IET Generation, Transmission & Distribution

Research Article

ISSN 1751-8687
On-line voltage stability index based on the Received on 21st December 2015
Revised on 21st May 2016
voltage equation of transmission lines Accepted on 9th July 2016
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2015.1544
www.ietdl.org

Xue Ancheng 1, Liu Ruihuang 1 , Li Mingkai 1, Joe H. Chow 2, Bi Tianshu 1, Yu Ting 3, Pu Tianjiao 3
1
State Key Laboratory of Alternate Electrical Power System with Renewable Energy Sources, North China Electrical Power University,
Changping District, Beijing 102206, Peoples Republic of China
2
Department of Electrical, Computer and Systems Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy NY 12180, USA
3
China Electric Power Research Institute, Beijing, Peoples Republic of China
E-mail: pianoboyliu@163.com

Abstract: This study proposes a new voltage stability index based on the voltage equation of transmission lines. The
proposed index is obtained by using the characteristic that the sensitivity of voltage to power at the voltage collapse
point tends to be infinite. Furthermore, the proposed index is also validated in the case of inverse power flow, and the
condition of monotonicity is discussed. Simulation results in a single branch system, a 10-bus system and a regional
power system verify the effectiveness of the proposed on-line voltage index. The simulation results also show that the
proposed index is better than the on-line branch voltage stability index and is more promising for use in industry. The
proposed index can be readily calculated from the measurements at the two terminals of the branch, which can be
obtained with PMUs. Hence it is suitable for online applications. Finally, issues related to the practical application of
the proposed index are discussed.

1 Introduction
Voltage collapses occur quite frequently in power systems and may
cause widespread power failure, even blackout [1]. In order to avoid
voltage instability, many voltage stability indexes have been
proposed for evaluating the distance between the current state of
power system and the voltage collapse point [25].
Currently, the widely-used static voltage stability indexes are
mostly based on power ow equations which take the limiting
value of power transfer as the critical point of voltage stability.
They can be grouped into the following categories:
i. The indexes based on the singularity of the power ow
Jacobian matrix, such as the singular value index and eigenvalue
index [69]. Near the voltage collapse point, the Jacobian matrix
is close to singular, hence the minimum singular value or
eigenvalue index could measure the distance of the current state
from the voltage collapse point. These indexes indicate the
global stability of the system, but their computation would
require information of the whole network and large amount of
calculation.
ii. The indexes constructed with the multiple-solution property of
power ow equations, such as VIPI [10] and the load margin index
[1113]. These indexes explore the characteristics of
multiple-solution power ow equations having two solutions near
the collapse point, merging into one solution toward the collapse
point. Furthermore, the load margin index [1113] could compute
the margin to the voltage collapse point. These indexes can be
obtained with the PV curve method with high accuracy. However,
it is affected by the operating model of the power system, as the
increase in generation and load should be accounted for in the
computation.
iii. The indexes obtained by using relationship between certain
physical variables of the power system, such as sensitivity indexes
[1417]. Sensitivity indexes not only represent voltage stability,
but also can identify weak buses of the system. However, these
indexes do not involve static and dynamic characteristics of the
loads, as well as constraints on reactive power capability of
generators.
iv. The indexes obtained with equivalent electrical distances, such
as the impedance value index [18]. These indexes use the Thevenin
equivalent to get the equivalent power system model and have been
applied to large systems. However, the computation of the Thevenin
equivalent under different operation conditions is still a challenging
problem.
v. The indexes obtained with the existence of solution of the
power ow equations such as the on-line branch voltage stability
index [1924], local safety index [25, 26], fast voltage stability
index [27], a novel line stability index [28], and line collapse
proximity index [29]. The above indexes are obtained with the
discriminant of the solution of the quadratic equations from the
power ow. The critical point of the discriminant is taken as the
voltage collapse point. They are obtained with a single-line power
system with PQ loads. Thus, the applications of the above
methods to multi-branch systems with general loads may exhibit
some inconsistencies.
As stated above, there have been a lot of static voltage stability
indexes which could indicate the global or local voltage stability
of the system. The global indexes could reect the stability of the
whole system but would not indicate the weak region, while the
local indexes could. On the other hand, the local indexes mainly
concern the voltage stability of buses, and few of them could
reveal the voltage stability characteristics of branches.
Furthermore, among the branch voltage stability indexes, the
on-line branch voltage stability index seems to be promising
[1924]. As stated above, the online branch index is obtained from
a mathematical point of view, without considering voltage collapse
characteristics of the power system. It is also limited to constant
PQ loads. Thus, there are still possible improvements to branch
voltage stability indexes.
By recognising the above problems, this paper proposes a new
branch voltage stability index based on the branch voltage
equation. The proposed index is obtained by using the
characteristic that the sensitivity of voltage to power at the voltage
collapse point tends to be innite. The proposed index can be
calculated with on-line PMU data provided that PMUs are
installed at the terminals of the transmission lines.

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 14, pp. 34413448
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016 3441
 The rest of the paper is organised as follows. Section 2 presents Thus, at the critical point, the following relationship stands
the derivation of the proposed index. Section 3 presents the

characteristics of the proposed index. Simulation results and
2Vi2 Vj 4Vj3 4 Pj R + Qj X Vj 0 (7)
analysis in a single-branch system and two multiple-branch
systems are presented in Sections 4 and 5, respectively. Some
issues about practical applications are discussed in Section 6. The Furthermore, (7) can be written as
conclusions and remarks are presented in Section 7.
























Vi2 2(Pj R + Qj X )
Vj (8)
2 New voltage stability index 2

This section presents the derivation of the proposed index from a On the other hand, if Bus i is the sending bus, then P > 0.
simple branch model. According to the PV curve, if the system is static voltage stable,
The bus voltage of the branch with Buses i and j, as shown in then dVj/dP j < 0. Therefore, if the system is stable, the following
Fig. 1, satises the following equation inequality is obtained


































































 2  2 Vi2 2(Pj R + Qj X )
 Pj R + Qj X Pj X Qj R
Vi =  Vj + + (1) Vj . (9)
Vj Vj 2

which can be rewritten as

where Vi and Vj are the voltages of both ends; P j and Q j are the
positive active and reactive power owing from Bus i to Bus j; R 

























and X are the equivalent resistance and reactance of the branch, B Vi , 2Vj2 + 2 Pj R + Qj X (10)
is the equivalent susceptance, as noted in Fig. 1.
With (1), the equation relating P, Q, and V can be obtained as
With (10), the new voltage stability index could be dened as
Vi2 Vj2 = Vj4 + 2(Pj R + Qj X )Vj2 + (Pj R + Qj X )2 + (Pj X Qj R)2 (2)
Vi
Dijv =























(11)
Furthermore, (2) can be written as 2Vj2 + 2(Pj R + Qj X )

Vj4 + (2Pj R + 2Qj X Vi2 )Vj2 + Pj 2 Z 2 + Qj2 Z 2 = 0
where Z 2 = R 2 + X 2.
Suppose that Vi does not change with P j (if the sending end is a
PV bus or balanced bus), i.e. dVi/dP j = 0. Let dQj /dPj = cot w,
where j is the power factor angle. Differentiating (3) with respect
to P j, the following equation can be obtained
(3) Equation (11) shows that if the power system is voltage stable, then
0 , Dijv , 1. Furthermore, (5)(10) show if the system is close to the
collapse point, then the index (11) will be close to 1.
In addition, for a system with n branches, the voltage stability
index of the whole system can be dened as
Dv = max {D1v , D2v , Dnv } (12)

dVj dVj The index (12) means that the most unstable branch is taken as the
4Vj3 + (2R + 2 cot wX )Vj2 + (4Pj R + 4Qj X 2Vi2 Vj ) instability indicator of the whole system.
dPj dPj
+ 2Z 2 Pj + 2 cot wZ 2 Qj = 0 (4) Remark 1: The proposed index (11) is dimensionless, and hence it
can be calculated either with per-unit or absolute values.
which can be simplied to
Remark 2: In (11), P j = Pj is the active power ow which can be
obtained with PMU; Q j is the reactive power ow without the
dVj Z 2 Pj + (R + X cot w)Vj2 + Q cot wZj2 contributions of line charging, which is not a physical quantity
= (5)
dPj Vi2 Vj 2Vj3 2(Pj R + Qj X )Vj and could not be directly obtained with PMU. However, taking
into account that the susceptance (B) of the transmission line,
If the power system is approaching the collapse point, then according which is usually known or could be estimated, Q j can be
to the PV curve [7], the sensitivity of voltage to power tends to be computed as Qj = Qj Vj2 B/2, where Qj and Vj can be obtained
innite, i.e. dVj/dP j with PMU. Thus, the proposed index (11) can be computed with
According to (5), its denominator tends to be zero, i.e. the PMU measurements at the branch terminals, which implies that
the method is suitable for on-line applications to evaluate voltage
 stability of the power systems in real time.
2Vi2 Vj 4Vj3 4 Pj R + Qj X Vj  0 (6)

3 Characteristics of the proposed index

This section presents the characteristics of the proposed index from a
simple branch model.

3.1 Validation with reverse power flow

In Section 2, the proposed index (11) is derived based on the

assumption that Pj > 0. In the actual system, the case of reverse
power ow (Pj < 0) exists, i.e. the active power transmitted in the
Fig. 1 Model of a -equivalent branch line ows from the wind farms to the point of common coupling

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 14, pp. 34413448
3442 & The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016
(PCC) as shown in Fig. 2. The rest of this subsection will Using (1), (11) can be written as
show that the proposed index Dv is still valid in the case of Pj < 0,
Qj = 0. Vi
Neglecting the resistance of the transmission line in Fig. 2, the Dijv =

























following equations can be obtained 2Vj + 2(P j R + Q j X )
2

Vi
= 



































































(19)
Vj Vi sin d  2

=P (13) 2Vj Vi2 ((P j X Q j R)/Vj )
xL

If Pj > 0, Qj > 0, Vj will decrease with the increase of transmitted

Vj2 Vj Vi cos d power on the line provided that Vi remains x. Consider the
=0 (14)
xL following two cases:

i. Active power and reactive power increase with the same power
which can be combined to form the relationship factor:

In this case, (Pj /Qj ) = (kPj0 /kQj0 ) = cot w where P j and Q j are
Vi2 sin 2d the initial active and reactive power.
=P (15)
2xL If

Then the maximum transmit active power Pmax can be obtained as Pj0 R
cot w = . (20)
Pmax = Vi2 /2xL . Pj0 X
When P < Pmax, there are two solutions
is also satised, then Pj X Qj R = k(Pj0 X Pj0 R) will increase
with the increase of transmitted power. Therefore, the dominator

d = 1 arcsin 2PxL of (19) will decrease and Dijv will increase with the increase of
1
2 Vi2 (16) transmitted power.

V 1 = V cos d
j i 1
Furthermore, the condition (20) is often satised as usually R < X
in a high voltage transmission line and P > Q when the system is
transmitting power.

d = p d ii. Active power and reactive power increase in the direction of
2 1
2
V 2 = V sin d
(17) l = (dPj /dQj )
j i 1
In this case, if
When P = Pmax, the single

solution corresponds to Pmax is dPj R
l= . (21)
dP max = (p/4), V jP max = ( 2/2)Vi . dQj X
Therefore, as the load increases to the maximum power
transmission limit Pmax, the two voltage solutions merge into a
then Dijv will increase with the increase of transmitted power, which
single solution, which implies that the PV curve has a nose point.
is similar to Case 1.
Thus dV/dP still holds when Pij < 0, Qij = 0, hence the index
For other conditions (i.e. in the case same as Section 3.1), it is
Dv is still applicable as stated in Section 2.1.
possible for Vj to increase rst and then decrease with the increase
of the transmitted power, i.e. Dv may decrease rst and then
Remark 3: In the case of Pij < 0, Qij 0, similar method can be used increase to 1 at the voltage collapse point.
to verify that dV/dP still holds as multi-solution merge into a
single solution at the voltage collapse point. Thus the index Dv is
still applicable as shown in the simulations in Section 4.2.
4 Simulation results for a two-bus system

This section presents the simulation results corresponding to the

cases in Section 2 and Section 3.1, respectively, for a two-bus
3.2 Conditions for the monotonicity of the proposed (single-branch) system as shown in Fig. 3. The line parameters
index represent a 330 kV transmission line in a regional system of
China, which are in per-unit on a 100 MVA base. In the
This subsection analyses the conditions of the monotonicity for the simulation, the generator capability limits have not been taken into
proposed index. account.

4.1 Pj > 0 and Qj > 0

This subsection presents the simulation for Pj > 0 and Qj > 0.

Fig. 2 Wind farms generate power to PCC Fig. 3 2-bus system

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& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016 3443
 In the simulation, two cases of active load and power increases are
solved until the power ow no longer converges.
Case 1: Active power increases while reactive power remains
unchanged and Pj0 = 3.6 pu, Qj0 = 2.2 pu.
Case 2: Active power and reactive power increase with the same
power factor and Pj0 = 3.6 pu, Qj0 = 2.2 pu.
The voltages levels, the proposed voltage stability index Dv (11),
and the on-line branch index Lv (as shown in Appendix) of these two
cases are shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4 shows that the proposed index Dv increases as the load
increases. Near the voltage collapse point, the index approaches
1. Thus it could serve as a reliable voltage stability index as stated
in Section 2.
Furthermore, Fig. 4 shows that with increasing load, the proposed
index Dv reaches 1 without any false positive or false negative
indications, while the on-line branch index Lv shows a false
positive indication when it increases to 1 and has values <1 at the
voltage collapse points (false negative). Furthermore, compared
with Lv, Dv changes more gradually and is monotonic, with higher
sensitivity as the voltage instability point is reached. Thus the
proposed index Dv is a more suitable voltage instability index.
4.2 Pj < 0 or Qj < 0
This subsection presents the simulation results for Pj < 0 or Qj < 0.
In the simulation, three cases of active load and power increase
with different initial conditions are calculated until the power ow
no longer converges.
Case 3: Active load and power increase with the same power factor
and Pj0 = 3.6 pu, Qj0 = 2.2 pu.
Case 4: Active load and power increase with the same power factor
and Pj0 = 3.6 pu, Qj0 = 2.2 pu.
Case 5: Active load and power increase with the same power factor
and Pj0 = 3.6 pu, Qj0 = 2.2 pu.
The voltage levels, the proposed voltage stability index Dv (11) are
shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5 shows that the proposed index Dv increases as the load
increases. Near the voltage collapse point (where dV/dP ), the
index approaches 1. Thus it could serve as a reliable voltage
stability index as stated in Section 3.1.
Furthermore, Case 4 and Case 5 do not meet the monotonicity
conditions of Section 3.2. The proposed index Dv is not
monotonous as it decreases rst and then increases to 1 at the
voltage collapse point.
Fig. 4 Comparison of two voltage stability indexes of the 2-bus system
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Fig. 5 Proposed Dv and voltage for the 2-bus system in the case of Pj < 0
5 Simulation results for large systems
This section presents the simulation results for a 10-bus system [2]
and a regional power system.
5.1 10-bus system
This subsection presents the simulation results of index Lv and the
proposed index Dv with respect to increasing wind power
connected at different buses in a 10-bus system, as shown in
Fig. 6. In the system, the system load is supplied through Buses 7
and 10. The wind power is connected to Bus 5 which is near the
synchronous generator 2, and the wind plants do not control the
voltage.
Consider the case that the wind power and the loads increase at the
same rate. The PV curves of the individual buses corresponding to
the increase of the penetration rate of wind power are shown in
Fig. 7. The relevant indexes Dv and Lv of Lines 56 and 89 are
computed and shown in Fig. 8, where 1% is equal to 60 MW.
The PV curves in Fig. 7 shows that when the penetration rate
reaches 19%, the voltage collapses. Meanwhile, Fig. 8 shows that
both the D89
v and L89
v are increasing with the increase of wind
power. It implies that when the wind power increases, the
transmission power owing through Line 89 increases, which
leads to a deterioration of the voltage stability. Besides, D56v is
increasing while L56 is decreasing, in response to the increase of
v
wind power. However, the analysis shows that, with the increase
of wind power, the transmitted power on Line 56 is also
increasing, as shown in Fig. 9. Thus the proposed voltage stability
index Dv is more appropriate and effective than the other branch
based voltage stability index Lv.
Furthermore, as shown in Fig. 7, the increasing loads on Bus 10
and Bus 7 lead to a voltage collapse. Hence the voltage stability of
Line 89 which is closer to the loads should be worse than Line
56 which is farther from the loads. However, D56 v is larger than
Fig. 6 10-bus system
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 14, pp. 34413448
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016

Fig. 7 Bus voltage corresponding to wind power penetration increasing at
Bus 5 near the generator
Fig. 8 Voltage stability indexes corresponding to wind power penetration
increasing at Bus 5 near the generator
D89
v and their values do not reach 1 when the voltage collapses. It is
due to the assumption dVi/dP j = 0 when differentiating (3). In the
multiple-branch systems, this assumption is usually not accurate.
Besides, as shown in Fig. 5, the voltage of Bus 5 has a much
smaller change than that of Bus 6 which is similar to a PV bus.
Thus D56
v is close to 1 at the collapse point. The voltage of Bus 8
Fig. 9 Active power of Branch 56 at different wind penetration at Bus 5
close to the generator
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 14, pp. 34413448
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016
Fig. 10 Voltage stability indexes with different wind power penetration
increasing at Bus 8 close to the load
is close to Bus 9 which could not be treated as a PV bus. Thus
D89
v is smaller than D56 v . Section 6.1 will discuss possible
improvements to the proposed Dv index in multi-branch systems.
Similarly, in the case of wind power connected to Bus 8 which
is close to the loads, the voltage stability indexes Lv and Dv of
Lines 89 and 56 are shown in Fig. 10. As Fig. 10 is similar to
Fig. 8, the analysis results are similar.
5.2 Regional power system
This subsection presents the simulation results in a regional Chinese
electric power system, as shown in Fig. 11. In this regional power
grid, the wind power generation capacity is 6,156 MW, which is
60% of the total power generation capacity, and the export
capacity of the high-voltage direct currenttransmission system is
3820 MW.
Assuming that the load and generation of the region are increased
with a constant power factor, the PV curves of some typical buses
can be obtained and shown in Fig. 12. The proposed index Dv and
the voltage-stability index Lv can also be obtained and shown in
Figs. 13 and 14, respectively.
Fig. 13 shows that, when the load grows, the proposed voltage
stability index D2223
v increases. It implies that a deterioration in
the voltage stability. The value of D2223
v almost reaches 1 at the
collapse point. Meanwhile, the other Dv indexes increase more
slowly or remain nearly constant. However, Fig. 12 shows that the
online branch indexes Lv behave unreliably and cannot indicate the
voltage stability of the system. Thus, the proposed index Dv is
much more reliable than the index Lv.
On the other hand, as mentioned in the simulation of 10-bus
system, when one end of the branch has a relatively xed voltage
(Branch 2223, Bus 22), Dv works well, while if neither end of
the branch has a relatively xed voltage, the proposed index Dv
changes slowly and needs to be improved.
6 Practical application
This section discusses the issues involved in the applications of the
proposed index Dv in the actual power system, especially focusing on
an equivalence method to improve the accuracy, the realisation of
system for voltage stability monitoring, and other issues.
6.1 Equivalence method
The condition that Vi remains constant may not be a good
approximation in the practical application of large systems, which
will reduce the accuracy of the proposed index Dv. Therefore, this
subsection shows the use of one certain equivalence method [30]
based on local measurements to improve the accuracy of the
proposed index Dv in the 10-bus system (Fig. 6).
3445
Fig. 11 Simplied diagram of a Chinese regional power grid

where the subscript k denotes the time k; Zeq i and Eeq i are
the equivalent impedance and equivalent voltage phasor behind
k k
Bus i, respectively; V i and V j are the voltage phasors at Buses
k
i and j, respectively; I ij and ZijI are the current and impedance of
k
Branch ij, respectively . The current I ij can be obtained as

k
k S j
I ij = k
(23)
V j

k k
where S j and V j are the complex conjugate of the power and
voltage phasors at time k.
With (22), E eq i and Zeq i can be obtained as
k k+1 k+1 k

V i I ij V i I ij

E =

eq i k+1 k
Fig. 12 PV curves of a regional system I ij I ij
(24)

k k+1
V i V i

=
Z
eq i k+1 k
The equivalence model of Branch ij, as shown in Fig. 15, satises I ij I ij
the following equation
Then, E eq i could be regarded as a constant, which is consistent with
k k k+1 k+1
the assumption of the derivation of the proposed index Dv in the
E eq i = Zeq i I ij + V i = Zj I ij + V i (22) two-bus system. Correspondingly, the impedance between the
virtual xed voltage bus and Bus j is

ZijII = Zeq i + ZijI (24)

With (24), the improved Dv in the equivalence method can be

obtained as

Fig. 13 Dv of a regional system with increasing load
 ij k Eeq i
Dv =
(25)
2
2(Vjk ) + 2(Pjk RIIij + Qkj XijII )
 k
where Dijv is the improved Dv index of Branch ij at time k.
Furthermore, the original Dv (11) and the improved Dv with
equivalence (25) with respect to increasing wind power connected
at Bus 5 in the 10-bus system can be obtained, as shown in Fig. 16.
Fig. 16 shows that the improved Dv is closer to 1 than the original
Dv at the voltage collapse point, which implies that with the
equivalence, the improved Dv is more accurate in the 10-bus
system. In fact, there are also some other equivalence methods
proposed [3033]. More work is still needed to improve the

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 14, pp. 34413448
3446 & The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016
Fig. 14 Lv of a regional system with increasing load
Fig. 15 Thevenin equivalent circuit of Branch ij
proposed Dv index with the use of equivalence methods in practical
systems.
6.2 Realisation of the voltage stability monitoring
system
To apply the proposed index Dv to actual power systems, a
three-layer voltage stability monitoring system can be established
according to the structure and conguration of the PMUs
and WAMS system in the high-voltage power grid of China (the
PMU data at a substation are transmitted to a local centre every
10/20 ms), as shown in Fig. 17. The three-layer system consists of
the substation layer, the local centre layer and the main station layer.
Fig. 16 Original Dv vs the improved Dv with equivalence in the 10-bus
system
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 14, pp. 34413448
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016
Fig. 17 Structure of the three-layer system for voltage stability monitoring
The substation layer collects the PMU data of each branch every
10/20 ms and transmits to the local centre. The proposed branch
voltage stability index (11) is computed in the local centre. The
local centre can use the synchronised indexes to assess the voltage
stability of the local area online.
Furthermore, in order to reduce the computation burden in the
local centre, the computation step of the voltage stability index
(11) can be set differently according to VSA (Voltage stability
assessment) results. In severe situations (Dv > A), the computation
step can be set to be the sampling rate of the PMU data. For B <
Dv < A, the time step can be in seconds, and for C < Dv < B, the
time step can be in minutes. The parameters of the A, B, and C
are determined by the actual systems.
To reduce the communication burden, the local centres upload the
assessment information and the indexes of severe branches to the
main station according to the local VSA results. Once the branch
index exceeds some thresholds, the information of branches and the
corresponding indexes should be transmitted to the main centre.
Armed with the synchronised index and several branches information,
the main station can assess the voltage stability of the whole power
grid and communicate the information to the control system if necessary.
6.3 Other considerations
There are some other issues with the proposed index that need to be
considered when the index is applied to practical systems.
i. For practical applications, even for a generator bus, the voltage
could not be considered xed as in a static approach. Time delays,
dead-bands, and saturations associated with voltage regulators may
have an inuence on the proposed index.
ii. The generator capability limits have not been taken into
account in this paper. For example, a PV bus may change to a PQ
bus when a generator reaches its capability limit and thus it would
inuence the proposed index.
iii. Due to the non-linear nature of the proposed index, the
computation of an accurate stability margin can be challenging.
Therefore, more research is still needed when applying the
proposed index to practical systems.
7 Conclusions
This paper proposes a new online voltage stability index based on the
branch voltage equation. The proposed index uses the characteristic
that the sensitivity of voltage to power at the voltage collapse point
tends to innity. The proposed index can be computed with
measurements at the two terminals of branches, thus it is suitable for
3447
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