Chapter 12 - Heat Exchangers

10/1/2016 Chapter12.
HeatExchangersFundamentalsofHeatandMassTransfer
Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer
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Chapter 11. Boiling and Condensation Chapter 13. Radiation

Chapter 12
Heat Exchangers
12.1 Introduction
Heatexchangerisoneofthemostcommonlyusedprocessequipmentsinindustryandresearch.Functionofaheatexchangeristo
transferenergythistransferofenergymayoccurtoasinglefluid(asinthecaseofaboilerwhereheatistransferredtowater)or
betweentwofluidsthatareatdifferenttemperatures(asinthecaseofanautomobileradiatorwhereheatistransferredfromhotwater
toair).Insomecases,therearemorethantwostreamsoffluidexchangingheatinaheatexchanger.Heatexchangersofseveraldesigns
inavarietyofsizesvaryingfromminiaturetohuge(withheattransferareasoftheorderof5000to10,000sq.metres)havebeen
developedovertheyears.
Sometypicalexamplesofheatexchangerapplicationsare:
1.Thermalpowerplants(boilers,superheaters,steamcondensers,etc.)
2.Refrigerationandairconditioning(evaporators,condensers,coolers)
3.Automobileindustry(radiators,allenginecoolingandfuelcoolingarrangements)
4.Chemicalprocessindustry(varietyofheatexchangersbetweendifferenttypesoffluids,incumbustorsandreactors)
5.Cryogenicindustry(condenserreboilersusedindistillationcolumns,evaporatorstoproducegasfromcryogenicliquids,etc.)
6.Research(regeneratorsusedinStirlingengines,specialceramicheatexchangersusedinultralowtemperaturedevices,
superconductingmagnetsystems,etc.).
12.2 Types of Heat Exchangers

Heatexchangersmaybeclassifiedinseveralways:
1.accordingtoheatexchangeprocess
2.accordingtorelativedirectionofflowofhotandcoldfluids
3.accordingtoconstructionalfeatures,compactness,etc.
4.accordingtothestateofthefluidintheheatexchanger.
(i)ClassificationaccordingtoheatexchangeprocessHeatexchangersmaybeofdirectcontacttypeorofindirectcontact
type.Indirectcontacttype,twoimmisciblefluidscomeindirectcontactwitheachotherandexchangeheat,e.g.airandwater
exchangingheatinacoolingtower.Indirectcontacttypecanbefurtherclassifiedasrecuperatorsandregenerators.Recuperators
aremostcommonlyusedhere,thehotandcoldfluidsareseparatedfromeachotherbyasolidwallandheatistransferredfromone
fluidtotheotheracrossthiswall.Inregenerators,alsocalledperiodicflowheatexchangers,hotandcoldstreamsalternatelyflow
throughasolidmatrix(madeofsolidparticlesorwiremeshscreens)duringthehotblow,thematrixstorestheheatgivenupbythe
hotstreamandduringcoldblow,thestoredheatisgivenupbythesolidmatrixtothecoldstream.Sometimes,thesolidmatrixis
madetorotateacrossfluidpassagesarrangedsidebyside,sothattheheatexchangeprocessiscontinuous.
(ii)ClassificationaccordingtorelativedirectionofhotandcoldfluidsIfthehotandcoldfluidsflowparalleltoeachother,
itisknownasparallelflowheatexchangerifthetwofluidsflowoppositetoeachother,itisofcounterflowtype.Ifthefluidsflow
perpendiculartoeachother,then,wehavecrossflowtypeofheatexchanger.Thesethreetypesofheatexchangersareshown
schematicallyinFig.12.1.
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10/1/2016 Chapter12.HeatExchangersFundamentalsofHeatandMassTransfer
FIGURE12.1(a)Parallelflowheatexchanger
FIGURE12.1(b)Counterflowflowheatexchanger
Further,whenafluidisconstrainedtoflowwithinachannel(suchasatube),thefluidissaidtobeunmixedotherwise,itismixed.
InFig.12.1(c),hotfluidisunmixedsinceitflowsconstrainedwithinthetubes,whereasthecoldfluidisperfectlymixedasitflows
throughtheheatexchanger.InFig.12.1(d),boththecoldandhotfluidsareconstrainedtoflowwithinthetubesandtherefore,both
thefluidsareunmixed.
(iii)ClassificationaccordingtoconstructionalfeaturesBasically,therearethreetypes:(a)concentrictubestype(b)shelland
tubetype,and(c)compactheatexchangers.
Inconcentrictubestypeofheatexchanger,onetubeislocatedinsideanotheronefluidflowsthroughtheinsidetubeandtheother
fluidflowsintheannularspacebetweenthetubes.FluidsmayflowparalleltoeachotherasshowninFig.12.1(a),ortheymayflowin
oppositedirections,asshowninFig.12.1(b).
Shellandtubetypeofheatexchangerisverypopularinindustrybecauseofitsreliabilityandhighheattransfereffectiveness.Here,
oneofthefluidsflowswithinabundleoftubesplacedwithinashell.And,theotherfluidflowsthroughtheshelloverthesurfacesof
thetubes.Suitablebafflesareprovidedwithintheshelltomaketheshellfluidchangedirectionsandprovidegoodturbulence,sothat
heattransfercoefficientisincreased.
Fig.12.2showsaschematicdiagramofatypicalshellandtubeheatexchanger.
Fig.12.2isanexampleoftwotubepassandoneshellpassheatexchanger,i.e.flowpassesthroughthetubestwiceinopposite
directions,andshellfluidpassesthroughtheshellonce.Otherflowarrangementsarealsoused,suchas:oneshellpass+two,fouror
sixtubepassestwoshellpassesandfour,eight,twelve,etc.tubepasses.
Compactheatexchangersarespecialpurposeheatexchangerswhichprovideveryhighsurfaceareapercubicmetreofvolume,known
2 3
asareadensity.Accordingtousuallyacceptednorms,acompactheatexchangerhasanareadensityof700m /m ormore.These
aregenerallyusedforgases,sinceusuallygassideheattransfercoefficientissmallandtherefore,itisneededtoprovidelargerareas.
Compactheatexchangersareofplatefintypeortubefintype.Atypicalexampleofaplatefintypeofcompactheatexchangeris
showninFig.12.3.
FIGURE12.1(c)Crossflowheatexchanger,coldfluidmixed,hotfluidunmixed
FIGURE12.1(d)Crossflowheatexchanger,bothcoldandhotfluidsunmixed
FIGURE12.2Diagramofatypical(fixedtubesheet)shellandtubeheatexchanger
FIGURE12.3Sectionofaplatefinheatexchanger
(iv)ClassificationaccordingtostateofthefluidInallthetypesofheatexchangersdiscussedabove,boththefluidschanged
theirtemperaturealongthelengthofheatexchanger.But,thisneednotbethecasealways.Aheatexchangermaybeusedtocondense
afluidinwhichcasethecondensingfluidwillbeataconstanttemperaturethroughoutthelengthoftheheatexchanger,whilethe
other(cold)fluidwillincreaseintemperatureasitpassesthroughtheheatexchanger,absorbingthelatentheatofcondensation
releasedbythecondensingfluid.SuchaheatexchangeriscalledaCondenser.If,ontheotherhand,oneofthefluidsevaporatesina
heatexchanger,temperatureofthisfluidwillremainconstantthroughoutthelengthofheatexchanger,whereasthetemperatureof
theotherfluid,whichsuppliesthelatentheatofevaporationtotheevaporatingfluid,goesondecreasingalongthelengthoftheheat

exchanger.SuchaheatexchangeriscalledanEvaporator.

Itisinterestingtocomparethesurfaceareatovolumeratiosofdifferenttypesofheatexchangers.SeeTable12.1:
TABLE12.1Surfaceareatovolumeratiosofdifferentheatexchangers
TypeofHX Hydraulicdiameter(mm) Surfacearea/Volume,

2 3
(m /m )
Plaintube,shellandtube 40to6 60600
Plateheatexchangers 20to10 180350
Stripfinandlouvredfin
heatexchangers 10to0.5 3507100
Automotiveradiators 5to2.5 7101500
Cryogenicheatexchangers 3.7to1.7 10002500
Gasturbinerotaryregenerators 1.2to0.5 30007100
Matrixtypes,wirescreen,sphere 2.5to0.2 150018000
bed,corrugatedsheets
Humanlungs 0.2to0.15 1800025000
InTable12.1,hydraulicdiameteroftheflowpassageisalsogivennotethatsmallerthehydraulicdiameter,largeristheratioof
surfaceareatovolume.Notethatthehumanlungshavethelargestofallsurfaceareatovolumeratios.
12.3 Overall Heat Transfer Coeicient

Overallheattransfercoefficient,wasfirstintroducedinChapter4.So,thereadermaypleasereferbacktoChapter4torefresh
memory.
Inmostofthepracticalcasesofheatexchangers,temperatureofthehotfluid(Ta)andthatofthecoldfluid(Tb )areknownthenwe
wouldliketohavetheheattransfergivenbyasimplerelationoftheform
Q=UA(TaTb )=UAT(4.21)
where,Qistheheattransferrate(W),Aistheareaofheattransferperpendiculartothedirectionofheattransfer,and(TaTb )=T
istheoveralltemperaturedifferencebetweenthetemperatureofhotfluid(Ta)andthatofthecoldfluid(Tb ).
Inanormallyusedrecuperativetypeofheatexchanger,thehotandcoldfluidsareseparatedbyasolidwall.Thismaybeaflattypeof
wall(asinthecaseofplatefintypeofheatexchangers),or,moreoften,acylindricalwall(asinthecaseofatubeintubetypeofheat
exchangers).SeeFig.12.4.
RecallfromChapter4that,ingeneral,theoverallheattransfercoefficientisrelatedtothetotalthermalresistanceofthesystem,as
follows:
Therefore,thetaskoffindingtheoverallheattransfercoefficientreducestofindingoutthetotalthermalresistanceofthesystem.
Forplanewall:
Rememberthatforaplanewall,thermalresistanceisL/(k.A),andconvectiveresistanceis1/(h.A),andsincetheresistancesarein
series,weget:
FIGURE12.4Heatexchangerwalls
Now,ifthethermalresistanceofthewallisnegligiblecomparedtootherresistances,weget:
Forcylindricalwall:
Rememberthatforacylindricalwall,thermalresistanceis:
and,convectiveresistanceis1/(h.A)andtheresistancesareinseries.However,theareatobeconsideredhastobespecifiedsincethe
innersurfaceareaandtheoutersurfaceareaofthecylinderaredifferent.Now,wehave,thegeneralrelationforU:
Wecanalsowrite:
Therefore,referredtooutersurfacearea,Ubecomes:
Now,foracylindricalsystem,wehave:
Ai=2riL
and,Ao=2roL
Then,
i.e.
Similarly,referredtoinnersurfacearea,Ubecomes:
and,
i.e.
Again,ifthethermalresistanceofthewallisnegligiblecomparedtootherresistances,(i.e.highvalueofthermalconductivity,k),or,
wallthicknessofthetubeisverysmall(i.e.(ri/ro)1),weget:
NotethatEq.12.8isthesameasEq.12.2.Formanypracticalsituations,thissimpleequationgivesaquickestimateofoverallheat
transfercoefficient,U.ObservefromEq.12.2or12.8thatthevalueofUiscontrolledbythesmallerofthetwoheattransfer
coefficients,hiandho.Therefore,aimofthedesignershouldbetofocusonthesmallerofthetwoheattransfercoefficientsand
improveit,ifpossible.Forexample,inagastoliquidheatexchanger,heattransfercoefficientisgenerallysmalleronthegasside,
and,therefore,thegassideheattransfercoefficientcontrolsthefinalvalueofoverallheattransfercoefficient.So,onetriestoimprove
theheattransfercoefficientonthegassidebyprovidingfinsonthegassidesurface.Iffinsareprovidedonaparticularsurface,then
thetotalheattransferareaonthatsurfaceis:
Atotal=Afin+Aunfinned(12.9)
where,AfinisthesurfaceareaofthefinsandAunfinnedistheareaoftheunfinnedportionofthetube.
Forshortfinsofamaterialofhighthermalconductivity,sincethereispracticallynotemperaturedropalongthelengthwecanusethe
valueoftotalareaasgivenbyEq.12.9tocalculatetheconvectionresistanceonthefinnedsurface.However,forlongfinswherethere
isatemperaturedropalongthelengthoffin,weshouldusethetotaloreffectivearea,givenby:
Atotal=Aunfinned+finAfin(12.10)
where,finisthefinefficiency.Sometimes,anoverallsurfaceefficiencyoisused.0isdefinedas:
oAtotal=Aunfinned+finAfin
i.e.otellsushowmuchofthetotalsurfaceareaisreallyeffectiveintransferringheat.
Then,sincetheeffectivesurfaceareaisalsoequaltotheunfinnedareaplustheeffectiveareaoffin,wecangetanexpressionfor
overallsurfaceefficiencyasfollows:
Then,whiledeterminingU,weshoulduseo.Atotalforthefinnedsurface,whetheritisinnersurfacearea,outersurfaceareaorboth.
Forexample,iftheoutersurfaceofthetubeisfinned(whichisusuallythecase),withafinefficiencyoffin,wewrite,neglectingthe
thermalresistanceoftubematerial:
Instead,ifthetotal(i.e.unfinned+finned)surfaceareaandtheoverallsurfaceefficiency(o)isgivenfortheoutersurface,Eq.12.12
canbewrittenas:
TypicalvaluesofoverallheattransfercoefficientsaregiveninTable12.2:
TABLE12.2Typicalvaluesofoverallheattransfercoefficients
2
TypeofHX U(W/(m C)
Watertowater 8501700
Watertooil 100350
Watertogasolineorkerosene 3001000
Feedwaterheaters 10008500
Steamtolightfueloil 200400
Steamtoheavyfueloil 50200
Steamcondenser 10006000
Freoncondenser(watercooled) 3001000
Ammoniacondenser(watercooled) 8001400
Alcoholcondenser(watercooled) 250700
Gastogas 1040
Watertoairinfinnedtubes 3060(basedon
(waterintubes) watersidesurfacearea)
Steamtoairinfinnedtubes 4004000(basedon
(steamintubes) steamsidesurfacearea)
FoulingfactorsNotethataboveanalysiswasforcleanheattransfersurfaces.However,withpassageoftime,thesurfacesbecome
dirtybecauseofscaling,deposits,corrosion,etc.Thisresultsinareductioninheattransfercoefficientsincethescaleoffersathermal
resistancetoheattransfer.Foulingmaybecategorizedasfollows:
1.duetoscalingorprecipitation
2.duetodepositsoffinelydividedparticulates
3.duetochemicalreaction
4.duetocorrosion
5.duetoattachmentsofalgaeorotherbiologicalmaterials
6.duetocrystallizationonthesurfacebysubcooling.
Effectoffoulingisaccountedforbyatermcalled,Foulingfactor,(or,dirtfactor),definedas:
Rfiszeroforanewheatexchanger.Rfforafouledheatexchangercannotbecalculatedtheoretically,buthastobedetermined
experimentallybyfindingouttheheattransfercoefficientsforacleanheatexchangerandadirtyheatexchangerofidenticaldesign,
operatingunderidenticalconditions.
Whiletakingintoaccounttheeffectoffouling,thefoulingresistance(=Rf/area)shouldbeaddedtotheotherthermalresistances.
Forexample,foratube,wecanwrite:
where,RfiandRfoarethefoulingfactorsfortheinsideandoutsidesurfaces,respectively,andListhelengthoftube.FromEq.12.15,
UiorUocaneasilybecalculated.
Foulingfactordependsonflowvelocityandoperatingtemperaturefoulingincreaseswithdecreasingvelocityandincreasing
temperature.
Basedonexperience,TubularExchangerManufacturersAssociation(TEMA)havegivensuggestedvaluesoffoulingfactors.Someof
thesevaluesaregiveninTable12.3:
TABLE12.3Foulingfactorsforindustrialfluids(TEMA,1988)
2
Fluid R (m C/W)
f
LIQUIDS:
Fueloil 0.00088
Quenchoil 0.0007
Transformeroil 0.00018
Hydraulicfluid 0.000238
Moltensalts 0.000119
Industrialorganicheattransfermedia 0.000119
Refrigerantliquids 0.00018
Causticsolutions 0.000476
Vegetableoils 0.000715
Gasoline,naptha,lightdistillates,kerosene 0.000238
Lightgasoil 0.000476
Heavygasoil 0.000715
GASES&VAPOURS:
Solventvapours 0.000238
Acidgases 0.000238
Naturalgas 0.000238
Air 0.0001190.000238
Fluegases 0.0002380.000715
Steam(sat.,oilfree) 0.0001190.000357
WATER:
Riverwater,seawater,distilledwater,boilerfeedwater:
Below50deg.C 0.0001
Above50deg.C 0.0002
Example12.1.WateratameantemperatureofTm=90Candameanvelocityofum=0.10m/sflowsinsidea2.5cmID,thin
walledcoppertube.OutersurfaceofthetubedissipatesheattoatmosphericairatTa=20C,byfreeconvection.Calculatethetube
walltemperature,overallheattransfercoefficientandheatlosspermetrelengthoftube.Usefollowingsimplifiedexpressionforairto
determineheattransfercoefficientbyfreeconvection:
Solution.
Data
Tm:=90Cum:=0.1m/sD:=0.025mTa:=20C
Propertiesofwateratmeantemperatureof90C:
3 3
:=965.3kg/m k:=0.675W/(mC):=0.31510 kg/(ms)Pr:=2.22
Weneedtocalculatetheheattransfercoefficientsfortheinnerandoutersurfaces:
Forthewaterside(i.e.innersurface):
3
i.e.Re=7.6610 >4000(therefore,turbulent)
UsingDitusBoelterequationtodetermineheattransfercoefficientforinsidesurface:
0.8 0.3
Nu:=0.023Re Pr
i.e.Nu=37.417(Nusseltsnumber)
Therefore,
3 2
i.e.hi=1.0110 W/(m C)(insidesurfaceheattransfercoefficient)
Fortheairside(i.e.outersurface):
Approximate,valueoffilmtemperatureforair:
Propertiesofairatfilmtemperatureof55C:
3 5
:=1.076kg/m k:=0.0283W/(mC):=1.9910 kg/(ms)Pr:=0.708
Then,freeconvectionheattransfercoefficientforoutersurfaceisgivenby:
0.25
i.e.ho=3.32(Ts20) (a)
However,Tsisnotknown,
Applyingoverallenergybalance,withAi=Aoforthinwalledtube:
hi(TiTs)=ho(TsTa)
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0.25
0.25
1010(90Ts)=[3.32(Ts20) ](Ts20)
1.25
i.e.1010(90Ts)=[3.32(Ts20) ]
ThisequationmaynowbesolvedforTsbytrialanderror.
But,withMathcad,itiseasilysolvedusingsolveblock.StartwithaguessvalueofTs,then,aftertypingGivenwritedownthe
constraint,andthen,typingFind(Ts)givesthevalueofTsimmediately:
Ts:=40C(guessvalue)
Given
Then,hoiscalculatedfromEq.a:

0.25
ho:=3.32(Ts20) (a)
2
i.e.ho=9.58W/(m C)(outsidesurfaceheattransfercoefficient)
and,overallheatheattransfercoefficient,U:
Notethatoverallheattransfercoefficientisnearlyequaltoho.Ascommentedearlier,sincehi>>ho,overallheattransfercoefficientis
conrolledbyho.
Heatlosspermetrelengthoftube:
Q:=U(D1)(TsTa)W/m
i.e.Q=51.686W/m.
Example12.2.InExaple12.1,ifwedesiretoincreasethevalueofoverallheattransfercoefficientU,theobviouschoiceistofocus
ontheairside,sincetheairsideheattransfercoefficientistheloweroftheinsideandoutsideheattransfercoefficients.Letus
increasetheareaontheairsidebyproviding8numbersofradialfinsofrectangularcrosssection,2mmthickand20mmheight.
Materialoffinsisthesameasthatofthetube,i.e.copper(k=380W/(mK)).
Then,determinetheoverallheattransfercoefficientandtherateofheattransfer.
Solution.
Data:
OverallheattransfercoefficientUireferredtotheinsidesurface:
Neglectingthethermalresistanceoftubewall,wewrite:
FirstterminthedenominatorinRHSisthethermalresistanceduetofilmcoefficientontheinside,andthesecondtermisthe
thermalresistanceofthefilmcoefficientontheoutside.
Unfinnedsurface(orthebasesurface)ontheoutsideisatthewalltemperatureandisfullyeffectiveforheattransferwhereasthe
finnedsurfaceisnotfullyeffectivebecauseoftemperaturedropalongthelengthoffinstherefore,effectiveareaoffinsisobtainedby
multiplyingthetotalareaoffinsbythefineffectiveness,fin.
Therefore,weneedtofindoutthefinefficiency.
Finefficiency:
Forarectangularfinwithadiabatictip,thefinefficiencyisgivenby:
where, (finparameter)
Then,fromEq.b,weget:
Areas:
Therefore,overallheattransfercoefficientUreferredtotheinsidesurface:
Wehave:
2
Note:comparethistotheearlierUvalueof9.49W/(m C)thereisgreatimprovementinvalueofUbyprovidingfins.Heatlossper
metrelengthoftube:
Q:=Ui(Dl)(TsTa)W/m
i.e.Q=221.34W/m.
Note:ComparethistotheearlierQvalueof51.686W/mthissubstantialimprovementinvalueofQistheresultofprovidingfins.
Also,notethatintheaboveanalysis,weassumedthattheoutsideheattransfercoefficienthoisthesamefortheunfinnedsurfaceas
wellasforthefinnedsurfaces.
Example12.3.Ashellandtubecounterflowheatexchangerusescoppertubes(k=380W/(mC)),20mmIDand23mmOD.
Insideandoutsidefilmcoefficientsare5000and1500W/(mC),respectively.Foulingfactorsontheinsideandoutsidemaybetaken
2
as0.0004and0.001m C/Wrespectively.Calculatetheoverallheattransfercoefficientbasedon:(i)outsidesurface,and(ii)inside
surface.

Solution.
Data:
Heatlosspermetrelengthoftube:
Overallheattransfercoefficient:
Wehave:
InthedenominatorofRHSofEq.12.15above,wehavethevariousthermalresistances,asfollows:
3
firsttermconvectivefilmresistanceontheinsidesurface=3.183110 C/W
3
secondtermfoulingresistanceontheinsidesurface=6.366210 C/W
5
thirdtermconductiveresistanceofthetubewall=5.85410 C/W
3
fourthtermconvectivefilmresistanceontheoutsidesurface=9.226410 C/W
fifthtermfoulingresistanceontheoutsidesurface=0.01384C/W.
Notetherelativemagnitudeoffoulingresistances,ascomparedtootherresistances.Asexpected,conductiveresistanceofthetube
wall(ofcopper,whichisagoodconductor)isthesmallestofall.
CalculatingtheRHS,weget:
Comments:
Foulingaffectsthevalueofoverallheattransfercoefficientandtherefore,thesize(orarea)oftheheatexchangeradversely.
Ifthefoulingresistanceswerenotincluded,weshouldhaveobtainedthefollowingvaluesfortheoverallheattransfercoefficient:
RHSofEq.12.15,deletingthefoulingresistances,willbecome:
i.e.UoandUiwithnofoulingareabout2.62timesthecorrespondingvalueswhenfoulingresistancesareincluded.Therefore,itis
advisabletoincludetheeffectoffouling,ifpracticable,atthedesignstage.
12.4 The LMTD Method for Heat Exchanger Analysis

Basically,acompletedesignofaheatexchangerisahugetopicwhichinvolvesananalysisof:
1.Thermalaspects(i.e.temperaturesoffluidsatinlet/exit,rateofheattransfer,etc.,offdesignperformance,etc.)
2.Hydrodynamicaspects(i.e.pressuredropsintheflowchannels)
3.Structuralaspects(mechanicaldesignandstructuraldesign).
However,hereweshallconsideronlythethermalanalysisaspects.
12.4.1 Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger

Consideradoublepipe,parallelflowheatexchanger,inwhichahotfluidandacoldfluidflowparalleltoeachother,separatedbya
solidwall.HotfluidentersatatemperatureofTh1andleavestheheatexchangeratatemperatureofTh2 coldfluidenterstheheat
exchangeratatemperatureofTc1andleavesatatemperatureofTc2 .ThissituationisshowninFig.12.5.
FIGURE12.5Parallelflowheatexchanger
Wedesiretogetanexpressionfortherateofheattransferinthisheatexchangerinthefollowingform:
Q=UATm(12.16)
where,U=overallheattransfercoefficient
A=areaforheattransfer(shouldbethesameareaonwhichUisbased),and
Tm=ameantemperaturedifferencebetweenthefluids.
Now,wemakethefollowingassumptions:
1.Uisconsideredasaconstantthroughoutthelength(orarea)oftheheatexchanger
2.Propertiesoffluids(suchasspecificheat)arealsoconsideredtobeconstantwithtemperature
3.Heatexchangetakesplaceonlybetweenthetwofluidsandthereisnolossofheattothesurroundings,i.e.perfectinsulationof
heatexchangerisassumed
4.Changesinpotentialandkineticenergyarenegligible
5.Temperaturesofboththefluidsremainconstant(equaltotheirbulktemperatures)overagivencrosssectionoftheheat
exchanger.
AreaAisconstantforagivenheatexchanger.However,weseefromFig.12.5thatthetemperatureofthetwofluidsvaryalongthe
length(orarea)oftheheatexchanger,i.e.thetemperaturedifferencebetweenthehotandcoldfluidsisnotaconstantalongthelength
oftheheatexchanger,butvariesalongthelength.Ouraimistofindouttheappropriatemeantemperaturedifference(Tm)between
thehotandcoldfluids,sothatEq.12.16canbeapplied.Weproceedasfollows:
ConsideranelementalareadAoftheheatexchanger.Then,byapplyingtheFirstlaw,wecanwrite:
Heatgivenupbythehotfluid=heatreceivedbythecoldfluid.
i.e.
dQ=mhCphdTh=mc Cpc dTc (12.17)
Here,thetemperatureofhotfluiddecreasesasthelengthincreases.So,anegativesignisputinfrontofmh.Cph.dTh,sothattheheat
transferredisapositivequantity.
Now,dQfortheelementalareadA,canalsobeexpressedas:
dQ=U(ThTc )dA(12.18)
Now,fromEq.12.17,wehave:
and,
where,mhandmc arethemassflowrates,andCphandCpc arethespecificheatsofhotandcoldfluids,respectively.
Therefore,
SubstitutingfordQfromEq.12.18,weget:
IntegratingEq.12.20betweentheinletandexitoftheheatexchanger(i.e.betweenconditions1and2):
Now,consideringthetotalheattransferratefortheentireheatexchanger,wehave:
and,
SubstitutinginEq.12.21:
Now,comparingEq.12.22andEq.12.16,weobservethat:
Sincethismeantemperaturedifferencevariesinalogarithmicmanner,itiscalledLogarithmicMeanTemperatureDifferenceor,
simplyLMTD.
So,wewrite:
Now,notethat(Th2 Tc2 )isthetemperaturedifferenceattheexitand(Th1Tc1)isthetemperaturedifferenceattheinletoftheheat

exchanger.IfwedenotethetemperaturedifferencesattheinletandexitoftheheatexchangerbyT1andT2 ,respectively,wecan
write:
WecanstateEq.12.25inwordsasfollows:LMTDisequaltotheratioofthedifferencebetweenthegreaterandlowerofthe
temperaturedifferencesatthetwoendstothenaturallogarithmoftheratiobetweenthosetemperaturedifferences.
EquationforLMTDiseasilyrememberedasfollows:
where,
GTD=greater(ofthetwo)temperaturedifference,and
LTD=lowertemperaturedifference.
12.4.2 Counter-flow Heat Exchanger

Again,consideradoublepipe,counterflowheatexchanger,inwhichahotfluidandacoldfluidflowindirectionsoppositetoeach
other,separatedbyasolidwall.HotfluidentersatatemperatureofTh2 andleavestheheatexchangeratatemperatureofTh2 cold
fluidenterstheheatexchangeratatemperatureofTc1andleavesatatemperatureofTc2 .ThissituationisshowninFig.12.6.
Wedesiretogetanexpressionfortherateofheattransferinthisheatexchangerinthefollowingform:
Q=UATm(12.16)
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U=overallheattransfercoefficient
A=areaforheattransfer(shouldbethesameareaonwhichUisbased),and
Tm=ameantemperaturedifferencebetweenthefluids.
WeseefromFig.12.6thatthetemperaturesofthetwofluidsvaryalongthelength(orarea)oftheheatexchanger,i.e.thetemperature
differencebetweenthehotandcoldfluidsisnotaconstantalongthelengthoftheheatexchanger,butvariesalongthelength.Ouraim
istofindouttheappropriatemeantemperaturedifference(Tm)betweenthehotandcoldfluids,sothatEq.12.16canbeapplied.
Weproceedasfollows,withthesameassumptionsasmadefortheanalysisofparallelflowheatexchanger:
ConsideranelementalareadAoftheheatexchanger.Then,byapplyingtheFirstlaw,wecanwrite:
Heatgivenupbythehotfluid=heatreceivedbythecoldfluid.
FIGURE12.6Counterflowheatexchanger
i.e.
dQ=mhCphdTh=mc Cpc dTc (12.27)
Here,thetemperaturesofbothhotandcoldfluidsdecreaseasthelengthincreases.So,negativesignisputinfrontofmh.Cph.dThand
mc .Cpc .dTc sothattheheattransferredisapositivequantity.
Now,dQfortheelementalareadA,canalsobeexpressedas:
dQ=U(ThTc )dA(12.28)
Now,fromEq.12.27,wehave:
and,
where,mhandmc arethemassflowrates,andCphandCpc arethespecificheatsofhotandcoldfluids,respectively.
Therefore,
SubstitutingfordQfromEq.12.28,weget:
IntegratingEq.12.30betweentheinletandexitoftheheatexchanger(i.e.betweenconditions1and2):
Now,consideringthetotalheattransferratefortheentireheatexchanger,wehave:
and,
SubstitutinginEq.12.31:
Now,comparingEq.12.32andEq.12.16,weobservethat:
Notethatthismeantemperaturedifferencevariesinalogarithmicmannerso,itiscalledLogarithmicMeanTemperature
Differenceor,simplyLMTD.
So,wewrite:
Now,notethat(Th2 Tc2 )isthetemperaturedifferenceattheexitand(Th1Tc2 )isthetemperaturedifferenceattheinletoftheheat

exchanger.IfwedenotethetemperaturedifferencesattheinletandexitoftheheatexchangerbyT1andT2 ,respectively,wecan
write:
NotethattheLMTDexpressionsfortheparallelflowandthecounterflowheatexchangers(i.e.Eqs.12.25and12.35)arethesame.
Again,equationforLMTDiseasilyrememberedasfollows:
where,
GTD=greater(ofthetwo)temperaturedifference,and
LTD=lowertemperaturedifference
Comments:
(i)WhenT1=T2 :Thisisaspecialcase,whichcanoccursometimesinthecaseofacounterflowheatexchanger.Then,Eq.12.35
reducestoaform0/0,whichisindeterminate.However,fromphysicalconsiderations,T1=T2 meansthatthetemperature
differencebetweenthehotandcoldfluidsisequalthroughouttheheatexchanger.Therefore,obviously,themeantemperature
differencebetweenthetwofluidsisT1=T2 .(Thiscanbeprovedmathematicallyalso,byapplyingLHospitalsrule).
(ii)LMTDforacounterflowheatexchangerisalwaysgreaterthanthatforaparallelflowheatexchanger.Thismeansthattotransfer
thesameamountofheat,counterflowunitwillrequireasmallerheattransfersurfaceascomparedtoaparallelflowunit.Thisisthe
reasonwhyacounterflowheatexchangerisusuallypreferred.
(iii)LMTDcaneasilybecalculatedwhenalltheendtemperaturesofthefluidsareknown.Then,immediately,theheattransferrateis
determinedfromtheEq.12.16,i.e.Q=U.A.(LMTD).Therefore,calculationofLMTDisanimportantstepinthedesignofaheat
exchanger.TofacilitatequickcalculationofLMTD,whenboththeendtemperaturesareknown,followinggraph(Fig.12.7)is
provided.Here,(LMTD/GTD)isplottedagainsttheratio(LTD/GTD),whereGTD=greaterofthetwoendtemperaturedifferences,
andLTD=lowerofthetwoendtemperaturedifferences.First,calculatetheratio(LTD/GTD),andthen,read(eitherfromthegraph
orTable12.4)thevalueofLMTD/GTD.Next,multiplythisvaluebyGTDtogetLMTD.
FIGURE12.7LMTDandAMTDforparallelandcounterflowHX
Inthesamegraph,thevalueof(AMTD/GTD)isalsoplotted,forcomparison.Here,AMTDisthearithmeticmeantemperature
differenceAMTD=(T1+T2 )/2.ItmaybenotedthatforvaluesbeyondaboutT2 /T1=0.7,AMTDandLMTDarealmostthe
same,i.e.whenT2 /T1>0.7,itwouldsufficetouseAMTD(whichiseasiertocalculate)insteadofLMTD.However,forlower
valuesofT2 /T1,LMTDhastobeused.
GraphforLMTDshownaboveisalsorepresentedintabularform(forbetteraccuracy)inTable12.4,
(iv)OnetermoccurringinthederivationofLMTDshownabove,istheproductofmassflowrateandthespecificheatofafluid,i.e.C
=m.Cp.Here,Cisknownasheatcapacityrateor,simplycapacityrateofthatparticularfluid.Thus,thecapacityratesforhotand
coldfluidsare:
Ch=mhCphW/C((12.36)capacityrateforhotfluid)
Cc =mc Cpc W/C((12.37)capacityrateforcoldfluid)
Then,theheattransferrateisgivenby:
Q=Ch(Th1Th )W((12.38)forhotfluid)
2
Q=Cc (Tc Tc )W((12.38)forcoldfluid)
2 1
i.e.totransferagivenamountofheat,highertheheatcapacityrateofafluid,lowerwillbethetemperaturerise(orfall)ofthat
particularfluid.
Iftheheatcapacityratesofboththehotandcoldfluidsareequal,then,thetotaltemperaturedropofthehotfluidwillbeequaltothe
totaltemperatureriseofthecoldfluid.SeeFig.12.8(a).
(v)Whenafluidiscondensingorboiling,itstemperatureisessentiallyconstant,i.e.Th1=Th2 foracondensingfluidandTc1=Tc2 for

aboilingliquid.Inotherwords,Tforthecondensingorboilingfluidiszero.But,sinceafiniteamountofheatistransferred,(=
m.hfg),wesaythatcapacityrateofacondensingorboilingfluidtendstoinfinity.Temperatureprofilesforfluidsinaheatexchanger
whenoneofthefluidsiscondensingorboilingareshowninFig.12.8(b)and(c),respectively.LMTDforboththesecasesis
determinedbythesameprocedureasfortheparallelorcounterflowheatexchangers,i.e.
Example12.4.Furnaceoil,flowingatarateof4000kg/h,isheatedfrom10to20Cbyhotwaterflowingat75C,withavelocityof
0.8m/s,throughacopperpipe2.15cmOD,1.88cmID.Oilflowsthroughannulusbetweencopperandsteelpipeof3.35cmODand3
cmID.Findthelengthofcounterflowheatexchanger.Fluidpropertiesaregiven.
UseDittusBoelterequationNu=0.023.Re0.8.Pr0.4.
Solution.
TABLE12.4LMTD/GTDforparallelflowandcounterflowHXLMTD=LogmeantemperaturedifferenceGTD=Greateroftwo
endtemperaturedifferencesLTD=Loweroftwoendtemperaturedifferences
FIGURE12.8(a)Bothfluidshavesamecapacityrates
FIGURE12.8(b)Oneofthefluidscondensing(Ch)
Figure12.8(c)Oneofthefluidsboiling(Ch)
FIGUREExample12.4Counterflowheatexchanger
Fluidproperties:
Property Water Oil
4.187 1.884
Cp(kJ/kgK)
0.657 0.138
k(W/mK)
7
2 4.18710 7.43
v(m /s) 6
10
3 982 854
(kg/m )
2
Dhi:=1.8810 m(insidediameteroftubeforhotfluidflow)
2
Dho:=2.1510 m(outsidediameteroftubeforhotfluidflow)
2
Dci:=310 m(insidediameteroftubeforcoldfluidflow)
2
Dco:=3.3510 m(outsidediameteroftubeforcoldfluidflow)
Totalheattransferred:
Q:=mc cpc (Tc2 Tc1)W

4
i.e.Q=2.09310 W
Insideheattransfercoefficient: Enjoy Safari? Subscribe Today
Therefore,
Wehave:
3 2
i.e.hh=5.21210 W/(m C)(heattransfercoefficientforhot(inside)fluid)
Outsideheattransfercoefficient:
Equivalentdiameterofannulus:Deq =4(areaofcrosssection/wettedperimeter)
Therefore,
Also,
FromDittusBoeltersequation
Therfore,
OverallheattransfercoefficientU:
Wehave:UA=1/(Totalthermalresistance)
Therefore,
Now,calculateLMTD:
Exittemperatureofhotfluid:
Therefore,
Alternatively:
WecancalculateLMTDquicklybyusinggraphofFig.12.7orfromTable12.4:Wehave:T2 /T1=42.074/55=0.765.Fromthe
table,wereadagainstT2 /T1=0.765,avalueofLMTD/T1=0.8775.Then,LMTD=0.877555=48.262C.
LengthofHXrequired:
Heatexchangearearequired:
Therefore,
FIGUREExample12.5Heatexchangerwithoneofthefluidscondensing(Ch)
Example12.5.Inashellandtubeheatexchanger,tubesare4mlong,3.1cmOD,2.7cmID.Waterisheatedfrom22Cto45Cby
condensingsteamat100Contheoutsideoftubes.Waterflowratethroughthetubesis10kg/s.Heattransfercoefficientonsteam
2 2
sideis5500W/(m K)andonwaterside,850W/(m K).Neglectingallotherresistances,findthenumberoftubes.
Solution.
Data:
Alternatively:
WecancalculateLMTDquicklybyusinggraphofFig.12.7orfromTable12.4.Wehave:T2 /T1=55/78=0.705.Fromthetable,
wereadagainstT2 /T1=0.705,valueofLMTD/T1=0.844.Then,LMTD=0.84478=65.832C.samevalueasobtainedabove
bycalculation.
Heattransfer:
Numberoftubesrequired:
Therefore,
i.e.Numberoftubesrequiredis,say,58.
Example12.6.Inadoublepipecounterflowheatexchanger,10,000kg/hofoil(Cp=2.095kJ/kgK)iscooledfrom80Cto50C
2
by8000kg/hofwaterenteringat25C.DeterminetheareaofheatexchangerforanoverallU=300W/(m K).TakeCpforwateras
4.18kJ/kgK.
(M.U.1997)
Solution.
Data:
TocalculateLMTD:
Wehave:
Alternatively:
WecancalculateLMTDquicklybyusinggraphofFig.12.7orfromTable12.4.Wehave:T2 /T1=55/78=0.705.Fromthetable,
wereadagainstT2 /T1=0.705,valueofLMTD/T1=0.844.Then,LMTD=0.84478=65.832C.samevalueasobtainedabove
bycalculation.
Arearequired:
12.5 Correction Factors for Multi-pass and Cross-flow Heat Exchangers

LMTDrelationsderivedaboveareapplicabletoparallelflowandcounterflowheatexchangersonly.But,inpractice,crossflowheat
exchangers(e.g.automobileradiators)andshellandtubeheatexchangers,withmorethanonepassinshellsideand/ortubeside,are
alsoused.Insuchcases,theflowsituationiscomplexandtheanalyticrelationsformeantemperaturedifferenceareverycomplicated.
Then,first,LMTDiscalculatedasifforacounterflowheatexchangerwiththeinletandexittemperaturesforthetwofluidsasperthe
actualdata,andnext,acorrectionfactor(F)isappliedtothecalculatedLMTDtogetthemeantemperaturedifferencebetweenthe
fluids.Now,heattransferrateiscalculatedas:
Q=UA(FLMTD)W(12.39)
where,Aistheareaofheattransfer,Uistheoverallheattransfercoefficientreferredtothatarea,andFisthecorrectionfactor.Note
againthatLMTDiscalculatedasifforacounterflowheatexchanger,takingtheinletandexittemperaturesofthe
twofluidsthesameasfortheactualheatexchanger.
Valuesofcorrectionfactor(F)forafewselectedheatexchangersaregiveningraphicalrepresentationinFig.12.9.Fvariesfrom0to
1.Inthesegraphs,correctionfactorFisplottedasfunctionoftwoparameters,i.e.PandR,definedas:
FIGURE12.9(a)Oneshellpassand2,4,6,etc.(anymultipleof2),tubepasses
FIGURE12.9(b)Twoshellpassesand4,8,12,etc.(anymultipleof4),tubepasses
FIGURE12.9(c)Singlepasscrossflowwithbothfluidsunmixed
FIGURE12.9(d)Singlepasscrossflowwithonefluidmixedandtheotherunmixed
where,Cisthecapacityrate=m.Cp.
Also,forashellandtubeheatexchanger,Tandtrepresentthetemperaturesoffluidsflowingthroughtheshellandtubesides,
respectively.And,subscripts1and2refertotheinletandexit,respectively.Itmakesnodifferencewhetherhotorcoldfluidflows
throughtheshellorthetube.ValuesofPvaryfrom0to1anditisequaltotheratioofthetemperaturechangeofthetubesidefluidto
themaximumtemperaturedifferencebetweenthetwofluidsthus,Prepresentsthethermaleffectivenessofthetubesidefluidvalues
ofRvaryfrom0toWhenR=0,itmeansthatthefluidontheshellsideisundergoingaphasechange(i.e.boilingorcondensation,
whichoccursatapracticallyconstanttemperature,Tsat),andwhenR=,thetubesidefluidisundergoingaphasechange.Observe
fromthegraphsthat,whenR=0or,thecorrectionfactorFisequalto1.Therefore,foracondenserorboiler,F=1,irrespectiveof
theconfigurationoftheheatexchanger.
Note:ToapplythecorrectionfactorFfromthesegraphs,itisnecessarythattheendtemperaturesofboththefluidsmustbeknown.
Example12.7.Aoneshellpass,twotubepassheatexchanger,withflowarrangementsimilartothatshowninFig.12.9(a),has
waterflowingthroughthetubesandengineoilflowingontheshellside.Waterflowrateis1.2kg/sanditstemperaturesatinletand
2
exitare25Cand75C,respectively.Engineoilentersat110Candleavesat75C.OverallU=300W/(m K).TakeCpforwateras
4.18kJ/(kgK)andcalculatetheheattransferarearequired.
Solution.
Data:
mc :=1.2kg/sCpc :=4180J/kgK
2
U:=300W/(m K)T1:=110C(hotfluid,inlet)
T2 :=75C(hotfluid,exit)
t1:=25C(coldfluid,inlet)
t2 :=75C(coldfluid,exit)
Therefore,totalheatload:
Q:=mc Cpc (t2 t1)W

5
i.e.Q=2.50810 W
SincethisisamultipassHX,LMTDmustbecalculatedasforacounterflowHX,and,thenacorrectionfactorappliedfromFig.12.9
(a):
TocalculateLMTD:
T1:=T1t2
i.e.T1=35C
and,
T2 :=T2 t1
i.e.T2 =50C
Therefore,
Correctionfactor,F:
Wehave:
Then,fromFig.12.9(a):
F=0.8(correctionfactor)
And,thecorrectedtemperaturedifferencebecomes:
T:=0.8LMTD
i.e.T=33.644C(actualmeantemperature)
Therefore,heattransferarea:
Example12.8.InashellandtubeHX,50kg/minoffurnaceoilisheatedfrom10to90C.Steamat120Cflowsthroughtheshell
andoilflowsinsidethetube.Tubesize:1.65cmIDand1.9cmOD.Heattransfercoefficientonoilandsteamsidesare:85and7420
2
W/(m K),respectively.Findthenumberofpassesandnumberoftubesineachpassifthelengthofeachtubeislimitedto2.85m.
Velocityofoilislimitedto5cm/s.Densityandspecificheatofoilare1970J/(kg.K),respectively.(M.U.1994)
Solution.
Data:
Numberoftubesrequired:
Totalcrosssectionalareaforflow:
Crosssectionalareaofeachtube:
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FIGUREExample12.8Heatexchangerwithoneofthefluidscondensing(Ch)
OverallU,basedonoutersurfacearea:
Totalthermalresistance:
Then,
Therefore,heattransferarearequired:
But,lengthislimitedto2.85m.So,use2tubepasses.
Then,itbecomesashellandtubeHXwithtwotubepasses.So,itappearsatfirstsightthatcorrectionfactor(F)hastobeobtained
fromFig.12.9but,observethatoneofthefluidsiscondensing.So,F=1,irrespectiveofHXconfiguration.
i.e.F=1
Therefore,Ahtremainssame.Then,
12.6 The Eectiveness-NTU Method for Heat Exchanger Analysis

LMTDcanreadilybedeterminedwhenallthefourendtemperaturesareeithergiven,orcaneasilybecalculated.Then,thearea
required,A(i.e.thesizeoftheHX)iseasilyfoundoutbyapplyingtheequation:Q=U.A.(LMTD).Inotherwords,LMTDmethodis
veryconvenienttouseforsizingproblems,whenalltheendtemperaturesareknown.However,therearecertainproblemswhereonly
theinlettemperaturesofboththefluidsarespecified,alongwiththeflowratesandtheoverallheattransfercoefficients,andtheheat
transferrateandtheexittemperaturesofthefluidsaretobecalculated.SolutionofsuchratingproblemsbytheLMTDmethodwould
requiretediousiterations.However,theEffectivenessNTUmethod,developedbyKaysandLondonin1955,overcomesthisproblem
andmakesthesolutionstraightforward.EffectivenessNTUmethodisalsousefulinsolvingheatexchangerproblems,whereoff
designconditionsexisti.e.forexample,theheatexchangermighthavebeendesignedforsomeparticularflowratesoffluidsnow,to
findoutwhathappenstotheperformanceifflowrateofoneofthefluidsisreducedto,say,75%ofthedesignflowrate,andsoon.
TheeffectivenessNTUmethodisnotanaltogethernewmethodfundamentalequationsarethesameasusedintheLMTDmethod,
butthedifferentvariablesarearrangedratherdifferently.
BeforewedeveloptheEffectivenessNTUrelationsfordifferenttypesofheatexchangers,letusdefineafewquantities:
Effectivenessofaheatexchanger():
where,
Q=actualheattransferredintheheatexhanger
Qmax=maximumpossibleheattransferintheheatexchanger
Now,actualheattransferrateinaheatexchangerisgivenby:
Q=mhCph(Th1Th2 )=Ch(Th1Th2 )
and,
Q=mc Cpc (Tc2 Tc1)=Cc (Tc2 Tc1)
where,Ch=capacityrateofthehotfluid,and
Cc =capacityrateofthecoldfluid
Now,ChmaybeequaltoCc orlessthanCc orgreaterthanCc .
IfCh<Cc ,wedesignateChasCmin
Instead,ifCh>Cc ,wedesignateCc asCmin.
And,ineachcase,capacityrateoftheotherfluidisdesignatedasCmax.
CapacityRatio(C):
Capacityratioisdefinedas:
NumberofTransferUnits(NTU):
NumberofTransferUnits(whichisadimensionlessnumber),isdefinedas:
where,UistheoverallheattransfercoefficientandAisthecorrespondingheattransferarea.ForgivenvalueofAandflowconditions,
NTUisameasureofthearea(i.e.size)oftheheatexchanger.LargertheNTU,largerthesizeoftheheatexchanger.
Maximumpossibleheattransferinaheatexchanger(Qmax):
Now,consideraheatexchangerwherethehotfluidiscooledfromatemperatureofTh1toTh2 andthecoldfluidheatedfromTc1to
Tc2 .So,themaximumtemperaturedifferentialintheheatexchangeris(Th1Tc1).Now,iftheheatexchangerhadaninfinitearea,the
hotfluidwillbecooledfromTh1toTc1orthecoldfluidmaybeheatedfromTc1toTc1.However,whichfluidwillexperiencethe
maximumtemperaturedifferential(Th1Tc1)willdependuponwhichfluidhastheminimumcapacityrate.
Ifhotfluidhastheminimumcapacityrate,wecanwrite:
Qmax=Ch(Th1Tc1)(ifChisminimumcapacityrate,Cmin)
Instead,ifcoldfluidhastheminimumcapacityrate,wewrite:
Qmax=Cc (Th Tc1)(ifCc isminimumcapacityrate,Cmin.)

1
Or,moregenerally,wewrite:
Qmax=Cmin(Th1Tc )(12.45)
1
ThesesituationsarerepresentedgraphicallyinFig.12.9:
FIGURE12.9(a)Coldfluidhasminimumcapacityrate
FIGURE12.9(b)Hotfluidhasminimumcapacityrate
Therefore,wecanwriteforeffectiveness:
Now,ifhotfluidistheminimumfluid(i.e.Ch<Cc ),wegetfromEq.12.46:
And,ifcoldfluidistheminimumfluid(i.e.Cc <Ch),wegetfromEq.12.46:
i.e.bysuitablychoosingthefluid,theeffectivenessofaheatexchangercanbeexpressedasaratiooftemperatures(or,asa
temperatureeffectiveness).
IfChCc ,obviously,boththefluidswillexperiencethemaximumpossibletemperaturedifferential,iftheheatexchangerhadan
infinitearea.
Now,foranyheatexchanger,effectivenesscanbeexpressedasafunctionoftheNTUandcapacityratio,Cmin/Cmin,i.e.
WeshallderivebeloweNTUrelationforaparallelflowHX.
12.6.1 Eectiveness-NTU Relation for a Parallel-flow Heat Exchanger

ConsidertheparallelflowheatexchangershowninFig.12.5.AssumptionsforthisderivationremainthesameasfortheLMTD
method.
ContinuingfromEq.12.21:
Now,outofthetwofluids,oneistheminimumfluidandtheotheristhemaximumfluid.Whichevermaybetheminimumfluid,we
canwriteEq.12.21as:
Now,substitutingforTh2 andTc2 fromEq.12.46,weget:
Now,assumingCh>Cc ,i.e.coldfluidastheminimumfluid,wehave:Cmin=Cc andCmax=Ch.
Therefore,
Eq.12.50isthedesiredexpressionforeffectivenessofaparallelflowheatexchanger.
Notethatthesameresultwouldbeobtained,ifweassumethehotfluidastheminimumfluid.
Eq.12.50isconciselyexpressedas:
where,N=NTUand,
Specialcases:
(i)Foracondenserorboileri.e.oneofthefluidsundergoesaphasechange.Therefore,Cmaxi.e.Capacityratio,C=0.Then
effectivenessrelation(forallheatexchangers)reducesto:
=1exp(NTU)(12.52)
(ii)WhenC=1,i.e.Cmin=CmaxThisisthecaseofatypical,gasturbineregenerator.Inthiscase,
12.6.2 Eectiveness-NTU Relation for a Counter-flow Heat Exchanger

Again,considerthecounterflowheatexchangershowninFig.12.6.AssumptionsforthisderivationremainthesameasfortheLMTD
method.
ContinuingfromEq.12.31:
Thiscanbewrittenas:
Assuminghotfluidastheminimumfluid,
Cmin=Chand,Cmax=Cc
wehave:
Now,substitutingforTh2 andTc2 fromEq.12.46,weget:
Now,putCmin=Ch,C=Cmin/Cmax,andN=NTU,inEq.12.55:
Insteadofassumingthatthehotfluidistheminimumfluid,ifweassumethatthecoldfluidistheminimumfluid,thenalsothesame
relation(namely,Eq.12.56),willresult.
Eq.12.56isthedesiredexpressionfortheeffectivenessofthecounterflowheatexchanger.
Specialcases:
1.Foracondenserorboileri.e.oneofthefluidsundergoesaphasechange.Therefore,Cmaxi.e.Capacityratio,C=0.
Theneffectivenessrelation(forallheatexchangers)reducesto:
=1exp(NTU)(12.57)
2.WhenC=1,i.e.Cmin=CmaxThisisthecaseofatypical,gasturbineregenerator.Inthiscase,relationforreducestothe
indeterminateform,0/0.Then,applytheLHospitalsruletoevaluatee.i.e.differentiatethenumeratoranddenominatorw.r.t.
CandtakingthelimitC1,weget:
EffectivenessNTUrelationsandthecorrespondinggraphicalrepresentationsforseveraltypesofheatexchangersaregivenbyKays
andLondon.
Table12.5givestheEffectivenessrelationsforafewtypesofheatexchangersandTable12.6givestheNTUrelations:
TABLE12.5Effectivenessrelationsforheatexchangers[N=NTU=U.A/Cmin,C=Cmin/Cmax]
Flowgeometry Relation
Doublepipe:parallelflow
Doublepipe:counterflow
Counterflow,C=1
Crossflow:(singlepass)bothfluidsun
mixed
Crossflow:(singlepass)bothfluids
mixed
Crossflow:(singlepass)Cmaxmixed,
Cminunmixed
Crossflow:(singlepass)Cmaxunmixed,
Cminmixed
Shellandtube:
Oneshellpass,2,4,6tubepasses
Multipleshellpasses,2n,4n,6ntube
passes(p=effectivenessofeachshell
pass,n=number.ofshellpasses)
SpecialcaseforC=1
N
Allexchangers,withC=0(Condensers =1e
andEvaporators)
TABLE12.6NTUrelationsforheatexchangers[N=NTU=U.A/Cmin,C=Cmin/Cmax,=effectiveness]
Flowgeometry Relation
Doublepipe:parallelflow
Doublepipe:counterflow,forC=1
Counterflow,C=1
Crossflow:Cmaxmixed,Cminunmixed
Crossflow:Cmaxunmixed,Cminmixed
Shellandtube:
Oneshellpass,2,4,6tubepasses
Allexchangers,withC=0(Condensersand N=ln(1)
Evaporators)
NTUEffectivenessgraphs:
NTUEffectivenessrelationsarealsorepresentedingraphicalformandthesearequiteinstructive.However,itisabitdifficulttoread
thesegraphsaccuratelyso,analyticalrelationsmaybeusedwhereverpossible.
NTUEffectivenessrelationsforparallelflowandcounterflowheatexchangersareshowngraphicallyinFig.12.10and12.11,
respectively.Inthesefigures,effectivenessvaluesareplottedagainstNTUfordifferentvaluesofcapacityratio,C.
Forconvenienceandaccuracyinreading,effectivenessvaluesfortheparallelflowandcounterflowheatexchangersaregivenin
Tabularform,inTable12.7and12.8:
FIGURE12.10NTUVs.effectivenessforparallelflowheatexchangers
FIGURE12.11NTUVs.effectivenessforcounterflowheatexchangers
NTUeffectivenessgraphsforsomeothertypesofheatexchangers,aregivenbyKaysandLondon,andarereproducedbelow:
FIGURE12.12Crossflowheatexchangerwithbothfluidsunmixed
FIGURE12.13Crossflowheatexchangerwithonefluidmixedandtheotherunmixed
Note:InFig.12.13,thedashedlinesareforthecaseofCminunmixedandCmaxmixed.And,thesolidlinesareforthecaseofCmin
mixedandCmax,unmixed.
FromtheNTUEffectivenessgraphs,followingimportantpointsmaybeobserved:
(i)Foragivenvalueofcapacityratio,C,theeffectivenessincreaseswithNTU.Valueofeffectivenessvariesfrom0to1.
(ii)Initially,effectivenessincreasesratherrapidlyasNTUincreases(uptoavalueofNTU=about1.5)andthen,slowlyforlarger
valuesofNTU.RememberthatNTUisameasureofthesize(i.e.heatexchangearea,A)oftheheatexchangerso,wecanconclude
thatincreasingthesizeoftheheatexchangerbeyondaboutNTU=3,cannotbeeconomicallyjustified,sincetherewillnotbeany
correspondingincreaseineffectiveness.
TABLE12.7NTUVs.effectivenessforparallelflowHX
TABLE12.8NTUVs.effectivenessforcounterflowHX
FIGURE12.14Shellandtubeheatexchanger,withoneshellpassand2,4,6tubepasses
FIGURE12.15Shellandtubeheatexchanger,withtwoshellpassesand4,8,12tubepasses
(iii)AtagivenvalueofNTU,effectivenessismaximumforC=0,(i.e.foracondenserorevaporator),anddecreasesasCincreases.
(iv)ForNTUlessthanabout0.3,effectivenessisindependentofcapacityratio,C.
(v)ForgivenNTUandC,acounterflowheatexchangerhashighesteffectivenessandaparallel,flowheatexchangerhasthelowest
effectiveness.
(vi)WhenC=1(i.e.capacityratesofboththefluidsareequal,asinthecaseofatypicalregenerator),maximumeffectivenessofa
parallelflowheatexchangeris50%only,whereasthereisnosuchlimitationforacounterflowHX.Therefore,forsuchapplications,
obviously,thecounterflowarrangementispreferred.
Example12.9.Consideraheatexchangerforcoolingoilwhichentersat180C,andcoolingwaterentersat25C.Massflowratesof
2
oilandwaterare:2.5and1.2kg/s,respectively.Areaforheattransfer=16m .SpecificheatdataforoilandwaterandoverallUare
2
given:Cpoil=1900J/kgKCpwater=4184J/kgKU=285W/m K.Calculateoutlettemperaturesofoilandwaterforparalleland
counterflowHX.(M.U.1995)
Solution.Here,theoutlettemperaturesofboththefluidsarenotknown.UseofLMTDmethodwouldrequireaniterativesolution.
i.e.tostartwith,assumeoutlettemperatureof,say,hotfluid,Th2 andcalculatetheexittemperatureofcoldfluid,Tc2 andthen,the
LMTDthen,calculatetheheattransferrateQ.FromQandcapacityrates,recalculateTh2 ,andcomparethisvaluewiththeinitially
assumedvalueiftheydonotmatch,say,within0.5deg.C,repeattheiterative
But,aswillbeshownbelow,EffectivenessNTUmethod,offersadirect,straightforwardsolution:
Data:
Capacityrates:
i.e.C=0.946(capacityratio)
NumberofTransferUnits:
Case(i):ParallelflowHX:
ForparallelflowHX,wehavetheeffectivenessrelation:
Then,sincehotfluidistheminimumfluid,wehave:
and,Tc2 isobtainedfromheatbalance:
Case(ii):CounterflowHX:
ForcounterflowHX,wehave:
Then,again,sincehotfluidistheminimumfluid,wehave:
And,Tc2 isobtainedfrom:
Note:Inthisproblem,itisdifficulttoreadaccuratelythevaluesfromthegraphs,forthegivenvaluesofNTUandC.Itissuggested
thattheanalyticalrelationsmaybeusedtogetaccurateresults.
(b)IntheaboveExample,supposethattheflowrateofwaterisincreasedto2kg/s.
CalculatethenewoutlettemperaturesofoilandwaterforparallelandcounterflowHX.Restofthedataremain
thesame.
Now,theheatexchangerisoperatedatanoffdesigncondition,i.e.thewaterflowischangedfrom1.2kg/sto2kg/s.Then,eNTU
methodisconvenienttousetofindouttheexittemperaturesofboththefluids.
mc :=2kg/s(massflowrateofcoldfluid(water))
Notethatstill,hotfluidistheminimumfluidandNTUremainsthesame,butCchanges:
Capacityrates:
Ch:=mh=Cph
Therefore,Capacityratio:
Case(i):ParallelflowHX:
Wehavetheeffectivenessrelation:
Comparethiswith=0.435obtainedearlier.
Then,sincehotfluidistheminimumfluid,wehave:
And,Tc2 isobtainedfromheatbalance:
Case(ii):CounterflowHX:
ForCounterflowHX,wehave:
Comparethiswith=0.496obtainedearlier.
Now,again,sincehotfluidistheminimumfluid,wehave:
And,Tc2 isobtainedfrom:
Notethatasaresultofincreasingthecoldfluid(water)flowrate,thenewexittemperatureofboththehotandcoldfluidsarelower,
forboththeparallelandcounterflowcases.
Example12.10.Asteamcondenser,condensingat70Chastohaveacapacityof100kW.Waterat20Cisusedandtheoutlet
2
watertemperatureislimitedto45C.Iftheoverallheattransfercoefficientis3100W/m K,determinethearearequired.
(b)Iftheinletwatertemperatureisincreasedto30C,determinetheincreasedflowrateofwatertomaintainthesameoutlet
temperature.(M.U.1998)
Solution.ThisproblemcanbesolvedbyLMTDmethod,too.But,inpart(b),sincetheheatexchangerisoperatedatanoffdesign
condition,weshalladopttheNTUmethod.
Data:
Therefore,effectiveness:
Sincesteamiscondensing,itisthemaximumfluid.So,wecanwrite:
Now,foracondenser,wehave,fromTable12.6:
Case(b):IfTc1isincreasedto30C,andTc2 maintainedat45C,whatistheincreasedflowrate?
ComparethisvaluewithCmin=4000obtainedearlier.
Therefore,increasedflowrate:
Example12.11.Hotoilatatemperatureof180CentersashellandtubeHXandiscooledbywaterenteringat25C.Thereisone
2
shellpassand6tubepassesintheHXandtheoverallheattransfercoefficientis350W/(m K).Tubeisthinwalled,15mmIDand
lengthperpassis5m.Waterflowrateis0.3kg/sandoilflowrateis0.4kg/s.Determinetheoutlettemperaturesofoilandwaterand
alsotheheattransferrateintheHX.Given:specificheatofoil=1900J/(kgK)andspecificheatofwater=4184J/(kgK)
Solution.Sincetheexittemperaturesofboththefluidsarenotknown,weshalluseNTUmethod.
Data:
FIGUREExample12.11Shellandtubeheatexchangerwithoneshellpassand6tubepasses
Therefore,oilistheminimumfluid.
Therefore,capacityratio:
NumberofTransferUnits:
Effectiveness:
ThisisashellandtubeHXwithoneshellpassand6tubepasses.So,0.605andNTU=0.651,fromFig.12.14.
Sinceitisdifficulttoreadfromthegraphaccurately,letuscalculatefromanalyticalrelationgiveninTable12.5:
N:=NTU(notationinfollowingequation)
Outlettemperaturesofhotandcoldfluids:
Example12.12.Afeedwaterheaterheatswaterenteringatatemperatureof25C,atarateof3kg/s.Heatingisduetosteam
condensingat117C.Whenthefeedwaterheaterwasnew(i.e.cleancondition),theexittemperatureofwaterwas85C.After
prolongedoperation,forthesameflowratesandinletconditions,itwasobservedthattheoutlettemperaturewas75C.Determinethe
2
valueoffoulingfactor.Given:areaofheatexchange=5.5m .
Solution.Foulingresistance,Rfiscalculatedfromtherelation:
Also,sincethesteamiscondensing,itisthemaximumfluid,andthewateristheminimumfluid.
Data:
Sincethisisacondenser,wateristheminimumfluid,andcapacityrateofcondensingsteamis
i.e.Cmin:=Cc
Therefore,capacityratio:
Effectiveness:
Rememberingthatwateristheminimumfluid,effectivenessisgivenby:
and,fromTable12.6,NTUofthecondenserisgivenby:
But,bydefinitionofNTU:
Afterprolongedoperation:
Tc2 :=75C(exittemperatureofwaterfordirtyHX.)
Therefore,effectivenessofdirtyHX:
Therefore,NTUofcondenser:
Therefore,Foulingfactor:
Example12.13.Oilat100C(Cp=3.6kJ/kgK)flowsatarateof30,000kg/handentersintoaparallelflowHX.Coolingwater
2 2
(Cp=4.2kJ/kg.K)enterstheHXat10Cattherateof50,000kg/h.Theheattransferareais10m andU=1000W/(m K).
Calculatethefollowing:(i)outlettemperatureofoilandwater(ii)maximumpossibleoutlettemperatureofwater.
Solution.Exittemperatureofboththefluidsarenotknowntherefore,NTUmethodistobeused:
Data
Capacityrates:
Therefore,oilistheminimumfluid.
Therefore,Capacityratio:
Effectiveness:
ForparallelflowHX,wehave:
FIGURE12.9Example12.13Parallelflowheatexchanger
i.e.=0.262(effectivenessofparallelflowHXwithNTU=0.333andC=0.514.)
Note:WecanusethegraphofFig.12.10orTable12.7,butusingtheanalyticalrelationismoreaccurate.
Outlettemperatureofhotandcoldfluids:
And,fromheatbalance:
(b)Maximumpossibleoutlettemperatureofwater:
ForaverylongparallelflowHX,theoutlettemperaturesofhotandcoldfluidswouldbethesame:
i.e.Th2 =Tc2
Therefore,writingtheheatbalance:
12.7 The Operating-line/Equilibrium-line Method

NTUmethodcanberepresentedgraphicallyinanotherway.
RefertoFig.l2.l6.Here,thexaxisrepresentsthecoldfluidtemperatureandtheyaxis,thehotfluidtemperature.Now,ifweplotthe
entranceandexittemperaturesofaheatexchangerontheseaxes,weseethattheoperatingrangeoftheHXisrepresentedbyasingle
linethislineiscalledtheoperatingline.Onthesamegraph,alinedrawnat45deg.iscalledtheequilibriumline.Forequilibrium
line,Th=Tc .Thermodynamically,itisimpossiblefortheoperatinglineofaheatexchangertodropbelowtheequilibriumline,since,
ifitdoes,itwouldmeanaviolationofthesecondlaw.SlopeoftheoperatinglineforthecounterflowHXis:(Cc /Cc )=
(Th1Th2 )/(Tc2 Tc1).And,theslopeoftheoperatinglinefortheparallelflowHXis:(Cc /Ch),i.e.negativeslope.Foracondenser,
operatinglineishorizontalwithTh=constantand(Cc /Ch)=0,andforanevaporator,theoperatinglineisaverticallinewithTc =
constant,and(Cc /Ch)
Advantageofthismethodofrepresentationisthattheeffectivenessoftheheatexchangercannowbeshowngeometricallyasaratioof
twolengths.Forexample,forthecounterflowHXshowninFig.l2.l6(a),wehave:Cc >Chandtheeffectivenessisequalto/.
Forconstantspecificheatsoffluids,theoperatinglineisastraightline.Variationinspecificheatsoffluidsisalsoshowneasilyin
thesegraphs:AsshowninFig.l2.l6(d),iftheoperatinglinecurvesupwards,i.e.theslopeincreasesasthetemperatureincreases,it
meansthatCpofcoldfluidincreaseswithtemperature(or,theCpofhotfluiddecreaseswithtemperature).Similarly,iftheoperating
linecurvesdownwards,itmeansthatCpofcoldfluiddecreaseswithtemperature(or,theCpofhotfluidincreaseswithtemperature).
Effectivenessofaparallelflowheatexchanger:
Operatingline/Equilibriumlinemethodcanbeusedtodeterminetheeffectivenessofaheatexchanger.Letusillustratethisbriefly
withreferencetoaparallelflowHX:
RefertoFig.l2.l7.Line12istheoperatinglinefortheparallelflowHX.WeseefromthefigurethatCc <Ch,sincetheslopeofthe
operatingline=Cc /Ch.
And,Capacityratio,C=Cc /Cc .
FromtheFigl2.17:
Th1Tc1=
Tc2 Tc1=a1
FIGURE12.16Operatinglineandequilibriumlinesforheatexchangers
Therefore,
ForparallelflowHX,wehave:
Now,fromtheFig.12.17wehave:
Th2 Tc2 =b1
Th Tc1=
1
WealsoseefromtheFig.12.17:
FIGURE12.17Parallelflowheatexchanger
b1=b2 (Th1Th2 )
But,b2 =a1(fromtheFig.12.17,sinceequilibriumlineisat45deg.tohorizontal.)
Therefore,b1=(a1)(Th1Th2 )
SubstitutinginEq.A:
UsingEq.B:
Eq.CisthedesiredequationfortheeffectivenessoftheparallelflowHX.
ThisisthesameastheequationderivedearlierforparallelflowHX,i.e.Eq.12.51.WhilederivingEq.C,itwasassumedthatthecold
fluidwastheminimumfluidifweassumethatthehotfluidistheminimumfluid,thenalso,thesameresultwouldbeobtained.
12.8 Compact Heat Exchangers

2 3
Heatexchangerswithanareadensitygreaterthanabout700m /m areclassifiedascompactheatexchangers.Generally,theyare
usedforgases.
Compactheatexchangersare,typically,ofthreetypes:
1.arrayoffinnedcirculartubes Enjoy Safari? Subscribe Today
2.arrayofplatefinmatrix,and
3.arrayoffinnedflattubematrix.
Heattransferandpressuredropsforthesecompactheatexchangersaredeterminedexperimentallyandaresuppliedbymanufacturers
astheirproprietarydata.
Asanexample,aplatefintypeofheatexchangermatrix,manufacturedbyMarstonExcelsiorLtd.,isshowninFig.12.18.Asshownin
theFig.12.18,asingleelementconsistsoftwoplatesinbetweenwhichissandwichedacorrugatedsheet.Thetwoedgesaresealed.Dip
brazingtechniqueisusedtobuildacompleteheatexchangerblockfromindividualelements.Multiflowconfigurationsarepossible,
andthegenerallyusedcorrugationstypesare:plain(P),plainperforated(R),serrated(S)andherringbone(H).
Table12.9givesthegeometricaldataforsometypicalcorrugations.
FIGURE12.18Platefinheatexchangersforcryogenicservice(MarstonExcelsiorLtd.
TABLE12.9Geometricaldatafortypicalcorrugations(MarstonExcelsiorLtd.)
Intheabovetable,
a=freeflowareapermetrewidthofcorrugation
A1=(primarysurfaceareapermetrewidth)x(metrelengthofcorrugation)
A2 =(secondarysurfaceareapermetrewidth)x(metrelengthofcorrugation)
Dh=hydraulicmeandiameter
i.e.
KaysandLondonhavestudiedalargenumberofcompactheatexchangermatricesandpresentedtheirexperimentalresultsinthe
2/3
formofgeneralisedgraphs.HeattransferdataisplottedasSt.Pr againstRe,where,St=Stantonnumber=h/(G.Cp),Pr=Prandtl
2
number=.Cp/k,andRe=G.Dh/,G=massvelocity(=massflowrate/Areaofcrosssection),kg/(sm .)
Inthesamegraphs,frictionfactor,f,isalsoplottedagainstRe.
Asanexample,heattransferandfrictionfactorcharacteristicsforaparticulartubefinmatrixareshowninFig.12.19.
Pressuredropinplatefinheatexchangers:
Totalpressuredropforthefluidflowingacrosstheheatexchangerisgivenby:
FIGURE12.19Heattransferandfrictionfactorforplatefinnedcirculartubematrix(TraneCompany)
where
Kc andKe=flowcontractionandexpansioncoefficients,respectively
iando=densityatinletandexit,respectively
InEq.12.59,ontheRHS,thefirstterminsidethesquarebracketsrepresentstheentrancecontractioneffect,secondtermtheflow
acceleration,thethirdtermcorefrictionandthefourthtermtheexitexpansioneffect.Corefrictiondropisgenerally90%ofthe
totalpressuredrop.Forliquids,entranceandexitlossesarenegligible.ValuesofKc andKearegiveninKaysandLondon.
Pressuredropforfinnedtubeexchangers:Entranceandexiteffectsareincludedinthefrictionfactortherefore,Kc =Ke=0.
Then,totalpressuredropacrossthetubebankis:
Here,firsttermontheRHSistheflowaccelerationeffect,andthesecondtermisthecorefriction.
Fig.12.20showsaplatefinexchangerforanethyleneplantandFig.12.21showsanotherplatefinexchangerforanairliquefier.
Regenerators:
Regeneratorsareextensivelyusedinblastfurnacestoves,openhearthfurnaces,cokemanufacture,glassproduction,forairpre
heatinginpowerplants,ingasturbinesystemsandincryogenicplants,inStirlingcycleair(orhelium)liquefiers,incryogenicmini
coolersusedforcoolinginfrareddetectors,etc.Inaregenerator,hotandcoldfluidsflowalternatelythroughtheregeneratormatrix.
Thematrixmaybesandlimebricks,metalpackings,wirescreenmesh,leadballs,etc.,dependinguponapplication.Duringthehot
blowhotfluidflowsthroughthematrixandthematrixabsorbstheheatfromthefluidduringthecoldblow,coldfluidflows
throughthematrixandthematrixgivesuptheabsorbedheattothecoldfluid,thusheatingthefluid.Thus,suitablevalvingis
necessarytoalternatelyswitchthehotandcoldfluidsthroughtheregenerator.Inavalvedtypeofexchanger,generally,twoidentical
matricesareprovidedsuchthatwhenonematrixisbeingheated,theotherisbeingcooled.Alternately,regeneratormaybeofrotary
type,whereaporousmatrixisrotatedarounditsaxiscuttingthehotandcoldfluidlines,thustransferringheatfromthehottothe
coldfluid.
FIGURE12.20Aheatexchangerassemblywithassociatedpipeworkforanethyleneplant(MarstonExcelsiorLtd.)
AnalysisofaperiodicflowHXiscomplicatedsincethematrixandgastemperaturesvarywithbothpositionandtime.Aroughoutline
oftheanalysisisgivenbelow:
RefertoFig.12.22,whichshowsaregeneratordiagrammatically.Hotfluidflowsthroughthematrixduringthehotblowandheatsthe
matrix.Then,theflowisswitchedtoeffectthecoldblowandthecoldfluidflowsthroughthematrixandgetsheatedup.Thus,in
effect,heatistransferredfromthehotfluidtothecoldfluid.
Weareinterestedinthegasandmatrixtemperaturesatanylocationandatanytime.Theseareobtainedbywritinganenergybalance
foranelementofwidthdx,shownintheFig.12.22.Followingnotationsareused:
FIGURE12.21Airliquefierfora400Ton/dayOxygenplantusingtwo,763mm763mmblocksinparallel(MarstonExcelsior
Ltd.)
FIGURE12.22Periodicflowheatexchanger(Regenerator)
Ms =Massofsolid(matrixfilling)perunitlength,kg/m
M =Massflowrateofgas,kg/s
Cps =specificheatofsolid,J/(kgK)
Cpg =specificheatofgas,J/(kgK)
V =freevolumeperunitlength
A =heattransferareaperunitlength
3
=densityofgas,kg/m
L =lengthofmatrixcolumn
h =convectiveheattransfercoefficientbetweenthegasandthe
matrix Enjoy Safari? Subscribe Today
t =solidtemperatureatagivenlocationx
tg =gastemperatureatloc
Writingtheheatbalance:
Heattransferredbyconvectionbetweenthegasandthesolid=Heatstoredinthesolid
i.e.
Now,theheattransferredbyconvectionisalsoequaltotheheatstoredinthegascontainedinlengthdxplustheincreaseinthe
enthalpyofthegasasitpassesthroughtheelementdx.
i.e.
Aboveequationsaresimplifiedas:
Inmostofthepracticalsituations,theterm(.V/M)isverysmallandisneglected.Then,makingfollowingsubstitutions
theresultingequationsaresolvedwiththefollowingboundaryconditions:
TheresultsarepresentedusuallyingraphicalformandthenatureofgraphsisshowninFig.12.23(a)and(b).
FIGURE12.23Gasandsolidtemperaturechartsforaregenerator
Inthesegraphs,tgoistheinitialtemperatureofthegas,andtoistheinitialtemperatureofthesolid.
Fig.12.23(a)presentsthedimensionlessgastemperatureatanylocationasafunctionofandandFig.12.23(b)showsthe
dimensionlesssolidtemperatureasafunctionofand.
EffectivenessNTUrelationsforregenerator:
Effectivenessofaregeneratorispresentedasafunctionofthreedimensionlessparameters,asfollows:
where,NTUmod=modifiedNTU,givenby:
and,matrixcapacityrateisequaltomatrixmassratetimesthespecificheatofthesolid.
Fortherotarytypeofregenerator,
Forthevalvedtypeofregenerator,totalmassofboththeidenticalmatricesisused,multipliedbyvalvecycles/s,whereperiodisthe
intervalbetweenvalveontoofftoon.
KaysandLondonhavepresentedNTUmodgraphsfordifferentCr /Cminratios(rangingfrom1toinfinity),forgivenCmin/Cmaxratios
(rangingfrom0.5to1).Table12.10isasampletableshowingvaluesforCmin/Cmax=1.Fig.12.24presentsthistableingraphical
form.

TABLE12.10EffectivenessofperiodicflowHX(Cmin/Cmax=1)
FIGURE12.24EffectivenessofaperiodicflowHX(regenerator)for(Cmin/Cmax=1)
HigherNTUmodranges(oftheorderof100ormore)aregenerallyapplicabletoregeneratorsusedincryogenicapplicationsinsuch
cases,sincetheeffectivenessapproachesunityasymptotically,forbetterclarity,graphsareplottedwith(1)vs.NTUmod.(See
Appendixattheendofchapter).
TocalculateNTUmodweneedtheheattransfercoefficientsonthecoldandhotfluidsides.Wealsoneedtheheattransferarea.Heat
transfercharacteristicsintermsofColburnjfactorvs.Reynoldsnumber,andfrictionfactorvs.Reynoldsnumberarepresentedfor
manytypesofmatricesbyKaysandLondon.Theyalsoprovidephysicaldatasuchashydraulicdiameter,heattransferarea,porosity,
etc.,forthosematrices.Asanexample,heattransfercharacteristicsandfrictionfactordataforarandomlystacked,wirescreenmatrix
(usedtypically,ingasturbineregenerators)areshowninFig.12.25andFig.12.26,respectively.
Advantagesofregenerators:
2 3
1.Highsurfacedensity,oftheorderof3000m /m (fora24meshscreenmatrix,typicallyusedingasturbineregenerators),can
bepackedintoagivenvolume
2.Tendstobeselfcleaningbecauseofperiodicflowreversals
3.Cheaperonperunitheattransferareabasis.
Disadvantages:
1.Somemixingofhotandcoldfluidsisunavoidable
2.Sealingbetweenthefluidspresentssomeproblemifthepressuredifferentialislarge.
FIGURE12.25Colburnjfactorvs.Reynoldsnumberforarandomlysackedwirescreenmatrix
FIGURE12.26Frictionfactorvs.Reynoldsnumberforarandomlystackedwirescreenmatrix
12.9 Hydro-mechanical Design of Heat Exchangers

Sofar,westudiedthermaldesignaspectsforaheatexchanger.But,fromapracticalpointofview,thepressuredropthatoccurswhen
thefluidpassesthroughtheheatexchangersandthepumpingpowerrequiredtoeffectthisflow,arealsoimportant.Weshallonly
brieflymentionaboutthisaspect.
Obviously,flowoffluidthroughheatexchangerpassagesinvolvespressuredrop.And,highertheviscosityofthefluid,higherthe
pressuredrop.Totalpressuredropinaheatexchangersectioniscalculatedbysummingupthefollowingindividualpressuredrops:
1.Pressuredropsinstraightpassagesandpipebends,Pf
2.Pressuredropsduetoendeffects,i.e.duetoflowcontractionandexpansionattheends,Pe
3.Pressuredropsduetoflowacceleration(incasesofgasesinnonisothermalflow),Pa,and
4.Pressuredropduetoselfdraught(duetobuoyantforces)asaresultofchangeinelevationofflowchannels,Ps
(a)PressuredropsinstraightpassagesandbendsThesearedeterminedbyDarcyformula,asexplainedinthechapteron
convection.
3
InEq.12.68,isdensityoffluid(kg/m )andVismeanvelocityofflow(m/s).Thefrictionfactor,fDisdetermineddependingonthe
Reynoldsnumber,asexplainedinthechapteronForcedconvection.
Effectofbendsandvalvesintheflowlinesisgenerallyaccountedforbyaddinganequivalentlengthforeachbendorvalve,tothe
straightlength.EquivalentlengthsofafewfittingsareshowninTable12.11:
(b)PressuredropsduetocontractionsandexpansionsPeisafunctionofarearatioA1/A2 ,whereA1isthesmallerarea.
where,Vreferstovelocityatsmallercrosssection.
ValuesoffcontandfexpnaregiveninTable12.12theseareshowngraphicallyinFig.12.27.
(c)PressuredropsduetoflowaccelerationThispressuredrop,inachannelofconstantcrosssection,isequaltotwicethe
differenceinvelocityheads,i.e.
TABLE12.11Equivalentlengthsoffittings
Fitting L /D(forturbulentflowonly)
e
15
45Elbow
31
90Elbow(standardradius)
26
90Elbow(mediumradius)
20
90Elbow(longsweep)
65
90Squareelbow
75
180Closereturnbend
77
Swingcheckvalve,open
65
Tee(aseL,enteringrun)
90
Tee(aseL,enteringbranch)
Negligible
Couplings,unions
7
Gatevalve,open
40
Gatevalve,1/4closed
190
Gatevalve,1/2closed
840
Gatevalve,3/4closed
340
Globevalve,open
170
Anglevalve,open
TABLE12.12Suddencontractionandexpansioncoefficientsforatube
A /A f f
1 2 cont expn
0 1 0.5
0.1 0.8 0.45
0.2 0.65 0.42
0.3 0.5 0.38
0.4 0.37 0.34
0.5 0.22 0.28
0.6 0.14 0.23
0.7 0.1 0.2
0.8 0.03 0.12
0.9 0.01 0.07
1 0 0
FIGURE12.27Suddenconractionandexpansioncoefficientsforatube
where,subscripts1and2refertoinletandoutlet,respectively.
(d)PressuredropduetoselfdraughtIftheheightoftheverticalchannel(flue)ish,0=densityofcoldfluid(say,air)andp=
densityofhotfluid(say,fluegas),thenpressuredropduetoselfdraughtisgivenby:
where,gistheaccelerationduetogravity.Psispositiveforthedescendingfluidandnegative,ifthefluidisascendingthroughthe
channel.Psiszeroiftheheatexchangerisnotexposedtoambientair,butisconnectedinaclosedsystem.Then,thetotalpressure
dropisgivenbythesummationofallthesepressuredrops:
Powerrequiredtooriginatefluidflow:
Oncethetotalpressuredropinthesystemisdetermined,thepowerrequiredtocirculatethefluidthroughthesystemiseasily
calculated:
3
where, Flow=volumetricflowrate,m /s,
M=massflowrateoffluid,kg/s
Pt=totalpressuredrop,N/m2,and

3
3
=densityofliquidorgas,kg/m
=efficiencyofpumporfan.
12.10 Summary
Heatexchangerisoneoftheimportantpiecesofprocessequipment,usedextensivelyinresearchaswellasindustrialapplications.
Heatexchangersmaybeofrecuperative,regenerativeordirectcontacttype.
Inthischapter,wefocussedonthethermaldesignaspectsofheatexchangers.First,themethodofcalculatingtheoverallheattransfer
coefficientwasexplained.Inclusionoffoulingresistanceisanimportantaspectofdesignandthiswasdiscussednext.
Calculationoflogarithmicmeantemperaturedifference,LMTD,betweenthetwofluidstreamsexchangingheat,isanimportantstep
inthedesign.ProcedureofcalculatingtheLMTDforparallelandcounterflowheatexchangerswasexplainedformorecomplicated
typeofexchangers,suchascrossflowormultipassshellandtubeheatexchangers,meantemperaturedifferenceiscalculatedby
multiplyingtheLMTDofacounterflowHXbyacorrectionfactor.Correctionfactorgraphshavebeengivenforafewtypesofheat
exchangers.
Problemsinheatexchangeraremainlyoftwotypes:(i)designproblemswhereonehastocalculatetheareaoftheHX,and(ii)
performanceproblemswhereonehastocalculatetheoutlettemperaturesofboththefluids,giventheinlettemperatures.LMTD
approachissuitableforthefirsttypeofproblems,whereasforthesecondtypeofproblems,eNTUapproachisrecommended,since
inthiscaseLMTDapproachwouldrequirealaboriousiterativeprocedure.NTUrelationsandgraphsforafewimportantcaseshave
beengiven.Further,operatingline/equilibriumlinemethodwasalsobrieflyexplained.
Compactheatexchangersandregeneratorsarealsousedinavarietyofapplications.Briefmentionhasbeenmadeaboutthese
however,theirdesignisrathermoreinvolvedanduseofproprietarytechnicalinformationfromthesupplierscatalogueswillbe
required.Finally,calculationofpressuredropsandthenecessarypumpingpowerinaheatexchanger,hasbeenexplained.
Selectionofheatexchangersforaparticularapplicationisaserioustaskfortheengineerandthefollowingaspectsmustbeborne
inmindwhileselectingaheatexchanger:
1.requiredheattransferrate
2.necessarypumpingpower
3.typeofheatexchangermostsuitable,dependingupontheprocess
4.materialsofconstructionandfabricationandtestingprocedures,withdueconsiderationtooperatingtemperaturesand
pressures
5.sizeandweight,dependinguponapplication
6.easeofmaintenanceandservicing
7.safetyandreliabilityaspects,and
8.cost.
Questions
1.Howareheatexchangersclassified?Discussbrieflydifferenttypesofheatexchangers.WhyiscounterflowHXbetterthan
parallelflowHX?
[M.U.]
2.Drawtemperaturevs.lengthprofilesfor:(i)Condenser(ii)Evaporator(iii)CounterflowHXwithCh=Cc
[M.U.]
3.Whatisoverallheattransfercoefficient?Whatisitsimportance?Deriveanexpressionforoverallheattransfercoefficientfora
tubularHXbasedoninnersurfacearea.
[M.U.]
4.Explaintheterms:Foulingfactor,Effectiveness,NTUandLMTD.
[M.U.]
5.Writeshortnotesoncorrectionfactorchartsforcrossflowheatexchangers.
[M.U.]
6.Startingfromfundamentals,deriveanexpressionforthemeantemperaturedifferenceforcounterflowHXintermsofinlet
andoutlettemperaturesofhotandcoldfluids.
[M.U.]
7.DeriveanexpressionfortheLMTDofaparallelflowHX.Stateclearlytheassumptions.
[M.U.]
8.DeriveanexpressionfortheeffectivenessofacounterflowHXwhencapacityrateofhotfluidismorethanthatofcoldfluid.
Henceshowthateffectivenessofacondenserisgivenby:
=1exp(NTU)
[M.U.]
9.Startingfrombasics,deriveanequationfortheeffectivenessofaparallelflowHXintermsofNTUandcapacityratio.Also,
showthatwhencapacityratiois1,effectivenessisgivenby:
=().{1exp(2.NTU)}
[M.U.]
10.ProvethatforacounterflowHX,whenCmin/Cmax=1,
=NTU/(1+NTU).
[M.U.]
11.CompareLMTDandNTUmethodsofsolvingheatexchangerproblems.
12.Usingtheoperatingline/equilibriumlinemethod,deriveanexpressionfortheeffectivenessofacounterflowHX.AssumeCc
>Ch.
13.Writeashortnoteoncompactheatexchangersandregenerators.
Problems
1.Acopperpipe(k=350W/mK)of17.5mmIDand20mmODconveyswaterandtheoilflowsthroughtheannularpassage
2
betweenthispipeandasteelpipe.Onthewaterside,thefilmcoefficientisfoulingfactoris0.00034m K/W.The
2
correspondingvaluesfortheoilsidearem K/W.Calculatetheoverallheattransfercoefficientbetweenthewaterandoil,
basedonoutsidesurfaceareaofinnerpipe.
2.InashellandtubecounterflowHX,waterflowsthroughacoppertube(20mmID,23mmOD),whileoilflowsthroughthe
shell.Waterentersat20Candcomesoutat30Cwhileoilentersat75Candcomesoutat60C.Thewaterandoilsidefilm
2
coefficients.are:4500and1250W/(m K),respectively.Thermalconductivityoftubewallis355W/(mK).Foulingfactorson
2
waterandoilsidesare:0.0004and0.001m K/W,respectively.Ifthelengthoftubeis2.4m,calculatetheoverallheattransfer
coefficientandrateofheattransfer.
[M.U.]
3.Saturatedseamat120CiscondensingontheoutersurfaceofasinglepassHX.Theoverallheattransfercoefficientis1600
2
W/(m K).DeterminethesurfaceareaoftheHXrequiredtoheat2000kg/hofwaterfrom20Cto90C.Also,determinethe
rateofcondensationofsteaminkg/h.Assumelatentheatofsteamtobe2195kJ/kg.
[M.U.]
4.AHXisrequiredtocool55,000kg/hofalcoholfrom66Cto40Cusing40000kg/hofwaterenteringat5C.Calculate(i)
theexittemperatureofwater(ii)heattransfer(iii)surfacearearequiredfor:(a)parallelflowtype(b)counterflowtypeofHX.
2
TakeoverallheattransfercoefficientU=580W/(m K).Cp(alcohol)=3760J/(kgK)andCp(water)=4180J/(kgK).
5.InacounterflowdoublepipeHX,waterflowrateis1300kg/h.anditentersat15C.Itisheatedbyoil,Cp=2kJ/kgKoilflow
2 2
rateis550kg/h.Oilinlettemperatureis95C.OverallU=800W/m K.SurfaceareaofHX:1.34m .TableofNTUeisgiven
asfollows:
Capacityratio,R NTU Effectiveness
0.202 3 0.93
0.202 4 0.96
Findout,NTUandoutlettemperatures.
[M.U.]
6.Inagasturbineinstallation,acounterflowHX,hashotexhaustgasoutletat330C,andairoutletat460C.Foreachelement
ofHX,(dQ/(dT.dX)isuniformandisequaltoCandC.L=52.3kW/K.Capacityrateforhotfluid=21.76kW/Kandforcold
fluid=19.04kW/K.Temperaturevariationalongthelengthislinearforbothfluids.Calculatetemperaturesatentry.
[M.U.]
7.Aoneshell,2tubepasssteamcondenser,has2000tubesof20mmdiameter,withcoolingwaterentryat20C,flowrate3000
2 8
kg/sU=6890W/m K.Totalheattobetransferred,Q=2.33110 W.Steamcondensesat50C.Determinetubelengthper
passusingNTUmethod.Giventhatat0.6and0.64effectiveness,NTUis0.78and0.82.
[M.U.]
8.AwaterpreheaterofID:3.2cm,OD:3.52cm,isheatedbysteamat180C.Waterflowsthroughpipeatavelocityof1.2m/s.h
2
onsteamside:11,000W/m Kwaterisheatedfrom25Cto95C.kofpipematerial:59W/mK.Propertiesofwaterat60Care
4
given.Calculatethelengthrequired.Useappropriateempiricalrelation.Data:=4.6210 kg/msk=0.653W/mKCp=
4200J/kgK.
[M.U.]
9.ConsideraHXforcoolingoilenteringat180C,bywaterenteringat25Cmassflowratesofoilandwaterare:2.5and1.2
2
kg/s,respectively.Area:16m .SpecificheatdataforoilandwaterandoverallUaregiven:Data:Cpofoil=1900J/kgKCpof
2
water=4184J/kgKU=285W/m K.
CalculateoutlettemperatureofoilandwaterforparallelandcounterflowHX.
[M.U.]
10.InashellandtubeHX,50kg/minoffurnaceoilisheatedfrom10Cto90C.Steamat120CflowsthroughtheShellandoil
flowsinsidethetube.Tubesize:1.65cmIDand1.9cmOD.Filmcoefficientsonoilandsteamsidesare:85and7420
2
W/(m K).Findthenumberofpassesandnumberoftubesineachpassifthelengthofeachtubeislimitedto2.85m.Velocity
ofoilislimitedto5cm/s.Densityandspecificheatofoilare1970J/(kgK),respectively.
[M.U.]
11.Wateratarateof4080kg/hisheatedfrom35Cto75CbyanoilofCp=1.9kJ/(kgK).TheHXisofcounterflow,doublepipe
design.Theoilentersat110Candleavesat75C.Determine:(i)massflowrateofoil(ii)areaofHXnecessarytohandlethis
2
load,ifoverallheattransfercoefficient,U=320W/(m K).
[M.U.]
12.Asteamcondenser,condensingat70Chastohaveacapacityof100kW.Waterat20Cisusedandtheoutletwater
2
temperatureislimitedto45C.Iftheoverallheattransfercoefficientis3100W/(m K),determinethearearequired.Ifthe
inletwatertemperatureisincreasedto30C,determinetheincreasedflowrateofwatertomaintainthesameoutlet
temperature.
[M.U.]
13.Waterentersacounterflow,doublepipeHXat38Cflowingatarateof0.76kg/s.Itisheatedbyoil(Cp=1.88kJ/kgK)
2
Enjoy Safari? Subscribe Today andanoverallheattransfercoefficient
flowingatarateof0.152kg/sfromaninlettemperatureof116C.Foranareaof1.3m

2
2
of340W/(m K),determinethetotalheattransferrate.TakeCpforwater=4.170kJ/kgK.
Given:expressionforeffectivenessofdoublepipe,countercurrentHX:
14.Arefrigeratorisdesignedtocool250kg/hofhotliquid(Cp=3350J/kgK)at120Cusingaparallelflowarrangement.1000
2 2
kg/hofcoolingwaterisavailableatatemperatureof10C.IfoverallU=1160W/(m K)andthesurfaceareaofHXis0.25m ,
calculatetheoutlettemperaturesofthefluidsandalsotheeffectivenessoftheHX.
[M.U.]
15.Asteamcondenser,condensingat100Chasacapacityof150kW.Waterat25Cisusedandtheoutletwatertemperatureis
2
35C.Iftheoverallheattransfercoefficientis3000W/(m K),determinethearearequiredfortheHX.
[M.U.]
16.AparallelflowHXhashotandcoldwaterstreamsrunningthroughitandhasfollowingdata:mh=10kg/min,mc =25
kg/min,Cph=Cpc =4.18kJ/(kgK),Th1=70C,Th2 =50C,Tc1=25C.Individualheattransfercoefficientsonbothsidesare
areaofHX(ii)exittemperaturesofhotandcoldfluids,ifhotwaterflowrateisdoubled.
[M.U.]
17.Steamatatmosphericpressureenterstheshellofasurfacecondenserinwhichwaterflowsthroughabundleoftubesof
diameter=25mmatarateof0.05kg/s.Theinletandoutlettemperaturesofwaterare15Cand70C,respectively.
2
Condensationofsteamtakesplaceontheoutsidesurfaceofthetube.IfU=230W/(m K),usingNTUmethod,find:(i)
effectivenessoftheHX(ii)lengthoftuberequired,and(iii)rateofsteamcondensation.
[M.U.]
18.Aneconomiserinaboilerhaswaterflowinginsidethepipesandhotgasesontheoutside,flowingacrossthepipes.Theflow
rateofthegasesis2000tonne/handtheyarecooledfrom390Cto200Candtheirspecificheatis1005J/(kgC).Wateris
2
heatedunderhighpressurefrom100Cto220C.Assuminganoverallheattransfercoefficientof35W/(m C),determinethe
arearequired.Thecorrectionfactor,F=0.8.
[M.U.]
19.Hotoilisbeingcooledfrom200Cto130CinaparallelflowHXbywaterenteringa25Candexitingat60C.Determinethe
outlettemperaturesofboththestreamsiftheHXismadecounterflow.
[M.U.]
20.AshellandtubeHXwithtwoshellpassesand8tubepasseshasethylalcohol(Cp=2670J/kgC)flowinginsidethetubes,and
water(Cp=4190J/kgC)flowsthroughtheshell.Ethylalcoholentersat25Candleavesat75Cwithaflowrateof2kg/s
2
whereaswaterentersat95Candleavesat45C.OverallheattransfercoefficientU=850W/(m K).Determinethesurfacearea
requiredfortheHX.
Appendix
InthisAppendixtoChapter12,somemoreinformationoncompactheatexchangersandregeneratorsisgiven.
ExampleA12.1.Airat2atmand400Kflowsatarateof5kg/s,acrossafinnedcirculartubematrixshowninFig.12.19.Dimensions
oftheheatexchangermatrixare:1m(W)0.6m(Deep)0.5m(H),asshowninFig.A12.1.Find:(a)theheattransfercoefficient
(b)thefrictionfactor,and(c)ratioofcorefrictionpressuredroptotheinletpressure.
Solution.
Data:
Physicalpropertiesofairat2atmand400K:
FIGUREA12.1ConfigurationofcompactheatexchangerforExampleA12.1
FromFig.12.19,wehave:
(a)And,heattransfercoefficient:
(b)Frictionfactor:
FromFig.12.19,forRe=2972,weget:
f=0.024(frictionfactor)
(c)Pressuredrop:
i.e.frictionalpressuredropis0.78%oftheinletpressure.
Fig.A12.2,A12.3,andA12.4showdataforthreemorecompactheatexchangermatrices,fromKaysandLondon.
Fig.A12.5showsdataforcrossedrodmatrices,randomstacking(d=0.375in.)usedinregenerators(KaysandLondon):
Fig.A12.6givesdataforaninfinite,randomlystackedspherematrix,withporosityvaryingfrom0.37to0.39.(KaysandLondon)
DataofFig.A12.6isgivenintabularforminTableA12.1.
AnalysisofregeneratorsbyNTUmethod:
Asexplainedearlier,inaregenerator,thesamespaceisalternatelyoccupiedbythehotandcoldfluidsregeneratormatrixstoresthe
heatduringtheflowofhotfluid(i.e.duringhotblow)andrejectsthisheattothecoldfluidduringtheflowofcoldfluidthroughthe
regeneratormatrix(i.e.duringcoldblow).Temperaturesofthegasaswellasofthematrixsolidarefunctionsofbothpositionand
time.Aftersufficientlylongtime,somesortofsteadystateisreached,andthesametemperaturedistributionisrepeatedineachcycle
ofoperation.
AnNTUanalysis,similartotheonedoneforheatexchangers,proceedsasfollows,withtheassumptionthatthesamemassflowrateof
gasismaintainedduringboththehotandcoldblows.(Ref:CryogenicSystemsbyR.F.Barron).
FIGUREA12.2Heattransfercoefficientandfrictionfactordataforfinnedcirculartubematrix(surfaceCF8.75/8J)
FIGUREA12.3Heattransfercoefficientandfrictionfactordataforfinnedcirculartubematrix(surfaceCF7.05/8J)
Followingnotationsareused:
ms =massofsolid(matrixfilling)inregenerator,kg
m =massflowrateofgasthroughregenerator,kg/s
cs =specificheatofsolid,J/(kgK)
cp =specificheatofgas,J/(kgK) Enjoy Safari? Subscribe Today
L =lengthofregenerator,m
Ah =totalheattransferareaofsolidmaterialinregenerator,
m2
3
=densityofgas,kg/m
T =temperatureofgasatlocationxandtime
Ts =temperatureofsolidmaterialatlocationxandtime
FIGUREA12.4Heattransfercoefficientandfrictionfactordataforfinnedflattubematrix(surface9.0.7375)
FIGUREA12.5Crossedrodmatrix,randomstacking(roddiameterd=0.375in.)
2
hc =heattransfercoefficientbetweenthesolidmaterialandgas,W/(m /C).
Now,applyingtheFirstlawtoadifferentialelementofgas:heattransferredtoorfromthegas=changeinenthalpyofgasinalength
dx,asitflowsthroughtheregeneratori.e.
Here,changeinenergystoredinthegaswithinthedifferentialelementisneglected.(Thisistrueforcryogenicregenerators.)
Again,applyingtheFirstlawtoadifferentialelementofsolidmaterial,wehave:heattransferredtoorfromthesolidmaterial=
changeinenergystoredwithinthesolidmaterial
FIGUREA12.6Dataforaninfinite,randomlystackedspherematrixwithporosityvaryingfrom0.37to0.39
TABLEA12.1Heattransferandfrictiondataforspherebedmatrices(KaysandLondon)(Randompacking,p=0.37to0.39)
2/3
Reynoldsnumber,N N .N f
R st pr
50000 0.0089 0.30
20000 0.0118 0.34
10000 0.0144 0.37
5000 0.0178 0.41
2000 0.023 0.47
10000 0.029 0.52
500 0.0355 0.59
200 0.046 0.80
100 0.056 1.10
50 0.069 1.65
20 0.091 3.0
10 0.112 5.2
SolvingEqs.1and 2 ,wegetthepartialdifferentialequationforthetemperatureofgasflowingthroughtheregenerator:
FromEq.(3),weobservethattwoimportantdimensionlessquantitiesareinvolvedintheanalysisofaregenerator,i.e.
Ntu =hc Ah/(mcp)=Numberofheattransferunits,and
Fn =hc Ah/(mscsf)=Frequencynumber,wheref=1/P=frequencyofswitchingthehotandcoldstream,P=
heatingorcoolingperiod.
f. =dimensionlesstime.
FIGUREA12.7NTUanalysisofaregenerator
FIGUREA12.8Gastemperaturedistributioninacounterflowregenerator
Eq.3hasbeensolvednumericallyfortemperaturedistributionofgas,byHausenforsteadystatecyclicoperationofaregenerator.
ResultsforaparticularcaseofNtu=10areshowninFig.A12.8,asanexample.
Oncethetemperaturedistributionisknown,actualenergytransferrediscalculatedas:
MaximumpossibleheattransferintheregeneratoroccurswhenthegasisheatedfromTco(i.e.temperatureofcoldgasenteringatx=
0)tothetemperatureThL(i.e.temperatureofhotgasenteringtheregeneratoratx=L).
Weget:
Then,regeneratoreffectivenesse,isgivenby:
Hausensnumericalsolutionfortheeffectivenessofaregeneratorasafunctionoffrequencynumberandnumberoftransferunits,is
showninFig.A12.9.
ItisclearfromFig.A12.9thatforalargeeffectiveness,weneedasmallfrequencynumber(F n)andalargenumberoftransferunits
(Nu),i.e.foralargeeffectivenessofaregenerator,therequirementsare:
1.largeheattransfercoefficient,hc
2.smallgasmassflowrate,m,orsmallgascapacityratem.cp
3.largeproductofregeneratormatrixmassanditsspecificheat,ms.cs
4.largefrequency,f.
2
ExampleA12.2.Followingdataaregivenforaregenerator:heattransfercoefficient=640W/(m K),heattransferareaperunit
2
length=100m /m,massofmatrixsolidperunitlength=8kg/m,specificheatofmatrixmaterial=800J/(kgK),frequencyof
operation=60cpm(=1cycle/s),massflowrateofgasthroughregenerator=0.013kg/sandspecificheatofgas=5200J/(kgK).
Desiredeffectivenessofthisregenerator,operatinginacounterflowmode,is0.95.Determinethelengthoftheregeneratorrequired.
Solution.
Data:
FIGUREA12.9Effectivenessofacounterflowregenerator
Numberofheattransferunits:
ForaF n=10and=0.95,getthevalueofNtufromFig.A12.9:
Therefore,heattransferarearequired:
Therefore,regeneratorlengthrequired:
Regeneratorineffectiveness(1)vs.NTUgraphsforcryogenicregenerators:
Asstatedinthetext,cryogenicregenerators,generally,havelargevaluesofmodifiedNTU(i.e.NTUmod),oftheorderof100ormore.
ItmaybeobservedthatintheusualNTUgraphs,thevalueofapproachesunityasymptoticallyso,forcryogenicheatexchangers,it
ismoreinstructiveandconvenienttodrawregeneratorineffectiveness(1)againstNTUmodinloglogcoordinates.Twosample
graphs,oneforCmin/Cmax=1,andtheotherforCmin/Cmax=0.95,areshowninFig.A12.10andFig.A12.11,respectively.(Ref:
CompactHeatExchangersbyKaysandLondon).
FIGUREA12.10RegeneratorineffectivenessasafunctionofNtu0andmatrixcapacityrateratio(Cmin/Cmax=1)
FIGUREA12.11RegeneratorineffectivenessasafunctionofNtu0andmatrixcapacityrateratio(Cmin/Cmax=0.95)
Example 12.9.
Example12.9.CalculatethesurfacearearequiredforaHXtocool55,000kg/hofalcoholfrom66Cto40Cusing40,000kg/h
ofwaterenteringat5C,forthefollowingarrangements:(i)counterflow,tube&shell(ii)Parallelflow,tube&shell(iii)Reversed
currentHXwith2shellpassesand12tubepasseswithalcoholflowintheshell.AssumeLMTDcorrectionfactoras0.96(iv)cross
flowwithonetubepass,withshellsidefluidassumedtobemixed,withLMTDcorrectionfactoras0.91.AssumeUbasedonoutside
2
areaoftubesas570W/(m K).Cpofalcoholis3.8kJ/(kgK)andforwater4.187kJ/(kgK).
Solution.
****
FigureExample12.9Counterflowheatexchanger
Data:
Mh=****
i.e.mh=15.278kg/smassflowrateofhotfluid(Alcohol)
mc=****
i.e.mc=11.111kg/smassflowrateofcoldfluid(Water)
Th1=66Cinlettemperatureofhotfluid
Th2=40Cexittemperatureofhotfluid
U=570W/(m2K)overallheattransfercoefficient
Tc1=5Cinlettemperatureofcoldfluid
Cph=3.8kJ/(kgK)specificheatofhotfluid
Cpc=4.187kJ/(kgK)specificheatofcoldfluid
F1=0.96Correctionfactorforcase(iii)
F2=0.91Correctionfactorforcase(iv)
Case(i):CounterflowHX
Q=mhCph(Th1Th2)
i.e.Q=1.509103kW
Exittemperatureofcoldfluid:
Tc2=Tc1+****
i.e.Tc2=37.446C
TocalculateLMTDforcounterflowHX:
Now,d*T1=Th1Tc2
i.e.d*T1=28.554Ctemperaturedifferenceatinlet
and,d*T2=Th2Tc1
i.e.d*T2=35Ctemperaturedifferenceatexit
and,LMTD1=****

i.e.LMTD1=31.668CLogMeanTemperatureDifference

Therefore,arearequired:
A1=****
i.e.A1=83.622m2arearequiredforacounterflowHX.
Case(ii):ParallelflowHx:
Q=mhCph(Th1Th2)
i.e.Q=1.509*103kW
Exittemperatureofcoldfluid:
Tc2=Tc1+****
Tc2=37.446C
TocalculateLMTD:
Now,d*T1=Th1Tc1
i.e.d*T1=61Ctemperaturedifferenceatinlet
and,d*T2=Th2Tc2
i.e.d*T2=2.554Ctemperaturedifferenceatexit
and,LMTD2=****
i.e.LMTD2=18.419CLogMeanTemperatureDifference
Therefore,arearequired:
A2=****
i.e.A2=143.771m2arearequiredforaparallelflowHX
Case(iii):ReversedcurrentHX:
A3=****includingthecorrectionfactorF1
A3=87.107m2arearequiredforareversedcurrentHX.
Case(iv):CrossflowHX:
A4=****includingthecorrectionfactorF2
i.e.A4=91.893m2arearequiredforacrossflowHX.
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10/1/2016 Chapter12.

Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer

12.2 Types of Heat Exchangers

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TypeofHX Hydraulicdiameter(mm) Surfacearea/Volume,

Plaintube,shellandtube 40to6 60600

Plateheatexchangers 20to10 180350

heatexchangers 10to0.5 3507100

Automotiveradiators 5to2.5 7101500

Cryogenicheatexchangers 3.7to1.7 10002500

Gasturbinerotaryregenerators 1.2to0.5 30007100

Matrixtypes,wirescreen,sphere 2.5to0.2 150018000

Humanlungs 0.2to0.15 1800025000

12.3 Overall Heat Transfer Coeicient

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12.4 The LMTD Method for Heat Exchanger Analysis

12.4.1 Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger

dQ=mhCphdTh=mc Cpc dTc (12.17)

where,mhandmc arethemassflowrates,andCphandCpc arethespecificheatsofhotandcoldfluids,respectively.

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Now,notethat(Th2 Tc2 )isthetemperaturedifferenceattheexitand(Th1Tc1)isthetemperaturedifferenceattheinletoftheheat

12.4.2 Counter-flow Heat Exchanger

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dQ=mhCphdTh=mc Cpc dTc (12.27)

where,mhandmc arethemassflowrates,andCphandCpc arethespecificheatsofhotandcoldfluids,respectively.

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Now,notethat(Th2 Tc2 )isthetemperaturedifferenceattheexitand(Th1Tc2 )isthetemperaturedifferenceattheinletoftheheat

(v)Whenafluidiscondensingorboiling,itstemperatureisessentiallyconstant,i.e.Th1=Th2 foracondensingfluidandTc1=Tc2 for

Property Water Oil

Q:=mc cpc (Tc2 Tc1)W

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12.5 Correction Factors for Multi-pass and Cross-flow Heat Exchangers

Q:=mc Cpc (t2 t1)W

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12.6 The Eectiveness-NTU Method for Heat Exchanger Analysis

Now,ChmaybeequaltoCc orlessthanCc orgreaterthanCc .

Instead,ifCh>Cc ,wedesignateCc asCmin.

Qmax=Cc (Th Tc1)(ifCc isminimumcapacityrate,Cmin.)

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12.6.1 Eectiveness-NTU Relation for a Parallel-flow Heat Exchanger

Now,substitutingforTh2 andTc2 fromEq.12.46,weget:

Now,assumingCh>Cc ,i.e.coldfluidastheminimumfluid,wehave:Cmin=Cc andCmax=Ch.

12.6.2 Eectiveness-NTU Relation for a Counter-flow Heat Exchanger

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Now,substitutingforTh2 andTc2 fromEq.12.46,weget:

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12.7 The Operating-line/Equilibrium-line Method

Th2 Tc2 =b1

12.8 Compact Heat Exchangers

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12.9 Hydro-mechanical Design of Heat Exchangers

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