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DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
LABORATORY MANUAL
Name : _______________________________________
Section : _______________________________________
DHANALAKSHMI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
VISION
To train the students to sell his brawn and brain to the highest bidder but to never put a price tag on
heart and soul
VISION
To impart professional education integrated with human values to the younger generation, so as to
shape them as proficient and dedicated engineers, capable of providing comprehensive solutions to the
challenges in deploying technology for the service of humanity
MISSION
To educate the students with the state-of-art technologies to meet the growing challenges of the
electronics industry
To carry out research through continuous interaction with research institutes and industry, on
advances in communication systems
To provide the students with strong ground rules to facilitate them for systematic learning,
innovation and ethical practices
PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)
1. Fundamentals
To provide students with a solid foundation in Mathematics, Science and fundamentals of
engineering, enabling them to apply, to find solutions for engineering problems and use this knowledge
to acquire higher education
2. Core Competence
To train the students in Electronics and Communication technologies so that they apply their
knowledge and training to compare, and to analyze various engineering industrial problems to find
solutions
3. Breadth
To provide relevant training and experience to bridge the gap between theory and practice which
enables them to find solutions for the real time problems in industry, and to design products
4. Professionalism
To inculcate professional and effective communication skills, leadership qualities and team spirit in
the students to make them multi-faceted personalities and develop their ability to relate engineering
issues to broader social context
5. Lifelong Learning/Ethics
To demonstrate and practice ethical and professional responsibilities in the industry and society in
the large, through commitment and lifelong learning needed for successful professional career
PROGRAMME OUTCOMES (POs)
a) To demonstrate and apply knowledge of Mathematics, Science and engineering fundamentals in
Electronics and Communication Engineering field
b) To design a component, a system or a process to meet the specific needs within the realistic
constraints such as economics, environment, ethics, health, safety andmanufacture ability
c) To demonstrate the competency to use software tools for computation, simulation and testing of electronics
and communication engineering circuits
g) To communicate in verbal and written form with fellow engineers and society at large
h) To understand the impact of Electronics and Communication Engineering in the society and demonstrate
awareness of contemporary issues and commitment to give solutions exhibiting social responsibility
4
GE6162 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY
SYLLABUS
COURSE OBJECTIVES
To provide exposure to the students with hands on experience on various basic engineering
practices in Electrical and Electronics Engineering
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS:
1. Study of Electronic components and equipment Resistor, colour coding measurement of AC
signal parameter (peak-peak, rms period, frequency) using CRO
2. Study of logic gates AND, OR, EOR and NOT
3. Generation of Clock Signal
4. Soldering practice Components Devices and Circuits Using general purpose PCB
5. Measurement of ripple factor of HWR and FWR
COURSE OUTCOMES
4
GE6162 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY
CONTENTS
Page
S.No. Name of the Experiment
No.
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING PRACTICE
ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS
GENERAL PROCEDURE
0
Ex. No.:1
STUDYOFELECTRONICCOMPONENTSANDEQUIPMENTS
Aim:
1. Study of electronic components and equipment.
2. Calculation of resistance using colour coding.
3. Measuring the parameters of a sinusoidal AC signal using CRO.
1. STUDYOFELECTRONICCOMPONENTS
ActiveComponents
Transistors
Diodes
PassiveComponents
Passivecomponentsconsumepower.Theydissipateenergyintheformof
heatorstoreenergy.Theyarelinear.Thecharacteristicsofthesignaldoesnotchange
whenpassedthrough these components. Examples:Resistors,CapacitorsandInductors.
0
Resistors
Fixedresistor
R
1 2
Colourcoding
Calculationofresistance:
Resistors
Resistors are used to limit or control the flow of current or to provide required
voltage drops at required places.A Resistoris denotedbyRandits unitis(ohm).
Ohm( )isdefinedastheamountofresistancethatallows1Acurrentto
flow,when1Vpotentialisapplied.
Resistorsareclassifiedinto
FixedResistors
VariableResistors
ColourCodingofResistors
st
1 stripgivesthefirstdigitof theresistance
2ndstripgivestheseconddigitof theresistance.
3rdstripgivesthedecimalmultiplierinpowersof 10.
Capacitors
V=Q/ C
Inductor
PNJunctionDiode
LED
D1
LED
Inductors
The property of a coil by which it opposes change in the value of current or flux
through it, due to the production of self inducede.m.f, is called inductance. The inductance is
measured in Henry and it is denoted by L.
Multimeter
Amulti-meteroramulti-tester,isanelectronicmeasuringinstrumentthat
combinesseveralmeasuring devicesinoneunit.Astandardmulti-metermay
includefeaturessuchastheability tomeasure voltage, currentandresistance.
Therearetwocategoriesof multi-metersviz.,analogmulti-meteranddigital multi-meters. Multi-
meterisahand-helddeviceusedtofindfaultand tomeasure mostof theelectricalquantitieswithvery
highdegreeofaccuracy. They canbeusedto troubleshootelectricalfaultsin a widerangeof
circuitsandwiringsystems.
Thecentralknobofthemulti-meterhaslotofpositionsandthecorrectone
whicheverappropriateforourmeasurementshouldbeselected.Forexample,if
themeterisswitchedto20VDCthen20VisthemaximumDCvoltagethatcan be measured.
Oscilloscope
Oscilloscopeisanelectronictestequipmentthatallowssignalvoltagesto
beviewed,usuallyasatwodimensionalgraphofoneormoreelectricalpotential
difference(Verticalaxis)plottedasafunctionoftimeorsomeothervoltage (Horizontalaxis). A typical
oscilloscopeis a rectangularbox witha small screen,input
connectors,controlknobsandbuttonsonthefrontpanel.Toaidmeasurement, a gridcalledthegraticule
isdrawnonthefaceofthescreen.Eachsquareinthe graticuleisknownasdivision.Thesignaltobe
measuredis fedononeof theinput connectors,whichisusuallyacoaxialconnectorsuchasBNCorN-
Type.
Inthesimplestmode,theoscilloscoperepeatedly drawsahorizontalline
calledthetraceacrossthemiddleofthescreenfrom lefttoright.Oneofthe controls,
thetimebasecontrol,setsthespeedatwhichthelineisdrawnandis calibratedinsecondsperdivision.
Iftheinputvoltagedepartsfrom zero,thetrace
isdeflectedeitherupwardsordownwards.Anothercontrol,theverticalcontrol,
setsthescaleoftheverticaldeflection andiscalibratedinvoltsperdivision.The
resultingtraceisagraphof voltageagainsttime.
Mostoscilloscopes allowustobypassthetimebaseandfeedanexternal
signaltothehorizontalamplifier.ThisiscalledX-Ymodeandisusefulfor viewingthephaserelationship
betweenthetwosignals,whichiscommonly done inradioandtelevisionengineering.
PNPtransistor
CathodeRayOscilloscopeBlockDiagram
PropertiesofACSignal
Currentcanbedirect current(DC)oralternating
current(AC).Thedirectcurrenthas
constantamplitudeovertimeandhencerepresentedwithastraightline.The
amplitudeofalternatingcurrentkeepschangingwithtimeinasinusoidalfashion
andhencerepresentedwithsinewave.
PeakValue
TheACsignalhastwopeaks, oneinthepositivecycleandtheotherinthe
negative cycle.Thevalueofthevoltageinthesetwopeaksiscalledpeakvalueof ACsignal. It is denoted
by Vm .Forexample, ifthemaximumamplitudeofthesignalis20V,thenthe peakvaluesof
thatsignalare+20V or-20V.
Peak-to-Peakvalue
SumofthemagnitudesofboththepeakvaluesofACsignaliscalledasits Peak-to-
Peakvalue.In theexamplegivenabove,theP-Pvalueis20+ (-20)= 20 + 20 = 40 V.
AverageValue
The areaunderonecompletecycleperperiodiscalledastheaveragevalue of
theACsignal.
Averagevalue=Areaunderonecompletecycle/ Period
RMSValue
TheRootMeanSquare(RMS)valueisalsocalledastheeffective valueof
ACsignal.Itisgivenby,
Vrms=0.707Vm
CathodeRayTube(CRT)
ParametersofasinusoidalACSignal
Observations:
Amplitude Vpp =
PeakVoltage Vm=
TimePeriod T=
Frequency F=1/ T
RMSVoltage V=0.707Vm
Result:
Thusthe electronic components and equipment are studied.
Viva-voce
STUDYOFLOGICGATESAND,OR,EX-ORANDNOT
Aim:
To realizelogic functionsusing NOT, OR,AND,EX-OR gates.
ApparatusRequired:
S.No Nameof theEquipment Quantity
1 Digital IC TrainerKit 1
2 IC 7404(NOT) 1
3 IC 7432(OR) 1
4 IC 7408(AND) 1
5 IC 7486(EX-OR) 1
6 ConnectingWires
Theory:
NOTGate (IC7404)
The output of NOT gate is the complement of its input.Itis also called
anInverter,becauseit invertstheinputsignal.Ithasoneinputandoneoutput.If Ais an
input,thenY=Aisitsoutput.
OR Gate (IC 7432)
ANDGate(IC 7408)
TheANDgategivesanoutputonlywhenall itsinputsarepresent.
TheANDgatehasoutput1ifbothA&Bare1. Hencethisis an all-or-nothinggate
whoseoutputoccursonlyif allitsinputsare 1.TheoutputY=A.B.
EX-ORGate(IC 7486)
Procedure:
1. In adigitalIC trainerboard, fixtheIC s firmlyand make theconnectionsas
perthecircuitdiagram.
2. Apply+5Vtothe14thpinof
th
ICs7404,7432,7408,7486andconnectgroundtothe7 pinof ICs.
3. Applyinputstothecircuit&verifytheoutputswithtruth table.
Result:
Thusthelogic gates are studied and verified using truth table.
Viva-voce
4. What is a latch?
PIN DIAGRAM
Ex. No.:3
GENERATIONOFCLOCKSIGNAL
Aim:
TogenerateclocksignalusingIC555timercircuit.
ApparatusRequired:
S.
No. Component Range Quantity
1 Timer IC555 1
3 Capacitors 0.1F 2
4 CRO 30MHz 1
5 RPS (030)V 1
Theory:
TheIC555timerisanintegratedcircuitwhichisverystableandcan
generateveryaccuratetimeintervalswiththehelpofinternalcomponents like resistors andcapacitors.
T1 = R1 C ; T2 = R2 C
ModelWaveform:
Tabulation:
R1 R2 C Amplitude Theoretical Time TimePeriod(ms)
(V) period ( ms )
TON =
TOFF =
T=TON +TOFF
Procedure:
1. Connectionsaremadeasperthecircuitdiagram.
2. PowersupplyisswitchedONand5Visappliedtothecircuit.
3. TheoutputwaveformisobservedfromtheCROandisdrawnina
graph.
4. The time period of output wave form is compared with theoretical time
period calculated.
Result:
ThustheclocksignalwasgeneratedbyusingIC555timer.
Viva-voce
2. What is a Multivibrator?
R1
1 2
1k
D1
V1
LED
( 0-5 ) v
0
Ex. No.:4
SOLDERINGANDCHECKINGTHECONTINUITY
Aim:
Topractice solderingofelectroniccomponentsandwiresonPCBandto checkthecontinuity.
ApparatusRequired:
Theory:
Solderingistheprocessofjoiningthinmetalplatesorwiresmadeup
ofsteel,copperorbraze.Itisverycommonlyusedtojoinwiresinelectricalwork
andmountelectroniccomponents onacircuitboard. Thejoiningmaterialusedin soldering is
calledsolderorfilterrod.Analloyoftinandleadiscommonlyusedas thesolder.
Thefluxisusedtocleanthesurfaceoftheplates/wires tobesoldered.
Aluminiumchlorideorzincchlorideiscommonlyusedasflux.Agoodsoldering
ironisavariabletemperaturesettingtypewithinter-changeableironsandtips. Thetipshould
beremovedregularlytoprevent oxidationscale fromaccumulating
betweentheheatingelementandthetip.
Procedure:
SOLDERING
1. Thegivenelectroniccircuitisstudied.
2. ThePCBBoardiscleaned.
3. Thetipofthesolderingironiscleanedbefore heatingandalsotheresistors
andLEDwhicharetobesolderedare cleaned.
4. Thesolderingironisheatedandsolderisappliedtothetipof it.
5. Theresistor(R)loadsorbendstofitintothePCBboardandit is insertedintheholesof theboardas
perthecircuitdiagram.
6. Thehottipisappliedtothejointsandthesolderisapplied.
7. Thesolderingtipisremovedandtheresistorheldtightlytillthesolderis cooledandset.
8. Theexcesscomponentloadistrimmedwithsidecuts.
9. Theabovestepsarerepeatedtofixtheothercomponentinthecircuit.
DESOLDERING
1. Thetipofthesolderingironisplacedontheresistorboardjointuntilthe solder melts.
2. Whenthesolderismeltedtheresistorisremovedwithatabezer.
3. Theabovestepsareseparatedtoremovetheothercomponents.
4. TheLEDandtheresistorarecleaned.
CHECKINGTHECONTINUITY
Thecontinuityofawireconductorwithoutabreakhaspracticallyzero
ohmsofresistancethereforeanohmmetermaybeusedtotestcontinuity .Totest continuity
selecttheohmrange.Awiremayhaveaninternalbreak,whichisnot
visibleduetoinsulation,orthewiremayhaveabadconduction attheterminals.
Checkingforzeroohmsbetweentwopoints is usedto testthecontinuity.
Viva-voce
3. How do you check the continuity of a wire using Digital Multi meter?
Circuit Diagram:
Ex. No.:5
AND FULLWAVERECTIFIER
Aim:
Tomeasure theripplefactorofahalf wave rectifierandfullwaverectifier.
Apparatus Required:
S.No Apparatus Range Type Qty
1 Diode 1N4007 2
2 Voltmeter (0-20)V MC 1
3 Voltmeter (0-20)V MI 1
4 Ammeter (0-100)mA MC 1
5 Rheostat 1000/2A 1
6 CathodeRayOscilloscope 1
CentreTappedStep-Down
78 ConnectingWires 1
Transformer
Theory:
(A)HalfwaveRectifier:
(B) FullWaveRectifier:
Inafullwaverectifiercircuit,twodiodesarepresent.Eachdiode conductsforone
halfcycleoftheinputvoltage.D1conducts forpositive halfcycleandD2conducts for
negativehalfcycle.Theoutputofarectifierisapulsating DC(i.e)ACaswellasDC
componentsarepresentattherectifieroutput. Thepresence ofanACcomponentismost undesirable
andthereforeitmustberemovedfromtherectifieroutput.Itisachievedby meansofafilter circuit.
Procedure:
1. Connectionsaregivenasperthecircuitdiagram.
2. VaryrheostatandnotedownVac andVdc.
3. Thisis repeatedforbothhalfandfullwaverectifier
4. Usingtheformulatheripplefactoriscalculated forall thecasesandcompared.
ModelGraph:
FormulaUsed:
Inpracticalcase,wecanfilterDCcomponentbyusingcapacitor.Hence,Ripple
factorcanbecalculatedusingthisformula:
Tabulation:
Half waveRectifier
1
2
3
4
Average
Full waveRectifier
S.No Vac Vdc RippleFactor = Vac/Vdc
1
2
3
4
Average
Result:
Thusthehalfwaveandfullwaverectifierarestudiedandtheir ripplefactorhasbeenfound.
Viva-voce
1. What is a rectifier?
Aim:
To study and verify the functionality of PN junction diode in forward bias and reverse bias and
to
Apparatus Required:
S.No Apparatus Range Type Qty
1 Diode 1N4007 1
2 Voltmeter (0-20)V MC 1
3 Ammeter (0-100)mA MC 1
4 Resistor 1K 1
5 Dual DC Regulated Power 1
supply (0 - 30 V)
6
Bread board
ConnectingWires 1
Theory:
A PN junction diode is formed when a single crystal of semiconductor is doped with acceptors
impurities (Pentavalent) on one side and donor impurities (Trivalent) on the other side. It has two
terminals called electrodes, one each from P-region and N-region. Due to two electrodes it is
called (i.e., Di-electrode) Diode.
Applying external D.C. voltage to any electronic device is called biasing. There is no current in
the unbiased PN junction at equilibrium.
Depending upon the polarity of the D.C. voltage externally applied to diode ,the biasing is
classified as Forward biasing and Reverse biasing.
Circuit Diagram:
The P-N junction supports uni-directional current flow. If +ve terminal of the input supply is
connected to anode (P-side) and ve terminal of the input supply is connected the cathode. Then
diode is said to be forward biased. In this condition the height of the potential barrier at the
junction is lowered by an amount equal to given forward biasing voltage. Both the holes from p-
side and electrons from n-side cross the junction simultaneously and constitute a forward current
from n-side cross the junction simultaneously and constitute a forward current (injected minority
current due to holes crossing the junction and entering P- side of the diode). Assuming current
flowing through the diode to be very large, the diode can be approximated as short- circuited
switch.
If negative terminal of the input supply is connected to anode (p-side) and ve terminal of the
input supply is connected to cathode (n-side) then the diode is said to be reverse biased. In this
condition an amount equal to reverse biasing voltage increases the height of the potential barrier
at the junction. Both the holes on P-side and electrons on N-side tend to move away from the
junction there by increasing the depleted region. However the process cannot continue
indefinitely, thus a small current called reverse saturation current continues to flow in the diode.
This current is negligible; the diode can be approximated as an open circuited switch.
It is observed that Ge diodes has smaller cut-in-voltage when compared to Si diode. The reverse
saturation current in Ge diode is larger in magnitude when compared to silicon diode.
Fig: V- I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode under Forward & Reverse Bias Conditions
Cutin Voltage V
Tabulation:
S.No. RPS Voltage Vs (volts) Forward Voltage across Forward Current through
the diode Vf (volts) the diode If (mA)
S.No. RPS Voltage Vs (volts) Reverse Voltage across Reverse Current through
the diode Vr (volts) the diode Ir (uA)
Result:
Viva-voce
1. What are trivalent and pentavalent impurities?
4. How many valence electrons are there in p type doping materials and in n type doping
material?
Aim:
Apparatus Required:
2 Resistance 1k ohm 1
connecting wires
Theory:
An ideal P-N Junction diode does not conduct in reverse biased condition. A zener diode
conducts excellently even in reverse biased condition. These diodesoperate at a precise value
of voltage called break down voltage. A Zener diode when forward biased behaves like an
ordinary P-N junction diode.
A Zener diode when reverse biased can either undergo avalanche break down or Zener
break down.Avalanche break down:-If both p-side and n-side of the diode are lightly
doped,depletion region at the junction widens. Application of a very large electric field
at the junction may rupture covalent bonding between electrons. Such rupture leads to
the generation of a large number of charge carriers resulting in avalanche
multiplication.
Zener break down:-If both p-side and n-side of the diode are heavily doped,depletion region
at the junction reduces. Application of even a small voltage at the junction ruptures covalent
bonding and generates large number of charge carriers. Such sudden increase in the number
of charge carriers results in zener mechanism.
Circuit Diagram:
Forward Bias
Reverse Bias
Procedure:
1. Connect the Zener diode in forward bias i.e; anode is connected to positive of the power
supply and cathode is connected to negative of the power supply as in circuit
2. Use a Regulated power supply of range (0-30)V and a series resistance of 1k.
3. For various values of forward voltage (Vf) note down the corresponding values of forward
current(If) .
1. Connect the Zener diode in Reverse bias i.e; anode is connected to negative of the power
supply and cathode is connected to positive of the power supply as in circuit.
2. For various values of reverse voltage(Vr ) note down the corresponding values of reverse
current ( Ir ).
TABULAR COLUMN
Forward Bias:
S. No Vf (volts) If (mA)
Reverse Bias:
S. No Vr (volts) Ir (uA)
Model Graph:
Result:
1. Cut in voltage = V