Electrical Machine Fundamental-150

Prepared By : Tarek Hussein Ali
Electrical Consult
1/15/2012 Prepared By : TAREK HUSSEIN MOHAMED 1

ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTAL
COURSES

1-Introduction
A machine is a device that uses energy to perform some activity. In common usage,
the meaning is that of a device having parts that perform or assist in performing any
type of work. A simple machine is a device that transforms the direction or
magnitude of a force. The word "machine" is derived from the Latin word machine.
Which in turn derives from the Doric Greek (machana), Ionic Greek
(mechane) "contrivance, machine, engine"[and that from (mechos), "means,
expedient, remedy
But in this course we will study Electrical Machine
The major physical principles behind the operation of an electric Machine are
known as Ampre's law and Faraday's law. The first states that an electrical
conductor sitting in a magnetic field will experience a force if any current flowing
through the conductor has a component at right angles to that field. Reversal of
either the current or the magnetic field will produce force acting in the opposite
direction. The second principle states that if a conductor is moved through a
magnetic field, then any component of motion perpendicular to that field will
generate a potential difference between the ends of the conductor.

Machine Fundamental

2- Machine Fundamental
A-Magnetism
Now, before we discuss basic Machine operation a short review of magnetism might
be helpful to many of us. We all know that a permanent magnet will attract and hold
metal objects when the object is near or in contact with the magnet. The permanent
magnet is able to do this because of its inherent magnetic force which is referred to
as a "magnetic field". In Fig 1, the magnetic fields of two permanent magnets are
represented by "lines of flux". These lines of flux help us to visualize the magnetic field
of any magnet
Even though they only represent an invisible phenomenon. The number of lines of flux
varies from one magnetic field to another. The stronger the magnetic field, the greater
the number of lines of flux which are drawn to represent the magnetic field. The lines
of flux are drawn with a direction indicated since we should visualize these lines and
the magnetic field they represent as having a distinct movement from an N-pole to an
S-pole as shown in Figure 1. Another but similar type of magnetic field is produced
around an electrical conductor when an electric current is passed through the
conductor as shown in Figure 2-a. These lines of flux define the magnetic field and are
in the form of concentric circles around the wire. Some of you may remember the old
"Left Hand Rule" as shown in Figure 2-b. The rule states that if you point the thumb of
your left hand in the direction of the current, your fingers will point in the direction of
the magnetic field.

B-Fleming's rule
There are two rules will be explain the direction of the thrust on a conductor carrying a current in a
magnetic field for electrical motor or shows the direction of induced current when a conductor moves in a
magnetic field for the generator
1-Fleming's left hand rule for motors
Fleming's left hand rule (for electric motors) shows the direction of the thrust on a conductor carrying a
current in a magnetic field.
The left hand is held with the thumb, index finger and middle finger mutually at right angles. As shown in
Fig 3
The First finger represents the direction of the magnetic Field. (north to south)
The Second finger represents the direction of the Current (the direction of the current is the direction of
conventional current; from positive to negative).
The Thumb represents the direction of the Thrust or resultant Motion.
This can also be remembered using "FBI" and moving from thumb to second finger.
The thumb is the force F.
The first finger is the magnetic field B.
The second finger is that of current I.

2-Fleming's Right hand rule for Generator
Fleming's right hand rule (for generators) shows the direction of induced current when a conductor
moves in a magnetic field.
The right hand is held with the thumb, first finger and second finger mutually perpendicular to each other
(at right angles), as shown in the Fig 4.
The Thumb represents the direction of Motion of the conductor.
The First finger represents the direction of the Field. (north to south)
The Second finger represents the direction of the induced or generated Current (the direction of the
induced current will be the direction of conventional current; from positive to negative).
One particular way of remembering the rule is the "FBI" acronym for Force (or otherwise motion), B as the
magnetic field sign and I as the current .

C- Faraday's law
1-Faraday's-Law
In order that current can be obtained from an electric circuit, an electromotive force (voltage) must be
established and maintained between the two ends of the circuit. This electromotive force may be
established in several ways, one of which is by means of an electromagnetic generator. Michael Faraday
discovered that an electric potential can be established between the ends of a conductor in the following
three ways:
By a conductor moving or cutting across a stationary magnetic field. (DC Generator)
By a moving magnetic field cutting across a stationary conductor. (AC Generator)
By a change in the number of magnetic lines enclosed by a stationary loop or coil. (Transformer)
Faraday's law states that, "the EMF (electromotive force) induced between the ends of a loop or coil is
proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux enclosed by the coil; or the EMF induced between the
ends of a bar conductor is proportional to the time rate at which magnetic flux is cut by the conductor."
This law emphasizes rate of change or rate or flux cutting rather than density or extent of magnetic field.
2-Lenz's-Law
Lenz's Law states that, "A change in the magnetic flux passing through or linking with, a loop or coil
causes EMF to be induced in a direction to oppose any change in circuit conditions, this opposition being
produced magnetically when current flows in response to the induced EMF."
Whenever there is a change in current in a magnetizing coil, which works to change the flux in the coil, a
voltage is induced which tends to prevent the change. Thus, if we attempt to diminish the current flowing
in a magnetizing coil, a voltage will be developed that will tend to keep the current unchanged. Likewise, if
we attempt to establish a current in a magnetizing coil, a voltage will be developed that will tend to keep
the current from increasing.

3-Motor Action
Michael Faraday showed that passing a current through a conductor freely suspended in a fixed magnetic
field creates a force which causes the conductor to move through the field.
Conversely, if the conductor rather than the magnet is constrained then the magnet creating the field will
move relative to the conductor.
More generally, the force created by the current, now known as the Lorentz force, acts between the
current conductor and the magnetic field, or the magnet creating the field.
The magnitude of the force acting on the conductor is given by:
F = BLI
Where F is the force on the conductor, L is the length of the conductor, I is the current flowing through the
conductor and B is the Flux Density as shown Fig 5
4-Generator Action
Faraday also showed that the converse is true - moving a conductor through a magnetic field, or moving
the magnetic field relative to the conductor, causes a current to flow in the conductor.
The magnitude of the EMF generated in this way is given by:
E = BLv
Where E is the generator EMF (or back EMF in a motor) and v is the velocity of the conductor through the
field

D- Basic Electric Machine
The majority of electrical machines (motors and generators) sold today are still based on the Lorentz force
and their principle of operation can be demonstrated by the example below in which a single turn coil
carrying electrical current rotates in a magnetic field between the two poles of a magnet.
For multiple turn coils, the effective current is NI (Ampere Turns) where N is the number of turns in the
coil.
If the coil is supplied with a current the machine acts as a motor. If the coil is rotated mechanically,
current is induced in the coil and the machine thus acts as a generator.
In rotating machines the rotating element is called the rotor or armature and the fixed element is called
the stator. As Shown in the (Fig 6)

Working Theory:
Imagine the coil to be rotating in clockwise direction as the coil assumes successive positions in the field,
the flux linked with it changes. Hence, an EMF is induced in it which is
proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages ( e N d/dT)
When the plane of the coil is at right angles to the lines of flux ,then the direction of velocity of both sides
of the coil is parallel to the direction of the field lines so, there is no cutting for the field lines. Then flux
linkages with the coil are min
Hence; there is no induced EMF in the coil. Let us take this no emf on vertical position of the coil as the
starting position. The angle of rotation or time will be measured from this position so we can determine
the first point (angle 0o)

As the coil continues rotating further, the rate of change of flux linkages (and hence induced EMF in it)
increases, till position 2, Fig.7 is reached at 90 degrees. Here the coil plane is horizontal i.e. parallel to
the lines of flux. As seen, the rate of change of flux linkages is maximum.
Hence, maximum EMF is induced in the coil as shown in Fig.15 at 90 degrees and the direction of
current flow is ABXYCD as shown in Fig.7
In the next quarter revolution i.e. from 90o to 180o , the rate of change of flux linkages decreases.
Hence, the induced EMF decreases gradually till in position 4 Fig 15 of the coil, it is reduced to zero value
and the direction of current flow is ABXYCD as shown in Fig. 7
Note:
The direction of this induced EMF can be found by applying Fleming's Right hand rule.
So, the current through the load resistance R flows from X to Y during the first half revolution of the coil.
In the next half revolution i.e. from 180 to 360 degrees, the variations in the magnitude of EMF are
similar to those in the first half revolution but it will be found that the direction of the induced current is
from D to C and B to A. Hence, the path of current flow is along DCYXBA which is just the reverse of the
previous direction of flow. Therefore, we find that the current the resistive load, R which we obtain from
such a simple generator reverses its direction after every half revolution as shown in Fig.7
Such a current undergoing periodic reversals is known as alternating current. It is, obviously, different
from a direct current which continuously flows in one and the same direction which we need to generate
from the DC generator. So, we should make some modification to get unidirectional current in the load
which will be explained soon. It should be noted that alternating current not only reverses its direction, it
does not even keep its magnitude constant while flowing in any one direction. The two half cycles may be
called positive and negative half cycles respectively (Fig.8).

For making the flow of current unidirectional in the external circuit, the slip rings are replaced by split
rings. The split rings are made out of a conducting cylinder which is cut into two halves or segments
insulated from each other by a thin sheet of mica or some other insulating material. As before, the coil
ends are joined to these segments on which rest the carbon or copper brushes as shown fig (Fig 9),
and the wave form will be rectified as shown (Fig 10)

In the practical Dc Machine which has more than two poles and more than one coil the split rings has
not just two halves but has many parts
When a large number of commutator segments or bars are used, the resulting voltage will be more
uniform as shown in Figure (Fig 11)

Electrical Machine

A-Introduction
The Direct Current (D.C.) machine, the synchronous machine, and the induction machine are
the major electromechanical conversion devices in industry. The merits of the squirrel cage
induction machine are: lightness, simplicity, ruggedness, robustness, less initial cost, higher
torque-inertia ratio, capability of much higher speeds, ease of maintenance. The most
important feature which declares it as a tough competitor to D.C. machines in the drives field
is that its cost per KVA is approximately one fifty of its counter-part and it possesses higher
suitability in hostile environment. Unfortunately, induction machines suffer from the drawback
that, in contrast to D.C. machines, their speed cannot be easily and effectively adjusted
continuously over a wide range of operating conditions. On the other hand, the synchronous
machine has the merit of being operated under a wide range of power factors, both lagging
and leading, and are much better suited for bulk power generation. In the induction motor,
alternating current is applied toThe stator and alternating currents are induced in the rotor by
transformer action. In the synchronous machine, direct current is supplied to the rotor and
Alternating Current (A.C.) flows in the stator. On the other hand, a D.C. machine is a machine
that is excited from D.C. sources only or that itself acts as a source of D.C. It is a common
practice in industry to employ A.C. motors whenever they are inherently suitable or can be
given appropriate characteristics by means of power electronics devices. Yet, the increasing
complexity of industrial processes demands greater flexibility from electrical machines in
terms of special characteristics and speed control. It is in this field that the D.C. machines, fed
from the A.C. supply through rectifiers, are making their mark.

B-Classification of Electric Machines
There are several methods of classifying electric machines:
Electric power supply - Electric machines are classified as D.C. and A.C. machines as well as according
to their stator and rotor constructions as shown in Fig12.

4-DC Machine

A-Introduction
DC Machine / Direct current machine, as the name implies, uses a direct current is not direct /
direct-unidirectional. DC motors used on the specific use where required ignition high torque or
acceleration of the equipment for the range of speeds wide. Figure 3 shows a DC motor which has
three main components:
DC motors are available in many sizes, but its use is generally restricted for multiple use of low-
speed, low power consumption to moderate such as machine tools and rolling mills, because often
there are problems with changing direction mechanical electrical current in a larger size. Also, the
motor is limited to only use in areas that are clean and not dangerous because the risk of sparks at
the brush. DC motors are also relatively inexpensive compared to AC motors.
Converters that are used to continuously translate electrical input to mechanical output or vice
versa are called electric machines
The process of translation is known as electromechanical energy conversion. An electric machine
is therefore a link between an electrical system and a mechanical system. In these machines the
conversion is reversible. If the conversion is from mechanical to electrical energy, the machine is
said to act as a generator. If the conversion is from electrical to mechanical energy, the machine is
said to act as a motor. These two effects are shown in Fig.11. In these machines, conversion of
energy from electrical to mechanical forms or vice versa results from the following two
electromagnetic phenomena:
. When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, voltage is induced in the conductor. (Generator
action)
. When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a
mechanical force. (Motor action)

Generator
Mechanical Electrical
Energy Energy
Motor

B- Construction of Dc Machines
D.C. machine consists mainly of two part the stationary part called field and the rotating
part called armature.
The field winding consists of main poles used to produce magnetic flux ,commutating
poles or interlopes in between the main poles to avoid sparking at the commutator but in
the case of small machines sometimes the interlopes are avoided and finally the frame
or yoke which forms the supporting structure of the machine.
The rotor consist of an armature a cylindrical metallic body or core with slots in it to place
armature windings or bars, a commutator and brush gears
The magnetic flux path in a motor or generator is show below and it is called the
magnetic structure of generator or motor in the (fig 14)

B-1 Frame (Field Winding)
Frame is the stationary part of a machine on which the main poles and commutator poles
are bolted and it forms the supporting structure by connecting the frame to the bed plate.
The ring shaped body portion of the frame which makes the magnetic path for the
magnetic fluxes from the main poles and inter-poles

B-2 Armature Winding
This winding rotates in the magnetic field set up at the stationary winding. It is
the load carrying member mounted on the rotor. An armature winding is a
continuous winding; that is, it has no beginning or end. It is composed of a
number of coils in series Depending on the manner in which the coil ends are
connected to the commutator bars, armature windings can be grouped into two:
lap windings and wave windings. Wave winding gives greater voltage and smaller
current ratings while the lap winding supplies greater current and smaller voltage
ratings
B-3 Commutator
The coils on the armature are terminated and interconnected through the
commutator which comprised of a number of bars or commutator segments
which are insulated from each other. The commutator rotates with the rotor and
serves to rectify theinduced voltage and the current in the armature both of
which are A.C.

B-4 Brushes
These are conducting carbon graphite spring loaded to ride on the commutator and act as
interface between the external circuit and the armature winding.

C- Classification of Dc Machines
DC machines can be classified as self-excited, separately excited, permanent
magnet (PM), and brushless. Self-excited machines can be further classified
as shunt, series, and compound. Compound machines can be further
classified as cumulative and differential. Cumulative and differential
machines can be further classified as long shunt and short shunt. As you can
see, there are a variety of electrical configurations for a DC machine. For the
purpose of this article, we will stick with the series- and shunt-wound DC
motor. Please note that the interconnection of the field (stationary winding)
and armature (rotating winding) determine the machine's operating
characteristics.
The field circuit and the armature circuit can be interconnected in various
ways to provide a wide variety of performance characteristics an outstanding
advantage of DC machines. Also, the field poles can be excited by two field
windings, a shunt field winding and a series field winding
So we can be classification the DC Machine as the following
1-Shunt DC Machine
2-Seires DC Machine
3-Self excited DC Machine
4-Compound DC Machine
1-Shunt DC Machine
Shunt DC machine works on direct current (DC). In electrical terminology, a parallel connection
is termed shunt. In a Shunt DC motor, the armature and field windings are connected in
parallel. This type of winding is called shunt winding and the motor Shunt DC motor.
In this type of machine the Field winding has a large number of turns and takes only a small
current (less than 5% of the rated armature current). As shown in the figure

Construction and principle of operation of a Shunt DC motor is same as any other DC motor. It also has
all the fundamental components-rotor (armature), stator (field windings) and commutator - required for
the operation of a motor. In a Shunt DC motor, a rotational torque is produced as a result of the
interaction between the magnetic field produced around the current carrying armature and the
magnetic field established around the stator windings. Current is supplied from the stationary housing
to the rotating armature through commutator & brushes arrangement. As the stator is stationary, power
is applied directly to it.
In Shunt DC motor, the field windings of the stator are connected in parallel with the armature. The
field windings of a Shunt DC motor are made of fine coil of wire with large number of turns. As small
gauge wire cannot handle heavy currents, shunt windings of a shunt motor require large number of
turns to produce strong magnetic field.
As a Shunt DC Motor cannot carry high currents, it is unsuitable for applications requiring a high
starting torque. So, it requires its shaft load to be small to start functioning.
The resistance of the shunt windings in a Shunt DC motor is very high. As a result, when electric voltage
is supplied to the Shunt DC motor, very low amount of current flows through the shunt coil. Armature
draws enough current to produce a strong magnetic field. Due to the interaction of magnetic field
around armature and the field produced around the shunt field, the motor starts to rotate. When the
armature starts turning, it produces a back EMF. The theory behind the generation of back EMF is the
simple electromagnetic principle, which states that when a conductor (armature in this case) rotates in
a magnetic field, electricity is induced in it. The polarity of this generated back EMF is such that it
opposes the armature current. So, as the motor turns, armature current is controlled by the back EMF
and is kept low.

2-Machine Equations and Torque Characteristics:
From the following electrical drawing circuit we can be considered this basic equation
Vt=Ea (If*Rf) (Ia*Ra)

We can neglected the voltage drop on field winding because Rf is very large resistance
Vt=Ea (Ia*Ra)
So the final equation will be considered as:

So when used the shunt Dc machine as motor so
Ea=KQ*r Where KQ constant and r is rotor speed
Ta=KQ*Ia
KQo=KQ r +IaRa
o=( KQ r/KQ) + (IaRa/KQ)
o=( KQ r/KQ) + (Ta Ra/KQ)
o = r + (Ra /KQ) Ta
Where o (no load Speed) And (Ra /KQ) slip

1-Series DC Machine
1-Parts and Principle of operation:
In this type of machine the field winding has fewer turns but carries a large
current and it is connected in series with the armature winding, hence the
name series winding as in shown

The series motor provides high starting torque and is able to move very large shaft loads when it is first energized
shows the wiring diagram of a series motor
We can see that the field winding in this motor is wired in series with the armature winding. This is the attribute that
gives the series motor its name.
Since the series field winding is connected in series with the armature, it will carry the same amount of current that
passes through the armature. For this reason the field is made from heavy-gauge
The wire that is large enough to carry the load. Since the wire gauge is so large, the winding will have only a few turns
of wire. In some larger DC motors, the field winding is made from copper bar stock
Rather than the conventional round wire used for power distribution. The square or rectangular shape of the copper
bar stock makes it fit more easily around the field pole pieces. It can also radiate
More easily the heat that has built up in the winding due to the large amount of current was being carried.
The amount of current that passes through the winding determines the amount of torque the motor shaft can produce.
Since the series field is made of large conductors, it can carry large amounts of current and produce large torques.
For example, the starter motor that is used to start an automobile's engine is a series motor and it may draw up to 500
A when it is turning the engine's crankshaft on a cold morning. Series motors used to power hoists or cranes may draw
currents of thousands of amperes during operation.
The series motor can safely handle large currents since the motor does not operate for an extended period. In most
applications the motor will operate for only a few seconds while this large current is present. Think about how long the
starter motor on the automobile must operate to get the engine to start. This period is similar to that of industrial series
Motor
Operation of the series motor is easy to understand you can see that the field winding is connected in series with the
armature winding. This means that power will be applied to one end of the series field winding and to one end of the
armature winding (connected at the brush).
When voltage is applied, current begins to flow from negative power supply terminals through the series winding and
armature winding. The armature is not rotating when voltage is first applied, and the only resistance in this circuit will
be provided by the large conductors used in the armature and field windings. Since these conductors are so large, they
will have a small amount of resistance.
This causes the motor to draw a large amount of current from the power supply. When the large current begins to flow through the field
and armature windings, it causes a strong magnetic field to be built.
Since the current is so large, it will cause the coils to
1/15/2012 reach saturation,
Prepared which willMOHAMED
By : TAREK HUSSEIN produce the strongest magnetic field possible 46
2-Machine Equations and Torque Characteristics:
From the following drawing we can be considered this basic equation from
Vt = Ea (IL*(Rf+Ra))
Where IL=Ia=If

3- Separately excited Machine
1-Parts and Principle of operation:
In this type of machine the various connections of the field circuit and armature circuit are
shown in the fig the separately excited DC machine the field winding is excited from a
separate source in the self-excited DC machine

4 - Compound Machine
In this type of machine the series machine and shunt are connected together by two different
ways so If the both Connection Shunt and series used so the machine now is called
compound machine
There are two types of compound machines
short-shunt machine (If the shunt winding is connected across the armature, it is known as
short-shunt machine) as shown in the fig

2- long-shunt machine ( if the shunt winding is connected across the series
connection of armature and series winding, and the machine is known as
long-shunt machine) as shown in

Electrical DC Machines C/S

5- AC Machine

A- Introduction
AC Machines are an electric motor driven by an alternating current (AC) ,It
commonly consists of two basic parts, an outside stationary stator having coils
supplied with alternating current to produce a rotating magnetic field, and an
inside rotor attached to the output shaft that is given a torque by the rotating
field.
The Ac Machines can be classification to two main parts
1-Rotating machine
2-Non Rotating machine
The rotating machines like induction machine and synchronous machine and
the Non Rotating machine like the transformer
Rotating Machines
A rotating Machines converts electric energy into mechanical energy or
mechanical energy to electrical.
Non Rotating machine
A transformer is a static device that converts alternating current from one
voltage level to another level (higher or lower), or to the same level, without
changing the frequency.

AC
MACHINES
Rotating Non-
Rotating
Machines Machines
Induction Synchrono
Transformer
Machine us machine

B-Induction Machine
1-Introduction:
The Induction machine is a three phase AC machine or Single Phase Machines and is the most widely
used machine. Its characteristic features are-
Simple and rugged construction, Low cost and minimum maintenance, High reliability and sufficiently high
efficiency, Needs no extra starting motor and need not be synchronized
An induction or asynchronous machine is a type of AC machine where power is supplied to the rotor by
means of electromagnetic induction. These motors are widely used in industrial drives, particularly
polyphase induction motors, because they are robust and have no brushes. Their speed can be controlled
with a variable frequency drive
AC induction machines are the most common motors used in industrial motion control systems, as well as
in main powered home appliances. Simple and rugged design, low-cost, low maintenance and direct
connection to an AC power source are the main advantages of AC induction motors.
Various types of AC induction motors are available in the market. Different motors are suitable for
different applications. Although AC induction motors are easier to design than DC motors, the speed and
the torque control in various types of AC of these motors.
This application note discusses the basics of an AC induction motor; the different types, their
characteristics, the selection criteria for different applications and basic control techniques.
An Induction motor has basically two parts Stator and Rotor
The Stator is made up of a number of stampings with slots to carry three phase windings. It is wound for a
definite number of poles. The windings are geometrically spaced 120 degrees apart. Two types of rotors
are used in Induction motors - Squirrel-cage rotor and Wound rotor

2-BASIC CONSTRUCTION:
Like most motors, an AC induction motor has a fixed outer portion, called the stator
and a rotor that spins inside with a carefully engineered air gap between the two.
Virtually all electrical motors use magnetic field rotation to spin their rotors. A three-
phase AC induction motor is the only type where the rotating magnetic field is created
naturally in the stator because of the nature of the supply. DC motors depend either on
mechanical or electronic commutation to create rotating magnetic fields. A single-
phase AC induction motor depends on extra electrical components to produce this
rotating magnetic field.
Two sets of electromagnets are formed inside any motor.
In an AC induction motor, one set of electromagnets is formed in the stator because of
the AC supply connected to the stator windings. The alternating nature of the supply
voltage induces an Electromagnetic Force (EMF) in the rotor (just like the voltage is
induced in the transformer secondary) as per Lenzs law, thus generating another set
of electromagnets; hence the name induction motor.
Interaction between the magnetic field of these electromagnets generates twisting
force, or torque. As a result, the motor rotates in the direction of the resultant torque.

Stator
The stator is made up of several thin laminations of aluminum or cast iron. They are
punched and clamped together to form a hollow cylinder (stator core) with slots as
shown in . Coils of insulated wires are inserted into these slots. Each grouping of
coils, together with the core it surrounds, forms an electromagnet
(a pair of poles) on the application of AC supply. The number of poles of an AC
induction motor depends on the internal connection of the stator windings.
The stator windings are connected directly to the power source. Internally they are
connected in such a way, that on applying AC supply, a rotating magnetic field is
created.

Rotor
The rotor is made up of several thin steel laminations with evenly spaced bars, which are made up
of aluminum or copper, along the periphery. In the most popular type of rotor (squirrel cage rotor),
these bars are connected at ends mechanically and electrically by the use of rings. Almost 90% of
induction motors have squirrel cage rotors. This is because the squirrel cage rotor has a simple
and rugged construction. The rotor consists of a cylindrical laminated core with axially placed
parallel slots for carrying the conductors. Each slot carries a copper, aluminum, or alloy bar. These
rotor bars are permanently short-circuited at both ends by means of the end rings
This total assembly resembles the look of a squirrel cage, which gives the rotor its name. The
rotor slots are not exactly parallel to the shaft. Instead, they are given a skew for two main
reasons.
The first reason is to make the motor run quietly by reducing magnetic hum and to decrease slot
harmonics.
The second reason is to help reduce the locking tendency of the rotor. The rotor teeth tend to
remain locked under the stator teeth due to direct magnetic attraction between the two. This
happens when the numbers of stator teeth are equal to the number of rotor teeth. The rotor is
mounted on the shaft using bearings on each end; one end of the shaft is normally kept longer
than the other for driving the load. Some motors may have an accessory shaft on the non-driving
end for mounting speed or position sensing devices. Between the stator and the rotor, there exists
an air gap, through which due to induction, the energy is transferred from the stator to the rotor.
The generated torque forces the rotor and then the load to rotate. Regardless of the type of rotor
used, the principle employed for rotation remains the same.

3-OPERATING PRINCIPLE:
Operation and comparison to synchronous motors
In a synchronous AC motor, the rotating magnetic field of the stator imposes a torque on
the magnetic field of the rotor, causing it to rotate steadily. It is called synchronous
because at steady state, the speed of the rotor matches the speed of the rotating
magnetic field in the stator. By contrast, an induction motor has a current induced in the
rotor; to do this, stator windings are arranged so that when energized with a polyphone
supply they create a rotating magnetic field that induces current in the rotor conductors.
These currents interact with the rotating magnetic field, causing rotational motion of the
rotor.
For these currents to be induced, the speed of the physical rotor must be lower than that
of the stator's rotating magnetic field (Ns), or the magnetic field would not be moving
relative to the rotor conductors and no currents would be induced. If this happens while
the motor is operating, the rotor slightly slows down, and consequently a current is
induced again. The ratio between the speed of the magnetic field as seen by the rotor (slip
speed) and the speed of the stator's rotating field is unit less and it is called slip. For this
reason, induction motors are sometimes referred to as asynchronous motors.
An induction motor can be used as induction generator, or it can be unrolled to form the
linear induction motor which can directly generate linear motion.

Equation No.1
Ns = 120 F / P
Where
Ns = synchronous speed of the stator magnetic Field R.P.M
F = Frequency HZ of the power Supply
P = No of Poles for stator
ie s = 2 Ns /60 rad/sec

EQUATION No 2:
% Slip (S) = Ns - Nr / Ns X 100

Where
Ns = the synchronous speed of the stator magnetic Field
in R.P.M
Nr = the Rotor Speed in R.P.M
r= Speed in Rad/sec = 2Nr/60

4-Equivalent Circuit of an Induction motor:
The exact equivalent circuit model of an Induction motor is-

where
R1 is the Stator resistance per phase
X1 is the stator reactance per phase
R2' is the equivalent rotor resistance referred to stator per
phase
X2' is the equivalent rotor reactance referred to stator per phase
Rmis the resistance representing core losses
Xm is the magnetizing reactance per phase
V1 is the per phase supply voltage to the stator
S is the slip of the motor

5- Power flow in an Induction motor :
From the Equivalent circuit for induction motor, we see that the total power
input to the rotor Pg is the power flow diagram is-

POWER TRIANGLE
Where the input power is electric power for motor
Pin = 3 * Vph * I ph * Cos
Cos = Power Factor (p.f) Current
Pm = T (Torque Load) * m(Motor Speed) S(Total Power)
S= P + JQ
P = S * Cos S Q
Q = S * Sin
S( = P + Q)
=Tan (Q/P)
P

6- Torque considerations in an Induction motor:
For obtaining the expression for torque we consider the Thevenins equivalent of the actual circuit-
From the circuit we see that Zth=Rth+jXth is the Thevenins equivalent impedance.
Now Zth is the parallel combination of the shunt branch and Z1 i.e., the stator impedance. So from the circuit we
have-

To obtain the starting torque we put s=1 in the above equation

To obtain the maximum torque produced, the
condition is dT/ds=0.
Applying this condition we get sTmaxthat is the slip
at maximum torque Tmax.

We then put in this value of torque in the
expression for torque to get the value of
maximum torque.

We now get the relationship between the starting torque Tstart,
maximum torque Tmax and T i.e., the torque developed at a slip say s.

7- Factors affecting the speed-torque characteristics of
an Induction motor:
(a) Applied voltage: We know that T V2. Thus not only the
stationary torque but also the torque under running conditions
changes with change in supply voltage.
(b) Rotor resistance : The maximum torque produced does not

depend on R2. However, with increase in R2, the starting torque
increases.
The slip at which Tmax is reached increases too which means that
Tmax is obtained at lower motor speed
(c) Supply frequency: The major effect of change in supply
frequency is on motor speed. The starting torque is reduced with
increase in frequency.

7-1 Speed control by changing applied voltage

7.2 Rotor resistance control

7.3 Supply Frequency:
Speed-torque curves: V/f Curve

8- MOTOR STANDARDS
Worldwide, various standards exist which specify various operating and constructional
parameters of a motor. The two most widely used parameters are the National Electrical
Manufacturers Association (NEMA) and the International Electro technical Commission
(IEC).
NEMA
NEMA sets standards for a wide range of electrical products, including motors. NEMA is
primarily associated with motors used in North America. The standards developed
represent the general industry practices and are supported by manufacturers of
electrical equipment.
These standards can be found in the NEMA Standard Publication No. MG 1. Some large
AC motors may not fall under NEMA standards. They are built to meet the requirements
of a specific application. They are referred to as above NEMA motors.
IEC
IEC is a European-based organization that publishes and promotes worldwide, the
mechanical and electrical standards for motors, among other things. In simple terms, it
can be said that the IEC is the international counterpart of the NEMA. The IEC standards
are associated with motors used in many countries. These standards can be found in the
IEC 34-1-16. The motors which meet or exceed these standards are referred to as IEC
motors.
The NEMA standards mainly specify four design types for AC induction motors Design A,
B, C and D. Their typical torque-speed curves are shown in Fig 21.

Design A has normal starting torque (typically 150-170% of rated) and relatively high
starting current. The breakdown torque is the highest of all the NEMA types. It can handle
heavy overloads for a short duration. The slip is <= 5%. A typical application is the
powering of injection molding machines.
Design B is the most common type of AC induction motor sold. It has a normal starting
torque, similar to Design A, but offers low starting current. The locked rotor torque is good
enough to start many loads encountered in the industrial applications. The slip is <= 5%.
The motor efficiency and full-load PF are comparatively high, contributing to the popularity
of the design. The typical applications include pumps, fans and machine tools.
Design C has high starting torque (greater than the previous two designs, say 200%),
useful for driving heavy breakaway loads like conveyors, crushers, stirring machines,
agitators, reciprocating pumps, compressors, etc. These motors are intended for
operation near full speed without great overloads. The starting current is low. The slip is
<= 5%.
Design D has high starting torque (higher than all the NEMA motor types). The starting
current and full-load speed are low. The high slip values (5-13%) make this motor suitable
for applications with changing loads and subsequent sharp changes in the motor speed,
such as in machinery with energy storage flywheels, punch presses, shears, elevators,
extractors, winches, hoists, oil-well pumping, wire-drawing machines, etc. The speed
regulation is poor, making the design suitable only for punch presses, cranes, elevators
and oil well pumps. This motor type is usually considered a special order item.

Recently, NEMA has added one more design Design E in its standard for the
induction motor.
Design E is similar to Design B, but has a higher efficiency, high starting currents and
lower full-load running currents. The torque characteristics of Design E are similar to IEC
metric motors of similar power parameters. The IEC Torque-Speed Design Ratings
practically mirror those of NEMA. The IEC Design N motors are similar to NEMA Design B
motors, the most common motors for industrial applications. The IEC Design H motors
are nearly identical
to NEMA Design C motors.
There is no specific IEC equivalent to the NEMA Design D motor.
The IEC Duty Cycle Ratings are different from those of NEMAs. Where NEMA usually
specifies continuous, intermittent or special duty (typically expressed in minutes), the
IEC uses nine different duty cycle designations (IEC 34 -1).
The standards, shown in the Table, apart from specifying motor operating parameters
and duty cycles, also specify temperature rise (insulation class), frame size (physical
dimension of the motor), enclosure type, service factor and so on.

9- LOAD CHARACTERISTIC
In real applications, various kinds of loads exist with different torque-speed curves. For example,
Constant Torque, Variable Speed Load (screw compressors, conveyors, feeders), Variable Torque,
Variable Speed Load (fan, pump), Constant Power Load (traction drives), Constant Power,
Constant Torque Load (coiler drive) and High Starting/Breakaway Torque followed by Constant
Torque Load (extruders, screw pumps). The motor load system is said to be stable when the
developed motor torque is equal to the load torque requirement. The motor will operate in a
steady state at a fixed speed. The response of the motor to any disturbance gives us an idea
about the stability of the motor load system. This concept helps us in quickly evaluating the
selection of a motor for driving a particular load.
In most drives, the electrical time constant of the motor is negligible as compared to its
mechanical time constant.
Therefore, during transient operation, the motor can be assumed to be in an electrical
equilibrium, implying that the steady state torque-speed curve is also applicable to the transient
operation.
As an example, Figure shows torque-speed curves of the motor with two different loads. The
system can be termed as stable, when the operation will be restored after a small departure from
it, due to a disturbance in the motor or load.
For example, disturbance causes a reduction of m in speed. In the first case, at a new speed,
the motor torque (T) is greater than the load torque (Tl). Consequently, the motor will accelerate
and the operation will be restored to X. Similarly, an increase of m in the speed, caused by a
disturbance, will make the load torque (Tl) greater than the motor torque (T), resulting in a
deceleration
and restoration of the point of operation to X. Hence, at point X, the system is stable.
In the second case, a decrease in the speed causes the load torque (Tl) to become greater than the
motor torque (T), the drive decelerates and the operating point moves away from Y. Similarly, an
increase in the speed will make the motor torque (T) greater than the load torque (Tl), which will
move the operating point further away from Y. Thus, at point Y, the system is unstable.
This shows that, while in the first case, the motor selection for driving the given load is the right
one; in the second case, the selected motor is not the right choice and requires changing for driving
the given load.
The typical existing loads with their torque-speed curves are described in the following sections.

9-1 Constant Torque, Variable Speed Loads
The torque required by this type of load is constant regardless of the speed. In contrast, the power
is linearly proportional to the speed. Equipment, such as screw compressors, conveyors and
feeders, has this type of characteristic.

9-2 CONSTANT POWER CONSTANT TORQUE LOADS
This is common in the paper industry. In this type of load, as speed increases, the torque is
constant with the power linearly increasing. When the torque starts to decrease, the power then
remains constant.

9-3 CONSTANT POWER LOADS
This type of load is rare but is sometimes found in the industry. The power remains constant while
the torque varies. The torque is inversely proportional to the speed, which theoretically means
infinite torque at zero speed and zero torque at infinite speed. In practice, there is always a finite
value to the breakaway torque required. This type of load is characteristic of the traction drives,
which require high torque at low speeds for the initial acceleration and then a much reduced
torque when at running speed.

C-Synchronous Machine
1-Introduction:
A synchronous machine is an ac rotating machine whose speed under steady state condition is
proportional to the frequency of the current in its armature. The magnetic field created by the
armature currents rotates at the same speed as that created by the field current on the rotor,
which is rotating at the synchronous speed, and a steady torque results.
Synchronous machines are commonly used as generators especially for large power systems,
such as turbine generators and hydroelectric generators in the grid power supply.
Because the rotor speed is proportional to the frequency of excitation, synchronous motors can
be used in situations where constant speed drive is required. Since the reactive power generated
by a synchronous machine can be adjusted by controlling the magnitude of the rotor field
current, unloaded synchronous machines are also often installed in power systems solely for
power factor correction or for control of reactive kVA flow. Such machines, known as synchronous
condensers, may be more economical in the large sizes than static capacitors.
With power electronic variable voltage variable frequency (VVVF) power supplies, synchronous
motors, especially those with permanent magnet rotors, are widely used for variable speed
drives. If the stator excitation of a permanent magnet motor is controlled by its rotor position
such that the stator field is always 90o (electrical) ahead of the rotor, the motor performance can
be very close to the conventional brushed dc motors, which is very much favored for variable
speed drives. The rotor position can be either detected by using rotor position sensors or
deduced from the induced emf in the stator windings. Since this type of motors does not need
brushes, they are known as brushless dc motors

2-Synchronous Machine Structures
A synchronous machine is an induction machine where the rotational speed of the rotor and the rotational speed
of the stator field are equal. The machine consists of three main parts:
_ Stator, which carries the three phase winding,
_ Rotor, with one DC winding or permanent magnets, and
_ Slip rings or excitation machine (exciter) (in case of electrical excitation)
Normally synchronous machines are built as internal field machines. Machines with poles 2p = 2 have a round
rotor (cylindrical/turbo-rotor) because of high centrifugal forces, while those with 2p = 4; 6; 8 and more poles
mostly have a salient-pole rotor (Fig.22).
The stator carries the three phase winding and must be made of laminated iron sheets in order to reduce eddy
currents. Since the flux in the rotor is constant with time at a particular place on the rotor, the rotor can be built
from massive steel.
The excitation winding is generally supplied with DC through the slip rings. In order to reduce oscillations in case
of a network fault, the machine has a damper winding.
Besides that, this winding has a weakening effect on reverse rotating fields during the operation in an
unsymmetrical network.
When a synchronous machine runs asynchronously, the damper winding acts similar to the cage rotor in an
induction machine
This is the reason for using damper winding as a starting winding for an asynchronous start-up in the motor
mode.
The machine is accelerated nearly to the synchronous rotational speed and run in synchronism by reluctance
(salient pole machine) or by switching on supply to the excitation winding in synchronism.
The damper winding consists of bars located in the pole shoes through which are short-circuited to a cage by
rings. In many cases the massive poles of the salient
Pole machine are also used as a damper winding. In that case the pole shoes are conductively connected to
each other by rings.

3-Types of Synchronous Machine
According to the arrangement of the field and armature windings, synchronous
machines may be classified as rotating-armature type or rotating-field type.
3.1. Rotating-Armature Type
The armature winding is on the rotor and the field system is on the stator. The
generated current is brought out to the load via three (or four) slip-rings. Insulation
problems, and the difficulty involved in transmitting large currents via the brushes, limit
the maximum power output and the generated electromagnetic field (emf). This type is
only used in small units, and its main application is as the main exciter in large
alternators with brushless excitation systems.
3.2. Rotating-Field Type
The armature winding is on the stator and the field system is on the rotor. Field current
is supplied from the exciter via two slip-rings, while the armature current is directly
supplied to the load. This type is employed universally since very high power can be
delivered. Unless otherwise stated, the subsequent discussion refers specifically to
rotating-field type synchronous machines. According to the shape of the field,
synchronous machines may be classified as cylindrical-rotor (non-salient pole)
machines (Figure 24) and salient-pole machines (Figure 23).

Salient-pole machines

Non Salient-pole machines

The cylindrical-rotor construction is used in generators that operate
at high speeds, such as steam-turbine generators (usually two-pole
machines). This type of machine usually has a small diameter-to-
length ratio, in order to avoid excessive mechanical stress on the
rotor due to the large centrifugal forces.
The salient-pole construction is used in low-speed alternating
current (AC) generators (such as hydro-turbine generators), and also
in synchronous motors. This type of machine usually has a large
number of poles for low-speed operation, and a large diameter-to-
length ratio. The field coils are wound on the bodies of projecting
poles. A damper winding (which is a partial squirrel-cage winding) is
usually fitted in slots at the pole surface for synchronous motor
starting and for improving the stability of the machine

4-Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Machine:
The following circuit diagrams illustrate the per phase equivalent circuits of a round rotor synchronous
machine in the motor and generator mode respectively.
Steady-state equivalent circuit of a synchronous machine
X = leakage reactance,
Xa = armature reaction reactance
Xs = Xa + X = synchronous reactance
Ra = armature resistance
Zs = synchronous impedance
Va= terminal voltages
Ea = magnetizing voltage.

1- For Motor:
Va=Ea + Ia (Ra+JXs)
2- for Generator Operation
Ea=Va + Ia (Ra+JXs)

A) Lagging power factor
Ea
Va

Ia

B) Leading power factor
Ea
Ia

Va

D Power Transformer
1-Introduction:
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled conductorsthe transformer's coils. A varying current in
the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core
and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying
magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF), or "voltage", in the
secondary winding. This effect is called inductive coupling.
If a load is connected to the secondary, current will flow in the secondary winding
and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the
transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the
secondary winding (Vs) is in proportion to the primary voltage (Vp), and is given by
the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary (Ns) to the number of turns in the
primary (Np) as follows:
V /V =N /N =I /I
s p s p p s
By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus enables an alternating
current (AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making Ns greater than Np, or "stepped down" by
making Ns less than Np.

In the vast majority of transformers, the windings are coils wound around a ferromagnetic core,
air-core transformers being a notable exception , Transformers range in size from a thumbnail-
sized coupling transformer hidden inside a stage microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of
tons used to interconnect portions of power grids. All operate on the same basic principles,
although the range of designs is wide. While new technologies have eliminated the need for
transformers in some electronic circuits, transformers are still found in nearly all electronic
devices designed for household ("mains") voltage. Transformers are essential for high-voltage
electric power transmission, which makes long-distance transmission economically practical.
A transformer is an extended version of an inductor. The flux that is created inside the inductor is
used here to induce voltages at other coil, which is termed as secondary coil. If the rate of change
of flux can induce voltage across the primary coil, from which it is created, then it is also possible
to induce voltage across secondary coil, provided that we can pull the flux to flow through the
other coil. The rate of change of flux will induce voltage as many turn we use. If the turn is double
the turn in primary then the voltage will also be double. If we increase the number of secondary
coils, then voltage will be induced in all the secondary coils according to the number of turns
present in each secondary coil.
We can increase or decrease the secondary voltage level according to our requirement. If the
secondary voltage is increased then it is called step up transformer and for the decreasing case it
is called step down transformer. Each secondary voltage will act as a separate voltage source.
Here the other advantage we get from a transformer is that each secondary voltage source is an
isolated voltage source. There is no electrical connection between the primary and the secondary.
Whatever voltage level is that, the secondary is totally an isolated part.

A transformer is an extended version of an inductor. The flux that is created inside the
inductor is used here to induce voltages at other coil, which is termed as secondary
coil. If the rate of change of flux can induce voltage across the primary coil, from which
it is created, then it is also possible to induce voltage across secondary coil, provided
that we can pull the flux to flow through the other coil. The rate of change of flux will
induce voltage as many turn we use. If the turn is double the turn in primary then the
voltage will also be double. If we increase the number of secondary coils, then voltage
will be induced in all the secondary coils according to the number of turns present in
each secondary coil.
We can increase or decrease the secondary voltage level according to our requirement.
If the secondary voltage is increased then it is called step up transformer and for the
decreasing case it is called step down transformer. Each secondary voltage will act as
a separate voltage source. Here the other advantage we get from a transformer is that
each secondary voltage source is an isolated voltage source. There is no electrical
connection between the primary and the secondary. Whatever voltage level is that, the
secondary is totally an isolated part.

Electrical Machine Fundamental-150

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magnetic field sign and I as the current .

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Vt=Ea (If*Rf) (Ia*Ra)

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So the final equation will be considered as:

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% Slip (S) = Ns - Nr / Ns X 100

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(b) Rotor resistance : The maximum torque produced does not

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Vt=Ea (IfRf) (IaRa)