himeji Castle.

98
CASTLE DEFENSE

198. Tayasumon (left) and Koraimon gates, Edo Castle

Loopholes and Stone-Drops An obvious necessi- Double Gates and Enclosed Square Courtyards
ty for any castle was openings in wallsloopholes Care was also lavished on the castle layout (nawabari)
for soldiers to shoot through. Loopholes meant for in order to make it as difficult as possible for attackers
the use of bows tend to be tall and narrow (yazama\ to reach the donjon. Gates were a particular weak
fig. 196), while those for firearms are square or cir- point, and builders consequently worked out a design
cular (jiigan or teppozama\ figs. 194-95, 197). Tri- to turn this inherent shortcoming to the advantage
angular loopholes were also used (see fig. 187). In of the defenders within. O n pe netrating the first gate,
cross section the loopholes are hourglass in shape, attackers would find themselves in a square en-
allowing for the greatest freedom of fire while pro- closed court (masugata) at right angles to a second,
viding the smallest target. even stouter gate of two stories provided with loop-
Another device for launching more primitive pro- holes for raking those trapped below.
jectiles is the stone-drop (ishiotoshi), analogous in op- O n e example of such double-gate designs is that
eration to the machicolations of European castles, at Edo Castle, built in 1636 (fig. 198). Once inside
which bulges out from a wall just enough to allow the Koraimon gate at the right of the figure, any in-
the defenders to rain rocks on attackers scaling the truders would have been met by marksmen in the
stone foundation wall (fig. 195). T h e stone-drop second floor of the T a y a s u m o n gate behind it. Other
could also accommodate loopholes for shooting guns gates at Edo Castle were likewise carefully outfitted
or arrows. for defense.

99
T H E T W E L V E SURVIVING D O N J O N S

199. Maruoka Castle ^


(1576)

200. Matsumoto Castle 204. Matsue Castle


(c. 1596) (1611)

A Chronological Survey When the Meiji Restora- (Aichi Prefecture) were begun in 1601, and the third
tion took place in 1868, over forty donjons still sur- and fourth were added in 1620 (fig. 201). The cusped
vived. In the years that followed, though, as the coun- gable was added still later. The watchtower that sur-
try was engulfed in a wave of modernization and mounts the roof is an old design, and for years the
westernization, many donjons were dismantled as Inuyama donjon was incorrectly believed to be the
useless relics of a feudal past. Others met their end oldest in J a p a n for that reason.
in the destruction of the Second World Warthose Hikone Castle (Shiga Prefecture; 1606) was in-
at Ogaki (Gifu Prefecture), Nagoya (Aichi Prefec- troduced earlier (see fig. 170). It has a small but ele-
ture), Wakayama (Wakayama Prefecture), Okayama gant donjon, with gleaming gold trim and cusped
(Okayama Prefecture), Fukuyama (Hiroshima Pre- windows and gables (fig. 202). Three years after
fecture), and Hiroshima (Hiroshima Prefecture) cas- Hikone, Himeji Castle was completed (fig. 203), and
tles. When the donjon of a different Fukuyama Cas- it remains the grandest in the entire country.
tle (Matsumaecho, Hokkaido) burned in 1949, only Himeji is chronologically followed by the donjon
twelve donjons from J a p a n ' s premodern period re- of Matsue Castle (Shimane Prefecture; 1611), a
mained. A few donjons, at Kumamoto and Osaka structure quite large in size but of very simple and
castles, for instance, have been restored in modern old-fashioned construction, being actually a three-
times, but they are outside the scope of the present story watchtower with a two-story main structure
discussion. beneath it (fig. 204). The exterior is mostly black lac-
The donjon of Maruoka Castle (Fukui Prefecture; quered wood, giving it a grave exterior appearance
1576) was introduced earlier as the oldest extant (figs. and the nickname " R a v e n Castle." It is the last of
191, 199). The next oldest, that of Matsumoto (fig. the surviving castle donjons to antedate Ieyasu's 1615
200; Nagano Prefecture, c. 1596), is strikingly situ- law limiting each domain to a single fortress.
ated on a plain against a backdrop of tall rugged Marugame Castle's donjon (Kagawa Prefecture)
mountains. Five stories and six floors in height, was completed in 1660 (fig. 205). It is a very simple
it is remarkable for its color scheme of white walls, three-story affair but commands a magnificent view,
black lacquered wainscoting, and red railings. Next for it stands on a three-tiered stone foundation atop
to the main donjon is a secondary donjon of three a hill sixty-six meters high.
stories and four floors to the northeast, a turret of Uwajima Castle (Ehime Prefecture) was rebuilt in
two stories and three floors to the east, and a one- 1665 after an earlier version built at the end of the
story moon-viewing pavilion at the far east end, sur- sixteenth century was taken down (fig. 206). The
rounded by an elegant railing. donjon incorporates no defensive structures such as
The first two floors of the Inuyama Castle donjon stone-drops, which suggests that war was beginning
205. Marugame Castle
(1660)
208. Kochi Castle
(1747)
entry
alcove

206. Uwajima Castle 209. Hirosaki Castle


(1665) (1810)

207. Bitchu-Matsuyama Castle 210. Matsuyama Castle


(c. 1684) (1854)

to be perceived as a thing of the past by the time it plex originally had three lesser donjons and various
was reconstructed. It also has a formal entry alcove turrets, along the lines of Himeji Castle. Save for the
(genkan) surmounted by a cusped gable. main donjon, most of those buildings were burned
The donjon of Bitchu-Matsuyama Castle (also in several fires in this century, but much of what was
called Takahashi Castle; Okayama Prefecture) was lost was restored in 1969.
built around 1681-84 (fig. 207). It stands atop Mt. The Various Donjon Types The word for donjon,
Gagyuzan and as such is the only mountain castle tenshu, appears in writing toward the end of the Mu-
(yamajiro) in J a p a n to survive from the Edo period. romachi period at about the time the simple watch-
Kochi Castle (Kochi Prefecture) is likewise unique, tower above a mansion roof was growing in size and
as it is the only fortress in which both a donjon and solidity. The mature donjons fall into four main
a daimyo residential area remain intact (fig. 208). categories. Those that stand alone are called "in-
The donjon was rebuilt in 1747 after the original was dependent donjons" (dokuritsushiki tenshu). Maruoka,
burned twenty years before and was designed as a Marugame, Uwajima, Bitchu-Matsuyama, Kochi,
conscious reconstruction of the original, built from and Hirosaki are of this type. Donjons with a sub-
around 1601 to 1603. It represents a clear carry-over sidiary building such as a single lesser donjon or tur-
of the older watchtower type of donjon. The man- ret directly attached are known as "complex don-
sion, the Kaitokukan, is located at the southwest of j o n s " (fukugoshiki tenshu), exemplified by Inuyama,
the donjon and includes a main room elegantly out- Hikone, and Matsue. When the main donjon and
fitted in the formal Shoin style. minor structures are linked by corridors, the design
The Hirosaki donjon (Aomori Prefecture) is the is termed a "connected donjon" {renketsushiki tenshu).
northernmost surviving castle (fig. 209). Burned in Nagoya Castle, destroyed in World War Two, was
1627, it was not rebuilt until 1810, and even then of this type, but no example in its pure form now
in a very simple form at the southeast corner of the survives. The most highly evolved form is the "multi-
main compound. It looks as much like a corner tur- ple d o n j o n " type (renntsushiki tenshu), where two or
ret as a donjon, and this impression is intensified by more minor donjons are connected to the main one,
the fact that only the two faces overlooking the moat as in the case of Himeji and Matsuyama. Combina-
have projecting gables. tions occur as well, as in the case of Matsumoto Cas-
The last of the surviving twelve premodern for- tle, labeled a "complex-connected d o n j o n " (fukugo
renketsushiki tenshu).
tresses to be built was Matsuyama Castle (Ehime
Prefecture), sometimes called Iyo-Matsuyama to dis-
tinguish it from Bitchu-Matsuyama. It burned in
1784 and was rebuilt in 1854 (fig. 210). The com-
CASTLE T O W N S

The Growth of Castle Towns As indicated in the


preceding chapter, most of J a p a n ' s modern cities
began as towns built around a daimyo's castle. The
majority had their real start during the Age of the
Country at War, when, in the absence of a cohesive
central government, local daimyo established them-
selves in their own castles as independent rulers of
as much territory as they could defend. These daimyo
were the absolute masters of their domains, and they
could establish their own laws, taxation rates, and
even systems of weights and measures. The extreme
decentralization of the period forced each domain to 211. Road leading from Great Saikawa
develop its commerce and trade in order to survive, Bridge toward Kanazawa Castle [3]
which resulted in great economic expansion in areas
previously dismissed as provincial backwaters.
The castle was the center of each domain's defense
and government, and the towns that grew up around
them became the focus of domainal commerce. They
expanded culturally as well, as impoverished nobles
were increasingly invited from the capital to tutor
provincial potentates in poetry, the classics, and other
courtly traditions.
The daimyo who survived the century of inter-
necine fighting, and then the campaigns of Nobu-
naga, Hideyoshi, and Ieyasu, were allowed by the
Tokugawa shogunate to continue as rulers of their
domains, and this federal system survived until the
end of the Edo period in 1868. At the end of the eigh-
teenth century the daimyo numbered about 250, and
more than half were of sufficient size to merit castles..
The daimyo were obliged, however, to maintain
second residences in the city of Edo and to spend 212. Great Saikawa Bridge [4]
alternate years or half-years in the city. Their fami-
lies, moreover, were forced to live there permanent- as Salt-Sellers' District, Metalworkers' District, Car-
ly. This system of "alternate attendance" (sankin ko- penters' District, and Lumbermen's District which
tai) was designed to discourage rebellion, and it kept remain from Kanazawa's premodern days. Buddhist
most daimyo financially strapped as well. But it also temples, marked on the map by their traditional
resulted in flourishing post towns and huge growth swastika symbol, also tended to concentrate in cer-
in Edo. tain areas.
The Castle Town of Kanazawa Kanazawa, in Kanazawa Castle Only two buildings remain in
Ishikawa Prefecture on the Sea of J a p a n , is perhaps the castle compound of Kanazawa. These are the
the best surviving example of an old castle town. It Ishikawamon gate and the thirty-bay Long House
was the center of the Kaga fief, part of the domain (Nagaya). The Ishikawamon (fig. 214), built in 1788,
of the Maeda family, the wealthiest daimyo in the is actually a complex of eight structures around an
land. The Maeda's castle was built on a rise between enclosed square, including the Outer Gate (Omote-
two rivers, the Saikawa and Asanogawa, and the mon), Koraimon gate, Turret Gate (Yaguramon),
town was laid out around it (fig. 218). Nearest the Corner Turret (Sumiyagura), and so on. The gate
castle were set the residences of the highest retain- is roofed with lead tiles. The Long House (fig. 213),
ers, with the size of the lot directly proportionate to built in 1858, is a two-story, two-floored construc-
the stipend of the resident. The main thoroughfares tion that stretches for forty-eight meters atop the
were lined with merchants' shops, and back streets castle's outer wall. It was used for weapon storage.
housed various artisans, with each trade assigned to This type of structure was first used at the Yamato
a certain area. Even today one can find names such Tamon Castle and is consequently called a " t a m o n
213. Thirty-bay Long House
of Kanazawa Castle [1] 215. Kita House [5]

216. Former Eastern


Pleasure Quarter [6]

214. Ishikawamon gate


of Kanazawa Castle [2]

4.0.0 a ^ o - i p o-a^e ^ ^ J a a a 0 ^ Q -0yo 0 ^ ^ an c

217. Carpenters' District [7] 218. Kanazawa in late seventeenth century


(numbers correlated with other illustrations)

turret" (tamon'yagura). the Carpenters' District with woodcutters finishing


Near the castle was the daimyo's private park, now wood and carrying it in front of the town houses.
called the Kenrokuen. Within it is located a splen- Other sections of the painting depict the Great Sai-
did Sukiya-style residence, built in 1863 for the moth- kawa Bridge (fig. 212) and the road leading from it
er of the last lord of Kaga, Maeda Nariyasu (1811- to the castle (fig. 211). Both evoke the bustling ac-
84). Ozaki Shrine, built close to the castle in 1643, tivity appropriate to the central city of a daimyo's
used to be located within the castle compound and domain.
was named the Toshogu. Kanazawa also had two licensed pleasure quarters,
Beyond the Castle Walls T h e Kanazawa area is both outside the main city as defined by the Asano-
rich in minka, such as the Kita House (fig. 215), now gawa and Saikawa rivers. One, popularly called Ni-
in Nonoichimachi but originally located in the shi ( " W e s t " ) , was just across the Great Saikawa
Lumbermen's District (Zaimokucho) of Kanazawa. Bridge. The other, known as Higashi ( " E a s t " ) , was
Built at the end of the Edo period, the Kita House across the Great Asanogawa Bridge northeast of the
gives a good idea of what the city must have looked castle (fig. 216). The latter still resembles its appear-
like on the eve of the Meiji Restoration. Its twenty- ance of the 1820s and was designated a Protected
two-meter-long facade is especially grand. Rows of Area of Traditional Architecture in 1977. The streets
houses similar to that of the Kita family can be seen are lined with the projecting lattice windows of the
in a painting from the same period, the Screen oj old houses, some of which have red walls in their sit-
Kanazawa (Kanazawazu byobu). ting rooms, a clear Sukiya touch (see pp. 128-31).
Figure 217, reproduced from this painting, shows
Ohiroma
Shikidai Tozamurai
Shiroshoin

221. Ninomaru Palace and garden, Nijo Castle


219. Karamon gate, Ninomaru
Palace, Nijo Castle

Hommaru
Compound

site of
donjon

Karamon gate
222. East Main Gate, Nijo Castle
220. Nijo Castle (present-day configuration)

Palaces of Tokugawa Castles To gain an idea of which opens into the Ninomaru compound inside
the vast size that a castle and palace could attain, the outer wall and moat, was intended chiefly for
we need only consider the Main Compound (Hom- display and boasts splendid carvings and metalwork
maru) of Edo Castle. The entire compound covered (fig. 219).
an astounding 357,000 square meters (slightly more But these surviving structures are only a fraction
than a third of a square kilometer), with 42,000 of the original Ninomaru Compound. The kitchens
square meters of building space. Today, however, and present palace complex were once surrounded
only a few minor structures and the stone founda- by a maze of subsidiary spaces approximately equal
tion of the donjon remain. The same is true for the in area to what now remains. Gone as well is the
other great Tokugawa castles, including the once Palace of the Imperial Progress (Gyoko Goten),
magnificent complex at Nagoya, which survived built as Gomizunoo's temporary residence and
with its palace intact until 1945. Only the Nino- located south of the pond. The stage for perfor-
maru Palace of Nijo Castle remains to exemplify mances of No drama was lost as well (see fig. 246).
the splendor of the shogun's castle complexes (figs. And it must be kept in mind that the Ninomaru is
220-21; see also pp. 70-73). only one of two compounds within the outer castle
Ninomaru Palace of Nijo Castle As indicated moat; the Main Compound, which once included
earlier, the Ninomaru Palace consists of a main the donjon and another huge building complex, is
complex that recedes in a stepwise diagonal fashion located within a second moat to the west of the
from the Carriage Approach and Tozamurai at the Ninomaru structures. The palace of the retired
southeast to the private Shiroshoin at the north- shogun, Tokugawa Hidetada, who was also present
west, flanked by separate kitchens to the northeast during Gomizunoo's visit, was built in this main
and a garden to the southwest (figs. 129, 220). A compound at the same time as the Palace of Im-
number of impressive gates survive as well. These perial Progress. The five-story donjon, which with
include the East Main Gate (Higashi Otemon), the its stone foundation rose forty meters in height,
only entrance to the castle from the east, which burned in 1750. The present structures in the Hom-
was clearly built primarily for defense (fig. 222). maru were built in 1847 and do not reflect the style
By contrast, the cusped-gable gate, Karamon, of the originals.
E N T E R T A I N M E N T : Architecture in the Sukiya Spirit
Prepare the tea so that in summer it is cooling and in winter warming, so that the charcoal
brings the water to a boil and the tea is good to the tastethe secret is no more than this.

The great tea master Sen no Rikyu (1522-91) is re- tor who chants, mimes, and dances a text as poetic
puted to have replied to that effect when asked about and religious as it is dramatic (fig. 243). H e is ac-
the essence of the tea ceremony. " B u t if you really companied by one or more subsidiary actors, a cho-
think you can do i t , " Rikyu continued, " I will be- rus, and a four-man orchestra. Like the tea cere-
come your disciple." T h e account in which this ex- mony, the No was performed throughout the Edo
change appears, the Namboroku, was written after period and is today the oldest surviving professional
Rikyu's death, and it cannot be verified. It never- theater in the world.
theless gets at the heart of his attitude of approach- But not all the entertainments of the early modern
ing the ceremony naturally and without becoming period were as erudite as the No and tea ceremony.
obsessed by formality, remembering that it is a de- T h e Kabuki d r a m a vied with the puppet theater
ceptive simplicity, one achieved only through long (Bunraku) for the attention of the commoners of the
experience, dedication, and discipline. Edo period, and the two theaters influenced each
T h e tea ceremony (chanoyu) was one of the most other to the artistic and dramaturgical improvement
important upper-class entertainments in the late of both. T h o u g h Kabuki was to some extent also
M u r o m a c h i , M o m o y a m a , and Edo periods, and it influenced by the No, it stresses bombast and dis-
continues to be practiced by millions today. It had play over suggestion and restraint, and it delights in
its beginnings in the N a r a period when tea was im- swashbuckling heros and self-sacrificing heroines in
ported from C h i n a as part of Buddhist culture. Al- byzantine plots full of bloodshed, coincidence, and
ready by the Heian period the practice of tea drink- amorous intrigue. Kabuki actors were the idols of the
ing had been adopted from the monastery by the rising commoner class of the Edo centuries as well
aristocracy, who became collectors of expensive Chi- as one of the favorite subjects of woodblock artists
nese tea utensils. T h e early Kamakura-period Zen and popular writers of the period.
masters Eisai and Dogen were enthusiastic apologists No less central to the popular imagination were
for tea, and tea drinking thereafter became increas- the courtesans of the pleasure quarters of the great
ingly imbued with Zen philosophy. That set the stage cities. Those women held various ranks based on
for the development of the " W a y of T e a " (chado or beauty and artistic accomplishment, and a tayu in the
sado) in the M u r o m a c h i and M o m o y a m a periods, city of Edo required huge sums of money and ex-
when it became an artistic, philosophical, and reli- travagant gifts. Houses in the pleasure quarters, like
gious system. Collecting and connoisseurship devel- the Sumiya in Kyoto's Shimabara, could be quite
oped concurrently, and wealthy merchants, aristo- sumptuous and were appointed in a particularly in-
crats, and warriors, including Hideyoshi himself, novative variety of the Sukiya style.
spent fortunes to obtain the finest tea bowls and build In this chapter we will discuss the architectural ad-
the most impressive teahouses. T e a taste, as we have juncts of the pursuit of pleasure in the early modern
already seen, subsequently exerted a powerful in- period. W e will begin with the rustic teahouse and
fluence on the Shoin residence, resulting in the Su- the Sukiya philosophy of restraint, simplicity, and
kiya style of architecture (see pp. 78-81). refinement that it embodies. Next we will describe
But tea, of course, was not the only source of enter- the theater architecture of the No, then that of Ka-
tainment and artistic inspiration during and after the buki, which developed out of the No stage but con-
M u r o m a c h i period. Another was the No d r a m a , tinued to grow in engineering sophistication as the
which like tea, had risen out of humble traditions in Edo period progressed. T h e architecture of the plea-
the Nara and Heian periods to become a complex sure quarter comes next, particularly that of the
and esoteric art, again partly under the influence of Sumiya house of assignation in Kyoto's Shimabara,
Buddhist thought. This transformation was due pri- which combines the taste and craftsmanship of the
marily to the genius of two men, K a n n a m i (flour- Sukiya style with the flair of the "floating w o r l d "
ished late fourteenth century) and his son Zeami of the courtesans. Concluding with a look at the
(1363-1443), who as actors, playwrights, and theo- courtly architecture of pleasure, we will show through
reticians remade what had been a simple amalgam excerpts from contemporary diaries how traditional
of playacting, song, and dance into a dramatic art court taste was blended with the Sukiya philosophy
of great richness and profundity. T h e No is per- in gracious pastimes at the Katsura Villa and the
formed by an elegantly robed and masked main ac- Sento Palace.
THE ARCHITECTURE OF
T H E TEA C E R E M O N Y
The Maturation of Tea T h e tea ceremony began
to reach maturity in the early M u r o m a c h i period
when the shogun and select members of his aesthetic
circle met to admire choice Chinese tea wares and
game at guessing the provenance of various types of
tea. But its transformation into a true art form with
spiritual dimensions is due to the influence of three
men. T h e first was M u r a t a J u k o (or Shuko; 1422-
1502), a student of Zen and curator of Chinese art
for shogun Ashikaga Yoshimasa. He and Yoshimasa
would meet at the latler's Silver Pavilion and drink
tea in Chinese utensils in the Dojinsai room of the
T o g u d o (see pp. 30-31).
Tea, and especially the collecting of utensils, was
also popular among the wealthy merchants of Sakai
City (near present-day Osaka). O n e of these mer-
chants, Takeno J o o (1502-55), took his interest in
tea far beyond acquisition into the realm of philo-
sophical appreciation and, under the influence of
J u k o ' s thought, did much to develop the wabi ideal
of refined rusticity that became one of the central
elements of tea taste.
Wabi tea reached its mature expression under
the third of these great tea masters, Sen no Rikyu.
He continued the trend toward simplicity and natu-
ralness, often incorporating folk objects into his tea
ceremonies. Earlier warriors and aristocrats had
made tea in one room, then served it in a large for-
mal Shoin space, this practice being consequently
referred to as Shoin T e a . T h e tiny tea area append-
ed to the M t . Fuji Room of the Manshuin Lesser
Shoin, for example, may on occasion have been us-
ed in this way (see fig. 146). Rikyu, by contrast, often
prepared and offered tea in the same room. He con-
currently shrank the size of the tearoom from the four 223. Taian Teahouse of Myokian temple
and half mats at the Dojinsai (or even six mats or deyoshi had ordered Rikyu to build it in 1582 while
more in other teahouses) down to two mats in some he was engaged in battle nearby with Akechi Mitsu-
of his designs. This type of extremely small and rustic hide (1526-82), N o b u n a g a ' s assassin.
teahouse is known as a soan, literally "grass cottage." T h e Taian consists of a two-mat tearoom (chashi-
The larger tearooms continued to be used as well, tsu) next to a one-mat anteroom bordered with a
though, for other tea ceremony styles. Despite the wood-floor section (figs. 223). North of the anteroom
central role Rikyu played in the development of so- is a one-mat space called the Katte, where prepara-
an tea, the design of only one of the extant soan tea- tions are made for the ceremony. T h e screens that
houses can be even tentatively ascribed to his hand. normally separate the rooms have been removed in
That is the Taian (figs. 223-25, 227). the figure for clarity. In the tearoom proper the west
The Taian Located in the town of Yamazaki, south mat has a hearth (TO) cut into one corner, where the
of Kyoto, the T a i a n is part of the Myokian temple. water for the tea is boiled. T h e other mat to the east
Though the provenance of the teahouse is unverified, is for the guests. This extremely small size is visual-
it seems likely that Rikyu originally built it in his own ly mitigated somewhat by the decorative alcove area,
house in Yamazaki and that it was later transferred and the anteroom can also be used when a larger
to the Myokian. H e probably prepared tea for Hi- n u m b e r of guests are present.
deyoshi there, which gave rise to the belief that Hi-
T h e teahouse is entered via a low door called a ni-
jinguchi (literally, "crawl door") only seventy-two corner behind the hearth. The technique is yet an-
centimeters tall. The design forces the participants other way of lending a more expansive feeling to the
to bend over to enter, which commensurately in- space and of making the design more arresting.
creases the apparent size of the tearoom inside and Every aspect of the Taian reflects rusticity and yet
also reminds them of the attitude of humility appro- refinement, revealing a calculated use of natural
priate to wabi tea. materials for their inherent decorative qualities. The
Interior Decor The design of the Taian soan has lattices of the shoji windows, for example, are made
been worked out in great detail. Even the ceiling is not of wood but of split bamboo. The delicate paper
of a complex construction. The sections directly in is protected on the exterior (fig. 224) either by ver-
front of the decorative alcove and over the server's tical bamboo grills or by the wattle of the wall in-
mat are flat and consist of thin shingles reinforced terior, left exposed lor its rustic visual effect. Win-
beneath by light-colored bamboo. But the part above dows of the latter type are called shitajimado. The
the guests' mat is inclined, and this again helps mit- positions of the windows have been carefully calcu-
igate the feeling of constriction such a small space lated, as has the height of the transom of the decora-
might otherwise generate. The decorative alcove is tive alcove and the alcove's ceiling. The baseboard
a so-called murodoko, as its rear posts have been ol the decorative alcove was chosen for its three knots,
plastered over. That is true also of the post in the which again enhances the rusticity of the space.
DESIGNING T H E T E A H O U S E

bamboo
grill

alcove

I exposed
1 wattle
PfL.KU.MV-
JJIIimmR^
crawl'
door .

hearth

225. Taian Teahouse


224. Axonometric diagram
of Taian Teahouse

Visualization with Three-Dimensional Models


The smaller the teahouse space, the more carefully
must its constituent elements be chosen to achieve
just the right blend of naturalness and refinement. 226. Using the three-
O n e device designers traditionally used for this pur- dimensional model
pose was a three-dimensional paper model called
an okoshiezu. It was simple to make, and minute
Three-dimensional models (okoshiezu) are assembled by glu-
alterations in the placement of windows, doors, and ing each wall to the floor section. It is impossible to pro-
interior partitions could be tested for potential effect. vide a floor here, but folding the following pages as in figure
It could also be folded up and easily carried to the 226 will give an idea of the effect. The gray section in figures
building site. In earlier religious and residential struc- 22425 show the wall surfaces in question. Pages 110 and
tures, the most critical aspect of the design had been 115 are the south and east exterior walls; 109 is the ante-
the floor plan. A practiced builder could visualize in room side of the wall with sliding screens that divides the
anteroom from the tearoom proper to the east; 112 is the
his own mind the basic elevation, as there were few
tearoom side of that same wall; 111 and 114 are the in-
variables in any one style. But as we have seen, in sides of the exterior walls at the south and east; and 113
the teahouse every element of the design from the is the back wall with the decorative alcove. The alcove, of
floor plan to the walls, ceiling, and roof could be free- course, must be imagined as recessed. An even more real-
ly manipulated, and a change in one element affected istic effect can be obtained by copying the floor in the plan
all the others. The three-dimensional paper model and setting the walls on it, after cutting out the low en-
was a concrete way of visualizing such structures. trance door.

108
sliding screen sliding screen

ft
A-
if

H
a
hand pull hand pull
wall

*r
%
?

227. Three-dimensional model of


the tearoom of Taian Teahouse

109
wall

wall

bamboo grill

a
A* T3 t l
\ %
it Jc.
*
% 9-
A>

/ 1L

wall

J crawl door

T L r 1 L ~

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110
flat ceiling

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paper-c<>vc red w in tit


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with bamboo lallu e
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vail

crawl door
bamboo molding
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_JC. y X x r i
SOAN TEAHOUSES

alcove

li 9

hearth '

Katte
entrance

crawl door '

228. Yuin Teahouse

diagonal wall

(foyer)

foyer
229. Joan Teahouse

Orchestration of Visual Effects Soan teahouses hatches on their eaves that can be opened to let in
are by definition small, between two and four and light for the same purpose.
a half mats in size. Within this confined space, The Yuin Teahouse, four and a half mats in size,
though, an unlimited number of visual effects can has a particularly rustic quality thanks to its miscan-
be attained. Window placement, for example, is thus roof. The bamboo-handled broom hanging from
calculated not only for ventilation and visual effect the middle post next to the wattle shitajimado window
on the walls, but also to create just the right play of adds to that effect.
light and shade when the tea ceremony is per- Connected to the Yuin is a second teahouse called
formed. Some teahouses have windows that can be the Konnichian that contains only a three-quarter-
propped open at various angles to vary the qual- length daime mat for the server and one full-length
ity of seasonal light that falls on the interior. The mat for guests (fig. 231, floor plan). Instead of a
Yuin Teahouse (Kyoto City; fig. 228) and the Jo- decorative alcove there is a wooden section set into
an Teahouse (Inuyama City; fig. 229) also have the floor at tatami level and flanked by a thin cur-
Katte

tain wall (sodekabe) supported by a center post. Such T h e sliding screens at the back of the foyer lead to
a design is perfect for such a small space, for it the mizuya, a place for preparing the utensils for the
manages to suggest an alcove space while the cur- tea ceremony, and to the Shoin proper. Inside the
tain wall is thin enough to avoid altering the lines teahouse, the decorative alcove is flanked by a unique
of the windows and low entry door behind. T h e diagonally angled wall.
elevation drawing in figure 231 shows this interior T h e Teigyokuken of the Daitokuji subtemple of
design with the curtain wall removed. Shinjuan (Kyoto City) is well known for the tiny in-
T h e J o a n Teahouse contains a n u m b e r of inter- ner garden court it has between the low entry door
esting touches. It is flanked on two sides by a packed- and the tearoom proper (fig. 230, floor plan). T h e
earth veranda protected by overhanging eaves. O n e interior, two mats plus a three-quarter-length daime
enters the teahouse via a low door at the right of a mat, boasts a very intricate ceiling design as well as
foyer area that includes a high, flat stone on which an artistically gnarled center post (nakabashira) made
to leave footwear before entering (fig. 229, elevation). of J a p a n e s e red pine (fig. 230, elevation).
T H E TEA GARDEN

234. Garden of Zangetsutei and Fushin'an Teahouses


(bracketed numbers in other captions refer to this plan)

233. Zangetsutei Teahouse [2]

A Space to Compose the Mind for Tea T h e tea- pause before entering the teahouse, a low stone basin
house is an isolated, spiritual space where the par- with water for cleansing the hands and mouth, and
ticipants in the ceremony can cleanse their minds of a stone lantern for lighting the path to the teahouse
m u n d a n e concerns. T h e transition from the world during evening gatherings.
outside to the world of tea is aided by the tea garden, A Tea Garden of the Omote Senke School After
called a roji, literally " d e w y g r o u n d , " where guests the retirement of Sen no Rikyu's grandson Sotan
await their host and then go with him or her to the (1578-1658), the family traditions were divided in-
teahouse itself. It is a world as carefully arranged as to three schools, each headed by one of Sotan's sons.
the teahouse and has its own conventions. But like These were the Ura Senke, which now owns the Yuin
teahouses, each garden is a unique experience. T h e and Konnichian Teahouses (figs. 228, 231), the
trees that shield the teahouse from direct view, and Mushanokoji Senke, and the O m o t e Senke. T h e
likewise the steppingstones that lead along the paths, Zangetsutei and Fushin'an (Kyoto City) pictured
are chosen and arranged to give the impression of above (figs. 232-33) belong to the O m o t e Senke
unassuming elegance. T o generalize, the garden is branch, and their garden is a fine example of the
divided by an inner gate (chumon) or a low gate genre (fig. 234; illustrations on this page are cor-
(nakakuguri) into two parts, a waiting area and the related by n u m b e r to this plan).
inner garden of the teahouse. Bending over to pass The Zangetsutei is a Shoin-type building with large
through this low gate makes tangible the transition sitting-room-style tearooms, and the Fushin'an,
into the world of tea. Inside is a bench where guests connected to the east side of the Zangetsutei by a
237. Bamboo lattice 238. Miscanthus
gate [8] gate [7]

235. Garden door [10] 241. Stone basin [4]

239. Inner bench [6]

242. Woven lath fence [3]

236. Low gate [9]

240. Sand toilet [5]

wood-floored corridor, is a soan teahouse three mats woven laths (fig. 242), leads to the F u s h i n ' a n . In-
plus a daime mat in size. South of that complex is side is a low basin (Isukubai) carved out of a boulder
the Founder's Hall (Sodo; fig. 234). (fig. 241), an inner bench (fig. 239), and a " s a n d
Circulation into and through the garden is more toilet" (sunazetchin\ fig. 240), spread with river sand
complex than the general example just described and naturalistic stones. Such toilets today serve on-
because three structures are involved. Passage is or- ly a decorative function. Before entering the low door
chestrated by means of gates, hedges, and stepping- of the Fushin'an itself, samurai guests would leave
stone pathways. O n e enters at the west via the their swords on the rack hung from the eaves, for
" g a r d e n g a t e " (rojiguchi; fig. 235). Behind is a bench weapons had no place in the world of tea (fig. 232,
and toilet (fig. 234). Garden access to the Zangetsutei left side).
itself is obtained through the "low g a t e , " fit with a Teahouse and garden complexes such as this were
small door in the middle flanked by a wattled win- built on the grounds of the mansions of wealthy tea
dow (fig. 236). One can also reach the Founder's Hall enthusiasts in Kyoto and the merchant city of Sakai.
by this gate, or by the bamboo lattice gate (agesudo) T h e Omote Senke example shows that the attention
to the south, the triangular lattice of which is prop- of the designers was focused as much on the garden
ped open when guests are expected (fig. 237). A setting for the teahouses as on the buildings
miscanthus gate (kayamon\ fig. 238) stands in front themselves.
of the entrance to the Founder's Hall.
T h e Plum-viewing Gate, flanked by a fence of
The History of No Kannami and his son Zeami and interpreted his father's dicta on the art in a
transformed the No into the sophisticated form of book known as Writings on the Transmission of the Flow-
dramatic art it is today from a number of simpler er (Kadensho, 1400-1402, with later additions), the
art forms. Two of these were sarugaku (literally, "flower" being a metaphor for the essence of No ar-
"monkey music"), which had grown out of Chinese- tistry. Zeami continued to write on the No for the
inspired variety shows in the eighth century and then rest of his life, building up a large body of theory that
become more religious in character, and dengaku gave the art legitimacy in the eyes of educated au-
("field music"), derived from early agricultural re- diences and still serves as the basic foundation of
ligious rituals. By the fourteenth century these two No study. His thought stresses mimesis tempered by
forms had assumed a greater dramatic element and stylization and grace, and it prizes the evocation of
were very similar in nature. They were also immense- rich suggestion and mystery. Of the about 250 No
ly popular with all levels of the population. Kannami plays currently performed, Zeami is credited with
took these raw dramatic materials, added a kusemai at least 25 and possibly twice that number. By the
(a popular rhythmic dance section), and evoked rich Momoyama period, the No drama was a highly re-
philosophical undertones. spected art form, and warrior aristocrats in particular
In 1374 Kannami and his eleven-year-old son had built No stages in their mansions for private viewing.
become well enough known to perform for shogun Early No Stages According to such contemporary
Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, builder of the Golden Pavilion sources as painted screens depicting scenes in the
(see p. 30). The shogun was so impressed he gave Heian Capital and its environs, late Muromachi No
them his personal support. Zeami later wrote down stages were open-air affairs that were roofed but not
243. No Stage in Audience Hall, Nishi Honganji Shoin

walled. 1'his is also true for the North No Stage at to the shelves, projecting into an inside corridor. The
the Shoin of Nishi Honganji (sec fig. 245), which spacc is truly magnificent, with beautifully carved
hears the date 1581 and is the oldest No stage ex- birds in the transoms and polychrome scenes from
tant. The Shoin also has an outside stage at the south, Chinese history on the walls. The room is believed
but of later date. Another such stage can be seen in to have been built in 1618 and moved to its present
the Screen of the Jurakudai Castle and Palace, just beneath
location in 1633. when the interior assumed its pres-
the donjon (see fig. 192). ent appearance.
T h e Interior No Stages at Nishi H o n g a n j i Bv the Normally the floor of the great space was complete-
Momoyama period, the No was also being per- lv covered with tatami mats, but when a No play was
formed oil indoor stages. The Nishi Honganji tem- to be staged the central mats were removed, reveal-
ple has two such stages, one each in the Audience ing a polished wood-planked floor beneath. At the
Hall (Taimenjo; fig. 243) and in the Shiroshoin. south end of the room, opposite the jodan, a diagonal
The Audience Hall is a huge spacc in the most entrance causewav, which could be fitted with rail-
elegant Shoin style, measuring nine bv nine bays with ings. led back to the dressing room (gakuya\ literally,
an added raised jodan of nine bavs bv two and a hali. "music room") where the actors prepared for the
On the back wall arc set, from left to right, decora- performance. In the dim illumination of the interior,
tive doors, a huge decorative alcove, and. on a dais the actors in their gold-embroidered robes must have
raised one step further (a jojodan), staggered shelves, presented a scene of ghostly mystery.
behind the cusped window at the right in figure 243.
A built-in desk is also on the jojodan at right angles
THE STRUCTURE OF
T H E NO STAGE

Ml

244. No Stage of Itsukushima Shrine

Traditional Stage Design The main section of a tionally painted with an aged pine, said to be a re-
No stage is traditionally a square, three by three bays minder of when a predecessor of the No was per-
in size. Behind is a "rear stage" (atoza) of one and formed at shrines before a sacred tree.
a half bays for the orchestra and on the right side Modern No stages are still constructed in the same
(stage left) is a half bay section for the chorus (figs. fashion as that described above, save that the covered
244-46). Leading to the stage diagonally from the stage and causeway are enclosed in a much larger
left is a covered causeway for entrances and exits. auditorium that houses the seated audience. But at
It is one and a half bays wide and from six to eleven premodern outdoor No stages such as those at the
bays long, with railings on both front and back. At Nishi Honganji Shoin, the audience viewed the plays
the far end of the causeway is a curtain that covers from separate structures surrounding a central court,
the entrance to the "mirror r o o m " (kagami no ma) covered with fine white gravel, into which the stage
where the actor establishes his mental and physical projected (figs. 245-46). Modern interior stages are
readiness before stepping into public view. Behind surrounded by a periphery of fine gravel as a hold-
the mirror room is the dressing room. over from this tradition.
The No drama is highly symbolic and few stage One particularly remarkable No stage is found ai
properties are used. The back wall, however, is tradi- Itsukushima Shrine near Hiroshima (fig. 244). The
shelves
Sotetsu / doors

245. North No Stage, Nishi Honganji Shoin

246. No stage and Ohiroma,


Ninomaru Palace, Nijo Castle

stage projects from the shore and is surrounded by 246). Modern No stages also have a low door (kirido)
water at high tide, to brilliant and mystical effect. at the right side of the rear stage for stage hands to
The No Stage at the Ninomaru Palace of Nijo Cas- enter and exit unobtrusively during a performance
tle When Iemitsu began his building project at Nijo to straighten the robes of the main actor or help with
Castle in 1624 in preparation for the visit Emperor an onstage costume change. But there appears to be
Gomizunoo, he included a No stage directly south no such door in this sketch.
of the Ohiroma, the central building of the main Records show that the program of No shown to
palace complex (see pp. 72-73). When the emperor the emperor began at ten o'clock in the morning with
arrived in the ninth month of 1626, he watched a pro- the traditional Okina and Sambaso pieces, followed by
gram of No while seated in the Ohiroma with Iemi- nine more plays, including the god play Naniwa and
tsu and Iemitsu's father, the retired shogun Toku- the warrior play Tamura, then ending at about six
gawa Hidetada (1579-1632). o'clock in the evening with a performance of Shojo,
Though the stage does not survive, an extant plan a standard finale piece, danced by the head of the
shows one of the conventional dimensions set forth Kanze school of actors, the school descended from
earlier, together with a two-by-four-bay mirror room Kannami and Zeami.
and a three-by-seventeen-bay dressing room (fig.

123
THE ARCHITECTURE OF
T H E KABUKI T H E A T E R

The Birth of Kabuki By the mid eighteenth cen-


tury, the Kabuki drama was the most popular form
of entertainment among the commoner class, and
thousands flocked to the huge Kabuki theaters in the
great cities. This was a remarkable rise for an art
form that had had its beginnings in bawdy skits and
suggestive dances performed on the banks of Kyo-
to's Kamogawa river. Kabuki is traditionally said to
have been begun in about 1600 by Okuni, an
itinerant female performer who may have once been
a priestess at Izumo Shrine. To curb immorality the
government soon banned women from Kabuki, but
the theater remained closely tied to the pleasure
quarters. As opposed to the No drama, which by this
time had a written repertoire of plays with high
literary value, Kabuki for most of its early existence
was improvised by its players on the basis of a general
plot line laid out beforehand. Even after scripts came
to be written down, the final emphasis was on the
actors, some of whom had immense personal follow-
ings. By contrast, the puppet theater (Bunraku), also
very popular in the seventeenth and early eighteenth
centuries, required high-quality scripts since all the
parts had to be narrated by a single chanter. Under
the influence of puppet plays the quality of Kabuki
plot and dialogue gradually improved, with the result
that Bunraku found it increasingly difficult to com-
pete for popularity. cian morality, but on the other recognized them as
Kabuki and the Shogunate Though considered a necessary evils that kept the public mollified and
plebeian art by the upper classes, Kabuki never- attracted provincial commerce. Furthermore, they
theless appealed to many members of the warrior could be confined to certain outlying sections of the
stratum, who often risked official censure to attend city and effectively policed. But the Ejima-Ikushima
the plays. In 1714 one such escapade caused a great affair was impossible for the Tokugawa regime to
scandal and had serious repercussions for the Kabuki tolerate, and it imposed strict countermeasures. The
theater. O n the twelfth day of the first month, Lady managers of the three surviving theaters and the own-
Ejima (1681-1714), who was in the service of the ers of the surrounding teahouses were summoned and
shogun's mother, made a visit to the Yamamura presented with such directives as "in recent years two
Theater in Edo's Kobikicho after having made a and three tiers of boxes have been used in theaters,
pilgrimage to Zojoji, a temple closely tied to the To- but you will confine yourselves to one, as in the
kugawa. At the theater she was joined by her lover, p a s t , " and "you will make no private passageways
Ikushima Shingoro (1671-1743), an immensely from the seats to backstage or to the theater manag-
popular actor of romantic roles. The meeting was er's residence," and "bamboo blinds will not be per-
discovered by the shogunate, which declared that the mitted on boxes." These regulations show, for one
lady had compromised the sanctity of the pilgrimage thing, that already in the early eighteenth centurv
and had acted in a manner unbecoming to her sta- the great theaters were being built on quite a ma-
tion. She was taken into custody, Shingoro was jestic scale.
banished to a distant island, and the theater was per- Building the Great Theater Ceilings Another
manently closed, leaving Edo with only three others, 1714 regulation is even more illuminating regard-
the Nakamura, Ichimura, and Morita. ing theater construction: " I n recent years roofs on
The shogunate had always pursued an ambivalent theaters have allowed performances to be held even
policy toward Kabuki and the pleasure quarters. On on rainy days. You will hereafter limit yourselves to
the one hand, it viewed them as offensive to Confu- lightly constructed roofs, as in former times." Rec-
247. Composite re-creation of a late Edo-period Kabuki theater

ords show that the ceiling beams of one Edo-period of the Nakamura Theater shows that by this time the
Kabuki theater were more than eighteen meters in intermediate posts have disappeared in front of the
length and that they were set at a height of over seven side tiers of boxes. T h e same is true for a print by
metersa grand space by the standards of the day. Toyokuni of the 1850s. All three Kabuki theaters
Evidence from contemporary woodblock prints were destroyed in the great Ansei-era fire of 1855,
shows how theater architects gradually mastered the and a further improvement in ceiling design was de-
art of spanning these large interiors. A print from veloped for the rebuilding by Hasegawa Kambei (d.
1739 depicting the Ichimura Theater indicates that 1861), twelfth-generation head of a family of Kabu-
at that time ceiling beams still had to be supported ki carpenters bearing that name. His invention,
in the middle by vertical posts rising from the au- "tortoise-shell b e a m i n g " (kikkobari), called for par-
dience boxes. This was clearly an unsatisfactory solu- allel ceiling beams considerably shorter than the
tion, for it obstructed the view of the stage for some width of the hall to be assembled into a huge rec-
spectators. tangular frame whose corners rested on four horizon-
These center pillars do not appear in a Torii Ki- tal beams set diagonally into the corners of the hall.
yotada print of 1743 showing the N a k a m u r a Thea- The design, first used at the Ichimura Theater, allow-
ter, but the beams are still supported by intermediate ed large spaces to be spanned much more efficiently.
posts set along the front of the second-floor tier of In figure 247 an actor addresses the audience while
audience boxes at both sides of the hall. They are standing on a causeway (hanamichi) used for dramatic
further reinforced by diagonal trusses projecting from entrances and exits. Vendors of tea and food walk
the side wall up to the intermediate posts and thence along narrow raised walkways purveying their goods
to the ceiling beams. The beams are still supported to the audience. Kabuki performances could last an
by intermediate posts at the front of the second- and entire day, and spectators might eat and chat with
third-floor tiers of boxes in an Utagawa Toyohisa each other, listening with half an ear for particularly
print of 1806. affecting scenes.
But a print of about 1830 by Utagawa Toyokuni
I M P R O V E M E N T S IN
KABUKI T H E A T E R DESIGN

248. Early open-air Kabuki stages

The Early Kabuki Theaters T h e genre of paint- herself, the supposed founder of Kabuki, is said to
ings entitled "scenes in and around the capital" have performed there in 1603, it may be she who is
comes to our aid once again in describing the earliest depicted.
Kabuki theaters. O n e such screen, the former Funaki T h e Nakamura Theater T h e appearance of the
version now in the collection of the National Diet Nakamura Theater in Sakaicho, an old theater quar-
Library, shows the early open-air stages that were ter in Edo, has been reconstructed through the use
built on both banks of the K a m o g a w a river, near of woodblock prints such as those by O k u m u r a M a -
Shijo Avenue (fig. 248) in Kyoto, when Kabuki was sanobu (1686-1764) in 1740 and Torii Kiyotada in
still performed by women. T h e Kabuki stage is much 1743 (fig. 249). By that time the entire audience sec-
like that used in the No theater, save that the stage tion was roofed. T h e facade had entrances at both
roof is of wood shingle and the seats are of much sides and a tower atop the middle. Along the facade
simpler construction. T h e entrance to the theater at were h u n g advertisements introducing the current
the left is beneath the banners emblazoned with a plays and actors.
crane crest. Musicians are located at the back of both T h e stages of theaters of the time still contained
stages, again as in the No, and the three-stringed the old pitched-roof center section over the stage, like
shamisen, newly arrived from the Ryukyu Islands and that of the No stage. In the front was a smaller stage
not used in the No orchestra, is being played as well. area (tsukebutai) that projected into the audience, and
Another such screen, the Yamaoka version, shows the causeway ran into the main stage from a point
w o m e n ' s Kabuki at Kitano Shrine. Since O k u n i on the side wall near the theater entrance. Placards
250. Kompira Grand Playhouse

251. Revolving stage 252. Trap-lift

bearing the name of the play currently being per- measuring nearly twenty-four meters in width, just
formed and the act and scene n u m b e r were hung on under thirty-seven meters in depth, and about eleven
the front posts of the stage roof. But the posts hin- meters in height.
dered the actors on stage and the view from the au- The Kompira Great Playhouse contains three stage
dience, and illustrations from the early nineteenth devices common to the Edo period. O n e is a revolv-
century no longer show the roof and posts. This, plus ing stage (mawaributai) for quick scene changes (fig.
the design of the ceiling beams discussed earlier, sug- 251). With a diameter of 7.72 meters, it turns on a
gests that by the late eighteenth and early nineteenth central post sunk into the ground beneath the stage
centuries the Kabuki theater had reached its mature floor. T h e post is fit with a metal axle that projects
configuration. M a n y pictures continue to show vari- into the large horizontal beam that supports the floor-
ous buildings on stage, of course, but these are stage boards of the revolving stage. Within the revolving
properties and are not built-in. stage is a trap-lift (seridashi; fig. 252). Measuring
T h e Sole Surviving Edo-period Kabuki Theater about one by two meters, it is used for a variety of
T h e Kompira Great Playhouse (Kompira Oshibai) special effects or changes of scene. Another smaller
is the only extant example of Edo-period Kabuki ar- trap-lift about sixty by seventy-five centimeters in size
chitecture. Built in 1835 in Kotohira, Kagawa Prefec- is located on the causeway. Used mainly for lifting
ture (see fig. 174), it was moved to the less-crowded actors to floor level, it is called a suppon. D u r i n g per-
outskirts of the city in 1975 and restored at that time formances stage hands labor for hours beneath the
(fig. 250). It is an exceptionally large Kabuki theater, floorboards raising and lowering these devices.
T H E A R C H I T E C T U R E OF
T H E PLEASURE Q U A R T E R S

The World of the Courtesan O n e of the many but superbly accomplished in the arts of poetry and
names for the pleasure quarters was keiseimachi, de- music, and the best of them acquired great reputa-
noting "courtesan district" but literally meaning tions among men of taste and learning. O n e such
"district of destroyers of cities." T h e allusion is to courtesan, Yoshino, became the p a r a m o u r of Haiya
a phrase in the Han shu, the history of the Former Joeki (1610-91), an admired essayist and disciple of
H a n Dynasty in C h i n a (202 B.C.-A.D. 8) that reads, the brilliant calligrapher and potter H o n ' a m i Koetsu
" T h e hue and fragrance of a beautiful woman des- (1558-1637). For Joeki and other men of taste, a
troys cities and countries." T h e name suggests at visit to the pleasure quarter meant cultivated con-
once the condemnation and the fascination such versation in talented company as much as the more
women and the districts they inhabited have excited common bibulous revelry and sensual gratification.
over the centuries. T h o u g h the pleasure quarter was often frequented
Other common names for such areas include " t h e by men of the military class, its style reflected not
q u a r t e r " (kuruwa), "pleasure enclosure" (yukaku), their tastes and outlook but those of the townsmen
"pleasure q u a r t e r " (yuri), "blossom and willow dis- (ichonin), who, despite their ignominious position at
trict" (karyiikai), and simply "place of evil" (aktisho). the bottom of the official Confucian hierarchy, con-
T h e women of the quarter lived in residences called tinued to grow in wealth and influence as the Edo
okiya, meaning " s t o r e h o u s e , " and went out to en- period progressed. Both Joeki and Koetsu, for ex-
tertain customers at houses of assignation (ageya). T h e ample, were members of the wealthy upper reaches
latter were decorated with exquisite decor called " t h e of the townsman class.
style of the place of evil," which, despite the name, T h e pleasure quarters of Edo-period Kyoto was
was vastly and quite justly admired. T h e women of initially Rokujo-Misujimachi, located in the south-
the finer houses of assignation were not only beautiful central part of the city, about one kilometer north
253. Donsu no Ma of the Sumiya

of the present Kyoto Station. T h e shogunate even- was ordered moved from Rokujo-Misujimachi to
tually became alarmed at Rokujo-Misujimachi's Shimabara. Most of the Sumiya was built somewhat
growing popularity and ordered it moved to a more later, in the 1670s, and the entrance and south sec-
remote area just west of Nishi Honganji temple, tion were added in 1787.
where it became known as Shimabara. T h e Sumiya is finished in a rich and unusually
Yoshiwara, the Edo quarter, was first situated at imaginative version of the Sukiya style. The Ajiro
Nihombashi Fukiyacho, northeast of the present To- no M a on the first floor has a ceiling of woven wood-
kyo Station. As suggested by the name Yoshiwara, en strips (ajirogumi), an expensive design. T h e room
" R e e d Field," it was at first an underdeveloped area also includes a built-in desk and cusped window. The
specially chosen by the shogunate for its distance from wooden lattices of the shoji screens are applied in ar-
the center of the city. After the devastating Meireki- tistically patterned groups rather than in the more
era fire of 1657, it was moved north of the Asakusa usual regular grid.
area of Edo and renamed New Yoshiwara (Shin O n the second floor, the Donsu no M a has a large,
Yoshiwara). stylized decorative alcove on a two-mat raised jodan
The SumiyaLast of the Premodern Pleasure (fig. 253). T o the left is a built-in desk and shoji with
Houses Despite the efforts of the shogunate to limit a wave lattice pattern. At the right of the jodan are
the activities of the pleasure quarters, they grew and staggered shelves with a raised floor beneath, incised
prospered. Elegant houses of assignation proliferated in a tortoise-shell pattern (figs. 253, 257).
in such pleasure quarters as Shimabara and Yoshi- T h e second floor also contains the Aoyagi no M a ,
wara, but today only one remains in more or less the walls and built-in fixtures of which are inlaid with
complete form, the Sumiya in Kyoto. The oldest sec- mother-of-pearl.
tion of the house dates to 1640, just after the quarter
DESIGN IN T H E PLEASURE Q U A R T E R S

The Atmosphere of Shimabara and the Sumiya worldly evanescence. And the pleasure quarter of-
The pleasure quarter of Shimabara was surrounded fered an escape from the regimentation and hierar-
by a moat and wall with a great gate at the east, mak- chy outside. The impoverished samurai might defer
ing it look from the outside as much like a fortress to the moneyed merchant within its walls, whereas
as an entertainment area. The quarter was divided he was likely to despise him beyond its gate.
by one road going east and west and three north and The Sumiya and the Wachigaiya Passing through
south, initially arranged in such a way as to form six the front gate of the Sumiya, one first enters a pleas-
blocks. Each block had its own name, and that which ant courtyard. Directly ahead is the entrance to the
contained the Sumiya was known as Ageyamachi. kitchens, and the formal entry alcove is to the right.
A collection e n t i t l e d Pictures oj Famous Places in the From the street, one can see the outside of three
Capital (Miyako meisho zue) provides a good idea of rooms on the second floor, the Ogi no Ma, Suiren
Shimabara's atmosphere (fig. 254). Particularly poig- no Ma, and Donsu no M a (fig. 255). The shoji-
nant is the silhouette of the customer listening to a screened outer walls of both the first and second floor
courtesan plying a shamisen in the second floor of are recessed half a bay and fronted by wooden grills,
the house to the right. which gives visual unity to the facade. In the rear
The denizens of this "floating world" prized men of the Sumiya is a gracious garden and a teahouse.
and women with iki (chic) and tsii (savoir-faire) who Another house in the quarter, the Wachigaiya, is
lived for the moment but who knew the pathos of noted together with the Sumiya in the Detailed Map
Transom screen, Transom screen, Tortoise-shell floor pattern
Aogai no Ma Aogai no Ma under Donsu no Ma shelves

[^H^N ; ^H^1 'I -ar ;i ^qtn Ii ri^g


[i ^T^
III! 1 I lIIII-II i. IIIIII *-Ti ILI '-n
: ^cETjag-^cenTin^ 1, mbtJl I HJbJg
rMJL. "
Transom screen, Transom screen,
Aogai no Ma Aogai no Ma Transom fretwork,
Suiren no Ma

Transom screen, Transom screen,


Higaki no Ma Uma no Ma

Entryway screen, Built-in desk screen,


Transom screen, Transom screen, Higaki no Ma Donsu no Ma
Donsu no Ma Ajiro no Ma

Entryway screen,
Donsu no Ma

Window screen, Window screen, Window screen, Window screen,


Ajiro no Ma Hakkei no Ma Uma no Ma Aogai no Ma

257. Design in the Sumiya

of Shimabara {Shimabara saiken zu), d a t e d 1716. It is with intriguing fan or heart shapes and are backed
located in Nakanomachi, another of Shimabara's six with white screen paper. Other unbacked transoms
blocks. Unlike the Sumiya, which survives in more have fretwork of an almost Chinese cast. Such details
or less its original form, the Wachigaiya was heavily suggest the care with which all aspects of the decor
remodeled in succeeding generations. But the bold, were planned and executed.
stylized umbrella design on its fusuma gives evidence Though partially obscured by soot from oil lamps,
of the elegance it once possessed (fig. 256). The the paintings on the sliding screens are also worthy
imaginatively painted character"Sumi" on the lamp of note. The Suiren no Ma on the second floor takes
in front of the Sumiya shows the same spirited taste its name from the trompe-1'oeil green bamboo blinds
(fig. 255). (suiren) painted on the walls. The blinds appear to
Shoji Screen Designs in the Sumiya The decor hang from the upper screen runner and are rolled
of each of the rooms of the Sumiya is elegant and up to mid-wall height. The Ogi no Ma has groups
unique. The tracerylike curved lattices on the shoji of fans (ogi) painted on the ceiling. They show a blend
in the Higaki no M a and Donsu no M a are especial- of delicacy and eccentricity that must have pleased
ly interesting in constructionthey were not bent in- the most discriminating of guests.
to position, but rather carved from larger planks in-
to curvilinear patterns to assure that they would not
spring out of shape years later. The transoms are cut
G R A C I O U S PASTIMES A T
A SUKIYA C O M P L E X

Emperor Gomizunoo's Visit to Katsura O n the boards flanking a built-in desk and stylized cusped
sixth day of the third month, 1663, the Tonsured window. These so-called Katsura shelves are made
Retired Emperor Gomizunoo made an imperial of variety of exotic woods such as zelkova, Chinese
progress to Katsura Detached Palace. As had been quince, red sandalwood, ebony, and bombay black-
the case for the ex-emperor's stay at the Ninomaru woodthey are justly famous.
Palace of Nijo Castle thirty-seven years before, the Outside, the cherry trees were in full bloom around
Katsura complex, to our best knowledge, was ex- the pond. Josho exclaimed in his diary that the splen-
panded in preparation for his arrival, and great pains dor of the scene left him "bereft of speech," and that
were taken to put the existing buildings and gardens the delicacies provided in the teahouses were "amaz-
in perfect order. ing to mortal eyes." Returning to the Shoin com-
One day's events during the imperial sojourn are plex, the party dined on kirimugi, a noodle dish ap-
recorded in the diary of the monk Horin Josho (?- propriate to the season.
1668) of Kinkakuji (the Golden Pavilion). The day Boating, Dining, and Poetizing After the kiri-
began with a tour of the main Shoin complex and mugi the party went boating oil the nearby Katsu-
then a walk through the garden and around the ragawa river. On board were candies and other dain-
various teahouses. A particular focus of attention ties. But the river was swollen due to rain the day
was the New Palace (Shin Goten) and Music Room before, and the group elected to return and boat on
(Gakki no Ma), thought to have been newly added the gentler waters of the garden pond, at which time
for the ex-emperor (see pp. 78-79). Particularly im- Josho composed a poem in Chinese and presented
pressive was the Imperial Dais in the New Palace's it to the monarch. Disembarking sometime later, the
Ichi no Ma, a three-mat raised jodan space with a entourage moved indoors for the midday meal and
marvelously intricate confection of shelves and cup- two rounds of tea.
258. Katsura Detached Palace, viewed from the garden

The afternoon was given over to poetry. The ton- such as these that the Sukiya style was developed.
sured retired emperor composed a poem in Japa- T h e Sukiya World The Katsura Villa is perhaps
nese that was recorded by the host, his eleventh son the most perfect example in J a p a n of the integration
Hachijomiya Yasuhito, third-generation owner of the of architecture and its natural surroundings. The
villa. Later the poets indulged in humorous verses rustic teahouses sequestered in garden corners, the
in both Japanese and Chinese. stones leading from the pond up to the Shoin com-
Toward evening Josho departed. He had left Kin- plex, the open verandas and removable exterior
kakuji early that morning and would not arrive back screens, all contribute to that interrelation. But the
until late that night. Katsura seems relatively close present form of Katsura's Sukiya world is no doubt
to downtown Kyoto today, but in the seventeenth somewhat different from that enjoyed by Gomizunoo,
century it was part of the surrounding countryside. Yasuhito, and Josho. A later owner of the Katsura
He had spent the day partaking of elegant pleas- Villa in the middle of the Edo period, Prince Yaka-
uresviewing the graceful architecture and gardens, hito (seventh head of the Katsuranomiya line), was
eating delicious cuisine and drinking excellent tea, particularly fond of the villa and probably altered it
composing both serious and humorous verse, boating to some extent to suit his personal tastes. The Katsu-
on the river and pond, and appreciating the breath- ragawa river, too, has a continual tendency to over-
taking natural surroundings. These were all cultivat- flow its banks, and this has perhaps affected the con-
ed pursuits, fully enjoyed only by those of learning figuration of the garden and pond. But the spirit of
and culture, who were deeply imbued with the way the old Katsura continues to survive for visitors to
of tea, the No drama, the great poetry anthologies, enjoy today.
and the intricacies of ritual and court usage. It was
to engage the intellect and sensibilities of connoisseurs
E N T E R T A I N M E N T S FIT FOR
AN E M P E R O R
Sukiya Taste at the Sento Palace of Gomizunoo
Besides leaving a record of the Tonsured Retired
Emperor Gomizunoo's visit to Katsura, the monk 259. Six of the dishes presented to Gomizunoo
at N i n o m a r u Palace, Nijo Castle
Josho also noted in his diary the pastimes and enter-
tainments he enjoyed on various occasions at the ex-
emperor's own residence, the Sento Palace. There,
as at Katsura, Sukiya taste flourished. In 1636, for
example, Josho attended a moon-viewing party on
the fifteenth of the eighth month. By the lunar calen-
dar, the moon is at its fullest on the fifteenth day of 260. Dishes for a formal visit (Secrets of Ikuma-style
each rotation, and the full moon of the eighth month Cuisine \Ikemaryu ryori densho])
was, and still is, a traditional occasion for drinking
sake and composing poetry. A similar gathering was
held on the thirteenth of the next month in anticipa-
tion of the full moon, during which guests in boats
made verses on the theme " t h e moon over the
p o n d . " Five days later the ex-emperor sponsored a
kuchikiri gathering to open the jars of new tea sealed
since the summer. Josho sampled three types of tea
at the tasting. Calligraphy appropriate to the season 261. Rikka flower arrangements (Pictures of Ikenobo
had been hung for the occasion in the decorative Senko's Rikka [Ikenobo Senko rikka zu\)
alcove, and the shelves beside it were graced with
finely wrought incense burners and small boxes. A the autumn, they went north to Takao to view the
banquet followed, and guests seated on the island in changing leaves and enjoy rich food and drink (fig.
the pond watched the moon rise over the Eastern 264). And no one ignored nights with a full moon;
Hills. Others on board boats chanted poems. In the Katsura, in fact, has a special moon-viewing stage
garden the dance Otome was performed on a tem- projecting from the pond side of the Old Shoin (fig.
porary stage five bays square that had been set up 262). Many of these activities had become staples of
earlier. the court year, sanctioned by centuries of tradition,
Perhaps the grandest occasion observed by Josho and were observed by the regnant emperor as well
at the Sento Palace was a party in the following year as by his retired predecessor. The principle of regu-
that lasted three days and nights, from the twenty- lating and enjoying life through the changing seasons
second to the twenty-fifth of the third month. A total was accordingly the mark of a person of taste and
of eighteen different events were enjoyed, including cultivation. In his Essays in Idleness (entry 31) Yoshida
poetry composition in Japanese and Chinese, archery Kenko tells a humorous anecdote about a minor lapse
with miniature bows and arrows, go, incense judg- in such sensitivity on his part:
ing, and kemari, a decorous and traditional form of
kickball. Courtiers engaged in kemari can be seen One morning after a pleasant snowfall, I
by the bridge at the left in figure 258. The guests also had a matter to convey to someone and sent
drew lots for presents so lavish that Josho could only off a letter, but without mentioning the
write that his brush failed to do them justice. snow. The person replied " H o w can I have
Delighting in Nature Josho's entries reflect only anything to do with one so perverse as to
a part of the annual round of activities at the Sen- fail to inquire how I am enjoying the snow?
to Palace of the retired emperor. All the pastimes, Most regrettable of y o u . " I found it quite
though, were directly related to the current season amusing. . . .
and accompanying natural phenomena. When the The Art of Entertainment Flower arranging was
camelias bloomed, for example, the ex-emperor's another way to bring the natural environment into
court went out to view them and bring home a few the living space. The art developed as an adjunct to
sprays for the artful arrangements to be described Buddhist ritual, and flowers arranged in a vase were
below. And when the time came for matsutake one of the "three objets" (mitsugusoku; see pp. 74-75)
mushrooms, the ex-emperor and his minions began placed in front of Buddhist icons. Out of this tradi-
looking forward to going out and picking them. In tion developed the more complex and sophisticated
263. Preparing a banquet (Pictures
of the Seven.Calamities and the Seven
Blessings [Shichinan shichifuku zu\)

262. View of garden and moon-viewing platform


from Old Shoin, Katsura Detached Palace

264. Merrymaking amid fall foliage (Pictures


of Maple Viewing at Takao [ Takao kampu zu])

art of nkka (literally, "flower placement") in the fif- gamed at guessing the provenance of various teas
teenth century. The rikka technique, said to have while enjoying pleasant surroundings and good com-
been invented by the Ikenobo family, thrived in the panionship. Others, like Rikyu, treated tea as a high
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, not only in aris- art and a life's work. And just as tea could be either
tocratic mansions but in teahouses and even castles. lighthearted or serious, so could it be either opulent
The art continues to flourish today under the name or humble. One compromise between the various
ikebana. Illustrations survive of some of the arrange- approaches is reflected in the tea ceremony of Kobo-
ments created by the famous early seventeenth-cen- ri Enshu (1579-1647). Known as kirei sabi, Enshu's
tury master Ikenobo Senko II (d. 1658?), who did style of tea suggests a cross between rich beauty (ki-
much of his work in Gomizunoo's palace (fig. 261). rei) and refined simplicity (sabi). His tea ceremonies
Often flower arranging was pursued as an erudite were held in more spacious rooms than Rikyu's soan
game, with contestants vying to create the finest and used a wide variety of Chinese, Japanese, and
works of floral artistry. Korean vessels. An exemplar of the Sukiya spirit,
The art of fine cuisine constituted another link be- Enshu was also a brilliant architect and garden de-
tween the people of the time and the outside envi- signer, and his garden style is reflected at both Ka-
ronment. Their choice and preparation of various tsura and Gomizunoo's palace.
natural ingredients was sophisticated in the extreme, Another tea master, Kanamori Sowa (1584-
so much so that moderns have yet to duplicate some 1656) practiced a related kind of tea ceremony whose
of their effects. Illustrations exist of some of the ex- elegance particularly appealed to members of the
quisite dishes served to Gomizunoo during his visit nobility as well as to Tokugawa Ieyasu, who sum-
to the Ninomaru Palace in 1626 (fig. 259). Like so moned him to Edo. The Teigyokuken Teahouse (see
many Japanese arts, cooking techniques were even- fig. 230) is said to be one of his designs.
tually codified into schools. Some of the more ex- For most practitioners, the tea ceremony, like the
otic creations made in the Ikuma style for aristocra- other forms of artistic entertainment, was something
tic visits also survive in early illustrations (fig. 260). to be respected, yet enjoyed in a relaxed way amid
And like flower arranging or poetry, it could be ap- the changing panorama of the seasons. Even the
proached as a pleasant game or as an art worthy of teahouse itself could be dispensed with on occasion
serious and prolonged application. if the mood so warranted. Any natural setting was
The same can be said of the tea ceremony. We appropriate if approached with the Sukiya attitude.
have already seen the way in which early practitioners
2948-7 Tazura, Okawa-machi, Okawa-gun. Kagawa
SITES M E N T I O N E D IN T H E Pref. Take taxi from Zota station on Kotoku line.
Former Kikuchi House
TEXT 13-46 Otomo-cho, Tono City, Iwate Pref. Take taxi from
Including Addresses and Hints on How to Get Masuzawa station on Kamaishi line.
There Former Kitamura House
Originally at Horiyamashita, Hadano City, Kanagawa
Asukadera Pref. Now in Nihon Minkaen (Japanese Open-Air
Asuka, Asuka-mura, Takaichi-gun, Nara Pref. Take bus Museum), 7-1-1 Masugata, Tama-ku, Kawasaki City,
or taxi from Kashihara Jingu station on Kintetsu Kanagawa Pref. Walk from Mukogaoka-yuen station on
Yoshino line. Odakyu Odawara line.
Bitchu-Matsuyama Castle (Takahashi Castle) Former Sakuta House
Uchiyamashita, Takahashi City, Okayama Pref. Take Originally at Kujukuri-machi, Sambu-gun, Chiba Pref.
bus or taxi from Bitchu-Takahashi station on Hakubi Now in Nihon Minkaen (Japanese Open-Air Museum),
line. 7-1-1 Masugata, Tama-ku, Kawasaki City, Kanagawa
Byodoin Pref. Walk from Mukogaoka-yuen station on Odakyu
Ujirenge, Uji City, Kyoto Pref. Walk from Uji station on Odawara line.
Keihan Uji line or J. R. Nara line. Former Shibuya House
Chojuji Originally at Tamugimata, Higashitagawa-gun, Yama-
Higashidera, Oaza, Ishibe-machi, Koka-gun, Shiga gata Pref. Now at Chido Hakubutsukan (Chido Muse-
Pref. Take bus or taxi from Ishibe station on Kusatsu um), 10-18, Kachu-shimmachi, Tsuruoka City, Yama-
line. gata Pref. Take bus or taxi from Tsuruoka station on
Choky uji Uetsu line.
Kamimachi, Ikoma City, Nara Pref. Take bus or taxi Furui House
from Tomio station on Kintetsu Nara line. Yasutomi-cho, Shiso-gun, Hyogo Pref. Take taxi from
Chusonji Himeji station on Tokaido line.
Hiraizumi, Hiraizumi-cho, Nishi Iwai-gun, Iwate Pref. Fushian and Zangetsutei Teahouses
Walk from Hiraizumi station on Tohoku line. 597 Hompojimae-cho, Ogawa Dori, Teranouchi Agaru,
Daigoji Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto City. Take bus or taxi from Kyoto
Daigo Garan-cho, Fushimi-ku, Kyoto City. Take bus or station.
taxi from Yamashina station on Tokaido line. Fushimi Inari Shrine
Daisen'in See Daigoji Yabunouchi-cho, Fukakusa, Fushimi-ku, Kyoto City.
Daitokuji Take bus from Kyoto station, or walk from Inari station
Daitokuji-cho, Murasakino, Kita-ku, Kyoto City. Take on J. R. Nara line.
bus or taxi from Kyoto station. Futarasan Shrine
Daizenji Yamauchi, Nikko City, Tochigi Pref. Take bus from
Kashio, Katsunuma-machi, Higashi Yamanashi-gun, Nikko station on Nikko line or from Tobu Nikko station
Yamanashi Pref. Take bus or taxi from Katsunuma sta- on Tobu Nikko line.
tion on Chuo line. Ganjoji
Eiheiji Shiramizu-inachi, Uchigo, Iwaki City, Fukushima Pref.
Eiheiji-cho, Yoshida-gun, Fukui Pref. Walk from Eiheiji Take bus or taxi from Taira station on Joban line.
station on Keifuku line. Ginkakuji (Jishoji)
Emukai House See Former Emukai House Ginkakuji-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto. Take bus or taxi from
Engakuji Kyoto station.
Yamanouchi, Kamakura City, Kanagawa Pref. Walk Golden Pavilion See Kinkakuji
from Kita Kamakura station on Yokosuka line. Hakogi House
Enjoji Yamada-machi, Hyogo-ku, Kobe City, Hyogo Pref.
Ninnikusen-cho, Nara City. Take bus or taxi from Nara Take taxi from Kobe station.
station. Heian Shrine
Enryakuji (Hieizan) Okazaki-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto City. Take bus from
Sakamoto Honcho, Otsu City, Shiga Pref. Take bus or Kyoto station.
taxi from Hieizan station on Kosei line, or take cable car Hieizan See Enryakuji
from Sakamoto station on Keihan Ishiyama Sakamoto Hie Shrine
line, or bus from Kyoto station. Sakamoto-honcho, Otsu City, Shiga Pref. Take bus or
Eri House See Former Eri House taxi from Otsu station on Tokaido line, or walk from
Former Emukai House Sakamoto station on Keihan Ishiyama Sakamoto line.
Originally at Kamitaira-mura, Higashitonami-gun, Hikone Castle
Toyama Pref. Now in Nihon Minkaen (Japanese Open- Konki-cho, Hikone City, Shiga Pref. Walk from Hikone
Air Museum), 7-1-1 Masugata, Tama-ku, Kawasaki station on Tokaido line.
City, Kanagawa Pref. Walk from Mukogaoka-yuen sta- Himeji Castle
tion on Odakyu Odawara line. Hommachi, Himeji City, Hyogo Pref. Take train (either
Former Eri House the Bullet Train [Shinkan-sen] or Sanyo line) to Himeji
station and from there a bus or taxi. Karako, Tawaramoto-cho, Shiki-gun, Nara Pref. Take
Hirosaki Castle bus from Sakurai station on Kintetsu Osaka line.
3 Shirogane-cho, Hirosaki City, Aomori Pref. Take bus Kasuga Shrine
or taxi from Hirosaki station on Ou line. Kasugano-cho, Nara City. Walk or take bus from Nara
Horiuchi House station.
117 Horinouchi, Oaza, Shiojiri City, Nagano Pref. Take Katsura Detached Palace
taxi from Shiojiri station on Chuo line. Kiyomizu-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto City. Take bus or taxi
Horyuji from Kyoto station. Visiting by appointment only. Call
878 Horyuji, Ikaruga-cho, Ikoma-gun, Nara Pref. Take 075-211-1215 up to three months in advance, or apply
bus or taxi from Horyuji station on Kansai line, or bus in writing (with self-addressed return envelope) to
from Nara station. Kunaicho Kyoto Jimusho, Kyoto Gyoen, Kamigyo-ku,
Imanishi House Kyoto City.
3-9-25 Imai-cho, Kashihara City, Nara Pref. Walk from Kawaradera
Yamato Yagi station on Kintetsu Osaka line. Kawahara, Asuka-mura, Takaichi-gun, Nara Pref. Walk
Inuyama Castle from Okadera station on Kintetsu Yoshino line.
Inuyama, Inuyama City, Aichi Pref. Walk from Inu- Kawauchi House
yama-yuen station on the Meitetsu Inuyama line. 6300 Itaya, Oaza, Taku-cho, Taku City, Saga Pref.
Ise Shrine Take taxi from Taku station on Karatsu line.
Isuzugawakami, Ise City, Mie Pref. For Outer Shrine Kenchdji
(Toyouke Daijingu), walk from Ise-shi station on Sangu Yamanouchi, Kamakura City, Kanagawa Pref. Walk or
or Kintetsu Yamada line. For Inner Shrine (Kotai take bus from Kamakura station.
Jingu), take bus or taxi from Uji-yamada station on Kenninji
Kintetsu Yamada line. Komatsu-cho, 4-chome Shijo Kudaru, Yamato Oji Dori,
Itsukushima Shrine Higashiyama-ku, Kyoto City. Walk or take bus from
1-1 Miyajima-cho, Saeki-gun, Hiroshima Pref. From Kyoto station.
Miyajimaguchi station on Sanyo line, take ferry for Miya- Kikuchi House See Former Kikuchi House
jima. Kinkakuji (Rokuonji)
Izumo Shrine Kinkakuji-cho, Kita-ku, Kyoto City. Take bus or taxi
Kizuki Higashi, Oaza, Taisha-cho, Hikawa-gun, Shi- from Kyoto station.
mane Pref. Take bus or walk from Taisha station on Tai- Kita House
sha line. Originally located in Lumbermen's District (Zaimoku-
Jishoji See Ginkakuji cho), Kanazawa City. Now at 3-8-11, Hommachi,
Joan Teahouse Nonoichi-machi, Ishikawa Pref. Take bus or taxi from
Urakuen, 6 Gomonsaki, Inuyama City, Aichi Pref. Walk Kanazawa station on Hokuriku line.
from Inuyama-yuen station on Meitetsu Inuyama line. Kitamura House See Former Kitamura House
Jodoji Kiyomizudera
Kiyotani-cho, Ono City, Hyogo Pref. Take bus or taxi Kiyomizu l-chome, Higashiyama-ku, Kyoto City. Take
from Sannomiya station on Sanyo line. bus or taxi from Kyoto station.
Jorakuji Kochi Castle
Nishidera, Oaza, Ishibe-machi, Koka-gun, Shiga Pref. Marunouchi, Kochi City, Kochi Pref. Walk for take bus
Take bus or taxi from Ishibe station on Kusatsu line. from Kochi station on Dosan line.
Kaijusenji Kodokan School
Reihei, Oaza, Kamo-cho, Soraku-gun, Kyoto Pref. 119 Kita Sannomaru, Mito City, Ibaraki Pref. Walk
Walk from Kamo-cho station on Kansai line. from Mito station on Joban line.
Kakurinji Kofukuji
Kakogawa-cho, Kakogawa City, Hyogo Pref. Walk from 48 Noborioji-cho, Nara City. Walk from Nara station.
Kakurinji station on Kakogawa line. Kokedera See Saihoji
Kamigamo Shrine See Kamowakeikazuchi Shrine Kokin Denju no Ma
Kamo Mioya Shrine (Shimokamo Shrine) Suizenji, Izumi-cho, Kumamoto City, Kumamoto Pref.
Izumigawa-cho, Shimogamo, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto City. Walk or take streetcar from Kumamoto station on
Take bus from Kyoto station. Kagoshima line.
Kamowakeikazuchi Shrine (Kamigamo Shrine) Kongobuji
Motoyama-cho, Kamigamo, Kita-ku, Kyoto City. Take Koyasan, Koya-cho, Ito-gun, Wakayama Pref. Take bus
bus or taxi from Kyoto station. or taxi from Koyasan station on Nankai Koya line.
Kanasana Shrine Konjikidd See Chusonji
Ninomiya, Oaza, Kamikawa-mura, Kodama-gun, Sai- Konnichian Teahouse
tama Pref. Take bus or taxi from Kodama station on 613 Hompojimae-cho, Ogawa Dori, Teranouchi Agaru,
Hachiko line. Ogawa Dori, Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto City. Take bus or taxi
Kanazawa from Kyoto station.
Kanazawa City, Ishikawa Pref. Take Hokuriku line to Kuriyama House
Kanazawa station. 2-8 l-chome Gojo, Gojo City, Nara Pref. Take taxi from
Karako Site Gojo station on Wakayama line.
Mampukuji Teahouses
3 Gokanosho, Uji City, Kyoto Pref. Walk from Obaku Onjoji (Miidera)
station on J R. Nara line or Keihan Uji line. Onjoji-cho, Otsu City, Shiga Pref. Walk from Miidera
Manshuin station on Keihan Ishiyama Sakamoto line. (At the
Takenouchi-cho, Ichijoji, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto City. Take Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, there is an ex-
bus or taxi from from Kyoto station. act reproduction of the Ichi no Ma, or First Room, of On-
Marugame Castle joji's Kangakuin.)
Ichiban-cho, Marugame City, Kagawa Pref. Take bus or Rengeoin (Sanjusangendo)
taxi from Marugame station on Yosan line. Myohoin Maegawa-machi, Shibuya Kudaru, Higashi
Maruoka Castle Oji Kudaru, Higashiyama-ku, Kyoto City. Walk from
Kasumi, Maruoka-cho, Sakai-gun, Fukui Pref. Take Kyoto station.
taxi or bus from Maruoka station on Hokuriku line. Rinnoji
Matsue Castle Yamauchi, Nikko City, Toshigi Pref. Take bus from
1-5 Tonomachi, Tonomachi, Matsue City, Shimane Nikko station on Nikko line or from Tobu Nikko station
Pref. Take bus from Matsue station on the San'in line. on Tobu Nikko line.
Matsumoto Castle Rinshunkaku See Sankeien Park
Marunouchi, Matsumoto City, Nagano Pref. Walk or Rokuonji See Kinkakuji
take bus from Matsumoto station on Chuo line. Ryoanji
Matsuyama Castle 1 Tamazushiba-cho, Ryoanji, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto City.
Marunouchi, Matsuyama City, Ehime Pref. Take bus Take bus or taxi from Kyoto station.
and then cablecar from Matsuyama station on Yosan Saihoji (Kokedera)
line. 56 Matsuo Kamigaya, Nishinokyo-ku, Kyoto City. Take
Meirindo School bus or taxi from Kyoto station, or walk from Kamika-
Originally in Higashikado, Katabata, Nagashima-cho, tsura station on Hankyu Arashiyama line. Visits arranged
Gifu Pref. Now in Hashima City, Gifu Pref., where it is by written application (accompanied by self-addressed
the Main Hall of Eishoji temple. Take taxi from Gifu sta- return envelope) to Saihoji Sampai-gakari, Matsuo,
tion on Tokaido line. Nishigyo-ku, Kyoto City, with notation of applicant's na-
Miidera See Onjoji tionality (tel. 075-391-3631).
Minase Shrine Sakuta House See Former Sakuta House
Hirose 3-chome, Shimamoto-cho, Mishima-gun, Osaka Sanjusangendo See Rengeoin
Pref. Walk or take bus from Yamazaki station on Sankeien Park
Tokaido line. 293 Hommoku Sannotani, Naka-ku, Yokoyama City.
Miwa Shrine (Omiwa Shrine) Take bus or taxi from Sakuragicho station on Toyoko or
Miwa, Oaza, Sakurai City, Nara Pref. Take bus or taxi Keihin Tohoku line.
from Sakurai station on Kintetsu Osaka line. Sento Gosho See Sento Palace
Myokian Sento Palace
Oyamazaki, Oyamazaki-cho, Otokuni-gun, Kyoto Pref. Kokyonai, Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto City. Walk from Ima-
Walk from Yamazaki station on Tokaido line or from degawa subway station. Visiting by appointment only.
Oyamazaki station on Hankyu Kyoto line. Call 075-211-1215 up to three months in advance, or ap-
Myooin ply in writing (with self-addressed return envelope) to
Kusado-cho, Fukuyama City, Hiroshima Pref. Take bus Kunaicho Kyoto Jimusho, Kyoto Gyoen, Kamigyo-ku,
or taxi from Fukuyama station on Sanyo line. Kyoto City.
Nakamura House Shibuya House See Former Shibuya House
Nagara, Gose City, Nara Pref. Take bus or taxi from Shimogamo Shrine See Kamo Mioya Shrine
Gose station on Wakayama line. Shinjuan See Daitokuji
Nijo Castle Shinra Zenshindo See Onjoji
Nijojo-cho, Horikawa Nishi Iru, Nijo Dori, Nakagyo-ku, Shin Yakushiji
Kyoto City. Walk or take bus from Kyoto station. Fukui-cho, Takabatake-cho, Nara City. Take bus or taxi
Nikaido House from Nara station.
5595 Kaminoichi, Niitomi Aza, Koyama Oaza, Kimo- Shizutaniko Academy
tsuki-gun, Kagoshima Pref. Take taxi from Osumi Shizutani, Bizen City, Okayama Pref. Walk from Bizen
Koyama station on Osumi line. Katakami station on Akoo line.
Nikko Toshogu Shitennoji
Yamauchi, Nikko City, Tochigi Pref. Take bus from Motomachi, Tennoji-ku, Osaka City. Walk from Ten-
Nikko station on Nikko line or from Tobu Nikko station noji station on J R. line or Shitennoji station on
on Tobu Nikko line. Tanimachi subway line.
Ninomaru Palace See Nijo Castle Shofukuji
Nishi Honganji 4-chome Noguchi-cho, Higashi Murayama City, Tokyo.
Honganjimonzen-cho, Hanaya-cho Kudaru, Horikawa Walk from Higashi Murayama station on Seibu Shin-
Dori, Shimogyo-ku, Kyoto City. Take bus or walk from juku line.
Kyoto station. Silver Pavilion See Ginkakuji
Omote Senke Tea Garden See Fushian and Zangetsutei Sofukuji
7-5 Kamiya-machi, Nagasaki City. Take bus or streetcar Yuin Teahouse
from Nagasaki station on Nagasaki line. 613 Hompojimae-machi, Teranouchi Agaru, Ogawa
Sumiya Dori, Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto City. Take bus or taxi from
32 Ageya-machi, Nishi Shinyashiki, Shimogyo-ku, Kyoto station.
Kyoto City. Take bus or taxi from Kyoto station. Zangetsutei Tea House See Fushian and Zangetsutei
Sumiyoshi Shrine Teahouses
Sumiyoshi-cho, Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka City. Walk from Zenkoji
Sumiyoshi Taisha station on Nankai line. Oaza Nagano Motoyoshi-cho, Nagano City, Nagano
Taian Teahouse See Myokian Pref. Take bus or taxi from Nagano station on Shin'etsu
Taimadera line.
Taima, Oaza, Taima-cho, Kita Katsuragi-gun, Nara
Pref. Walk from Taimadera station on Kintetsu Minami
Osaka line. M U S E U M S AND O T H E R
Takahashi Castle See Bitchu-Matsuyama Castle
Taku School
FACILITIES O F A R C H I T E C T U -
Taku-cho, Taku City, Saga Pref. Take taxi from Taku RAL I N T E R E S T
station on Karatsu line.
Tayasumon Gate Hida Minzoku Mura (Hida Folklore Village)
Kitanomaru Koen, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo. Walk from 2680 Kamiokamoto-cho, Takayama City, Gifu Pref. Tel.
Kudanshita station on Tozai subway line. 0577-34-5888. Take bus or taxi from Takayama station
Teigyokuken See Daitokuji on Takayama line. A collection of over sixty minka and
Tenryuji storehouses as well as approximately five thousand tradi-
Susukinobaba-cho, Saga Tenryuji, Ukyo-ku, Kyoto tional tools and utensils from the Hida region.
City. Take bus or taxi from Kyoto station. Hyakumangoku Bunkaen Edo Mura (Edo Village)
Todaiji 25 He, Yuwaku-machi, Kanazawa City, Ishikawa Pref.
406 Zoshi-cho, Nara City. Take bus from Nara station. Tel. 0762-35-1111. Take bus from Kanazawa station on
Torinokosanjo Shrine Hokuriku line to Yuwaku Onsen. A collection of tools,
1948 Yamata, Oaza, Bato-cho, Nasu-gun, Tochigi Pref. utensils, clothing, and buildingsan inn designated for
Take taxi from Ujiie station on Tohoku line. use by daimyo, a merchant's house, farmhouses, gates,
Toro Site the house of a lower-ranking samurai, and others
Takamatsu, Shizuoka City, Shizuoka Pref. Take bus or preserved from the Kaga fief of the Edo period, giving a
taxi from Shizuoka station. good idea of class differences in architecture.
Toshogu See Nikko Toshogu Nihon Minkaen (Japanese Open-Air Museum)
Tsumago 7-1-1 Masugata, Tama-ku, Kawasaki City, Kanagawa
Tsumago, Minami Kiso-cho, Kiso-gun, Nagano Pref. Pref. Tel. 044-922-2181. Walk from Mukogaoka-yuen
Take bus or taxi from Minami Kiso station on Chuo line. station on Odakyu Odawara line. A collection of minka
Udamikumari Shrine relocated from various regions of Japan, including the
Furuichiba, Oaza, Udano-cho, Uda-gun, Nara Pref. former Emukai, Kitamura, and Sakuta houses described
Take bus or taxi from Nara station. in this book.
Ujigami Shrine Nihon Minka Shuraku Hakubutsukan (Japanese Vil-
Uji Yamada, Uji City, Kyoto Pref. Walk from Uji sta- lage Farmhouse Museum)
tion on Uji line. 1-2 Hattori Ryokuchi, Toyonaka City, Osaka Pref. Tel.
Umpoji 06-862-3137. Walk from Ryokuchi-koen station on
Kamihagiwara, Enzan City, Yamanashi Pref. Walk or Midosuji subway line. A collection of over ten minka
take taxi from Enzan station on Chuo line. relocated from various regions, including the gate from a
Usa Hachiman Shrine See Usa Shrine overseer's residence, an Ell House from Nambu, a rice
Usa Shrine storehouse, an elevated storehouse, and many traditional
2859 Minami Usa, Oaza, Usa City, Oita Pref. Walk tools and utensils.
from Usa station on Nippo line. Sankeien (Sankei Park)
Uwajima Castle 293 Sannotani, Hommoku, Naka-ku, Yokohama City.
Marunouchi, Uwajima City, Ehime Pref. Take bus or Tel. 045-621-0635. Take bus to Sankeienmae from
taxi from Uwajima station on Yosan line. Yokohama station. A traditional Japanese garden in
Wachigaiya which buildings from throughout Japan were collected by
Ageya-machi, Nishi Shinyashiki, Shimogyo-ku, Kyoto Hara Sankei, including ju^a-style structures, minka,
City. Take bus or taxi from Kyoto station. and Buddhist pagodas and halls. The Rinshunkaku
Yakushiji found here is described in the text.
Nishinokyo-machi, Nara City. Walk from Nishinokyo Shikoku Minzoku Hakubutsukan (Shikoku Minka
station on Kintetsu Kashihara line. Museum)
Yoshimura House 91 Yashima Nakamachi, Takamatsu City, Kagawa Pref.
3-5 5-chome Shimaizumi, Habikino City, Osaka Pref. Walk from Yashima-tozanguchi station on Kotohira line.
Walk from Fujiidera station on Kintetsu Minami Osaka A collection of over twenty minka, a rural Kabuki stage
line. relocated from Shodoshima island, and traditonal tools
and utensils from the Shikoku area. Takenaka Daiku Dogu-kan (Takenaka Carpentry
Shitamachi Fuzoku Shiryokan (Shitamachi Museum) Tools Museum)
2-1 Ueno Park, Taito-ku, Tokyo. Tel.03-3823-7451. 4-18 Nakayamate Dori, Chuo-ku, Kobe City, Hyogo
Walk from Ueno station on J . R. or Keisei line. A col- Pref. Tel. 078-242-0216. Walk from Motomachi or San-
lection of articles and exhibits from the old merchant and nomiya stations. Exhibits give an overview of the develop-
craftsmen quarter (shitamachi) of Tokyo. While most date ment of traditional carpenters' tools as well as the types of
from the twentieth century and are not within the scope lumber used, construction methods, and tools used in dai-
of this book, they do give a feeling for life in that quarter ly life.
in the Edo period.

WORSHIP
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(Compiled and annotated by the translator from English- Akamatsu Toshihide and Yampolsky, Philip. "Muro-
language sources) machi Zen and the Gozan System." In Hall, J. W. and
Toyoda Takeshi, eds., Japan in the Muromachi Age. Ber-
keley, Los Angeles, and London: University of Cali-
GENERAL fornia Press, 1977, pp. 313-30.
Drexler, Arthur. The Architecture of Japan. N.Y.: Museum Good introduction to the origin and historical de-
of Modern Art, 1966. velopments of the Zen establishment, with minor sec-
A readable introduction to basic concepts in Japanese tions on monastic succession, administration, and fis-
architecture. cal management.
Ota Hirotaro, ed. Japanese Architecture and Gardens. Tokyo: Colcutt, Martin. "The Zen Monastery in Kamakura
Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai, 1966. Society." In Jeffrey Mass, ed., Court and Bakufu in
Excellent introduction to the field, with separate Japan. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982.
chapters on historical overview, technology, gardens, Very clear discussion of Zen patrons and why they sup-
Shinto and Buddhist architecture, and houses and ported the new creed.
castles, each by one of the foremost Japanese experts. Covell, Jon and Yamada Sobin. Zen at Daitoku-ji. Tokyo,
Includes a good bibliography of Japanese sources and a New York, and San Francisco: Kodansha Interna-
glossary. tional, 1974.
Paine, Robert Treat and Soper, Alexander. The Art and A tour through the history and art of a major Zen tem-
Architecture of Japan. 3rd. ed., with Part One brought up ple complex.
to date by D. B. Waterhouse and Part Two brought up Fukuyama Toshio. Heian Temples: Byodo-in and Chuson-ji.
to date by Bunji Kobayashi. Pelican History of Art Trans. Ronald K. Jones. Heibonsha Survey of Japa-
series. Middlesex, England and New York: Penguin nese Art, vol. 9. New York and Tokyo: Weatherhill/
Books, 1981. Heibonsha, 1976.
A standard reference work in the field. Includes glos- Treats the architecture of the Pure Land (Jodo) sect.
sary and extensive bibliography. Primarily historical.
Sadler, A. L. A Short History of Japanese Architecture. 1941. Kidder, Edward. Japanese Temples. Tokyo: Bijutsu Shup-
Reprint. Tokyo and Rutland, Vermont: Tuttle, 1963. pansha, 1966.
A classic introduction still useful in many respects. A deluxe treatment of select temples, with elegant
Sansom, George. A Short Cultural History of Japan. Rev. photographs and accompanying commentary.
ed. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1952. Kobayashi, Takeshi. Nara Buddhist Art: Todaiji. Trans.
Remains one of the most frequently consulted Western Richard L. Gage. Heibonsha Survey of Japanese Art,
works on Japanese cultural history. vol. 5. New York and Tokyo: Weatherhill/Heibonsha,
Tazawa Yutaka, ed. Biographical Dictionary of Japanese Art. 1975.
Trans. Burton Watson, H. Mack Horton, Eugene Focuses mostly on sculpture, but includes a short sec-
Langston. Tokyo: International Society for Educa- tion on Todaiji architecture.
tional Information, with Kodansha International, Machida Koichi. "A Historical Survey of the Controver-
1981. sy as to Whether the Horyu-ji Was Rebuilt or Not." In
See "Architecture," pp. 495-521, and "Gardens," Acta Asiatica, 15 (1968), pp. 87-114.
pp. 521-35. An exhaustive account, of primary interest with regard
Varley, H. Paul. Japanese Culture. 3rd. ed. Honolulu: The to the history and nature of Japanese architectural
University of Hawaii Press, 1984. scholarship. Valuable bibliography.
An excellent summary that puts architecture and the Mizuno, Seiichi. Asuka Buddhist Art: Horyu-ji. Trans.
other Japanese arts into their historical perspective. Richard L. Gage. Heibonsha Survey of Japanese Art,
. The Japan Architect. vol. 4. New York and Tokyo: Weatherhill/Heibonsha,
The English version of the Japanese architectural 1974.
magazine Shinkenchiku. Often contains valuable articles Concentrates on sculpture, but includes brief remarks
on Japanese architectural history. on the Horyuji complex.
Odate, Toshio. Japanese Woodworking Tools: Their Tradi- chitecture. New York and Tokyo: Walker and Weath-
tion, Spirit, and Use. Newtown, Conn.: Taunton Press, erhill, 1969.
1984. An impressionistic survey of select modern and
A practical guide to the basics of Japanese carpentry. premodern Sukiya dwellings. Splendid plates.
Okawa, Naomi. Edo Architecture: Katsura and Nikko. . Traditional Domestic Architecture of Japan. Trans.
Trans. Alan Woodhull and Akito Miyamoto. Heibon- and adapted by Richard L. Gage. Heibonsha Survey
sha Survey of Japanese Art, vol. 20. New York and of Japanese Art, vol. 21. New York and Tokyo:
Tokyo: Weatherhill/Heibonsha, 1975. Weatherhill/Heibonsha, 1972.
,4 histories) and sppreciatii-c account of Nikko aim' Ka- An overview o fmin/ca, with a d'iscussion of the standard"
tsura, with good photos of detail. building techniques and regional variations.
Ooka, Minoru. Temples of Nara and Their Art. Trans. Den- and Futagawa Yukio. Traditional Japanese Houses.
nis Lishka. Heibonsha Survey of Japanese Art, vol. 7. Trans. Richard L. Gage. New York: Rizzoli Interna-
New York and Tokyo: Weatherhill/Heibonsha, 1973. tional, 1983.
A well-illustrated overview of Buddhist architecture A deluxe presentation of select examples of minka ar-
not only in Nara but Kyoto and elsewhere. Includes chitecture.
helpful schematic foldouts of details and plans. , with Novograd, Paul. "The Development of
Parent, Mary Neighbor. The Roof in Japanese Buddhist Ar- Shoin-style Architecture." In Japan in the Muromachi
chitecture. New York and Tokyo: Weatherhill/Kaji- Age. Ed. John W. Hall and Toyoda Takeshi.
ma, 1983. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of
An exhaustive treatment of roofing systems in Bud- California Press, 1977.
dhist temples from the Asuka through the Muromachi A very helpful article on the shift from the Shinden to
periods. With copious tables, glossary, and bibliog- the Shoin style.
raphy. Kitao Harumichi. Shoin Architecture in Detailed Illustrations.
Suzuki Kakichi. Early Buddhist Architecture in Japan. Tokyo: Shokokusha, 1956.
Trans. Mary N. Parent and Nancy S. Steinhardt. Line drawings and photographs of Shoin structures,
Japanese Arts Library, vol. 9. Tokyo, New York, and with special attention given to detailing. Useful on ter-
San Francisco: Kodansha International and Shibundo, minology.
1980. Morse, Edward. Japanese Homes and Their Surroundings.
A superb study of Buddhist architecture from the 1896. Reprint. Tokyo and Rutland, Vermont: Tuttle,
Asuka through the Heian periods. With a technical in- 1972.
troduction by Mary N. Parent, glossary, and bibliog- A classic investigation of Japanese dwellings by a
raphy. pioneer in the field of Japanese studies.
Watanabe, Yasutada. Shinto Art: Ise and Izumo Shrines. Yagi, Koji. A Japanese Touch for Your Home. Photographs
Trans. Robert Ricketts. Heibonsha Survey of Japa- by Hata Ryo. Trans. Mark Williams. Tokyo, New
nese Art, vol. 3. New York and Tokyo: Weatherhill/ York, and San Francisco: Kodansha International,
Heibonsha, 1974. 1982.
Good introduction to the beginnings of Japanese ar- Shows how traditional architecture continues to in-
chitecture, with an overview of the main shrine types. fluence moderns and provide lessons for contemporary
design. Well illustrated.
DAILY LIFE
Engel, Heinrich. The Japanese House: A Tradition for Con- WAR
temporary Architecture. Tokyo and Rutland, Vermont: Coaldrake, William. "Edo Architecture and Tokugawa
Tuttle, 1964. Law." Monumenta Nipponica, 36, no. 3 (Autumn 1981),
The most detailed treatment of the traditional Japa- pp. 235-84.
nese house in English. Illustrated with many line draw- Discusses cosmological theory behind the layout of
ings and photographs. Edo, political rationale for urban design, and sump-
Fujioka, Michio. Japanese Residences and Gardens: A Tradi- tuary regulations.
tion of Integration. Photographs by Tsunenari Kazunori. Hirai Kiyoshi. Feudal Architecture of Japan. Trans, and
Trans. H. Mack Horton. Great Japanese Art series. adapted by Hiroaki Sato and Jeannine Ciliotta. Hei-
Tokyo, New York, and San Francisco: Kodansha Inter- bonsha Survey of Japanese Art. vol. 13. New York
national, 1982. and Tokyo: Weatherhill/Heibonsha, 1974.
Fine photographs and concise commentary of select Covers castles as well as Shoin structures. Includes
masterpieces of Japanese building art. helpful foldouts of plans and castle details.
Hashimoto, Fumio. Architecture in the Shoin Style. Trans, Kirby, John B. From Castle to Teahouse: Japanese Architecture
and adapted, with an introduction, by H. Mack Hor- of the Momoyama Period. Tokyo and Rutland, Vermont:
ton. Japanese Arts Library, vol. 10. Tokyo, New Tuttle, 1962.
York, and San Francisco: Kodansha International, A good introduction to the architecture of the
1981. Momoyama and early Edo periods.
An in-depth study of the Shoin style and its ante- McClain, James L. Kanazawa: A Seventeenth-Century
cedents and Sukiya variations. With glossary, plans, Japanese Castle Town. New Haven and London: Yale
and bibliography. University Press, 1982.
I to, Teiji. The Elegant Japanese House: Traditional Sukiya Ar- A detailed study of the development of a well-preserved
castle town. Covers urban planning, economic life, Trans, and adapted by James P. Macadam. Heibon-
and political system. sha Survey of Japanese Art, vol. 15. New York and
Okumura Yoshitaro, ed. Photo Collection: Castles of Japan. Tokyo: Weatherhill/Heibonsha, 1974.
Tokyo: Mainichi Newspapers, 1970. A guide to the architecture, gardens, and utensils used
Good photographs of a large number of Japanese in the tea ceremony.
castles, with a short text and captions in Japanese and Ito, Teiji. The Japanese Garden: An Approach to Nature.
English. Added information on Himeji Castle and its Photographs by Takeji Iwamiya. Trans. Donald
mechanisms for defense. Richie. New Haven and London: Yale University
Press, 1972.
ENTERTAINMENT A concise summary of the main types of Japanese
Brandon, James; Malm, William; and Shively, Donald. gardens, supported by good plates.
Studies in Kabuki: Its Acting, Music, and Historical Context. . Space and Illusion in the Japanese Garden.
Honolulu: The University of Hawaii Press, 1978. Photographs by Sosei Kusunishi. Trans, and adapted
A full treatment of the Kabuki drama by three fore- by Ralph Friedrich and Masajiro Shimamura. New
most Western experts. York and Tokyo: Weatherhill/Tankosha, 1973.
Bring, Mitchell, and Wayembergh, Josse. Japanese Gar- Compares the design characteristics of enclosed court-
dens: Design and Meaning. New York: McGraw-Hill, yards and open gardens.
1981. Keene, Donald. No: The Classical Theatre of Japan. Rev.
A thorough introduction to the principles of Japanese ed. Tokyo and Palo Alto: Kodansha International,
garden art. 1973.
Fujioka, Michio. Kyoto Country Retreats: The Shugakuin and Introduction to the music, dance, and literature of the
Katsura Palaces. Photographs by Okamoto Shigeo. N o drama.
Trans. Bruce A. Coats. Great Japanese Art series. Naito Akira. Katsura: A Princely Retreat. Photography by
Tokyo, New York, and San Francisco: Kodansha Inter- Takeshi Nishikawa. Trans. Charles S. Terry. Tokyo,
national, 1983. New York, and San Francisco: Kodansha Interna-
Fine photographs with short explanatory text. tional, 1977.
Hayakawa Masao. The Garden Art of Japan. Trans. A deluxe treatment of Katsura, the quintessence of
Richard L. Gage. Heibonsha Survey of Japanese Art, Japanese traditional domestic architecture.
vol. 28. New York and Tokyo: Weatherhill/Heibon- Shigemori Kanto. Japanese Gardens: Islands of Serenity.
sha, 1973. Tokyo: Japan Publications, 1971.
An introduction to Japanese gardens, presented with A general introduction of major garden types, together
emphasis on historical development. with a short historical discussion by one of the great ex-
Hayashiya Tatsusaburo; Nakamura, Masao; and perts of Japanese garden art.
Hayashiya, Seizo. Japanese Arts and the Tea Ceremony.

INDEX 51-52; of Kabuki theaters, 125; at


Kofukuji, 28; medieval, 33; and
classical period, 12, 32
corridors: in castles, 94, 101; at Itsu-
modular design, 47, 76, 77; and kushima Shrine, 43; in Shinden
teahouse design, 108; temple, 16; at style, 64; in shrines, 43; in minka, 84;
Amida halls, 19 Todaiji, 20; and Zen style, 23 in temples, 13
Asakura family fortress, 96-97 castles: defense devices of, 99; back- craftsmen, 49. See also carpenters
Ashikaga family, 30, 31, 106, 120 ground of, 93; development of, 96;
Ashikaga shogunate, 30, 31, 93 and firearms, 98; residential areas Daibutsuden. See Todaiji
Asukadera, 16 of, 104. See also donjons Daibutsuyo. See Great Buddha style
Asuka period, 14, 96 castles towns, 88, 102. See also Edo; Daigoji Five-story Pagoda, 37 (inset),
Azuchi Castle, 93 Kanazawa 38
ceilings: bamboo, 82-83; of Kabuki daime, 81, 116, 117, 119
base stones, 23 theaters, 124-25; in Shoin style, 74, Daitokuji Daisen'in, 31
bays (ken), 13 76; square central, 27; in Taian Daitokuji Shinjuan, 117
bearing blocks, 36-38 Teahouse, 107 decorative alcove, 74, 76, 80, 107
Bitchu-Matsuyama Castle, 100, 101 Chen Hequing, 20 decorative doors, 74, 75, 76
bracket arms, 14, 36-38, 39 chigaidana. See staggered shelves Dewa Stockade, 96
bracket complexes, 13, 14; and eave Chinese influences, 13, 15, 20, 22, 23, Dojinsai, 74, 106
construction, 38 (inset); in Eclectic 31, 35, 56, 57, 62, 89, 93 doma, 82
style, 28; general discussion of, 36- Chinese style, 23 donjons: in castle layout, 99; early type
38; at Todaiji Great South Gate, 20; Chogen, 20, 21 of, 97, 98; general discussion of,
in Zen style, 23 Chojuji Main Hall, 28 100-101; at Himeji Castle, 94, 95;
bracket ties, 24 chudan, 72 late version of, 100; oldest surviving,
built-in desk, 74, 75, 76, 80 chumon ell, 84 93; turret type of, 101; watchtower
Byodoin, 18-19 chumonrd, 64, 76, 84 type of, 98, 100, 101
Chumon style, 84 doors, 25, 26, 67, 106-7
cantilever, 23, 38 (inset) Chusonji, 19
capitals (ancient), 56-63 circumferential rails, 78 early modern period: craftsmen in, 49;
carpenters: in early modern period, 49, cities, 88-89. See also castle towns development of cities in, 88; enter-
lainments of, 105; samurai resi- discussion of, 58-59; markets at, 63; Kikuchi House, former, 84
dences in, 70; temple architecture residential archtiecture of, 60-61 Kinkakuji. See Golden Pavilion
in, 34-35. See also Edo period hidden roof, 23, 24, 27, 28, 38 (inset) Kiso Road, 89
Eclectic style, 23, 28-29 Hie Shrine, 43 Kita House, 103
Edo, 90-91, 102, 129 Hie style, 43 Kitamura House, former, 84
Edo Castle, 88, 89, 99, 104 Higashi Sanjo mansion, 64 Kitano Shrine, 126
Edo period: craftsmen in, 49; develop- Hikone Castle, 88, 100 kiwarijutsu, 47, 76-77
ment of strut in, 39; entertainments Himeji Castle, 94-95, 97, 100, 101 Kiyomizudera Main Hall, 35
of, 105; feudal system in, 102; hi- Hirosaki Castle, 101 Kochi Castle, 100-101
erarchy in, 128; ornamentation of Hiroshima Castle, 100 Kodokan, 92
shrines in, 47; prevalence of modular hisashi, 13, 23, 43, 69 Korukuji, 16-17, 28, 29
design in, 77; provincial towns in, Hiunkaku, 31 Kokin Denju no Ma, 81
86-87; rise of lower classes in, 53; hojo, 53, 74 kokubunji, 17
schools in, 92; tea ceremony in, 105; Hojuji Mansion, 65, 66 Kompira Great Playhouse, 127
travel in, 34, 89 Hommune style, 85 Kompira Shrine, 89
Eight-roofed style, 85 Horiuchi House, 85 Kongobuji, 18
Eiheiji, 22 Horyuji, 13, 14-15, 37 (inset); Dem- Konnichian Teahouse, 116-17, 118
Ell Houses of Nambu, 84 podo of, 38 (inset), 60, 61; East Kotohira, 89
Emukai House, former, 84 Precinct Worship Hall of, 38 (inset); Kudo style, 85
Enjoji, 42-43 Higashimuro of, 38 (inset) Kumamoto Castle, 100
Enrindo, 78 Hosokawa Mansion, 70 Kuni Capital, 56, 59
Enryakuji, 18, 23 Hosokawa Tadaoki, 72 Kuriyama House, 85
Eri House, former, 85 hold, 18 Kyoto, 22, 62, 119, 128-29
Esoteric Buddhism, 13, 18, 35 Kyoto Imperial Palace, 62
Ichimura Theater, 124, 125
flooring, 60, 61, 67. See also matting; Imanishi House, 85 Maeda family, 72, 102, 103
tatami imperial palaces, 56, 58, 62 Mampukuji Daiyuhoden, 35
Fujiwara Capital, 16, 56, 63 Indian style, 20 Manshuin Shoin, 80-81, 106
Fujiwara family, 19, 28, 62, 64 Inuyama Castle, 100, 101 Marugame Castle, 98, 100, 101
Fujiwara style, 19 Ise Shrine, 12, 40-41, 55 Maruoka Castle, 93, 97, 100, 101
Fukuoka, 68 Itsukushima Shrine, 43, 122-23 Matsudaira family, 72, 73, 88
Fukuyama Castle, 100 Iyo-Matsuyama Castle, 101 Matsue Castle, 100, 101
Furui House, 85 Izumo Shrine, 40, 41, 124 Matsumoto Castle, 93, 100, 101
Fushimi Inari Shrine Teahouse, 81 Matsuyama Castle, 101
Fushin'an Teahouse, 118-19 Japanese style, 23, 28-29, 36-38 matting, 67. See also tatami
fusuma, 67, 74, 76 Jishoji. See Silver Pavilion medieval period, 12, 32-33, 70, 92, 93
Futarasan Shrine, 46 Joan Teahouse, 116, 117 Meirindo, 92
jodan, 72 Miidera. See Onjoji
Gassho style, 84 Jodoji Jizodo, 20-21 mikoshi, 40, 48
gates: castle layout of, 99; gate-house jojodan, 121 Minase Shrine Toshintei, 81
type of, 83; at Ninomaru Palace, Jomon period, 54 minka, 82-85, 103
104; in Shinden style, 64, 65; sub- Jorakuji Three-story Pagoda, 38, 37 Miwa Shrine, 40
dividing city sections, 91; in tea (inset) modular design, 47, 76-77
gardens, 118, 119; in temples, 13, 43 Jurakudai Castle, 97 mokoshi, 13, 18
gedan, 72 Momoyama period, 93, 97, 105, 120,
genkan, 76, 100 Kabuki, 105, 124-27 121
Ginkakuji. See Silver Pavilion Kabutoyane style, 84 Morita Theater, 124
golden hall, 13, 15, 16 kaisho, 70, 74 Moriyama, 89
Golden Pavilion, 30-31, 132 Kajuji Mitsutoyo, 72, 73 moya, 13, 23, 43, 69
Gomizunoo, Emperor, 62, 70, 73, 79, Kakurinji Main Hall, 29 Muromachi period: castles in, 98;
81, 104, 123, 132, 133 Kamakura, 20, 22, 69 culture of, 30, 31; development of
Goshirakawa, Emperor, 62, 65, 66 Kamakura period, 28, 29, 93, 105 modular design in, 76*-77; develop-
Great Buddha Hall, 17, 20, 35 Kamo Mioya Shrine, 42 ment of Shoin style in, 74; general
Great Buddha style, 13, 23; bracketing Kamo Shrine, 40 description of, 93; Heian Capital in,
of, 24, 37; decline of, 21; detailing Kamo Wakeikazuchi Shrine, 42 63; Japanese style in, 29; No stages
of, 21, 24-25; and Eclectic style, 28; Kanasana Shrine, 40 in, 120-21; tea ceremony in, 105,
at Jodoji, 21; at Kakurinji, 29; struc- Kanazawa, 102, 103 106
tural program of, 21; at Todaiji, 20 Kanazawa Castle, 102-3 Muso Soseki, 31
Kannami, 105, 120, 123 Myokian, 106. See also Taian Teahouse
Hachiman style, 43 Karako site, 55 Myooin Main Hall, 29
Hakogi House, 85 Karayo. See Chinese style
Hakusando (Enjoji), 42-43 Kasugado (Enjoji), 42-43 Nagaoka Temmangu, 79
hearth, 106 Kasuga Shrine, 40 Nagare style, 42, 43, 47
Heian Capital, 56, 57, 59, 62-63, 65 Kasuga style, 42-43 Nagasaki, 88
Heian period, 18, 20; commoners' Katsura Detached Palace, 78-79, 132- Nagashino Castle, 93, 98
dwellings in, 68-69; mountain tem- 33 Nagoya Castle, 88, 100, 101, 104
ples in, 35; shrine architecture in, Kawaradera, 16 nails, 50, 80
42, 43; tea drinking in, 105; treat- Kawauchi House, 85 Nakamura House, 85
ment of lumber in, 32 ken, 13 Nakamura Theater, 124, 125, 126-27
Heian Shrine, 62 Kenchoji, 26 Nambu no magariya, 84
Heijo Capital, 16, 56, 57; compared Kenrokuen, 103 Naniwa Capital, 56
with Heian Capital, 62; general Kibitsu Shrine, 43 Nara, 59, 69
Nara period, 58, 60-61, 96, 105 Sanjusangendo, 29, 65 tea garden, 118-19
New Japanese style, 29 Sankeien Rinshunkaku, 81 teahouse design models, 108
New Yoshiwara, 129 schools, 92 teahouses, 106, 108, 116-17
nijirigucki, 106 Sen no Rikyu, 105, 106, 118 tearooms, 106, 135
Nijo Castle, 70, 72, 73. See also Nino- Sennyuji, 23 Teigyokuken Teahouse, 117
maru Palace Shibuya House, former, 84 temples, 12; complexes of, 13, 18, 22,
Nikaido House, 85 Shigaraki Detached Palace, 56 26; flooring of, 60; nationally spon-
Nikko Toshogu, 12, 43, 44, 46 Shimabara, 105, 129, 130 sored, 17; private, 13; in shrine com-
Ninomaru Palace, 70, 73, 78, 104, 123 Shimaizumi, 82 pounds, 42
Nishi Honganji, 31, 75, 81, 121, 122 Shimmei style, 40, 42 Tenjikuyo, 20
No, 73; development of, 105; history Shinden style, 53; and daily life, 66- Tenryuji garden, 31
of, 120; in life at Katsura, 133; in 67; forerunners of, 61; and Golden tie beams, 20, 23, 24
medieval period, 93; stages of, 120- and Silver Pavilions, 30-31; inte- tile, 23, 42, 81
23, 126 rior decor of, 67; and Itsukushima Todaiji, 15, 17, 20, 57; Great Buddha
Shrine, 43; general discussion, 64- Hall of, 17, 20, 35; Great South
Obaku sect, 35 67; used by medieval samurai, 70; Gate of, 20, 21, 24
Ogaki Castle, 100 pictorial depictions of, 66; in Shoin Togudo, 30
Okayama Castle, 100 buildings, 76 Tokiwabashi, 90
okoshiezu, 108 Shinra Zenshindo, 43 tokonoma, 74, 76, 80, 107
Omote Senke, 118 Shinto, 40, 42. See also shrines Tokugawa Iemitsu, 46, 70, 73, 123
Onjoji Kangakuin, 76 Shin Wayo, 29 Tokugawa Ieyasu, 34, 73, 102; and
Onjoji Kojoin, 76 Shin Yoshiwara, 129 Edo, 90; and Himeji Castle, 95; and
Onojoji Shinra Zenshindo, 43 Shitennoji, 16 Nikko Toshogu, 44, 46; and Osaka
Osaka, 88 Shizutanikd, 92 Castle, 88; and Takeda Katsuyori,
Osaka Castle, 88, 100 Shofukuji Jizodo, 23, 24, 26, 34 97, 98; in audience at Nijo Castle, 72
Otsu Capital, 56 Shoin style, 53; distinguished from Tokugawa period. See Edo period
Ozaki Shrine, 103 Sukiya style, 78; general discussion Tokugawa shogunate, 34, 102
of, 74-76; at Kaitokukan, 101; in Tokyo, 88, 90. See also Edo
Paekche, 12 minka, 82, 84; as revised in Sukiya tools: of early modern period, 49-52; in
pagodas, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18, 43 style, 80; and tea ceremony, 105, medieval period, 32-33; in Yayoi
partitions, 61, 67, 74 106; shoji in, 67 period, 54, 55
pent roof, 27, 28-29 shoji, 31, 67, 74, 75, 76, 131 torii, 40, 48
Phoenix Hall, 19 Shomei, 76-77 Torinokosanjo Shrine, 47
pit dwellings, 53, 54, 55 shrines, 12; and Buddhist architecture, Toro site, 54
pleasure quarters, 103, 124, 128-31 40, 42, 43; common styles of, 42, 43; Toshogu (Nikko). See Nikko Toshogu
plinths, 22, 28 elevated, 55; ornamentation in, 43, towns, provincial, 85
podium, 22 46-47; portable, 40; prototypes of, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, 34, 72, 88, 95,
port towns, 86. See also Nagasaki 40, 41; in temple compounds, 42; 102, 105, 106
post and lintel principle, 13 typical compound of, 48 transoms, 89, 131
posts, 74, 76, 77, 78, 117 shrine towns, 86, 89 Tsumago, 86-88
post towns, 89, 102 Shuden, 76, 77 Tumulus period, 55
prehistoric dwellings, 54-55 Silver Pavilion, 30-31, 74, 106
Pure Land Buddhism, 18, 19 sliding paper-covered doors. See shoji Ura Senke, 118
sliding wooden doors. See mairado urban life. See capitals; cities; towns
raftering, 23, 24-25, 27, 28, 37, 38 Sofukuji , 35 urban planning, 88, 90. See also capitals
rainbow beams, 25, 28, 29 staggered shelves, 74, 76, 80 Uwajima Castle, 98, 100, 101
Reiun'in Shoin, 74 storehouses, 54, 55, 91
religious architecture. See shrines; tem- struts, 25, 27, 37 (inset), 38, 39, 47 verandas, 67, 76
ples Sukiya Shoin style. See Sukiya style
Rengeoin, 29, 65 Sukiya style, 78, 80-81, 103, 105, 129 Wachigaiya, 130
residential architecture: of commoners, Sumiya, 105, 129, 130, 131 Wakayama Castle, 100
68-69; of Nara period, 60-61; of the Sumiyoshi Shrine, 40, 41 walls, 42, 64, 116-17
samurai, 70-73. See also minka Sumiyoshi style, 40, 42 Wayo. See Japanese style
reticulated shutters, 31, 66, 69, 76 windows, 26, 80, 107, 116
Rinshunkaku, 81 Taga Castle, 96
Rokujo-Misujimachi, 128-29 lahoto, 18 Yakushiji, 15, 16, 56
Rokuonji. See Golden Pavilion Taian Teahouse, 106 Yakushiji Three-story Pagoda, 37 (in-
roofs: billets of, 41; and eave construc- Taiheiji, 23 set), 38
tion, 38 (inset); finials of, 41; of tail rafters, 27, 38 Yamamura Theater, 124
Heian commoners' dwellings, 68, tainoya, 64 Yamato Tamon Castle, 102-3
69; in Kabuki theaters, 126, 127; in Taisha style, 40 Yayoi period, 54
minka, 84, 85; of Ninomaru Palace, Taiyuinbyo, 46 Yoshimura House, 82-83
70; of pit dwellings, 55; of porches, Takahashi Castle, 100, 101 Yoshiwara, 129
28; of shrines, 42; of temples, 13. See Takatenjin Castle, 97 Yuin Teahouse, 116, 118
also hidden roof T a k e n o j o o , 106
Ryoanji, 31 Taku School, 92 Zangetsutei, 118-19
Tamura no Tei, 57 Zeami, 105, 120, 123
Saihoji, 31 tatami: daime, 81, 116, 117, 119; as Zen Buddhism, 22, 31, 34-35, 105
Sakai, 106, 119 modular unit, 77; in Shoin style, 74, Zenkoji Main Hall, 34-35
Sakaicho, 126 76 Zenshuyo. See Zen style
Sakuta House, former, 84 tea ceremony, 78, 93, 105, 106, 133, Zen style, 13, 22-23, 26-27, 37
samurai, 53, 70-73, 128 135 Zojoji, 124
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O 1983
Princed in Japan
ISBN 978+-7700-1992-9
ARCHITECTURAL CHRONOLOGY
Heian Nagaoka Capital
784 (784)
Palace Chapel of
WEST JAPANESE Charlemagne
JAPAN
PERIODS
(792-805)
Jomon Heian Capital (794)
10000
Santa Maria de
B.C.
Naranco,
1st pit dwellings Oviedo (c. 848)
(c. 5000-c. 3500) Daigoji pagoda (952)
Great Sphinx at Giza
St. Michael's,
(c. 2530)
Hildesheim (1001-33)
Stonehedge (c. 1800) Cathedra] of St.
Parthenon (447-432) Sophia, Novgorod
Colossus of Rhodes (1045-52)
(292-280) St. Mark's, Venice Byodoin Phoenix Hall
Yayoi (begun 1063) (1053)
200 B.C. Hoshoji (1075)
Temple of the Sibyl, Tower of London
Tivoli (1st c. B.C.) (1078-97)
1 A.D. Durham Cathedral
Pont du Gard, Nimes (1093-1130)
(c. 14) Ishiyamadera Main
Colosseum, Rome Hall (1096)
(72-80) Chusonji Golden
Pompeii destroyed Hall (1126)
(79) Chartres Cathedral
Pantheon, Rome Toro site (100-300) (begun 1145)
(120-24) Notre-Damc, Paris
(begun 1163)
Tumulus Leaning Tower of
250 A . D . Pisa (begun 1174)
Basilica of Can- Canterbury Cathedral
stantine (310-20) (begun 1175)
Hagia Sophia Todaiji & Kofukuji
(532-37) destroyed (1180)
S. Apollinare in destruction of Heike
Classe, Ravenna clan (1185)
(533-49)
Kama-
Asuka Buddhism to Japan kura
552 (538 or 552) 1185
temple carpenter Kamakura shogunate
arrives from (1192)
Paekche, Korea (577) Jodoji Jododo (1192)
Asukadera (588)
Ishiyamadera
orig. Horyuji (607) tahoto (1194)
Horyuji rebuilt reconstruction of
(c. 670) Todaiji Great
Hokkiji pagoda (685) Buddha Hall (1195)
reconstruction of
Fujiwara Captial
Todaiji Nandaimon
(694)
gate (1199)
Nara Heijo Capital (710)
Kenninji (1202)
710 Yakushiji pagoda Reims Cathedral
(730) (begun 1211)
Horyuji east Amiens Cathedral
precinct (739) (begun 1220)
Todaiji orig. Great Salisbury Cathedra]
Buddha Hall (760) (1220-70)
Westminster Abbey Villa Rotonda,
(begun 1245) Vicenza (begun 1550)
Cologne Cathedral Momo- destruction of
(begun 1248) yama Ashikaga shogunate
Florence Cathedral Rengeoin (1266) 1573 (1573)
(begun 1296) II Gesu, Rome
Palazzo Vecchio, (c. 1575-84) Maruoka Castle
Florence (begun 1298) donjon (1576)
Azuchi Castle
Eihoji Kannon Hall (1576-77)
(1314) Mydkian (c. 1582)
Gloucester Cathedral Hideyoshi's
(1332-57) Jurakudai (1587)
Muromachi Fushimi Castle
(Ashikaga) (begun 1594)
regime (1336)
Edo Onjoji Kangakuin
Northern & Southern 1600 (1600)
courts (1336-92)
Inuyama Castle
Muro- (begun 1601)
machi
1338 Himeji Castle
(1601-9)
Kitayama culture Nijo Castle
(1367-1408) (c. 1601-3)
Milan Cathedral Kakurinji Main Hall Joan Teahouse
(1385-1485) (c. 1397) (c. 1615)
Kinkakuji (1398) Nishi Honganji
San Lorenzo, Kibitsu Shrine Main Hiunkaku (c. 1615-
Florence (1421-69) Hall (1425) 24)
St. Madou, Rouen, Kofukuji pagoda Katsura (begun
west facade (1426) c. 1616)
(begun 1434) Nijo Ninomaru
Higashiyama culture Palace (c. 1624-26)
Palazzo Medici- (1443-90) San Carlo alle Nikko Toshogu
Riccardi, Florence Quattro Fontane, (begun 1634)
(begun 1444) Rome (begun 1638)
Onin war (1467-77) Palace of Versailles Shugakuin Palace
Ginkakuji (1484) (begun c. 1661) (1659)
St. Maria delle Togudo (1485) St. Paul's Cathedral Shizutaniko (begun
Carceri, Prato (1485) (1675-1710) 1670)
Ryoanji garden Sofukuji Daiipomon
(1499) gate (1694)
Henry VII's Chapel,
Westminster Abbey Brandenburg Gate,
(c. 1503) Berlin (1788-91)
Monticello, Char-
St. Peter's, Rome lottesville (begun
(begun 1506) 1779)
Daisen'in garden
(1513) White House,
Washington, D.C.
Chateau at Chambord (rebuilt 1814-17)
(1519-47)
Kyoto Imperial
Cathedral of Basil Palace (1855)
the Blessed, Moscow
(1532) The Opera, Paris
firearms introduced (1861-74)
by Portuguese (1543) Edo shogunate falls
The Louvre, Paris (1867)
(begun 1546) Meiji opening of Japan
Negoroji taholo (1547) 1868 to West

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