Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2014) 74:16671677
DOI 10.1007/s00170-014-6111-1
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Simulation and verification of near-net shaping a complex-shaped
turbine disc by hot isostatic pressing process
Q. S. Wei & P. J. Xue & G. C. Liu & H. Lu & J. Huang &
Y. S. Shi
Received: 12 December 2013 / Accepted: 25 June 2014 / Published online: 8 July 2014
# Springer-Verlag London 2014
Abstract A new constitutive relation for powder materials
used in finite element analysis (FEA) of hot isostatic pressing
(HIP) complex-shaped parts was derived from Perzynas
elastic-viscoplasticity equations, and the stickslip boundary
modelling and thermomechanical coupling solution were
achieved. The temperature-dependent mechanical and thermal
parameters were determined through experiments. A
complex-shaped turbine disc from Inconel 625 alloy has been
simulated and produced. The predicted dimensions and rela-
tive densities have been compared with those measured from
the experiments, which shows a good agreement for most
regions of the turbine disc. The reasons for local predicted
discrepancies and physical defects were discussed, and future
improvements for FEA simulation and HIP process were
outlined.
Keywords Finite element analysis . Perzynas
constitutive relation . Hot isostatic pressing . Near-net
shaping . Inconel 625
1 Introduction
Hot isostatic pressing (HIP) can densify loose powder into
near-full dense metal parts, with the combined processing of
high temperature and pressure. Therefore, it is suitable for
manufacturing metal parts from difficult-to-cut and precious
materials. Combined with mould technology, it can be used to
Q. S. Wei (*) : P. J. Xue : G. C. Liu : H. Lu : J. Huang :
Y. S. Shi (*)
State Key Laboratory of Materials Processing and Die and Mould
Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering,
Huazhong University of Science and Technology,
Wuhan 430074, China
e-mail: wqs_xn@163.com
e-mail: shiyusheng@mail.hust.edu.cn
fabricate high-performance and complex-shaped metal parts
within a short period. However, the final geometry of the HIP
products differs from that desired in both shape and scale due
to the container stiffness and temperature gradient during the
densification process [1]. Using finite element analysis (FEA)
to predict those changes is very effective, especially for near-
net shaping complex-shaped parts. Yuan et al. [2] produced a
small casing component from Ti6Al4V powder by HIP and
compared the predicted dimensions with the experimental
measurements. Comparisons of the predicted and measured
two-dimensional (2D) configures for a small casing sample
showed a good agreement.
Metal materials will yield at a low stress under high tem-
peratures, and then deform with time. Considering the cou-
pling influence of temperature and pressure, a variety of
viscoplasticity models have been developed based on macro-
scopic approach, in which the macroscopic deformation of the
powder is estimated based on the conventional material yield
theory. Most of the proposed constitutive models belong to
porous material models that are based on the classical von
Mises model [3]. Abouaf et al. [4] proposed an equivalent
stress equation based on the yield theory of porous metals for
FEA of HIP and used a hyperbolic sine power-law equation to
describe the equivalent strain rate. This method obtained good
2D simulation accuracy for HIP of a complex-shaped turbine
disc. Svoboda et al. [5] used the same equivalent stress and
power-law equations with Abouafs models [4] to simulate the
HIP of hot-working martensitic steel. They described in detail
the solving process of finite element implementation and
validated 2D simulation examples with experimental mea-
surements. To consider the strain strengthening effect on the
powder, Gillia et al. [6] modified the Abouafs models [4] and
simulated the HIP of blanket shield components for ITER
applications.
In addition to the power-law models proposed by Abouaf,
the models in different forms for FEA of HIP were developed
1668 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2014) 74:16671677

by other researchers. Based on the equivalent stress equation the whole process of HIP discussed above, this study is
proposed by Abouaf, Hggblad and Li [7] used a microbased concerned with attempts to use Perzynas model for simulat-
densification rate equation to replace the power-law equation ing the viscoplasticity behaviour of powder during HIP pro-
in Abouafs models. The prediction error of the radial shrink- cess. The objectives are to build the finite element models
age for HIP of a turbine disc was less than 2 %. Jeon and Kim based on Perzynas constitutive relation, and to determine the
[8] implemented a FEA for HIP of 316 L stainless steel model parameters through experiments with Inconel 625 su-
powder, based on the Abouafs model and another power- peralloy; to simulate the mould deformation and the powder
law model. The comparison showed that the predictions for an densification during near-net shaping a turbine disc by HIP;
axisymmetric part by both models agreed well with the ex- and to validate the simulation accuracy of the new method by
perimental data of densification and deformation. Jinka [9] experimental results.
simulated the HIP of Astroloy powders using power-law
equations in two different forms. The simulation results
showed that the powder was not in a hydrostatic pressure state
during the normal cycle of HIP, whereas during isothermal 2 Simulations
and isotropic heating the isostatic pressure distribution was
achieved. Kim [10] incorporated the power-law creep model 2.1 The constitutive relations for powder during HIP process
with various diffusion models, and applied to the simulation
for HIP of 316 L stainless steel powder. The result indicated The equivalent stress for powder is defined by a double-
that the contribution of diffusional mechanisms was not sig- parameter equation as the following [15]
nificant for the powder densification compared with those
2eq A J 2 BI 21 1
from the plastic and creep deformation.
The creep deformation of metal materials will occur when
the processing temperature exceeds 30 % of the melting
temperature and have to be considered when the temperature where, eq is the equivalent stress. J2, I1 are the second and
is higher than 50 % of the melting point [11]. During the first invariants of the stress tensor, respectively. Variables A
whole HIP process, the operating temperature gradually rises and B are the functions of relative density D, can be expressed
to 5070 % of the melting temperature of the powder from as [16]
room temperature, keeps at that temperature value for a period
A 2 D2 2
of time, and then descends to room temperature through air
cooling. Consequently, at the beginning of heating and the end
of cooling, which is almost half of the HIP cycle, material
creep deformation does not happen because the processing
temperature is lower than the critical value of creep genera-
.
B 1D2 3 3
tion. Therefore, it may not be reasonable to describe the
powder behaviour in the HIP process using creep models.
Constitutive equations, including Perzynas model [12],
Peirce model, Logarithmic model and Johnson-Cooks model, According to Eq. (1), the yield function F can be described
were usually used to describe the thermal deformation of as
metal materials. Among them, the constitutive equation de- p q p
rived by Perzyna, a Polish researcher, was widely used for F eq y A J 2 BI 21 y 4
calculating elastic-viscoplasticity deformation of geomateri-
als. Using a nonlinear model combined with the viscoplastic
Perzynas law, Belaychi et al. [13] dealt with a where, y, is the yield stress for the dense material, varying
micromechanical analysis for the nonlinear behaviour of a with temperatures. is the geometric strengthening parameter,
composite-like rock material. The numerical results were in changing with the relative density , can be expressed as [17]
agreement with experimental findings. In addition, the
Perzynas model was also successfully used to simulate the 11 5
process of die-forging complex-shaped aluminium compo-
nents at high temperatures [14]. The above studies show that
the Perzynas model can not only describe the flowability of The Perzynas constitutive relation is expressed as [12]
metal powder similar to that of rock-soil, but also predict the
high-temperature deformation of metal materials. Considering
ij ije h F i 6
the irrationality of using power-law creep models to describe ij
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2014) 74:16671677 1669

where,ij , ije are the total strain rate and the elastic strain rate, Combining Eqs. (4), (9), and (10) gives
respectively. is the viscoplastic flow coefficient, and is the 
 q
plastic potential function. Expression of x is the Macaulay A 3B F ij
eq p
vp
A2 J 2 2B2 I 21 13
function, which can be defined as 3A 18B eq y
2 2


0; x 0
h xi 7
x; x>0 2.2 Modelling for the boundary friction during HIP process

Since the powder flow and the deformability difference

According to the isotropic associated flow rule, equals to between the mould and the powder, a relative move-
F. Assuming (F)=F n, n=1, Eq. (6) gives ment will occur in the contact area, the degree of which

 depends on the boundary geometry and the frictional

 F ij condition at mould-powder interface. This study as-
ij ij F ij
e
8
ij sumed that the contact boundary between powder and
mould did not penetrate each other and the pressure
only existed at the interface in the normal direction.
The friction on the powder-mould boundary during
The viscoplastic strain rate, ijvp is assumed to be [18]
HIP is modelled by stickslip models [19], i.e.



 F ij
vp
ij F ij 9 j F tj < f n 14
ij

The equivalent viscoplastic strain rate can be expressed as

q F t f n t v 15
eq
vp
C ijvpijvp 10

where, Ft is the friction force, and fn is the contact

force in the normal direction. is the friction coeffi-
where, variable C can be determined through a uniaxial load-
cient and tv is the tangential vector of relative move-
ing test. For a uniaxial loading test, 1 =, 2 =3 =0, then
ment. Equations (14) and (15) are stick and slip models,
F respectively.
1
C s 11
F F 2.3 Thermomechanical coupling solutions
ij ij
The heat conduction generated during HIP process could
result in thermal strains. Compared with the viscoplasticity
and thermal deformation, the elastic deformation during HIP
Substituting Eq. (4) for Eq. (12) gives process is not significant. Therefore, the total strain can be
A 3B expressed in an incremental form as
C r 12
3 2
A 9B2 dij dvp
ij dij
T
16
2

q where, dvp T
ij , dij are the viscoplastic and thermal strain incre-
2
For dense materials, A=1 and B=0, then C 3 . ments. dTij can be expressed as

Table 1 The composition of

Inconel 625 powder Elements

Ni Cr Mo Nb Fe Si Mn N Al O Ti C

Mass ratio (%) bal 21.4 8.9 3.48 1.49 0.42 0.39 0.12 0.10 0.06 0.02 0.02
1670 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2014) 74:16671677

Table 2 Material parameters against temperature of hot isostatic pressing Inconel 625 powder

Test temperature/C

Room temperature 200 400 600 800 1,000

Poissons ratio 0.278 0.286 0.294 0.314 0.339 /

Youngs modulus (GPa) 207 197 185 172 157 /
Thermal expansion coefficient,106/C 12.3 13 13.9 14.5 14.7 16.2
Specific heat capacity (J/(kgC)) 410 455 506 559 608 659
Thermal conductivity (W/(mC)) 8 12.4 15.5 18.7 21.7 24.9
Yield stress (MPa) 653 496 442 441 401 102

Z
    
dTij dT ij 17 T T T T T T T
T c kx ky kz TQ d
Z t
Z x x y y z z
Tqd ThT a T d 0
2 3

where, is the thermal expansion coefficient, and dT is the
temperature increment. The temperature field during the HIP
process can be calculated by the Galerkin weighted residual
method, expressed as [20]
18
where, c is the specific heat capacity (J/(kg K)); t denotes the
time (s); kx, ky and kz are the thermal conductivity coefficients
in x, y and z directions (W/(m K)). Q is the heat resource

Fig. 1 CAD plots of the turbine

disc
 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2014) 74:16671677 1671

density (W/kg), and 2,3 are the boundaries of solving

domain. q is the heat flux density on the boundaries (W/m2).
h is the convective heat transfer coefficient (W/(m2 K)), and
Ta is the temperature on adiabatic boundaries (K). the
solving domain of finite element calculation.
This study didnt consider the heat generated from
the phase transition and powder deformation, and thus
there was no heat resource within the powder, namely
Q=0. During HIP the powder is enclosed by a sealed
container, so 2 = 0. The powders outside surface,
namely boundary 3, contacts the moulds internal sur-
face. Equation (18) can be simplified as
Z  Z Z
T cT d T divkT d ThT a T d
3
19

where, div and denote divergence and gradient symbols,

respectively. The temperature value at each mesh node can be
determined by the following equation

HT KT P 20

where, H, K are the heat capacity and heat conduction matrix-

es. P and T denote the temperature load and node temperature
arrays. T is the time derivative array of the node temperature.
H, K and P take the forms as
Fig. 2 CAD plots of the mould for HIP of the turbine disc
8
> X X Z  N i N j N i N j N i N j

>
> K ij K eij kx ky kz d
>
> x x y y z z
> e
XZ
>
<
e
X
e the solving domain at the beginning of each incremental step;
H ij H eij cN i N j d update and calculate the thermal strains; calculate the equilib-
>
> e Z
e
>
> X
e
X rium equations using an iterative method, obtaining the stress,
>
>
>
: Pi PeNi hT a N i d
e
3
strain, displacement, and temperature at one iterative step;
e e
update the temperature and pressure loads; repeat the solving
21
steps above until the working load is completed. In order to

where, Keij, Heij are the heat conductivity and capacity matrixes
for each mesh unit, respectively. PeNi is the thermal load vector
applied on the outside surface of the powder domain, and
equals to the temperature on the internal surface of the mould.
Ni,Nj are the finite element interpolation functions for mesh
units. The temperature values on all mesh nodes at different
time can be calculated by Eq. (20). And then, the whole
temperature field can be solved by Eq. (19). Finally, the
thermal strain can be obtained by Eq. (17).
MSC.MARC, a commercial finite element programme,
was used to solve the models described above. In the process
of finite element calculation, the effect of temperature on the
material properties and thermal strains was considered, but the
effects of the deformation and phase transition on the temper-
ature were ignored. An updated Lagrangian incremental solu- Fig. 3 3D finite element meshes of a quarter of the turbine disc and the
tion was performed as follows: update the geometric shape of mould
1672
Fig. 4 Test condition for
temperature and pressure during
HIP
illustrate the applicability of the present formulation, the
mould deformation and powder densification during HIP of
a complex-shaped turbine disc were analysed numerically.
The powder and mould materials are the same as those used
in experiments, which will be described in Sect. 3. The mould
deformation during the HIP process was simulated using a
thermal-elastoplastic model.
3 Experiments
3.1 Material properties
The powder, denoted Inconel 625 chosen in this study is a
high-temperature alloy produced by Belgium Hoganas
Company using a gas atomisation process. The powder com-
position is given in Table 1. The particle size ranges between
22.49 and 56.2 m, and the average size is about 45 m.
Series cylindrical specimens (8 mm12 mm) with a relative
density of more than 99.5 % were made by HIP process (ABB
Inc., Mini-HIPper QIH-15). The high-temperature compres-
sion testings at room temperature, 200, 400, 600, 800, and
1,000 C on these specimens were performed using Gleeble-
3500 (Dynamic Systems Inc.) thermal simulated test machine.
The strain rate was set to 0.001 s1, and the compression rate
was higher than 25 %. The temperature-dependent material
parameters from high-temperature compression testings are
listed Table 2. In addition, the study assumed that the thermal
related parameters were not affected by the relative density,
and the equations for calculating Poissons ratio and Youngs
modulus at different relative densities are expressed as [21]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2014) 74:16671677
and [22]
r
m 22
32


E E m 0:15 0:8512 23
where, m, Em are Poissons ratio and Youngs modulus for the
dense material.
3.2 A turbine disc and its mould for HIP near-net shaping
process
A simplified turbine disc, as shown in Fig. 1, consists of four
inner passages. The inner passages are expected to be near-net
shaped through HIP, but the outer surfaces can be machined
into the final geometry.
The assembled mould was designed as shown in Fig. 2.
The cores in the internal and at the bottom have a relatively
large volume, are expected to have no or small deformation
during the HIP process, and thus play a role of controlling
complex shapes. The external container with a relatively thin
thickness can create a vacuum cavity for powder materials,
which is the necessary condition for the HIP process. The
container greatly deforms under the coupling loads of temper-
ature and pressure, which drives the powder to densify. The
containers at the top and bottom ends were 2 mm in thickness
and 15 mm in thickness for the external cylinder container.
The container has a top ventilation plug for degassing.
The finite element modelling of a quarter of the turbine disc
and its mould, using the eight-node hexahedron meshes is
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2014) 74:16671677 1673

Fig. 5 Photo of the sample after

HIP: a a half of the deformed
mould and the compacted
powder; b the final turbine disc
after postprocessing

illustrated in Fig. 3. In the process of finite element solution,
the domains of both container and core were assumed to be a
whole, given the same material parameters. In order to im-
prove the computational accuracy, the meshes of areas where
large deformation occurs are refined.
shown in Table 3. In general, the prediction of the final
consolidated shape compares well with the CMM measure-
ment of the physical part.
The discrepancy between the prediction and measurement
is defined as

3.3 HIP implementation
A hot isostatic press (ABB Mini-HIPper QIH-15) was used
for HIP of Inconel 625 powder. Both the core and the con-
tainer were made from 45 mild steel by machining methods.
The container was cleaned by the ultrasonic method. The
mould assembled by the core and the container was filled by
Inconel 625 powder, and then vibrated to attain the tap density
of 0.67. The edge between the top plug and the container was
welded. Then the powder in the container was degassed for
5 h at 450 C. HIP was done under 110 MPa at 1,050 C by
referring to our previous study results. Figure 4 shows the
test condition for temperature and pressure during HIP,
which is also used for finite element calculation stated in
Sect. 2.3.
4 Results and discussions
100jmeasuredpredictedj
e % 24
measured
The maximum discrepancy in axial direction (y-axis) is
about 4.5 % and 6.3 % in radial direction (x-axis). The
container in the upper is designed to generate large compres-
sion for powder densification. Quite good match is especially
shown in those regions, which just proves the applicability of
the proposed simulation method. However over amplification
of powder surface distortion by the current simulation is
recognised at some regions. This may be partially caused by
the following two reasons: (1) refer to the experience data of
other superalloys mechanical parameters (see Eqs. 5, 22 and
23); (2) neglect the influence of relative density on thermal
properties. Therefore, the follow-up experiments for determin-
ing the mechanical and thermal parameters of specimens with
different relative densities should be done.

4.1 Comparison of the geometry changes from simulations

and experiments

Figure 5 shows the deformed mould (half-and-half) and the

final disc after pickling and a small amount of machining for
the outer geometry. The dimensions of the deformed mould
and the compacted powder after HIP were measured using a
coordinate measurement machine (CMM) through the CCD
scanner technology. The measured coordinates were imported
into a CAD module and compared with the simulating pre-
dictions. Figure 6 illustrates the 2D outlines of the achieved
and the predicted geometries. Four critical locations were
chosen as calibration reference. The coordinates of the pre- Fig. 6 Comparison of the geometry change of half section of the axial
dicted and the achieved geometries, and their divergences are plane between from the simulations and from the experiments
1674 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2014) 74:16671677

Table 3 Comparisons at different

checkpoints in xy coordinate Coordinates, mm y-axis x-axis

P Q R S P Q R S

The measured coordinate values 73.01 64.84 61.46 68.56 0 17.58 48.46 51.32
The predicted coordinate values 73.90 61.95 60.29 69.90 0 18.61 51.13 54.56
Discrepancies (%) 1.2 4.5 1.9 2.0 0 5.9 5.5 6.3

4.2 Powder densification during HIP of a complex-shaped
turbine disc
The simulated result of Fig. 7 shows that the powder domain
has large volume shrinkage. The relative density at the end of
HIP presents a nonuniform distribution. The shape change of
the powder domain indirectly reflects the mould deformation.
The top container is compressed faster than other parts of the
mould due to its thin wall thickness. That makes the powder in
upper region (nodes 1847, 1870 and 1794) to densify rapidly.
The continuous compression during HIP results in a high
relative density for the powder in that region. On the contrary,
the powder in lower region (node 1765) has a relatively low
density. This phenomenon may be explained by the fact that
the internal core in those regions has no or small deformation
during HIP, so the compression on the powder by the mould is
relatively low. That just indicates that the core is capable to
near-net shaping a complex geometry that it was designed for.
The evolution of the relative density on the five nodes
labelled in Fig. 7 is shown in Fig. 8. The tendencies of the
density evolution for nodes 1847 and 1870 in upper region are
basically identical. The relative densities of node 1794 and
node 1834 are somewhat lower than those of nodes 1847 and
1870 at the same time, but both exceed about 0.95 at the end of
HIP. However, the value of node 1765 in the bottom is
obviously lower than those of other four nodes. At the begin-
ning of raising temperature and pressure, the relative densities
of all nodes do not rise but fall. It may be explained by the
thermal expansion of both powder and mould. After that, the
powder begins a fast densification because the temperature
and pressure loads exceed the shielding limit of the mould.
The densification rates of nodes 1847 and 1870 are the
highest, those for nodes 1834 and 1794 are the second highest,
and the lowest for node 1765. That densification law shows a
good agreement with the expectation that the container and the
core are designed for different functions. After entered into the
stage of preserving temperature and pressure, the powder
densification rate reduced gradually. During that stage
the plastic deformation has developed fully, and the
powder densification only come from the contributions
of creep and diffusion owing to high temperatures. In
spite of the decrease of temperature and pressure in
uploading stage, the larger temperature difference
existing within the compacted powder domain will lead

Fig. 7 Simulation results of the

volume shrinkage and the relative
density distribution of the powder
domain after HIP under 110 MPa
at 1,050 C
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2014) 74:16671677 1675

Table 4 Comparisons of the relative densities between simulations and

experiments

Relative densities Nodes

1847 1870 1794 1834 1765

The predicted values 1 1 0.968 0.964 0.880

The measured values 0.992 0.994 0.993 0.990 0.978
Discrepancies (%) 0.8 0.6 2.6 2.7 11.1

low density is still high, so the effect of density on

Fig. 8 Simulation results of the relative density evolution of five nodes
labelled in Fig. 7
to the further thermal strain, resulting in the linear
increase of the relative densities on all nodes.
A thin slice in 5 mm thickness was cut from the
axial plane of the deformed mould together with the
compacted powder. It was divided into 17 segments,
and their relative densities were measured using the
weighing method. The measured results are shown in
Fig. 9a. It can be concluded that the most of powder
domain become almost fully dense. The density values
of the upper segments are somewhat higher than those
of the lower ones. Segment A at the bottom has the
lowest relative density, which is the same as the numer-
ical calculation above. Fig. 9b shows the Brinell hard-
ness at 40 points that distribute in those segments. The
hardness values range from HB256 to HB277. The
hardness value of the segments that even have a slightly
hardness can be neglected for the disc shaped here.
Table 4 gives the comparisons of the relative densities
between the predicted and measured values for five nodes
labelled in Fig. 7. Note that the measured density (see
Fig. 9a) is an average value for a region where the nodes are
located in. It can be found that the predicted density for the
upper region where nodes 1847 and 1870 locate has a good
match with the measured result. The prediction deviation for
the upper region is less than 1 %, while it is up to 11.1 % for
small local region in the lower (node 1765). Furthermore, the
measured density is higher than the predicted one. This phe-
nomenon may be partially caused by the fact that the mea-
sured density is an average value, while the predicted density
is the value at one node. In addition the continuous medium
hypothesis for the powder in FEA may have some effects.
Spherical powder particles were assumed to be a continuum.
However, the rearrangement and movement of powder parti-
cles in the early stage of HIP will make a significant contri-
bution to the powder densification [23]. Therefore, that simu-
lation divergence can only be decreased by taking the micro
macro-effects into account.

Fig. 9 The measured relative

densities and hardness
distribution on the axial plane
1676
4.3 Microtopographies of the compacted powder
Figure 10 shows the micro-morphologies using optical micro-
scope for the regions labelled in Fig. 9a. A few micron pores
can be found in all regions, which is the reason why the
compacted powder does not reach a full dense state. The
pores number and the scale for region A in the lower of
the power domain are greater than those of other regions. That
shows good agreement with the relative density distribution
Fig. 10 Micro morphologies of different regions shown in Fig. 9a. (without corrosion)
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2014) 74:16671677
from simulations (Fig. 7). Most pores present a round or near-
round shape, which may be caused by the residual gas in the
powder. That gas may be derived from the atomisation process
or the remnant during the degassing process. In the process of
HIP these enclosed gases will expand, and then gather togeth-
er into some scattered pores. These micro pores can reduce the
mechanical property of the HIP-ed parts greatly. Therefore the
gas contents in the raw powder and the sealed container have
to be strictly controlled.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2014) 74:16671677
5 Conclusions
A new simulation method based on the Perzynas constitutive
relation for predicting HIP of complex-shaped parts was pro-
posed. A complex-shaped Inconel 625 turbine disc was
modelled, analysed and produced. The result shows general
agreement between the achieved geometries and the predic-
tions, with the maximum discrepancy of about 6 %. The
relative density distribution and its evolution against time
were simulated. The measured densities of a slice cut from
the produced parts show good agreement with the predicted
values. The calculated density in the lower region is about
10 % lower than the experimental value, due to the neglect of
the contribution of powder rearrangement and movement in
the early stage of HIP. Some micron pores were found within
in the compacted powder, which could be overcome by con-
trolling strictly the gas content in the raw powder and the
sealed container. Although the divergences between the de-
sign and the physical disc are shown in small local region, it
appears that the current simulation method is useful for con-
trolling the dimensional accuracy of complex-shaped parts
produced by HIP, especially for near-net shaped design.
Acknowledgments This research is jointly funded by National Natural
Science Foundation of China (NSFC; grants no. 51375188 and
51375189), National Science and Technology Major Project of China
(grant no. 2009XZ04005-041), International Science and Technology
Cooperation Program of China (2010DFA74500), and the Special Fund
from the Central Collegiate Basic Scientific Research Bursary
(2010MS046). Thanks for also due to Dr. Yan CZ for useful language
improvement.
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