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Overview of the Impacts of Plug-in Electric

Vehicles on the Power Grid


C.H. Dharmakeerthi, Student Member, IEEE, N. Mithulananthan, Senior Member, IEEE and T.K.
Saha, Senior Member, IEEE

integration with PEV grid participation. While Section IV


Abstract--Electric Vehicles are marking a revolution all concentrates on PEV impacts on grid stability, the effect on
around the world owing to their environmental and socio- supply demand balance is discussed in section V. Section VI
economical benefits. They are going to invade the vehicle market
and automobile industry along with efficient and user preferred
identifies the concerns over system assets due to PEV
updates. From the utilities point of view, the adoption of plug-in integration. Power quality issues like voltage regulation, phase
electric vehicles (PEV) to the distribution network brings balance and harmonics, as a result of PEV getting charged
challenges as well as opportunities. One of the challenges is the from the grid are summarized in Sections VII and VIII,
demand, both pattern and amount that EV carry. Will the respectively. While Section IX discusses the grid power losses
infrastructure be able to facilitate the demand? What are the
prevailing concerns over the electricity grid during this
associated with PEV integration, Section X reveals the
transition? This paper provides an overview of the grid impacts scenarios developed to mitigate grid impacts. Finally, the
associated with PEV grid integration. overall conclusions based on the studies and suggestions for
potential future works are presented in Section XI.
Keywords- electric vehicle; grid impacts; energy storage; grid
stability; supply demand balance; harmonic distortion; II. CHARACTERISTICS OF PEV LOAD
Domain of electric vehicle includes Hybrid, Plug-in Hybrid
I. INTRODUCTION and Battery Electric vehicles. The term PEV in this paper

I NCREASING environmental concerns, potentially high


petroleum prices, as well as uncertainty of future fossil
resources enhance the electric vehicle penetration rates. What
refers to the latter two, which could be connected to the
electricity grid for charging as well as providing ancillary
services. The interface between the PEV and the grid may
will be the impacts of charging of this increased PEV fleet on contain various inverter converter combinations to facilitate
the power grid? It is an unsolved question of power system above functions. This power electronic circuitry can be located
operators all over the world. Evidently, this new PEV load on board as well as external to the vehicle. Energy transfer
will bring a great challenge to them due to the PEVs specific between the grid and the vehicle may be by inductive or
characteristics as it is different from other typical loads. conductive coupling. The former method does not contain a
The new PEV load that going to be added to power systems physical connection between the external charging equipments
is needed to be considered exclusively. Because, it is having and the vehicle, which is gaining popularity.
not only a comparable energy demand but also an A PEV may consume 100-400Wh/km depending on the
unpredictable dynamic behavior. Moreover, when and where type and driving characteristics of the vehicle. Hence, a PEV
they are going to be connected for charging, duration of which drives about 40km per day may consume 4-16 kWh of
charging, amount of real and reactive power going to be drawn energy. So, its energy demand is comparable to other
by them cannot be simply assessed in advance. Hence, its household loads. Its battery capacity may vary between 10-60
complex behavior is to be tackled with uncertainty analysis. kWh depending on the vehicle model. Charging power
Such probabilistic approach can be found in reference [1] as demand of PEV depends on factors like battery chemistry, its
early as 1982. state of charge (SOC), charger characteristics and further
The recent increase in the number of related literature may determined by nature of the utility connection (supply voltage,
indicate the gaining popularity of PEV as well as the number of phases, allowable service current). Fig. 1. Shows
increasing realization of their impacts to the grid. This paper the power demand of PEV load depending on the charging
reveals the outcomes of various grid impacts studies and method involved and the nature of the utility connection[2].
approaches.
Rest of the paper is organized as follows: the key
characteristics of PEV load is discussed in Section II. Section
III of the paper deals with improving of renewable energy

C.H. Dharmakeerthi, N. Mithulananthan, T.K. Saha are with the School of


Information Technology and Electrical Eng, University of Queensland,
Brisbane, Qld. 4072, Australia (e-mail: p.dharmakeerthi@uq.edu.au;
mithulan@itee.uq.edu.au; saha@itee.uq.edu.au). Fig. 1. Power demand of a PEV [2].

978-1-4577-0875-6/11/$26.00@2011 IEEE
usage and considers the circumstances of charging PEV in the
While normal charging continues for hours, fast charging system. It has found that the increased peak power demand of
happens in minutes scale. Table I shows a set of typical the house due to PEV charging can be offset by the system
charging times with respect to average charging power, arrangement. Thus, the system can help the grid with peak
driving distance, and energy demand[2]. The vehicle shaving, load shifting, as well as this arrangement will reduce
manufacturers pay more attention to develop fast chargers, to energy drain from the grid.
make the recharging times comparable to refueling times. As a These findings reveal the ability of developing future power
result integration of fast charging stations to the grid will systems with more renewable energy participation despite
increase and may require a certain amount of power system their intermittent behavior. Further, renewable energy
updates to accommodate them. participation in PEV charging may lessen the impacts on grid
TABLE I associated with PEV charging.
TYPICAL CHARGING TIMES[2]
Average charging
Driving power 3.7 kW 11 kW 22 kW 200 kW IV. IMPACT ON GRID STABILITY
Distance/ Demand
System stability studies need to be carried out with the
30km/7.5kWh 2.0 h 42 min 34 min 2.3 min
addition of new PEV load, as many of the current power
60km/15kWh 4.1 h 1.4 h 0.7 h 4.5 min
systems running in the vicinity of instability.
100km/25kWh 6.8 h 2.3 h 1.1 h 7.5 min Reference [9] reports a system stability study on the IEEE
150km/37.5kWh 10.1 h 3.4 h 1.8 h 11.3 min 3-bus test system with and without PEV load. Even though,
this is not an entirely realistic model to analyze real system
behavior, it provides a comprehensive starting point for
III. IMPACT ON RENEWABLE ENERGY INTEGRATION stability studies with PEV integration. It has found that the
Power utilities are facing challenges in incorporating large system with PEV load is lesser stable compared to the system
amount of renewable energy (RE) resources in their grids due without PEV considering the system dynamics following a
to intermittency with renewable energy supply. But the fast three phase system fault.
responding power electronic interface of PEV charger together A small signal stability study by modeling PEV as constant
with its battery storage discloses a proven solution to deal with power loads (CPL) and constant impedance load (CIL) on the
such source intermittency. New England 39-bus system is presented in [10]. It concludes
Reference [3] suggests such solution to the lack of that when PEV is modeled as CPL, the system load margin is
dispatchability due to wind energy source connection to grid. lower than that for CIL. Hence, it suggests that the charging
It controls charging and discharging of PEV appropriately to PEV as a CIL is more grid friendly than that of CPL.
keep balance between demand and supply. A rather similar However, modern chargers use intelligent control algorithms
control approach has been proposed in [4]. It provides a case to achieve efficient charging while ensuring prolonged battery
study which maintains a constant power at the feeder, where life [11].
both PEV and wind sources are connected nearby. Another While the above studies consider the stability of the grid
comprehensive study presented in reference [5] has with PEV as a charging load, the study [4] considers the PEV
dynamically simulated an islanded grid with participation of fleet as a power source. It carries out a simulation study to find
323 electric vehicles. The most interesting outcome of this the Short Term Voltage Stability index (SVSI) in the IEEE
study is that the systems ability of accommodating wind RTS-96 24 bus system following a three phase fault. The
integration up to 59% of the total grid generation capacity, system SVSI has improved with the PEV fleet as a power
when PEV took part in primary frequency control. source. It is realized that the SVSI depends on the size of the
On the other hand, the findings of studies of [6-8] confirm aggregated PEV and the connected location to the grid.
that there exists a certain possibility to use solar energy for Hence, it is evident that there may be certain stability issues
charging of PEVs. Reference [7] provides an important fact in power systems due to PEV when they are connected to the
about required dimension of PV panel for charging of a PEV. grid as charging loads. As well as, maintaining of PEV fleet as
It considers a daily driving range of 40 miles and calculates a power source may improve the grid stability.
the energy requirement of a mid-sized sport utility vehicle,
one which is popular in North America. It considers the V. IMPACT ON SUPPLY DEMAND BALANCE
energy requirement for all-electric mode driving and for daily A number of supply and demand studies can be found in the
charging as 15-17 kWh. The derived panel sizes are 20 m2 and literature and these studies are related to different grids around
78 m2 for the best and worst day solar radiation consequently the world. However, a few interesting studies have been
based on the daily average solar radiation year round in summarized below.
Alberta, Canada. A high voltage (HV) system study carried out in the city of
An experiment based on zero energy house(ZEH5) is Perth, Western Australia is presented in [12]. The study
presented in reference [8]. The studied system consists of a 2.5 assumes all vehicles in Perth metropolitan area to be PEV and
kW PV panel, a 10 kWh lead acid battery as system energy carried out analysis to find the impact of charging of them in
storage and a PEV having 5kWh lithium-ion battery. It uses the grid. It has used statistic data like vehicle average distance
actual data of solar energy production and residential energy travels per day (37.5 km) and vehicle home arrival time
distributions. It reveals an important fact that the system peak Reference [17] is a recent study which provides an idea
demand is affected more by the home arrival time pattern of about the energy demand that is raised by a PEV charging
the vehicle compared to charging power involved (2.4 kW, 4 station. It is a Monte Carlo study based on level 2 charging
kW, 14.4 kW). The uncontrolled charging of PEV fleet has (32A max cont. @ 240 Vac, as per Society of Automotive
caused a peak demand which exceeded the forecasted Engineers (SAE) standard J1772). It reveals that a 230 kVA
generation. The study then considers a load curve which transformer is needed to cater for the energy demand of a
represents the load characteristic of the systems annual parking deck consisting of 50 electric vehicles. Although, the
demand peak day. To maintain demand supply balance under installation of a new dedicated transformer at the charging
such circumstances 93% of the vehicle fleet should be charged station may be a primary requirement, a more detailed system
off peak, if no new generation is added. When consider a day study should be carried out to confirm the reliable system
having an average demand, at least 41% of PEV load should operation.
be shifted to off peak to maintain demand supply balance. A comprehensive study carried out in a generic low voltage
Another study on a typical distribution network model, with (LV) distribution network, with low (12.5%) and high (70%)
typical winter and summer domestic UK load profiles is PEV penetration is presented in [18]. It has probabilistically
presented in [13]. It reveals that every 10% increase of PEV modeled the uncertainties including charging location, time of
penetration creates an 18% increase in maximum demand occurrence and duration. Overloading of distribution
when uncontrolled charging takes place. On the other hand, an transformers were found at least once a day in winter. Such
impact study on the electricity grid in Illinois[14] concludes situation has occurred in summer only for high penetration
that the total increment in network load is 0.8% for an upmost level. Some LV cables also found to be vulnerable for
PEV market penetration of 10%, by 2020. It confirms that an overloading. Another, investigation carried out in a regional
addition of 400 MW generation to the grid is sufficient even network near city Kempten[2] found that the number of
PEV tends to charge on peak. overloaded lines increases with increasing PEV penetration.
References [15, 16] are based on PEV charging in On the other hand, a system study on Ontario grid [19]
interconnected systems. They have commenced their studies concluded that their transmission and generation can reliably
to find effects on tie line flow when PEV charging is met about 500,000 hybrid PEV penetration by 2025. Similarly,
controlled. They have realized that the use of frequency a system study in Perth[12], concludes that their existing HV
deviation signal to control charging of PEV suppresses the tie infrastructure is having considerable capacity to face full PEV
line flow. Further, this reduces the requirement of frequent market penetration. However, it should be noted that it is the
power output adjustments of the automatic generation distribution network which brings the most infrastructure
controlled power plants. It is important to note that their challenges.
approach of controlling the charging rate is a better option A simulation study carried out in an IEEE 30 bus system
compared to demand supply balancing through charging or with a typical residential load curve, based on real data is
discharging of the battery, considering the impact on battery presented in [20]. It considers low (20%) and high (80%) PEV
cycle-life. penetrations. The charging scenarios used are under following
It is important to understand that there is a high probability categories, normal (2.4kW, 6Hr), medium (3.6kW, 4Hr), and
of adding PEV load on top of the current network peak quick (11.4 kW, 1Hr). It has found that distribution
demand. This is because most of the vehicle owners plug their transformers are experiencing a significant overloading for
vehicle in once they return home from work, which follows a high PEV penetration and this will considerably reduce their
similar pattern of using their other household appliances. life time, especially when quick charging happens. In addition,
Hence a certain control mechanism is needed to be introduced another investigation [21] reveals that off peak night time
to avoid this coincident occurrence. However, the fast charging will affect the normal operation cycle of oil cooled
responding ability of the power electronic interface of the transformers. This happens due to compelling of them to
charger, between PEV and the grid can also be used to operate above normal temperatures for extended time periods,
mitigate sudden demand peaks. This will avoid the current which will finally end up with degrading of their life.
practice of purchasing expensive power from quick In contrast, authors of [22] discuss the positive as well as
responding generation plants. negative effects of PEV charging on distribution transformer
life. It reveals that while the increase in average operating
VI. IMPACT ON SYSTEM ASSETS temperature leads to insulation failures, a flattered load profile
The ability of catering for increased energy demand caused obtained by controlled charging of PEV will decrease the
by PEV may be restricted by various bottlenecks in the transformer derating. This is due to the reduction in number of
physical network. These include capacity and thermal its expansion and contraction per day, which leads to lower the
limitations of system components. Hence network studies wear- and-tear of bushing. Hence, this will prevent entering
should be launched to find out such limitations in each and oxygen, water and contaminates through the bushings of the
every related network components. That is because finally transformer.
these behaviors are going to determine the system A comprehensive case study carried out in a real
performance as a whole. distribution system is found in reference [23]. The studied
system consists of a densely populated urban area with high
load density as well as a rural area with highly dispersed
loads. The study considered slow charging points connected to A comprehensive study presented in[28], deals with a high
LV distribution system and fast charging stations with several definition system model, which has considered over 100,000
connection points connected to a medium voltage distribution nodes in transmission and distribution systems. It has found
network. Further, it has added a new dimension to system that there exist measurable effects on system voltage even at
studies by incorporating Vehicle to Grid (V2G) mode of low penetration level of 1-2%, when PEV randomly placed in
operation also, in which PEVs feed electricity back to the grid. the network. Another reference[29] carried out a study on a
The study reveals an important fact that for evaluated charging UK generic LV distribution network model, with PEV
and driving patterns in peak hours, the required network penetration levels of 50% to 100%. It revealed that the
reinforcement cost can be increased up to 19%. Further, it has statutory limits has exceeded at the remote end of the network
identified significant reduction of the above cost when smart even when charging occurs at network minimum load. A
charging taken place. Similar results has been obtained by a medium voltage system
Two system studies, one carried out in a reference network impact study on a typical semi urban 15 kV network in
model and another in a distribution network from British reference [30]. It has found that electrically furthest buses
Columbia is reported in [24] and [25], respectively. They experience largest voltage deviations with the penetration
confirm an obvious but an important fact, in related to the grid level increases, as expected. Further, it reveals an important
incorporating PEV charging. It is that the likelihood of a given fact that even the system couldnt tolerate 10% penetration
system asset become overloaded depends on its remaining with uncontrolled charging, but could accommodate 13% of
capacity. Reference [24] further reveals that the components penetration with dual tariff structure.
closer to the consumer point are the most vulnerable for over Further, references [13, 29], considers uncontrolled V2G
loadings. This is because they receive the least advantage from mode of operation of PEV. It has found that this leads to
the PEV load diversity. In contrast, [26] realizes the PEV violation of upper regulatory voltage limits during network
charging as a means of utilizing transmission and distribution minimum loading conditions. Reference [13] reveals that even
assets, on a mobile smart grid environment. though OLTC could tolerate10% penetration, it couldnt bare
However, early deployment of PEV may be clustered 30% penetration.
around certain areas of the network and that will stress the Hence, it is evident that depending on the network and
localized distribution assets. Most important thing is these charging characteristic there exists a definite PEV penetration
impacts are network specific. They highly depend on existing level, which should not be exceeded, to meet the regulatory
network load, PEV penetration level, ratings of the individual voltage requirements. Because, the system may not be able to
network assets, charging location and time, charging strategies maintain the voltage regulation beyond that, even
used as well as seasonal demand patterns. compensated with basic voltage regulating equipments.

VII. IMPACT ON VOLTAGE REGULATION & PHASE BALANCE VIII. HARMONIC IMPACT
This section deals with PEV integration impacts on voltage Harmonics injected to the grid by PEV depend on the power
regulation and phase balance which also determine the quality electronics involved in the PEV battery charger. The studies
of power that consumer received. Reference [27] provides a include in this section provide a clue about the relationship
network analysis carried out on the Ada Country electricity between charger technology and harmonic injections to the
grid with a 18% predicted load increase due to PEV by 2040. grid. It also describes the status of harmonic distortion when
It was found that the voltage drop recorded in some areas goes concurrent charging occurs.
below 96% of the nominal voltage. Hence system Reference [31] is a publication during the early stage of
augmentations are needed to be done. Similarly reference[20], PEV charger development. It has investigated the charging
reveals that there exists a voltage deviation of 12.7%-43.3% characteristics of an available basic battery charger and
from rated voltage with 20% and 80% PEV penetration, for concludes that the charger produces significant amount of odd
different charging rates. harmonics of the fundamental. Subsequently, [1] carried out a
An analysis on typical UK distribution model[13], reveals more comprehensive analysis to find the effects of current
that the system On Load Tap Changers (OLTC) can tolerate harmonics produced by a group of PEV chargers. It has
20% PEV penetration. But, the system voltage falls below the modeled a typical commercially available taper charger
regulations at several locations at 30% PEV penetration. In consisted of a step down transformer and a full wave rectifier
case of system voltage imbalance, it has concluded that except bridge. The Monte Carlo simulation was done using statistical
for high charging current (30A), it remains within limits, distributions of charging start time and battery initial SOC.
regardless of penetration level. A low PEV penetration brings These were derived from poorly available actual data. This
less diversity and high current imbalance. But, it leads to a study places a strong base to future studies for tackling
lower voltage imbalance since the system total load is small unpredictable nature of PEV through probabilistic approach. It
due to low charging current (10A). In case of high PEV concluded that there was a significant amount of harmonics,
penetration, which results lower average current imbalance and the third harmonic current was reaching 50% of the
due to higher diversity. Hence, overall, the system voltage fundamental. It has found that harmonic currents were not
imbalance falls within limits. narrowing as the fundamental component at the end of the
charging cycle. Further, it reveals that harmonic amplitudes
are strong functions of number of PEV chargers connected and connected increases. Overall the voltage distortion is less
charging start time. compared to the current distortion as all recorded THDV fall
Another study [32] has used five charger configurations i.e. below 0.5% and THDI fall in the range 43.7% - 49.1%, except
chargers having and not having current smoothing inductors one 1.65% near a capacitor bank. Both the above studies
and chargers consist of control rectifiers as well as which do suggest an important solution to harmonic injections from
not have them. It concludes that third harmonic current can be PEV charging, i.e. to incorporate network capacitor banks for
eliminated by controlling the firing angle. A subsequent study harmonic filtration.
[33] has used chargers having the same configuration which Reference [37] has found that transformer derating is
described in previous study. The chargers were placed in mainly due to fundamental current and it is heavily depending
various locations in a typical network to obtain a 10% of PEV on charge start time and duration of charging. Another
penetration. It has considered statistical distributions of subsequent study [39] has found a quadratic relationship of
charging start time, SOC, and current harmonics of each reduction in transformer life and THDI of the charger. It
charger related to the battery SOC. The study has found a indicates if the THDI is limited to 25-30%, there will be a
noticeable harmonic current cancellation among the chargers reasonable transformer life. These are very important findings
operating independently. However, the reduction was about that must not be discarded by a power utility.
10% compared to the algebraic sum of individual magnitudes. Finally, it is evident that the impact of harmonics due to
This is an interesting finding, which provide avenues for PEVs on the utility grid could be remarkable, even at low as
further research on PEV introduced harmonics. well as high PEV penetration levels. It is heavily depending on
Reference [34] provides a more realistic picture of harmonic the PEV concentration at certain point of network at a given
distortion. It is based on measured individual current time and the characteristics of the charger employed. But
waveforms of 26 different chargers at a charging station. The some of these impacts can be dealt with improved charger
individual total current harmonic distortion (THDI) is found to technologies and network filtering approaches. More over the
be varied in the range of 10-100%. A statistical simulation has grid will be safer if the chargers which invade the market will
carried out by adding randomly selected waveforms of follow relevant standards.
different chargers. It has found that several chargers produce
less distorted wave than that of an individual wave. When the IX. CONTRIBUTION TO SYSTEM LOSSES
number of chargers is increasing, the THD of the total current The power system losses also becomes a major concern
is decreasing continuously. Reference [35] carried out Monte when consider the potential demand caused by incremental
Carlo simulation and add further extension to the above PEV grid integrations. Reference [23] has found that the
disclosed fact. It concludes that when the number of chargers energy losses could increase up to 40% in off peak charging
increases beyond seven the mean current THD remains for 62% of PEV market penetration. The researchers of
constant at 49%. The reduction of harmonic current was 50% reference [2] concludes that the network power losses
that of the individual summation due to the harmonic current significantly increased with increasing PEV penetration,
magnitude and phase diversity of the individual chargers. A almost independent of the location. However, this is
similar study [36] too concludes that number of chargers contradicted with the basic fact that network losses depends on
operating together reduces the total THD. However, grid the load location.
power utilities should not over enthusiastic from this finding. The researchers of [18, 30] also have found that power
Because, the advantage of such harmonic current cancellation losses increases with the penetration level increases.
is more evident only when the concurrent charging occurs Reference [20] suggests to distribute PEV charging load to a
with the chargers connected to the grid at same or nearby wider time period for obtaining greatly reduced system losses.
locations. Similar to any kind of high demand load, PEV increases the
Reference [37] reveals that commercially available chargers network power flow and results high system losses. Off peak
are having THDI in the range of 7-99%. It has carried out a charging initiatives, proper phase balancing methods and
simulation study using a charger having 48% THDI in a real serving the PEV load with nearby distributed generators are
network. It aimed to find the allowable PEV penetration among the methods of reducing this impact.
without violating total voltage harmonic distortion limits
(THDV <5%). The system could accommodate even more than X. INITIATIVES TO REDUCE GRID IMPACTS
50% PEV penetration when the system capacitor banks are
A number of different initiatives can be found in the
involved, but could bear only 30% penetration without them.
literature to reduce the grid impacts caused by PEV charging.
Similarly, reference[38] provides an important case study
The authors of [40] identified that even a low 10% penetration
performed on a part of a local power supply network. It
cannot be absorbed to the studied grid, if added uncontrolled
connects clusters of single phase PEV chargers (36 nos of
manner. Hence, a valleys filling approach of the system load
20kWh, at 5 hr rate) at different points of distribution feeders.
curve is proposed. Moreover reference [24] reveals that
The harmonics produced by the group of chargers were
control methods which just shift the demand to off peak by a
modeled by using central limit theorem and Monte Carlo
time delay does not work. As it has found, such scenario
method. A relatively high THDV were found at the connection
caused a peak load that is three times higher than that of
points, especially, when they are far away from capacitor
uncontrolled charging. The coordinated charging will reduce
banks. The distortion increases when number of PEV chargers
power losses, voltage deviations, improves power quality and extended up to consumer point are needed. Further, what will
flattens demand curve and reduce peak demand. The authors make such V2G concept successful is not only depending on
of [41] suggest a smart metering system based on a multi- the technical feasibilities, but also PEV user behaviors and
agent-system to achieve above targets. A similar demand intentions too.
management approach based on nonlinear pricing is The selected set of references discussed in this document
introduced by the authors of[42]. worked on different types of grid impacts as categorized in
Reference [43] introduces some solutions to harmonic Fig. 2.
impacts caused by PEV charging. It suggests decoupled 14
No of Publications
harmonic power flow algorithms to find the optimal dispatch 12

of the existing OLTC and capacitor banks in case of THDV < 10

5%. It also proposed to place passive filter banks at the worse 8

buses where THDV>5%. 6


4
Network assets overloading due to PEV integration are
2
purely depending on the network. While one part of the 0
network can accommodates 100% PEV integration, another Grid power Stability Voltage Harmonic Infrastrural
part may not. It depends on remaining capacities of the losses Regulation & Impacts
individual components of power system at a given time. Phase
Balance
Hence, this strongly recommends doing micro level system
analysis to identify system sensitive points at which excessive Fig.2. The number of publications worked on different grid impacts
charging loads may cause adverse impacts. Hence, charging
on such locations can be avoided or any proactive measures It is evident that many of the literature address the concern
can be taken before any adverse network conditions are arisen. over power quality, infrastructure capabilities, and demand
In case of fast charging, the demand peaks raised by PEV supply balance. But, only scant attention has been paid to the
load can be partially met by means of energy storage. power system stability impact due to PEV charging.
Reference [44] introduces the ability of using a flywheel and a The PEV load brings a large degree of temporal and spatial
super capacitor energy storage devices to bridge the gap diversity to the power grid. Though, the load behavior
between the charging station demand and the power grid. forecasting is more complex with EV utilization, it is essential
Another solution is an onsite-on demand generation. to introduce additional socio-economical variables in order to
However, development of smart grid environment will predict possible behavioral patterns. Not only that, the
allow PEV to heal some of the prevailing grid problems even, researchers should continually update with the new battery
by enabling V2G concepts. and charger technologies. As there are numerous R&D
carrying out to invent user preferred and efficient
XI. CONCLUSIONS characteristics in this field, all over the world. Because, these
Depending on the PEV concentration at a certain location at type of updates are crucial for more realistic system studies.
a given time, its level of charging, SOC of battery and the Further, researchers should take effort to incorporate deferent
charger characteristics, there could be a wide variety of charger types i.e. earlier and newer versions in their studies to
impacts to the grid. Voltage imbalances, voltage deviations, reflect real world situations. Finally, the objective of
lines and equipment overloadings, increased grid power conversion of fossil fuelled vehicle to a greener vehicle will
losses, supply demand imbalances, instability problems are not be fully achieved unless renewable energy comes in to
some of the serious impacts introduced by PEV. picture. It is clear that there exist multiple avenues to reach
Some impacts like harmonic impacts and voltage this goal with all pros and cons of PEV characteristics.
imbalances will be eased with added diversity with increased Hence, it is evident that further studies needed to be
EV penetration. But this may not be the case during early undertaken to confirm the maximum environmental and
stage of PEV development. The other impacts like grid losses, economical benefits of PEV while maintaining a reliable grid.
voltage regulation, and thermal limit violations will increases
with increasing penetration. Maintaining relevant policy and
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XIII. BIOGRAPHIES

Champa Dharmakeerthi (SM 10) received her


B.Sc.Eng. (2005) and M.Sc. Eng. (2008) degrees in
Electrical and Electronic Engineering, from the
University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. She has been
working as an electrical engineer in the Distribution
region 2 of the Ceylon electricity Board, since Aug.
2006. She is currently on study leave and working
toward a Ph.D. degree at the School of Information
Technology and Electrical Eng., the University of
Queensland, Australia.

Nadarajah Mithulananthan (SM10) received his


Ph.D. from University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002. His
B.Sc. (Eng.) and M. Eng. Degrees are from the
University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, and the Asian
Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand, in May
1993 and August 1997, respectively. He has worked
as an electrical engineer at the Generation Planning
Branch of the Ceylon electricity Board, and as a
project leader at Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok,
Thailand.
Dr. Mithulan is currently a senior lecture at the University of Queensland
(UQ), Brisbane, Australia. Prior to joining UQ he was an associate Professor
at Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand. His research interests
are power system stability and grid impacts due to DG and EV integration.

Tapan Kumar Saha (M93, SM97) was born in


Bangladesh in 1959 and immigrated to Australia in
1989. He received his B. Sc Engineering (electrical
and electronic) in 1982 from the Bangladesh
University of Engineering & Technology, Dhaka,
Bangladesh, M. Tech (electrical engineering)
in1985 from the Indian Institute of Technology,
New Delhi, India and PhD in 1994 from the
University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.
Tapan is currently Professor of Electrical
Engineering in the School of Information Technology and Electrical
Engineering, University of Queensland, Australia. Previously he has had
visiting appointments for a semester at both the Royal Institute of Technology
(KTH), Stockholm, Sweden and at the University of Newcastle (Australia).
He is a Fellow of the Institution of Engineers, Australia. His research interests
include condition monitoring of electrical plants, power systems and power
quality.

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