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Revista de Psihologie 2014 PDF
Revista de Psihologie 2014 PDF
SUMAR
STUDII I CERCETRI
CONTRIBUII METODOLOGICE
PUNCTE DE VEDERE
Rev. Psih., vol. 60, nr. 1, p. 1100, Bucureti, ianuarie martie 2014
REVISTA DE PSIHOLOGIE
(JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY)
Vol. 60 2014 No. 1
CONTENTS
METHODOLOGICAL CONTRIBUTIONS
POINTS OF VIEW
Rev. Psih., vol. 60, nr. 4, p. 1100, Bucureti, ianuarie martie 2014
REVISTA DE PSIHOLOGIE
(REVUE DE PSYCHOLOGIE)
Vol. 60 2014 No 1
SOMMAIRE
TUDES ET RECHERCHES
CONTRIBUTIONS METHODOLOGIQUES
POINTS DE VUE
Rev. Psih., vol. 60, nr. 4, p. 1100, Bucureti, ianuarie martie 2014
STUDII I CERCETRI
ALEXANDRA SFC
Universitatea din Bucureti
LUMINIA MIHAELA IACOB,
Universitatea Alexandru Ioan Cuza, Iai
Abstract
The present paper was designed to study general and gender differences between the moral
evaluation of positive and negative dilemmas (the moral judgment condition) and to compare these
results to moral decisions in positive and negative dilemmas (the moral conduct condition). The
participants 263 Psychology students located in Iasi or Bucharest, with ages ranging from 20 to 25 years
old were randomly assigned to one of the two experimental conditions described above by the link
taking them to the Internet page were they would complete the requirements for each of the two
dilemmas presented (one positive and one negative). The results confirm the hypotheses that moral
judgment is harsher than moral conduct. Despite Gilligans theory (1982), tests have shown that girls
punish more often than boys, suggesting that when it comes to moral decisions, gender is only one of
the forces that influence decisions in moral judgment or moral actions. The results are discussed in
view of recent studies from the moral scientific field, highlighting, all the while, our own limits.
Cuvinte-cheie: judecat moral, conduit moral, diferene de gen, consisten moral.
Keywords: moral judgment, moral conduct, gender differences, moral consistency.
Diferena dintre gndire i aciune este una amplu studiat n domeniul psiho-
logiei, indiferent de contextul la care face referire (moralitate, emoii, atitudini etc.).
Acest fapt este unul uor de neles, dac ne gndim la importana consistenei n
viaa de zi cu zi, fie aceasta la nivel cognitiv sau comportamental. Judecata moral
a constituit dintotdeauna un interes special, teoriile clasice din domeniul moralitii
ncercnd s rspund ntrebrilor De ce? i Cum? ajung indivizii s urmeze
scopuri ce promoveaz interesele altor persoane i ale societii n general, n loc s
acioneze n virtutea propriilor interese nguste.
Drept posibil rspuns, teoriile nativiste au propus argumentul c emoiile
nnscute, precum empatia, frica i furia, aduc speciei noastre o nclinaie ctre
Universitatea din Bucureti, Bd. Mihail Koglniceanu, nr. 3648, Sector 5, cod 050107;
e-mail: alexandra_sfica@yahoo.com.
Rev. Psih., vol. 60, nr. 1, p. 719, Bucureti, ianuarie martie 2014
8 Alexandra Sfc, Luminia Mihaela Iacob 2
Ipoteza 3b: Exist un efect de interaciune ntre variabila gen i variabila tipul
deciziei asupra rspunsului la dilema de pedeaps; participanii de gen masculin
vor pedepsi mai mult n condiia de conduit moral, fa de participanii de gen
feminin; n condiia de judecat moral, participanii de gen feminin i cei de gen
masculin vor avea rspunsuri asemntoare n ceea ce privete acceptabilitatea
pedepsei.
2.3. VARIABILE
Prima analiz i cea mai relevant, la un anumit nivel, pentru pertinena ideii
de cercetare a acestei lucrri a fost verificarea existenei unui efect de ordine al
prezentrii dilemelor morale. Astfel, am realizat Testul T pentru eantioane inde-
pendente pentru a verifica influena variabilei ordinea prezentrii asupra celor
patru variabile dependente ale studiului. Testul a artat c nu exist niciun efect al
acestei variabile, ceea ce nseamn c ordinea n care au fost prezentate dilemele
morale (fie pedeapsrecompens, fie recompenspedeaps) nu a afectat rspunsurile
date de subieci la aceste dileme.
n continuare, prezentm rezultatele i cteva discuii pe marginea acestora,
analiznd, de asemenea, posibilele motive ale confirmrii sau infirmrii ipotezelor
propuse.
2.5.1. Rspunsul la dilemele morale
Metoda ANOVA Univariate 2 (Gen: Masculin, Feminin) X 2 (Tipul deciziei:
Judecat, Conduit) asupra rspunsului la dilema de recompens demonstreaz
obinerea unui efect principal n cazul tipului deciziei, F(1, 262) = 73.04, p < 0.001,
i n cazul interaciunii dintre cele dou variabile, F(1, 262) = 52.56, p = 0.001, dar
nu i n cazul efectului principal al genului, F(1, 262) = 3.715, p = 0.055.
Metoda ANOVA Univariate 2 (Gen: Masculin, Feminin) X 2 (Tipul deciziei:
Judecat, Conduit) asupra rspunsului la dilema de pedeaps demonstreaz
7 n cutarea consistenei morale 13
obinerea unor efecte semnificative n cazul genului, F(1,262) = 58.92, p < 0.001, i
al tipului de decizie F(1, 262) = 79.69, p < 0.001, dar nu i n cazul interaciunii
dintre cele dou variabile, F(1,262) = 13.54, p = 0.076. Date suplimentare despre
analiza varianelor pentru Metoda Anova n cazul rspunsului la pedeaps i al
celui la recompens pot fi consultate n Anexa 2, Tabelul nr.1.
Ipoteza 1a prezicea c exist un efect principal al variabilei gen asupra
rspunsului la dilema cu valen pozitiv, fetele oferind mai des recompensa.
Aceast ipotez nu s-a confirmat, diferenele dintre fete i biei n ceea ce privete
rspunsul la recompens nefiind semnificative statistic, F(1,262)=3.715, p = 0.055.
Ipoteza 1b prezicea un efect principal al variabilei gen asupra rspunsului la
pedeaps, n sensul c fetele vor pedepsi mai puin frecvent dect bieii i vor
considera pedeapsa mai inacceptabil dect acetia. Aceast ipotez nu numai c s-
a infirmat, dar s-a dovedit semnificativ statistic n sensul invers dect cel ateptat:
femeile consider acordarea pedepsei mai acceptabil dect brbaii i acord
pedeapsa mai frecvent dect acetia, t(261) = 6.58, p < 0.001. Putem pune acest
efect pe o reprezentare mai ampl a stilului justiiar la femeile acestui lot i pe o
reprezentare mai ampl a stilului bazat pe ngrijire la brbai, fapt ce i-a mpiedicat
s acorde pedepse la fel de des.
Dei contraintuitiv, acest rezultat poate fi explicat prin prisma socializrii.
Astfel, fetele sunt crescute n virtutea unui sistem de acordare de pedepse i recom-
pense ce pstreaz ordinea i prin care se poate obine controlul. De asemenea, ele
observ n familie c mama este cea care acord cel mai frecvent pedepsele, n
procesul de cretere a copiilor (Day, Peterson, McCracken, 1998), cu care mediul
educaional formal (n calitate de context pentru dilemele folosite n acest studiu)
se poate asemna destul de mult. Este posibil ca prin acest proces fetelor s le fie
mai greu s renune la sistemul de reguli care le garanteaz controlul i s ia mai
puin n considerare consecinele suportate de actorul dilemei.
Ipoteza 2a postula c, n condiia de conduit moral, recompensa va fi
acordat mai des, iar n condiia de judecat moral, aceasta va fi considerat mai
acceptabil. Ipoteza s-a confirmat statistic doar parial, t(261) = 8.38, p < 0.001;
astfel, subiecii au acordat mai des recompensa n condiia de conduit, ns au
considerat-o mai inacceptabil n cazul condiiei de judecat moral. Raionamentul
moral este antrenat s se bazeze pe reguli n evaluarea actelor morale, astfel ipoteza
noastr a presupus c subiecii nu vor lua n calcul ambiguitatea din cadrul situaiei,
n condiia de judecat moral. Cnd judecm, lum o poziie obiectiv fa de
situaie, ncercnd s nu ne lsm influenai de aspecte situaionale sau superficiale
ale dilemei prezentate. ntr-un fel, poziia de evaluator acord celui ce evalueaz
putere, fapt ce face salient raportarea la norme i reguli (Lammers, Stapel, 2009).
Cu toate acestea, participanii la studiul de fa par s fi luat n calcul ambiguitatea
din dilema cu valen pozitiv i au decis s nu acorde recompensa din pricina
acestei ambiguiti.
14 Alexandra Sfc, Luminia Mihaela Iacob 8
3. CONCLUZII
conduita n sine, fapt confirmat statistic. Oamenii tind s vad judecata moral n
termeni de alb i negru, ndeprtndu-se de actorul pe care-l evalueaz moral i
raportndu-se constant la un set strict de norme, fr s ia n calcul specificitatea
situaional a dilemei. Ei tind s foloseasc euristici n evaluare, deoarece se
raporteaz doar la unele concepte-cheie, precum elev nclcarea regulii
pedeaps. n condiia de conduit moral, pe de alt parte, faptul real de a realiza o
aciune i mpiedic pe oameni s se polarizeze la capetele scalei. Prudeni, acetia
ofer recompense i evit s acorde pedepse.
n situaiile n care se impune o aciune moral (i nu o judecat), importante
sunt consecinele pe care le va suporta actorul. Valena situaiei coloreaz afectiv
dilema, fiind mai uor pentru subieci s ia o decizie cu care s fie, subiectiv,
confortabili, acetia procesnd doar superficial informaia descris n dilem.
n mod neateptat, concluziile prezentate n paragrafele de mai sus se potrivesc
mai degrab participanilor de gen masculin din studiul de fa, i nu celor de gen
feminin, aa cum s-ar fi ateptat Carol Gilligan cu peste 30 de ani n urm.
Dimensiunile acestui studiu nu ne permit s punem acest rezultat pe seama amplei
transformri sociale de care a avut parte rolul feminin n ultimele decenii, sau,
dimpotriv, pe seama unui hazard al constituirii lotului. Dei neateptat, acest trend
ne poate servi ca punct de plecare n studii viitoare, care s-i propun o mai clar
expunere a ceea ce ar trebui s nsemne moralitatea bazat pe ngrijire asociat cu
femeile. ntr-adevr, confirmarea ideii c femeile afieaz, de obicei, o moralitate a
bunvoinei, ns pot, de asemenea, s se dovedeasc mai aspre dect subiecii de
gen masculin n anumite situaii, poate constitui o adevrat provocare din punct de
vedere metodologic i, n final, tiinific.
Prin aspectele expuse mai sus, s-a atins i al doilea obiectiv al lucrrii de fa,
i anume diferenierea ntre importana dilemei morale n sine i importana conse-
cinelor pe care le va nfrunta actorul n urma deciziei morale. n mod ironic, chiar
i la vrsta de tineri aduli, pentru participani conteaz mai mult cantitatea de
pagube care ar fi produs de aciunea lor (o pedeaps acordat greit, de exemplu)
dect calitatea moral intrinsec a unui act (faptul de a urma regulile impuse
indiferent de circumstane). Acest aspect l-ar contraria pe Piaget (1965), care considera
c o astfel de orientare i pierde relevana de la o anumit vrst. O abordare
transcultural ne-ar putea lmuri n ce msur este aici i cazul unor specificiti
axiologice de macro-context. Statutul moralei i moralitii la romni, n raport cu
alte culturi naionale, a fost pus n discuie nu de puine ori (Benedict, 1946/1972;
Iacob, 2009).
Ne-am propus, de asemenea, evaluarea unor eventuale diferene de gen n ceea
ce privete importana valenei pozitive sau negative a dilemei morale. Ipotezele
noastre nu s-au verificat n sensul documentat de Gilligan (1982), existnd ns
diferene semnificative. Cu toate acestea, nu considerm aceste diferene ca fiind
relevante i posibil de generalizat, deoarece maniera de constituire a lotului
16 Alexandra Sfc, Luminia Mihaela Iacob 10
reprezint o limit a cercetrii. Mai mult dect att, situaia stimul n sine ar fi putut
suscita aceste diferene, care s nu fie neaprat datorate rolului de gen, ci unui rol
social, de exemplu.
Ca direcii de cercetare viitoare, se poate gndi la mbuntirea demersului
metodologic prezentat mai sus prin crearea unei situaii care s permit comparaii
intersubiect pentru timpul de procesare. Aceast variabil, ca element al procesului
decizional, poate oferi informaii preioase despre importana pe care o acord
participanii dilemelor morale, mai exact pe ce anume se axeaz acetia atunci cnd
proceseaz o dilem moral. Exist termeni-cheie care, formnd un gestalt, ofer
participantului o soluie de necontestat pentru dilema respectiv? Este dilema n
sine o variabil ce afecteaz timpul pe care-l petrece individul gndindu-se la ea?
Putem delimita posibiliti prin care s folosim timpul de reacie pentru a ne
rspunde la acest gen de ntrebri?
Ct despre caracteristicile dilemei folosite, trebuie s ne raportm la faptul c
aceastea au fost de un singur tip, fcnd referire la contextul colar. Nu putem
generaliza rezultatele subiecilor pornind de la un singur tip de dilem, deoarece un
set de scoruri totale de la un numr extins de situaii conflictuale, din punct de
vedere moral, ar putea genera o direcie diferit a rezultatelor. Rezultatele studiului
de fa ar putea fi diferite, iar studiul ar putea fi mbuntit prin folosirea unui set
de dileme morale cu referire la un numr extins de contexte sociale diferite de cele
folosite deja.
Un alt aspect demn de a fi menionat este faptul c studiile realizate pe
Internet determin un context de aplicare eterogen i o plaj vast de subieci ce
aduc cu sine diferitele variabile parazite, precum cele prezentate mai sus, nct noi
nu putem controla standardizarea situaiei de aplicare pentru aceti subieci.
n ciuda acestor limite, noutatea adus de aceast cercetare este dat, n
primul rnd, de rezultatele particulare n ceea ce privete diferenele de gen n
judecata i conduita moral. Dei exist studii care s confirme moralitatea ngrijirii i
bunvoinei pe care Gilligan o asocia cu fetele (Gump, Baker, Roll, 2000; Watt,
Frausin, Dixon, Nimmo, 2000) sau care s o infirme (Friedman, Robinson, Friedman,
1987; Clopton, Sorell, 1993), studiul de fa aduce rezultate cu adevrat neateptate,
bieii oferind mai des recompensa dect fetele, iar acestea din urm oferind mai
des pedeapsa.
n plus, studiul de fa confirm un trend al inconsistenei morale ntre
judecata i conduita moral, descoperind cum participanii tind s fie mai aspri n
condiia de judecat moral, pe de o parte, i s ia decizii mai benefice pentru
actorii din dilemele morale n condiia de conduit moral, pe de alt parte.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. BANDURA, A., Social learning of moral judgments, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
2, 1969, p. 275279.
2. CLOPTON, N. A., SORELL, G. T., Gender differences in moral reasoning: Stable or situational?,
Psychology of Women Quarterly, 17, 85, 1993, p. 85101.
3. DAY, R. D, PETERSON, G. W., McCRACKEN, C., Predicting spanking behavior of younger
and older children by mothers and fathers, Journal of Marriage and Family, 60, 1998, p. 7994.
4. ESKINE, J., KACINIK, N. A., PRINZ, J. J., A bad taste in the mouth: Gustatory disgust
influences moral judgment, Psychological Science, 22, 3, 2011, p. 295299.
5. FRIEDMAN, W. J., ROBINSON, A. B., FRIEDMAN, B. L., Sex differences in moral
judgments? A test of Gilligans theory, Psychology of Women Quarterly, 11, 1987, p. 3746.
6. GILLIGAN, C., In a different voice: Psychological theory and womens development, Cambridge,
MA, Harvard University Press, 1982.
7. GUMP, L. S., BAKER, R. C., ROLL, S. Cultural and gender differences in moral judgment:
A study of Mexican Americans and Anglo-Americans, Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences,
22, 1, 2000, p.7893.
8. IACOB, L., Romnii vechi i noi dominantele unei reprezentri: inteligeni i necinstii,
n BOARI, V., VLAS, N., (Coord.), Cine sunt romnii?, Cluj-Napoca, Risoprint, 2009.
9. KAGAN, J., The nature of the child, New York, Basic Books, 1984.
10. KOHLBERG, L., LEVINE, C., HEWER, A., Moral stages: The current formulation of
Kohlbergs theory and a response to critics, Basel, Karger, 1983.
11. LAMMERS, J., STAPEL, D., How power influences moral thinking, Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 97, 2, 2009, p. 279289.
12. MILLAR, J. G., BERSOFF, D. M., Culture and moral judgments: How are conflicts between
justice and interpersonal responsibilities resolved, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
62, 1992, p. 541554.
13. PIAGET, J., Judecata moral la copil, Bucureti, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, 1980.
14. REST, J., Morality, n MUSSEN, P., Handbook of child psychology, New York, Wiley, 4, 1983.
15. SHWEDER, R. A., MUCH, N. C., Determinations of meanings: Discourse and moral socialization,
n KURTINES, W. M., GEWIRTZ, J. L., Moral development through social interaction,
New York, Wiley, 1987.
16. SCHNALL, S., BENTON, J., HARVEY, S., With a clean conscience: Cleanliness reduces the
severity of moral judgments, Psychological Science, 19, 12, 2008, p. 12191222.
17. SCHNALL, S., HAIDT, J., CLORE, G., JORDAN, A., Disgust as embodied moral judgment,
Society for Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 2008, p. 10961109.
18. WATT, M. C., FRAUSIN, S., DIXON, J., NIMMO, S., Moral intelligence in a sample of
incarcerated females, Criminal Justice and Behavior, 27, 3, 2000, p. 330335.
19. YOU, D., MAEDA, Y., BEBEAU, J. M., Gender differences in moral sensitivity: A meta-
analysis, Ethics & Behavior, 21, 4, 2011, p. 263282.
REZUMAT
ANEXA 1
ANEXA 2
Tabelul 1
Sumar al analizei varianelor
Tabelul 2
Mediile i abaterile standard ale grupurilor experimentale.Teste T suplimentare
SCHEME I SCENARII COGNITIVE N CONTEXT CINEMATOGRAFIC
ANA RDULE,
Arhiva Naional de Filme
VIOLETA ROTRESCU
Universitatea din Bucureti
Abstract
After establishing some theoretical elements regarding cognitive scripts and schemas in
everyday life, this article analyzes them from a cinematographic point of view, assessing theoretical
connections between the life script, the cognitive script and the film script. The cinema theory,
realism of cinema and media contamination dig in the influence that the media industry has on human
beings in general. The experimental part of the article is dedicated to the evaluation of the relation
between the types of scripts mentioned above and the discovery of the influence of movie scripts on
individual peoples life views.
Cuvinte-cheie: schem, scenariu, film, cognitiv, media.
Keywords: schema, script, film, cognitive, media.
Schemele cognitive sunt blocuri de cunotine care se definesc prin ele nsele,
neavnd nevoie de raportarea la alte cunotine, neputnd fi reduse la componentele
lor (Zlate, 1999, p. 251). Ele nu necesit accesarea unei ntregi reele semantice
pentru categorizarea i nelegerea lor, asemeni conceptelor. Astfel, decodarea
percepiei unor obiecte ale lumii nconjurtoare este activat nu de nsuirile
acestora, ci de contextul situaional n care au fost ntlnite, de relaiile existente
ntre elementele lor componente, implicnd o procesare automat a informaiei
preluat din anumite situaii n detrimentul analizei fiecrui element de real din
fiecare situaie de via. Faptul c ntreg procesul se desfoar automat (i controlat, la
un moment dat, pe principiul cost-beneficiu) creeaz o economie semnificativ n
ansamblul proceselor gndirii.
n 1979, Bower, Black i Turner (apud Smith et al., 2005; Stillings et al.,
1995) au reluat un experiment mai vechi al lui Bartlett cel care a vorbit pentru
prima oar despre scheme cognitive i au demonstrat c, dac oamenii citesc o
Arhiva Naional de Filme, os. Sabarului Nr. 2, Jilava 77120, judeul Ilfov; e-mail: ana.
radulet@gmail.com.
Rev. Psih., vol. 60, nr. 1, p. 2028, Bucureti, ianuarie martie 2014
2 Scenarii cognitive n context cinematografic 21
povestire despre o situaie comun de via (cineva care mnnc ntr-un restaurant, de
exemplu), acetia i amintesc detalii care nu au fost, de fapt, menionate n text.
Informaia citit se confund cu cea existent n scenariul/schema cognitiv, pentru
c deseori unele detalii par de la sine nelese.
Acurateea devine, n acest context, un fenomen relativ, pentru c fiecare
individ interpreteaz informaiile din natur n funcie de propriile sale scheme,
ncercnd s le structureze i s le categorizeze ct mai eficient n raport cu experiena
sa. Astfel, schemele cognitive conin un element fix, un nod informaional
abstract i unul variabil, depinznd de context (Stillings et al., 1995). Principiul
este cel al identificrii elementelor relevante din natur i al respingerii, ignorrii
celorlalte (Smith, 2005).
Schemele cognitive au un rol adaptativ i creator pentru c ele faciliteaz
nelegerea i revelarea semnificaiilor, prin reanalizarea experienei vechi n vederea
acceptrii informaiilor noi i a dezvoltrii unor previziuni legate de lume i via.
Fiecare om i construiete scheme legate de propriul comportament afiat n
anumite situaii, despre modul de interaciune cu ceilali sau cu diferite aspecte ale
vieii. Centrul schemei despre sine se afl n informaiile fundamentale pe care un
individ le are despre sine: nume, aspect fizic, relaia cu familia. Schema despre sine
presupune c ceva e important pentru respectivul individ.
ntr-un experiment realizat de Rogers, Kuiper i Kirker n 1977 (n Smith et al.,
2005), unui grup de subieci i s-a cerut s rspund prin apsarea unor butoane de
da sau nu la 40 de ntrebri, dintre care primele 30 erau neutre din punct de
vedere emoional (exemplu: Cuvntul X este scris cu majuscul?), iar ultimele 10
aveau legtur cu ei. Rezultatele au artat c ultimele 10 ntrebri au primit rspunsuri
mai rapide datorit activrii schemelor despre sine i c au fost reamintite mai
trziu cu o mai mare uurin, demonstrnd c ceea ce are legtur direct cu
persoana este accesat mai rapid dect ceea ce este indiferent. Scenariul cognitiv nu
necesit conceptualizare sau procese psihice proprii datorit apartenenei la categoria
de schem cognitiv. n accepiune psihologic, scenariul desemneaz un
fenomen cognitiv complex i de mare importan n gndirea i adaptarea uman.
Termenul se refer la cunotinele pe care individul le deine deja (Zlate, 1999,
p. 253; Aldama, 2006, p. 197213), la ghidarea comportamentului uman n anumite
situaii de via, la limitarea reaciilor individului la ceea ce i este familiar, la ceea
ce este validat deja prin experien. Elementul de necunoscut tinde s fie respins,
de aici i caracterul limitativ al conceptului.
Aadar, scenariul poate fi definit, ca structur de date/cunotine care descriu o
secven tipic de evenimente, corespunztoare unui anumit context (Miclea,
1994, p. 364). Iat cteva astfel de situaii: petrecere aniversar, a merge la dentist,
a traversa strada, edin de afaceri pentru acestea exist un cadru general n
care se ateapt ca toate aceste evenimente s aib loc, dar i particulariti
semnificative care le difereniaz.
22 Ana Rdule, Violeta Rotrescu 3
povetilor n cea mai recent carte a sa, continu: Povetile au fora de a uni
relaii, de a ntreine i de a nva. n trecut, oamenii obinuiau s hrneasc i s
adposteasc povestaul din sat pentru plcerea lor de a-i asculta povetile. n ziua
de azi, facem din starurile de cinema povestaii notri moderni eroi populari i
oameni milionari.
Tabelul nr. 1
Relaia dintre scenariul real i cinematografic
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Valid DA 26 70,3 70,3 70,3
NU 14 29,7 29,7 100,0
Total 37 100,0 100,0
Tabelul nr. 2
Influena scenariului cinematografic asupra subiecilor
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Valid 2040 10 50,0 50,0 50,0
4160 10 50,0 50,0 100,0
Total 20 100,0 100,0
Tabelul nr. 3
Rspunsuri referitoare la situaia dlui. Lzrescu
Sb. s-ar descurca mai bine dect dl. Lzrescu n sit. dat Mean N Std. Deviation
Total dezacord 42,50 2 17,678
Acord parial 38,00 6 12,133
De acord 39,78 9 11,454
Acord total 28,00 3 1,000
Total 37,75 20 11,397
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. ALDAMA, F.L., Race, cognition, and emotion: Shakespeare on film, College Literature, 33, 1,
2006, p. 197213.
2. BERLINER, T., COHEN, D.J., The illusion of continuity: Active perception and the classical
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3. BURNS, GEORGE W., 101 Poveti vindectoare pentru aduli folosirea metaforelor n
terapie, Bucureti, Editura Trei, 2012.
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5. DAVID, DANIEL, Prelucrri incontiente de informaie, Bucureti/Cluj, Editura Tritonic, 2004.
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copiilor n lumea de azi, Bucureti, Editura Evanghelismos, Fundaia Tradiia Romneasc, 2005.
9. GIBSON, ELEANOR J., An odissey in learning and perception, Massachussets Institute of
Technologies, 1991.
10. GORZO, ANDREI, Lucruri care nu pot fi spuse altfel un mod de a gndi cinemaul, de la
Andr Bazin la Cristi Puiu, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 2012.
11. GROOME, DAVID, An introduction to cognitive psychology, New York, Psychology Press,
2006 (ediia a doua).
12. GUSSIE KLORER, P., The effects of technological overload on children: an art therapists
perspective, Art Therapy, Journal of the American Art Therapy Association, 26, 2, 2009, p. 8082.
13. MICLEA, MIRCEA, Psihologie cognitiv, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Gloria, 1994.
14. MCKEE, ROBERT, Story coninut, structur, metod i principii scenaristice, Cluj-Napoca,
Editura Filmtett, 2011.
15. RUSU, ELENA-CLAUDIA, Psihologie & cinematografie, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Daath, 2008.
16. SMITH, E., HOEKSEMNA, S., FREDRICKSON, B. L., LOFTUS, G.R., Introducere n
psihologie, Bucureti, Editura Tehnic, 2005 (ediia a XIV-a).
17. STILLINGS, N. A., WEISLER, S. E., CHASE, C. H., FEINSTEIN, M. F., GARFIELS, J. L.,
RISSLAND, E. L., Cognitive science An introduction, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
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18. TAPSCOTT, DANIEL, Crescui digital generaia net i schimb lumea, Bucureti, Editura
Publica, 2011.
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filmic realizations on film viewers genre recognition, Poetics, 36, 2008, p. 301315.
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REZUMAT
Dup delimitarea unor elemente teoretice legate de schemele i scenariile cognitive n viaa de
zi cu zi, articolul le analizeaz pe acestea din punct de vedere cinematografic, stabilind unele
conexiuni teoretice ntre scenariul real din via, scenariul cognitiv i scenariul cinematografic. Teoria
legat de cinema, realismul cinematografului i contaminarea prin media constat influena pe care
industria vizual o are asupra omului. Partea experimental este dedicat evalurii relaiei dintre
tipurile de scenarii menionate, precum i influena filmului n concepiile de via ale individului.
STRES I PERSONALITATE LA STUDENII DIN DOMENIUL TEHNIC
Abstract
In this study, we aimed, first, to obtain a picture of academic stress (factors, events etc.).
Secondly, based on the idea of personality prone to stress, we had to analyze the association between
personality factors of the Big Five model and perceived stress. For this we analyzed a sample of
286 students from the technical area. The results show that academic stressors (exams, teaching
methods, discipline structure etc.) have the highest pre-eminence in the perceived stress. Gender differences
revealed that girls obtained higher values in the perception of stress and are characterized by a wide
range of psychosomatic symptoms: headaches, trouble breathing, anxiety etc. Data demonstrate the
importance of personality as a correlate of perceived stress. Four factors extraversion, maturity,
consciousness and self-actualization negatively correlated with perceived stress. It follows from
here that the personality traits associated with high levels of stress are introversion, immaturity, low
conscientiousness and conservative behavior.
Cuvinte-cheie: stres, studeni, stresori, simptome, personalitate, Big Five.
Keywords: stress, students, stressors, symptoms, personality, Big Five.
1. INTRODUCERE
Universitatea Politehnica din Bucureti, Departamentul de formare pentru carier didactic i
tiine socio-umane, Splaiul Independenei, nr. 313, Bucureti, Romnia; e-mail: beatricebalgiu@
yahoo.com, beatrice.balgiu@upb.ro.
Rev. Psih., vol. 60, nr. 1, p. 2937, Bucureti, ianuarie martie 2014
30 Beatrice Adriana Balgiu 2
4. METODOLOGIA CERCETRII
5. REZULTATE I DISCUII
B) RELAIA STRESPERSONALITATE
Tabelul nr. 1
Interaciunea stres factori de personalitate
Factori de personalitate
E E1 E2 E3 E4 E5
27 13 09 .17 23 23
p < 0.05
Obs. Abrevirea factorilor i dimensiunilor de personalitate: E Extraversie, E1 Activism,
E2 Optimism, E3 Umor, E4 Abilitate interpersonal, E5 Afirmare personal; M Maturitate,
M1 Respect, M2 Adaptare, M3 Prietenie, M4 Fora inhibiiei, M5 Fora eului; A Agreabilitate,
A1 Altruism, A2 Romantism, A3 Cldur afectiv, A4 Empatie, A5 Onestitate; C Contiinciozitate,
C1 Voin, C2 Spirit de perfeciune, C3 Raionalitate, C4 Planificare, C5 Autodisciplin;
Ac Autoactualizare, Ac1 Aprofundare, Ac2 Toleran, Ac3 Rafinare, Ac4 Independen,
Ac5 Creativitate.
6. CONCLUZII
personalitii pentru stresul psihic. Prin urmare, putem afirma c persoanele mai
afectate de stres sunt introvertite, cu instabilitate emoional (imaturitate psihic),
cu contiinciozitate redus, rigiditate i incapacitate de autodezvoltare.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
19. MIHILESCU, A., MATEI, V., CIOCA, I., IAMANDESCU, I. B, Stresul perceput predictor
al anxietii i depresiei la un grup de studeni din primul an la medicin, Practica medical, VI,
2, 2011, p. 150154.
20. MINULESCU, M., ABCD-M, Manual tehnic i interpretativ, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Sinapsis,
2008.
21. McCRAE, R. R., COSTA, P. T., Jr., Personality, coping, and coping effectiveness in an adult
sample, Journal of Personality, 54, 1986, p. 385405.
22. NOLEN-HOEKSEMA, S., Gender differences in depression, Curent Directions in Psychological
Science, 10, 5, 2001, p. 173176.
23. OWEN-YEATS, A., Stress in year 11 students, Pastoral Care in Education: An International
Journal of Personal, Social and Emotional Development, 23, 4, 2005, p. 4251.
24. RILEY, K. E., PARK, C. L., Changes in cognitive appraisals: on going stressors in a college
population, 25th Annual Convention of Association for Psychological Science, Washington,
May, 2326, 2013.
25. RIM, Y., Ways of coping, personality, age, sex and family structural variables, Personality and
Individual Differences, 7, 1, 1986, p. 113116.
26. ROBERTI, J. W., HARRINGTON, L. N., STORCH, E. A., Further psychometric support for the
10-item version of the Perceived Stress Scale, Journal of College Counseling, 9, 2006, p. 135147.
27. ROBOTHAM, D., JULIAN, C., Stress and the higher education student: a critical review of the
literature, Journal of Further and Higher Education, 30, 2, 2006, p. 107117.
28. SCHNEIDER, T. R., RENCH, T. A., LYONS, J. B., RIFFLE, R. R, The influence of neuroticism,
extraversion and openness on stress responses, Stress and Health, 28, 2, 2012, p. 102110.
29. TAYLOR, S. E., KLEIN, L. C., LEWIS, B. P., GRUENEWALD, T. L., GURUNG, R. A. R.,
UPDEGRAFF, J. A., Biobehavioral response to stress in females: tend and befriend, not fight or
flight, Psychological Review, 107, 3, 2000, p. 411421.
30. WATSON, D., HUBBARD, B., Adaptational style and dispositional structure: coping in the
context of the five-factor model, Journal of Personality, 64, 4, 1996, p. 737774.
REZUMAT
n studiul de fa ne-am propus, n primul rnd, obinerea unui tablou al stresului din mediul
universitar (factori, manifestri etc.). n al doilea rnd, pornind de la ideea personalitii predispuse la
stres, am avut n analiz asocierea dintre factorii de personalitate din modelul Big Five i stresul
perceput. Pentru aceasta, am analizat un eantion de 286 studeni ai domeniului tehnic. Rezultatele
arat c factorii de stres academic (examene, metode de predare, structura disciplinei etc.) au cea mai
mare preeminen la nivelul stresului perceput. Diferenele de gen relev faptul c fetele obin valori
mai mari la percepia stresului i se evideniaz printr-o gam larg de simptome psihosomatice:
migrene, probleme de respiraie, anxietate etc. n final, datele obinute demonstreaz importana
personalitii ca un corelat al stresului perceput. Patru dintre factori Extraversia, Maturitatea,
Contiinciozitatea i Autoactualizarea coreleaz negativ cu stresul perceput. Decurge, de aici, c
trsturile de personalitate asociate cu nivelurile nalte de stres sunt introversia, imaturitatea,
contiinciozitatea redus i comportamentul conservator.
INFLUENA PRACTICRII DANSULUI SPORTIV ASUPRA MEMORIEI,
COMPREHENSIUNII VERBALE I INTELIGENEI SOCIALE
ANA-MARIA PREDA,
Universit Libre de Bruxelles
LUMINIA MIHAELA IACOB
Universitatea Alexandru Ioan Cuza, Iai
Abstract
This research illustrates the influence of dance on cognitive development in children and
adolescents. The tests were applied to 136 subjects (76 children between 10 and 11 years and
60 adolescents between 16 and 17 years of which 78 dance sport practice or have practiced for a
period of time, and the remaining 58 do not practice and did not practice this sport), from two schools
from Iasi: High School Vasile Alecsandri and Otilia Cazimir School in Iai. Audio memory of
words was measured using A sample version Nestor and verbal comprehension test was measured by
Stanford-Binet oral vocabulary test. To measure social intelligence and visual memory were built two
questionnaires in the research group E-Team. The results demonstrated that the practice of dance
helps at the development of auditory memory of words, verbal comprehension and social intelligence
in both children and adolescents. Although obtaining accurate results in this field, longitudinal
research would be more reliable results incite to a new research topic of cognitive development at
early ages, especially in Romania where the sports industry is no stranger to children and adolescents.
Cuvinte-cheie: memoria vizual i auditiv a cuvintelor, inteligena social, comprehensiune
verbal, dezvoltare cognitiv.
Keywords: visual and auditory memory words, social intelligence, verbal comprehension,
cognitive development.
1. CADRUL TEORETIC
Universit Libre de Bruxelles, Avenue Franklin Roosevelt 50, 1050 Bruxelles; e-mail:
preda_ana.maria@yahoo.com.
Rev. Psih., vol. 60, nr. 1, p. 3848, Bucureti, ianuarie martie 2014
2 Influene psihologice ale practicrii dansului sportiv 39
Dei exist cteva studii care susin empiric eficacitatea programelor bazate
pe art, exist relativ puine cercetri care s examineze dansul ca form specific a
educaiei prin art. Unul dintre acestea a fost realizat de Heausler (1987). El a examinat
efectul dansului asupra analizei conceptuale a cuvintelor i asupra creativitii la
copii de grdini i din clasele primare. Zakkai (1997) a sugerat c dansul promo-
veaz dezvoltarea holistic, prin facilitarea recepiei inputului senzorial, care poate
conduce la achiziii cognitive, ajutnd copiii s se exprime prin intermediul micrii.
McMahon, Rose i Parks (2003) au realizat o cercetare care s-a axat pe
studierea impactului programelor de dans asupra abilitilor de citire. Rezultatele
au sugerat c elevii participani la program i-au mbuntit toate abilitile de
citire vizate, semnificativ mai mult dect elevii din grupul de control.
Dansul poate da form emoiilor i sentimentelor copiilor, oferindu-le un nceput,
un cuprins i un final (Stinson, 1982). Sentimentele i ideile pot fi internalizate prin
experiena micrilor (Dimondstein, 1985). Dansul difer de celelalte forme de art
prin aceea c utilizeaz spaiul, timpul i fora ca resurse corelate, iar prin combinaii
variate, micrile formeaz imagini care folosesc simirile vizuokinestezice
(Dimondstein, 1985). Dansul poate fi folosit pentru copiii de toate vrstele i nivelurile
de dezvoltare, pentru interiorizarea i personalizarea ideilor, exersarea imageriei i
elaborarea nelesurilor, toate acestea fiind legate de sporirea memoriei i compre-
hensiunii verbale. Pentru aceste raiuni, se consider c programele care folosesc
strategii de dans au potenial mai mare de a mbunti abilitile de citire la copii.
Teoreticienii curriculumului au adus cunotine importante n ceea ce privete
dezvoltarea estetic, a creativitii, a experienei de via i a nvrii prin intermediul
corpului, promovnd puterea artei. Cercetrile asupra comunicrii nonverbale i a
cogniiilor au evaluat potenialul programului K121 cu privire la educaia prin
dans. S-a demonstrat c dansul este o disciplin a artei care faciliteaz rezolvarea
creativ a problemelor, achiziionarea i consolidarea cunotinelor n ceea ce privete
cogniiile, emoiile, limbajul i stilul de nvare (Hanna, 2008).
Alte studii au demonstrat influena vrstei i a practicrii gimnasticii asupra
posibilitilor mnezice. Gimnastele care au nvat un exerciiu, pe care au trebuit
s-l repete dup 7 zile, au demonstrat c experiena, vrsta i exerciiul susinut
mbuntesc performanele memoriei (Tenembaun et al., 1999).
Cortese i Rossi-Arnaud (2009) au studiat memoria de lucru pentru micrile
de balet ale balerinelor profesioniste. Ei au solicitat balerinelor s execute un
exerciiu de micare, fie n acelai timp cu codarea spaial a acestuia, fie fr
aceast sarcin. S-a demonstrat c nu exist nicio interferen a codrii spaiale
asupra memorrii micrilor de balet. De asemenea, a reieit c performarea n
unele sarcini motorii interfereaz cu memorarea anumitor exerciii. Concluziile
1
K12 (pronunat k doisprezece, k prin doisprezece sau K la doisprezece) este o
denumire pentru o practic gzduit de nvmntul primar i secundar. Aceasta este utilizat n
Statele Unite, Canada, Turcia, Filipine i Australia. Expresia este o prescurtare care vine de la
grdini (K kindergarden, de la 4 la 6 ani) i clasa a dousprezecea (XII, de la 17 la 19 ani), ceea ce
reprezint prima i ultimele clase din nvmntul gratuit din aceste ri.
40 Ana-Maria Preda, Luminia Mihaela Iacob 3
2.1. OBIECTIVE
Cercetarea i-a propus s exploreze relaia existent ntre practicarea dansului
sportiv la vrste mici i, mai apoi, n adolescen i dezvoltarea cognitiv a copiilor
i adolescenilor. Dei o cercetare longitudinal, care s se desfoare pe parcursul
a 810 ani, ar fi fost mai potrivit pentru investigarea acestei relaii, rezultatele
obinute prin abordarea noastr, de tip transversal, sunt n concordan cu principiile de
baz ale unei cercetri psihologice valide.
Ceea ce am ncercat s aflm a fost dac practicarea dansului sportiv
influeneaz memoria de lucru, abilitile verbale i inteligena social a copiilor i
adolescenilor pe moment i n timp. Cu alte cuvinte, am vrut s vedem dac
practicarea acestui sport mbuntete abilitile verbale, sociale i mnezice ale
copiilor, dat fiind faptul c tot mai muli prini i ndrum copiii spre practicarea
unui sport nc de la vrste fragede.
4 Influene psihologice ale practicrii dansului sportiv 41
2.2. IPOTEZE
2.3. VARIABILE
Variabile dependente:
a. Comprehensiune verbal (operaionalizat prin itemii Testul de vocabular
oral al probei Standford-Binet).
b. Inteligen social (operaionalizat prin factorii: abilitatea de a forma i
menine relaii, cooperare i munc n echip, managementul conflictelor, auto-
evaluare corect, persuasiune i dependen emoional), msurat cu ajutorul
chestionarului IS 10.
c. Memorie de lucru: memoria auditiv a cuvintelor (operaionalizat prin
itemii Probei Nestor varianta A) i memoria vizual (operaionalizat prin itemii
Testului MC ai probei EVIQ).
Variabile independente:
a. Practicarea dansului sportiv: da/nu
b. Gen: masculin/feminin
c. Vrst: 1011 ani/1617 ani
d. Momentul msurrii: nainte/dup efectuarea unui antrenament/or obinuit.
Variabile controlate:
a. mediul de provenien provenii din mediul urban
b. performana colar medii peste 9.00 n semestrul colar anterior msurrii
c. practicarea unui alt sport de performan majoritatea subiecilor
participani la cercetare practic i un alt sport de performan.
3. METODOLOGIE
3.1. PARTICIPANI
Studiul a fost realizat pe un numr de 136 de subieci, elevi la dou coli din
municipiul Iai: 29 de elevi erau n clasa a 4-a la coala General Otilia Cazimir,
iar ceilali 107 erau elevi n clasele a 4-a i a 10-a la Liceul Teoretic Vasile
Alecsandri.
42 Ana-Maria Preda, Luminia Mihaela Iacob 5
Tabelul nr. 1
Structura i mrimea lotului pe categorii de variabile
1011 1617
Vrst
76 60
M F M F
Gen
38 38 25 35
Da Nu Da Nu
Dans sportiv
46 30 32 28
3.2. INSTRUMENTE
2
Grup studenesc de cercetare, format n cadrul Facultii de Psihologie i tiine ale
Educaiei, Universitatea Alexandru Ioan Cuza Iai, care are ca obiectiv construirea de instrumente
psihologice utilizabile n mediul organizaional i nu numai.
6 Influene psihologice ale practicrii dansului sportiv 43
inteligenei sub toate formele ei (EVIQ). Aceast prob a fost realizat mpreun cu
colegi de la Universitatea de Vest din Timioara sub ndrumarea profesorilor
Ticu Constantin, Alin Florin Sava i Laureniu Maricuoiu , i pornete de la
teoria inteligenei elaborat de Demetriou (2006).
Proba Memorie spaial (MS) este alctuit dintr-o serie de 10 simboluri care
sunt asociate cu cifre de la 0 la 9 n cadrul unui tabel. Subiectul are la dispoziie un
timp limitat pentru a memora acele analogii, dup care, tot n timp limitat, va
completa un alt tabel n care sunt trecute doar simbolurile. Aceast prob a fost
pretestat iniial n cadrul echipei de cercetare care a elaborat-o pe un eantion
reprezentativ de 560 de subieci. Analizele statistice realizate pe lotul vizat au
relevat un coeficient de consisten Alpha Cronbach egal cu 0.836.
Evaluarea comprehensiunii verbale s-a realizat cu ajutorul Testului de
vocabular oral din proba Standford-Binet. Aceasta cuprinde 31 de itemi, din care,
n urma pretestrii, am eliminat 5 itemi, care erau ori foarte uori, ori foarte grei.
Testul aplicat n cadrul cercetrii noastre a cuprins 26 de itemi. n urma analizelor
statistice pe lotul nostru, am obinut un coeficient Alpha Cronbach egal cu 0.799.
Memoria auditiv a cuvintelor a fost evaluat cu ajutorul probei Nestor
varianta A, care cuprinde 30 de cuvinte grupate n 5 categorii distincte. Sarcina i
miza acestei probe este: memorarea auditiv-verbal a unei serii de cuvinte izolate i
reproducere verbal-grafic (n scris) a cuvintelor memorate. Proba Nestor are dou
serii paralele de testare, AB, fiecare avnd cte 5 cuvinte din urmtoarele categorii:
animale, plante, obiecte de coal, denumiri de oameni, alimente, elemente geografice.
Succesiunea categoriilor este fix, seriile fiind astfel foarte asemntoare din punct
de vedere al structurii lor. Nu se comunic subiectului existena acestor categorii.
Sarcina presupunea memorarea listei cu cuvinte auzite i reproducerea n scris a
cuvintelor memorate, indiferent de ordinea lor de prezentare din lista lecturat.
Toate informaiile despre variabilele independente i cele controlate vrst,
gen, coal, clas, mediul de provenien, profesia prinilor, performana colar
(ultima medie semestrial obinut), practicarea dansului sportiv sau a unui alt
sport de performan au fost reinute cu ajutorul unui chestionar care solicita
completarea acestor informaii.
4. REZULTATE I INTERPRETRI
4.1. IPOTEZA 1
4.2. IPOTEZA 2
5. CONCLUZII
cuprins ntre 1617 ani. Dansul sportiv influeneaz att mbuntirea memoriei,
ct i a comprehensiunii verbale i a inteligenei sociale. Rezultatele noastre sunt n
concordan cu cele ale unui studiu, realizat n Frana pe un eantion de
1400 adolesceni, ce pune n eviden legtura pozitiv dintre practicarea unui sport
pe termen lung i rezultatele colare (Laure, Binsinger, 2009).
Ceea ce nu putem tii cu certitudine, dat fiind imposibilitatea de a fi avut i
un sublot semnificativ de subieci debutani, este ct din capacitile superioare,
evideniate de practicanii acestui sport n raport cu grupul de control, se datoreaz
aptitudinilor primare ale acestor copii sau adolesceni.
Dei genul subiecilor nu are un efect principal semnificativ asupra memoriei
i abilitilor verbale ale subiecilor, aceast variabil este destul de important n
corelaie cu dansul sportiv i vrsta subiecilor, existnd diferene importante ntre
bieii i fetele care practic dansul sportiv, n favoarea bieilor. Acest rezultat,
cumva contraintuitiv, este interesant i important pentru prinii care i doresc s
influeneze semnificativ dezvoltarea psihic a bieilor lor, ndrumndu-i pe acetia
spre practicarea dansului nc de la o vrst fraged.
Avnd n vedere influena att de mare a dansului n dezvoltarea psihic a
copiilor i adolescenilor i numrul mic al cercetrilor realizate n sfera dansului
sportiv n Romnia, ce trec dincolo de dezvoltarea psiho-motorie, aceast lucrare
este util n deschiderea unor noi abordri sistematice pe aceast tem.
Resursa principal a acestui studiu rezid din faptul c aduce n atenie un
factor important care influeneaz dezvoltarea psihic a copiilor i adolescenilor,
un sport care este din ce n ce mai practicat i mai cutat de ctre prini i educatori,
dar ale crui beneficii nu erau n totalitate cunoscute sau demonstrate de un studiu
focalizat, bazat inclusiv pe instrumente create anume pentru variabilele urmrite.
Ca limite ale acestei cercetri, vom meniona folosirea unui instrument
neadecvat pentru msurarea memoriei vizuale, ceea ce a condus la rezultate plate
pentru aceast singur variabil. n plus, un aspect necontrolat a fost statutul
socioprofesional al prinilor celor care, n lotul nostru, practicau dansul sportiv.
Subiecii fceau parte din familii cu un statut social i profesional nalt. Acest fapt
ar fi putut determina i el rezultatele, deoarece n acest mediu, exist o preocupare
mai accentuat fa de educaia copiilor. Este posibil ca influenarea dezvoltrii
cognitive s se fi fcut, n cazul acestor subieci, i prin alte ci, ceea ce nseamn
c aceste rezultate s-ar fi putut datora efectului combinat al mai multor factori, nu
exclusiv practicrii dansului sportiv.
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rsultats scolaires au collge, Science & Sports, 24, 1, 2009, p. 3135.
12. MAYER, J., SALOVEY, P., Teoria inteligenei emoionale, Bucureti, All, 1990.
13. McMAHON, D. S., ROSE, S. D., PARKS, M., Basic reading through dance program: The
impact on first-grade students basic reading skills, Evaluation Review, 27, 1, 2003, p. 104125.
14. PESCE, C., CEREATTI, C., CASELLA, R., BELLUCCI, M., Physical activity and mental
performance in preadolescents: Effects of acute exercise on free-recall memory, Journal of
School Health, 2, 2006, p. 1622.
15. STINSON, S.W., Aesthetic experience in children's dance, Journal of Physical Education,
Recreation and Dance, 53, 4, 1982, p.53/5472/74.
16. TENENBAUM, G., TEHAN, G., STEWART G., CHRISTENSEN, S., Recalling a floor routine:
The effects of skill and age on memory for order, Applied Cognitive Psychology, 13, 1999,
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17. VIAN, A., Dansul pentru educaia corporal, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Universitar, 2005.
18. ZAKKAI, J., Dance as a way of knowing, Portland, ME, Stenhouse, 1997.
REZUMAT
MANUELA PRECUP
Oxford Brookes University
ANNA BARNETT
Department of Psychology, Oxford Brookes University
Abstract
Handwriting remains an important skill that children need to acquire. Fast and legible
handwriting is required to keep up with class work and to cope with written examinations. Schools
need handwriting assessment tools to monitor childrens performance and to identify those who might
need support. The Detailed Assessment of the Speed of Handwriting (DASH) is a recently developed
tool with UK norms, which may be suitable for use in other countries. The aims of the study were to
translate and adapt the DASH for use in Romania with children aged 911 years and to investigate
construct validity of the adapted test by examining both age and gender. The DASH was translated
into Romanian, with some minor adaptations to the items. 100 Romanian children performed the test.
Distributions of the data were examined for each of the five DASH tasks. The children were split into
a younger (910 years) and older (1011 years) age group. DASH data was compared across these
groups using two-way ANOVA. The adapted DASH was suitable for Romanian children aged
911 years old. There were significant differences between scores for the two age groups across all of
the tasks, with the older children writing faster on four of the DASH tasks. Significant increases in
writing speed across the different tasks support the construct validity of the test. Further data
collection is needed to establish norms in Romania before the DASH may be usefully used in
Romanian schools.
Cuvinte-cheie: vitez, caligrafie, validitate, copii, DASH.
Keywords: speed, handwriting, validity, children, DASH.
1. LITERATURE REVIEW
Student MRes in Developmental Psychology, Oxford Brookes University; e-mail:
manuelatimofte@yahoo.com.
Rev. Psih., vol. 60, nr. 1, p. 4959, Bucureti, ianuarie martie 2014
50 Manuela Precup, Anna Barnett 2
difficulties later (Barnett & Henderson, 2005). Therefore, children with poor
handwriting skills might be identified and referred to occupational therapists.
Assessing handwriting, and developing intervention programmes for those with
difficulties may assist with academic progress (Medwell & Wray, 2007). However,
due to lack of consensus on handwriting assessments, the main difficulty in
assessing handwriting is the decision on what to measure and how to measure it.
Whilst some existing tests of handwriting meet basic psychometric requirements
for acceptability, some do not (Barnett & Henderson, 2005).
1.2.1. The Detailed Assessment of the Speed of Handwiting
One recently developed and standardized test is the Detailed Assessment of
the Speed of Handwriting (DASH) (Barnett et al., 2007) with UK norms. This
includes a range of tasks (four core tasks and Graphic Speed as an optional task)
which embody different aspects of handwriting speed (Barnett et al., 2009). Sentence
copying is probably the most commonly used task in handwriting studies even
though the materials employed varies across tests and studies. However, the DASH
includes two tasks with identical content and time constraints; a measure of normal
writing speed compared with writing under instructions emphasizing speed (Barnett
et al., 2009). Free writing is also a common method used for assessing handwriting
speed. The DASH includes a free writing task as one of the five tasks, to assess
speed of composition and to meet the ecological validity criterion (Barnett et al.,
2009). Alphabet writing in lower case is a task employed in studies for prediction
of both fluency and quality of handwriting (Graham et al., 1997). Writing the
alphabet is a skill required for copying text and free writing composition (Barnett
et al., 2009). Graphic Speed is a task indicating a score for the number of correct
symbols produced in a one minute period, providing a measure of basic movements
without using language (Barnett et al., 2009) and is independent of language.
1.2.2. Psychometric properties
DASH norms were obtained by using data from the 2001 census. Normal
distributions were obtained for raw scores for each age group, and the scores were
used to obtain the standard scores for each task (Barnett et al., 2009). Validity of
the DASH was examined at the same time as an investigation of reliability. A high
reliability estimate (.87) was reported in the UK sample. A high level of homo-
geneity across the four main tasks and reliability for each age group were indicated
by the values of Cronbachs alphas (between .83 and .89) (Barnett et al., 2007).
The scores of the four main tasks were highly inter-correlated.
Referring back to the finding that handwriting improves with age and
schooling (Graham et al., 2008), the DASH could demonstrate validity, being
sensitive at age differentiation. The significant mean differences found for all main
tasks of the DASH in the UK sample have shown that handwriting speed increases
with age (Barnett & Handerson, 2005; Barnett et al., 2009). Moreover, significant
main effects for gender were revealed on each of the four main test tasks (Barnett
et al., 2009).
52 Manuela Precup, Anna Barnett 4
Most handwriting research has been carried out in the UK, North America
and also in Israel. However, handwriting is also important in other countries and
the focus of the current study is handwriting in Romania. Although in the language
and literature syllabus one of the objectives is development of written com-
munication ability (Ministerul Educaiei, 2003), there is not an objective assessment of
handwriting speed. Therefore, an adapted DASH in Romania could be a tool for
schools to monitor childrens performance and identify those with difficulties and
aid research in deciding the benefits that children may have from handwriting
intervention.
The purpose of this study was to determine the test suitability for children
aged 911 years in Romania, and to show whether the test demonstrates good
validity in a Romanian sample, being sensitive to differences in both age and
gender. Furthermore, validity was assessed by examining inter-correlations between
the tasks, and factor loadings in factor analysis.
2. METHODS
Firstly, permission was obtained from the test publishers Pearson Assessment
to translate parts of the manual and test instructions. All of the materials were
translated in Romanian, including the instructions from the test. The instructions
were then back translated to English by a Romanian professional to check against
the original meanings.
2.1.1. Sentence copying
The DASH includes two tasks in which the sentence The quick brown fox
jumps over the lazy dog is copied. This sentence contains all letters of the English
alphabet. For the Romanian adaptation, it was not possible to develop a direct
equivalent as the Romanian alphabet consists of five additional letters with a high
frequency (, , , , ) and the language uses letters q, w, y in imported words
from other languages (with a low frequency). A sentence was therefore chosen that
included the majority of letters of the alphabet (missing h and j), all the
additional letters and ignored q, w, y (Fix n co castraveii i un kilogram de
brnz/ He/She laid cucumbers and a kilogram of cheese in a basket). For the
Copy Fast task, the sentence and timing were identical (2 minutes).
2.1.2. Alphabet Writing
The task did not require changes for administration in Romanian. It should be
noted that the writing of alphabet involves the same letters in Romanian as in
English language. Whilst the alphabet is taught in school with additional (, , , ,
) and imported letters (q, w, y), some of them (, , ) are not requested in alphabet
5 Adaptation of the DASH in Romania 53
2.2. PARTICIPANTS
The participants were 100 Romanian children aged between 9 and 11 years,
from year three and four in primary school. They were attending four public
schools located in two towns, representing diverse socioeconomic backgrounds.
Each of the schools contributed 20, 20, 28, 32 children to the study. Forty-six children
were aged between 10 and 11 years. The study sample was constituted from a total
of 49 boys and 51 girls (mean age SD was 9.06 .03 and 10.05 .03 years).
Table no. 1
Number of boys and girls in each age year in each school
910 years 1011 years
Girls Boys girls Boys
School No 1 9 16 3 4
School No 2 11 1 4 4
School No 3 0 13 0 4
School No 4 7 7 7 7
Total 27 27 24 22
Grand total 54 46
Inclusion criteria were the ability to speak and write Romanian. Participants
were excluded if they had a sensory or physical difficulty that made writing hard
for them.
The research was approved by the Faculty of Health & Life Sciences
Research Ethics Committee, Oxford Brookes University. Prior to commencing the
study, ethical clearance was also sought from the Education Board of Hunedoara
country and the head teachers of all participating schools. School staff informed
parents about the study and gave them the opportunity to opt out of the study.
54 Manuela Precup, Anna Barnett 6
2.3.1. Materials
The test was administered as recommended in the test manual. The paper
materials were distributed to all children being tested. Children used their usual
writing instrument pen/pencil. The researcher provided sets of lined paper and had
available spare pens/pencils and spare lined paper. Different aspects of the test
were demonstrated using a large blackboard and in addition the testers own set of
materials was held up in front of the each group when explaining the tasks.
2.3.2. Group Testing
The test was administered within one week in all four schools. The
participants were all seen in the morning, and sessions were arranged to fit in with
class routines, and all children completed the DASH in a group setting (15
20 children) in their usual classes. The data were collected in quiet and well-lit
classrooms. The children were seated at a desk with adequate space for writing and
a clear view of the testers demonstrations. Testing occupied approximately
30 minutes per group. In undertaking the test children were able to choose the style
of writing they wanted to use. The measure of handwriting speed was established
by following the DASH scoring criteria for each task.
2.3.3. Data Analysis
Firstly, analysis was directed at examining the distribution of the scores for
both age groups across each of the test tasks. Data were explored using
Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test of Normality (significance level was set at .05), to
investigate the spread of scores in groups of children. The scores for Copy Best,
Free Writing and Graphic Speed met the criteria for a normal distribution and
the assumption was not violated. The scores for Copy Fast and Alphabet Writing
tasks at 910 years old were not normally distributed; the significance level was
p < 0.05. The data was computed to logarithmic scores, which were than used for
further analysis.
A two age group (910 years, 1011 years) by gender (girls, boys) Analysis
of Variance was carried out on each task of the DASH to examine the main effects
of age and gender, and the interaction among the independent variables. Pearson
product-moment correlation was applied to evaluate inter-correlations between the
adapted DASH tasks. Finally, a principal-component factor analysis was carried out to
examine the factor structure of the correlation matrix of the four main DASH tasks.
The construct validity of each of the DASH tasks was tested by examining
group differences in age and gender. The mean score and standard deviation for
each group is presented in Table no. 2.
Table no. 2
Handwriting speed for the two age groups for all DASH tasks
910 years 1011 years
Age effect
n = 54 n = 46
Measure M SD M SD F P
Copy Best/wpm 11.85 2.60 13.66 3.32 9.494 .003
Copy Fast/wpm 14.36 2.98 15.79 3.27 5.650 .019
Free Writing/wpm 11.35 2.62 13.23 3.55 9.124 .003
Alphabet Writing/lpm 24.85 10.50 29.58 12.50 3.456 .066
Graphic Speed/spm 26,37 7.43 30.33 8.90 5.680 .019
wpm words per minute; lpm letters per minute; spm signs per minute.
Table no. 3 illustrates the gender differences found between girls and boys
for each task of the DASH.
Table no. 3
Handwriting speed for gender
Girls Boys Gender
n = 51 n = 49 effect
Measure M SD M SD F P
Copy Best/wpm 13.50 3.08 11.84 2.85 8.230 .005
Copy Fast/wpm 15.63 3.12 14.38 3.15 4.713 .032
Free Writing/wpm 12.86 3.10 11.55 3.21 4.383 .039
Alphabet Writing/lpm 28.53 12.58 25.47 10.48 .855 .357
Graphic Speed/spm 29.47 8.45 26.85 8.08 2.743 .101
The gain in performance for older children was investigated using ANOVA
and the results indicated significant mean differences between the two groups for
four of the tasks: Copy Best F(1,96)= 9.494 p< 0.01 = .090, Copy Fast F(1,96) =
5.650 p < 0.05 = .056, Free Writing F (1,96) = 9.124 p < 0.01 = .087, Graphic
Speed F (1,96) = 5.680 p < 0.05 = .056.
Analyses of variance showed significant main effects for gender on three of
the main tasks with girls writing faster than boys. F values ranged from 4.38 (p <
0.05) for the Free Writing task to 8.23 (p < 0.01) for the Copy Best task. There were no
significant main effects of gender on Alphabet Writing and Graphic Speed tasks.
The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients reported in Table no. 3
(range is reported for the two different age groups) revealed that copying and
writing tasks were substantially inter-correlated. Although there are some low
correlations for Graphic Speed, the lowest correlations are for Alphabet Writing.
56 Manuela Precup, Anna Barnett 8
Table no. 4
Pearson correlation coefficients between the adapted DASH tasks for both age groups
Copy Best Copy Fast Free Writing Alphabet Writing
Copy Fast .81.85
Free Writing .62-.62 .63.72
Alphabet Writing .54.59 .36.52 .25.58
Graphic Speed .35.38 .33.46 .26.40 .37.41
In the Romanian data, only one factor with an eigenvalue 1was extracted.
The significant factor that emerged from the four main DASH tasks, explained
71.5% of the total variance. The size of factor loadings was high (see Table no. 5).
Table no. 5
Results of the Principal Component Analysis
of the four core adapted DASH tasks
911 years
n = 100
Eigenvalue 2.86
% of total variance 71.5%
Factor loadings
Copy Best .92
Copy Fast .90
Free Writing .83
Alphabet Writing .71
3.3. DISCUSSION
The urgent call for research in handwriting to address the need for an
objective assessment of handwriting speed in Romania has led to the research
questions of the current paper. This study set out therefore, to adapt and translate
the DASH and to examine construct validity of the test for Romanian children.
On the question of the suitability of the DASH for Romanian children, results
of the current study revealed a normal distribution in the test scores across each
task. There was a good spread of scores within any group of children. Therefore,
the results show that the DASH is good at differentiating between children in the
Romanian sample, as it is in the UK sample.
On the question of validity of the test, the results of this study emphasize a
significant difference between age groups. As expected, significant differences
were found between the children 1011 years old and children 910 years old, in
their level of mastery; older children wrote faster compared with younger children.
Some evidence for this comes from all of the tasks involved in the test. The mean
scores show that for each task there was an increase of at least two words in the
older children. The results also showed that girls wrote faster compared to boys in
copying and free writing. Age differences were not found for the Alphabet
Writing and Graphic Speed tasks.
9 Adaptation of the DASH in Romania 57
Another important finding of the current study was that high correlations
were found between the copying and free writing tasks of the test. Unexpectedly,
some low correlations with the alphabet task were found. These might be attributed
to some outliers with extremely high scores in the younger age group. The low
correlations found for the Graphic Speed task were as expected and support the
findings reported by Barnett et al. (2009). Whilst the four main tasks provide a
measure of the handwriting ability, the Graphic Speed task provides a measure of
the speed of some basic movements and is not used as predictor of handwriting
speed. The principal-components factor analysis did not yield surprising results.
One substantial factor emerges and is regarded as evidence of the unidi-
mensionality of the multi-task scale. High factor loadings (from .74 to .94) have
been previously reported from the UK data for the four main tasks indicating
strong evidence of homogeneity of the test (Barnett et al., 2009).
Previous research suggests that a valid measure is judged at the extent to
which the test should yield significant differences for age groups and gender
(Graham, 1986). Although the research findings differ in reports of childrens writing
speed, the trend of handwriting speed increasing with age remains consistent
(Ziviani & Watson-Will, 1998). The present study produced results corroborating
the findings from earlier studies that age is an important factor that influences
written performance and handwriting of children in higher grades is superior to that
of children in lower grades (Graham, 2006; Graham et al., 2008). The findings also
corroborate with previous evidence showing that girls have faster handwriting than
boys (Graham et al., 1998; Medwell et al., 2009). Boys are more likely to be identified
as having handwriting difficulties whilst girls advantage is affected by their more
advanced development of fine-motor coordination and also by cultural stereotypes
of the need to achieve more successful practice (Graham & Weintraub, 1996).
One strength of the current study is the large and diverse sample of parti-
cipating children. Also, the adapted DASH showed similar evidence of validity as
that reported by Barnett et al. (2009) in the UK. As with any study, some
limitations need to be mentioned. First, although the participants were recruited
from different schools with varying backgrounds, from two different towns, most
of the recruited children attended school in the same town. The results from this
specific geographical area may not be generalizable to the school aged population
in Romania.
However, further research on this topic could be undertaken to establish
whether the DASH measures are sensitive to group differences when larger
samples with a wider age range are recruited. A sample recruited from different
geographical areas may help to increase the generalization of findings.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The findings of the current report have served to indicate that the adapted
DASH supports the robust psychometric properties of the DASH. Moreover, the
58 Manuela Precup, Anna Barnett 10
findings suggest that the administration of the test in different countries should be
encouraged. The results of the study emphasize: First, although the test was used
for the first time in Romania, it demonstrates suitability for Romanian children.
Second, the examination of validity indicated age and gender differentiation. In
sum, the adapted DASH would allow teachers and other professionals to identify
children with handwriting difficulties and to plan the details of intervention
programmes designed to improve handwriting skills. The test would also provide
teachers with information that can be used to describe children academic
performance in schools and to monitor changes over time. It is clear that the next
step would be to establish norms for the test. It may be useful as an objective
instrument of handwriting speed needed in Romania.
REFERENCES
13. Ministerul Educaiei, Cercetrii i Tineretului, Limba i literatura romn, clasele I-A, II-A.
Programe colare revizuite, Consiliul Naional pentru Curriculum, 2003, Bucureti.
14. ROSENBLUM, S., CHEVION, D. & WEISS, P. L., Using data visualisation and signal processing to
characterize the handwriting process, Pediatric Rehabilitation, 9, 4, 2006, p. 404417.
15. SUMMERS, J. & CATARRON, F., Assessment of handwriting speed and factors influencing
written output of university students in examinations, Australian Occupational Therapy Journal,
50, 2003, p. 148157.
16. ZIVIANI, J & WATSON-WILL, A., Writing speed and legibility of 7-14-year old school
students using modern cursive script, Australian Occupational Therapy Journal, 45, 1998, p. 5964.
REZUMAT
Caligrafia rmne o abilitate necesar copiilor. Un scris de mn rapid i lizibil este esenial
pentru a face fa muncii n clas i la examenele scrise. colile au nevoie de un instrument de
evaluare a scrisului de mn pentru a monitoriza performana copiilor i pentru a depista pe cei ce au
nevoie de ajutor. Testul Evaluare Detaliat a Vitezei Scrisului de mn (DASH) este un recent
instrument creat si standardizat n Marea Britanie i poate fi utilizat i n alte ri. Obiectivele
studiului au fost de a traduce i adapta testul (DASH) pentru a putea fi folosit in Romnia pentru
copiii cu vrste ntre 911 ani i de a investiga validitatea de construct a testului prin examinarea att
a vrstei ct i a genului. Testul a fost tradus in limba romn cu unele modificri minore ale
elementelor componente. 100 de copii romni au fost testai. Distribuia datelor a fost examinat
pentu fiecare dintre cele cinci elemente ale testului. Copiii au fost mprii n dou grupe de varst:
910 ani i 1011 ani. Datele testului au fost comparate ntre cele dou grupe folosind ANOVA
factorial (two-way ANOVA). Testul DASH adaptat a fost gsit corespunztor pentru copiii romni
cu vrste cuprinse ntre 911 ani. Diferene semnificative au fost gsite ntre scorurile celor dou
grupe pentru toate elementele testului (DASH), unde copiii mai mari scriu mai repede n patru din
elementele testului. Creterea semnificativ a vitezei de scris n cadrul testului susine validitatea de
construct a testului. Colectarea de noi date este necesar pentru a stabili norme ale testului n
Romnia nainte ca acesta s fie folosit n colile romneti.
GENDER DIFFERENCES IN THE CONTEXT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL
DEFENSE MECHANISMS ROMANIAN VERSION OF DSQ 60
Abstract
This study is a first use of Defensive Style Questionnaire (DSQ 60), the version with 60 items
and 30 mental defense mechanisms (Thygesen et al., 2008), a version recently translated, adapted and
validated on Romanian population (Craovan, Maricuoiu, 2012), to identify psychological defense
mechanisms on non-clinical population. The study aims to identify gender differences in the use of
psychological defense mechanisms on the general population (N = 770) by using a heterogeneous
sample composed of various social groups of different age and education levels. The results of data
analysis show as being specific to women a number of five psychological defense mechanisms,
namely altruism, reaction formation, self-observation, withdrawal, displacement, and identification of
two psychological defense mechanisms specific to men, namely passive-aggressive and isolation.
Cuvinte-cheie: DSQ 60, mecanisme de aprare psihic, populaie general, gen, adaptare.
Keywords: DSQ 60, psychological defense mechanisms, general population, gender, adaptation.
1. INTRODUCTION
Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, PhD Department of Psychology and
Methodology Studies, University of Bucharest. Currently the author is a member of Post-Graduate
Research Center COMMSCIE, West University of Timioara, Romania; e-mail: psihologie.dc@
gmail.com, dan_crasovan@yahoo.com.
Rev. Psih., vol. 60, nr. 1, p. 6068, Bucureti, ianuarie martie 2014
2 Psychological defence mechanisms 61
2. METHOD
2.1. PARTICIPANTS
The sample used includes 770 adult assessed from August 2010 to September
2011 in Timisoara and other places in western Romania, and the participation in
the study was based on free will and informed consent without offering any form of
reward.
The development of the study assumed the administration of DSQ 60 and of
the demographic questionnaire to a number of 800 subjects. Out of the total of 800
administered questionnaires, 770 sets of answers were filled in and introduced in
subsequent analyses (N = 770).
Eligibility criteria of the participants: the absence of mental illness, the
absence of organic diseases, people aged between 18 and 66.
Regarding the demographic features of the sample from the general
population, related to the number of scores preserved in the analysis, the mentioned
4 Psychological defence mechanisms 63
questionnaires were applied to a number of 330 men (42.86%) and 440 women
(57.14%) (Mage = 31.16 years, SDage = 10.81, age range: 18-66) and the graduated
study level is between level 1 and level 7, where 1 corresponds to high school
(337 subjects/43.7%), 2 post-secondary (20 subjects/2.6%), 3 college three years
(167 subjects/21.7%), 4 faculty four, five or six years (175 subjects/22.8%),
5 master courses (56 subjects/7.3%), 6 doctoral studies (12 subjects/1.6%) and
7 for other cases 10 grades or below 10 grades (3 subjects/0.4%).
Data analysis was run using the t independent test under the statistic
program of data analysis SPSS version 16 (Howitt, Cramer, 2010) and Power
StaTim 1.0 (Sava, Maricuoiu, 2007). The t independent test was run repeatedly
for identifying possible differences between men and women for each of the 30
psychological defense mechanisms operationalised by DSQ 60 and for the overall
score of psychological defense mechanisms in the two groups of participants.
PowerStaTim 1.0 (Sava, Maricuoiu, 2007) program was used to calculate the
effect size and statistical power.
3. RESULTS
Table no. 1
Mean, standard deviation, t test, degrees of freedom, probability, effect size
and statistical power for the 30 psychological defense mechanisms (N = 770)
Men Women
Psychological defense Stat.
N = 330 N = 440 t df p d
mechanisms power
M SD M SD
1) Altruism * 14.13 3.59 15.04 3.24 3,63 768 .000 (p<.001) .26 .82
2) Passive-aggressive** 7.37 4.16 6.48 3.87 3,05 768 .002 (p<.01) .22 .65
3) Supression 11.47 3.68 11.48 3.81
4) Sublimation 9.78 4.30 10.26 4.64
5) Splitting/other 9.97 4.40 9.72 4.81
6) Rationalization 12.16 3.40 12.22 3.48
7) Humor 11.17 4.14 11.54 4.08
8) Projection 8.56 4.15 8.74 4.69
9) Reaction formation* 9.96 3.79 10.89 3.93 3,30 768 .001 (p<.01) .24 .71
10) Self-observation* 12.83 3.59 13.58 3.72 2,80 768 .005 (p<.01) .20 .58
11) Denial 9.30 3.99 9.26 4.23
12) Devaluation of other 8.95 4.04 8.57 4.12
13) Projective identification 8.80 3.80 8.80 4.10
14) Dissociation 8.13 3.87 7.85 4.10
15) Self-assertion 13.37 3.37 13.74 3.66
16) Omnipotence 9.02 4.22 9.04 4.38
17) Acting-out 10.55 4.36 10.25 5.07
18) Devaluation/self 6.14 3.72 6.08 4.00
19) Fantasy 6.77 4.33 6.74 4.72
20) Withdrawal * 10.36 4.78 11.73 5.03 3,83 768 .000 (p<.001) .27 .85
21) Intellectualization 9.74 4.04 9.52 4.31
22) Splitting/self 7.52 3.96 7.88 4.54
23) Displacement * 8.58 3.96 9.49 4.24 3,01 768 .003 (p<.01) .22 .64
24) Repression 8.22 4.13 8.47 3.89
25) Idealization 8.88 4.38 9.43 4.77
26) Isolation ** 9.88 4.06 8.98 4.44 2,90 768 .004 (p<.01) .21 .60
27) Help-rejecting complaining 7.60 3.94 7.20 4.31
28) Undoing 8.84 4.14 8.87 4.24
29) Anticipation 11.62 3.89 11.78 3.88
30) Affiliation 10.94 4.43 11.31 4.698
DSQ 60 Total 290.2 52.8 294.7 58.4
Note: * psychological defense mechanisms specific to female participants; ** psychological defense mechanisms
specific to male participants.
6 Psychological defence mechanisms 65
As can be seen from the data presented in Table no.1, namely from the value
of the averages for the 30 psychological defense mechanisms, t test and probability,
there were statistically significant differences between men and women for altruism,
passive-aggressive, reaction formation, self-observation, withdrawal, displacement
and isolation. Comparing psychological defense mechanisms where there are
significant differences, it can be observed that 5 of the 7 psychological defense
mechanisms, namely altruism, reaction formation, self-observation, withdrawal and
displacement are specific to women participating in the study, the averages of these
mechanisms are higher than the averages of the men participating in the study.
Also, passive-aggressive and isolation are the only psychological defense
mechanisms specific to the men participating in the study, the average of these
mechanisms being higher in male participants than in female participants.
The analysis of the results shows some differences determined by gender in
the use of psychological defense mechanisms operationalized by DSQ 60 and
reported in DSM IV R (APA, 2000/2003).
Some of the psychological defense mechanisms identified as specific to one
or other of the two categories of participants, namely women and men in this study,
are confirmed by other researches. Thus, the isolation is also identified as specific
to men in another study using also the DSQ 60 (Petraglia et al., 2009). Also using
different methodologies, other studies (Vaillant, 1993 in Ionescu et al., 2002) have
identified passive-aggressive as a psychological defense mechanism specific to
men, and specific to women the defense mechanisms are altruism and reaction
formation.
Regarding other psychological defense mechanisms for which statistically
significant differences are not observed, respectively supression, sublimation, splitting/
other rationalization, humor, projection, denial, devaluation of other, projective
identification, dissociation, self-assertion, omnipotence, acting out, devaluation/
self, fantasy, intellectualization, splitting/self, repression, idealization, help-rejecting
complaining, undoing, anticipation and affiliation are used both by men and
women participating in the research without gender differences.
In terms of the overall score of DSQ 60 for psychological defense mechanisms,
obtained by summing the scores of the 30 psychological defense mechanisms
included in the questionnaire, we can observe the absence of significant differences
in overall defensive functioning between women participants and men participants,
which is supported by other previous researches (Mahalik et al., 1998; Petraglia
et al., 2009). In other researches conducted on non-clinical samples from the
general population (Bullitt, Farber, 2002), the results do not show the existence of
significant individual differences in the general level of maturity of defenses but
there were observed different defensive sets specific to both men and women
66 Dnu Ioan Craovan 7
AUTHOR NOTE
On the sample used in this research was applied simultaneously the COPE
Questionnaire (Carver, Scheier and Weintraub, 1989 [The COPE Questionnaire
Romanian version was validated in Romania on a general sample N = 1009
subjects by Craovan, Sava, 2013]) in order to analyze coping mechanisms.
REFERENCES
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Academy of Psychoanalysis, 30, 2002, p. 3551.
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6. CRAMER, P., Development of defense mechanisms: Theory, research, and assessment, New York,
Springer-Verlag, 1991 a.
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major [The role of defence mechanisms and coping mechanisms in depression disorders],
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(DSQ-60) within a Romanian sample, Cognition, Brain, Behavior. An Interdisciplinary Journal,
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68 Dnu Ioan Craovan 9
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questionnaire 40, Journal of Clinical Psychology, 54, 1998, p. 67 75.
REZUMAT
Prezentul studiu este o prim utilizare a Chestionarului stilului defensiv (DSQ 60), versiunea
cu 60 itemi i 30 mecanisme de aprare psihic (Thygesen et al., 2008), versiune recent tradus,
adaptat i validat pe populaie Romneasc (Craovan, Maricuoiu, 2012), pentru identificarea
mecanismelor de aprare psihic pe populaie general, non-clinic. Studiul vizeaz identificarea
diferenelor de gen pentru mecanismele de aprare psihic pe populaie general prin aplicarea pe
eantion eterogen (N = 770), din diferite grupe sociale, de vrst i cu diferite niveluri de educaie.
Rezultatele analizei arat ca mecanisme de aprare psihic specifice participanilor de gen feminin
urmtoarele cinci mecanisme: altruism, formaiunea reacional, autoobservarea, retragerea i
deplasarea, respectiv dou mecanisme de aprare psihic specifice participanilor de gen masculin:
agresivitatea pasiv i izolarea.
PRELIMINARII METODOLOGICE LA ABORDAREA UNUI PROFIL
COGNITIV-PERSONOLOGIC N ADOLESCEN (II)
Abstract
This second part of the methodological preliminaries to the approach of a cognitive-
personologic profile manifested at the stage of adolescence study, reveals the process of the incipient
aggregation of the defining personality structures from the perspective of the interactionism
developed between its variables, as well as from the one resulted by the inter-correlativity of the sub-
dimensions as they appear of the traits-factors and of the professional values. Under a hypothetical
report and from the objectives angle, we managed to obtain the expected results, following the
investigations conducted on the target-group of teenagers, flanked by preteenagers and students. The
used methods are consecrated, with their support results were obtained in multiple researches,
especially acknowledged PhD thesis.
Cuvinte-cheie: adolescen, personalitate, profil personologic.
Keywords: adolescence, personality, personological prophile.
Centrul colar Special de Educaie Incluziv Sfntul Nicolae, Cmpulung-Muscel, jud. Arge,
str. Negru Vod nr. 66; e-mail: n.malaiasi@gmail.com.
Rev. Psih., vol. 60, nr. 1, p. 6978, Bucureti, ianuarie martie 2014
70 Nicolae Ghi Mliai 2
Tabelul nr. 3
Scoruri medii de trsturi-factori
Subieci ADOLESCENI
Pre-
Socio-uman Tehnico- Socio-uman Tehnico- Studeni
adolesceni
mici tiinific mici mari tiinific mari
Variabile
A A 6.70 A 7.04 I 6.64 A 7.10 L 7.04 A 7.68
B O 6.18 L 6.68 A 6.44 B 7.03 A 6.96 B 7.27
C L 5.84 Q4 6.52 B 6.38 L 6.93 H 6.93 L 6.94
E Q4 5.78 B 6.20 L 6.32 E 6.59 B 6.86 Q4 6.56
F F 5.77 I 6.18 Q4 6.24 I 6.57 E 6.43 H 6.54
G E 5.72 E 5.80 F 6.06 H 6.38 Q4 6.15 Q1 6.24
H B 5.63 O 5.80 E 6.00 Q4 6.31 F 5.98 Q3 6.22
I H 5.56 F 5.50 H 5.98 F 6.05 G 5.90 I 6.14
L I 5.00 H 5.48 O 5.28 Q1 5.63 C 5.74 E 6.13
M Q2 4.80 Q1 5.34 Q1 5.16 O 5.59 N 5.74 N 5.92
N C 4.60 G 5.06 C 4.90 N 5.17 Q3 5.64 G 5.70
O G 4.40 N 4.80 N 4.78 C 5.05 I 5.56 F 5.63
Q1 Q1 4.36 Q2 4.46 G 4.66 G 5.03 Q1 5.56 O 5.32
Q2 M 4.34 Q3 4.24 Q2 4.30 Q2 4.57 O 5.16 C 5.09
Q3 N 4.24 C 3.90 Q3 4.16 Q3 4.31 Q2 4.12 Q2 4.92
Q4 Q3 4.20 M 3.42 M 3.14 M 3.63 M 3.58 M 4.00
Scor mediu 5.19 5.40 5.40 5.55 5.87 6.02
Tabelul nr. 4
Scoruri medii de valori profesionale
Subieci ADOLESCENI
Preadolesceni Socio-uman Tehnico-tiinific Socio-uman Tehnico- Studeni
Nr. crt. mici mici mari tiinific mari
1 Mv 4.85 Sp 4.62 Rp 4.50 Sp 5.94 Mv 4.79 Af 4.60
2 Al 4.52 Af 4.62 Rs 4.40 Rp 4.52 Sp 4.54 Rc 4.58
3 Rp 4.44 Al 4.55 Ae 4.34 Rs 4.38 Rc 4.50 Rs 4.49
4 Af 4.42 Rs 4.46 Af 4.34 Ae 4.36 Rp 4.38 Rp 4.47
5 Rs 4.29 Ae 4.44 Mv 4.28 Af 4.34 Af 4.38 Cr 4.42
6 Ae 4.28 In 4.38 Rc 4.24 Rc 4.30 Al 4.35 Sp 4.38
7 Rc 4.24 Pr 4.38 Cr 4.21 Cr 4.29 Cr 4.34 Al 4.36
8 Sp 4.16 Rc 4.38 In 4.20 Al 4.25 Pr 4.31 In 4.22
9 In 4.14 Rp 4.37 Pr 4.20 In 4.23 Rs 4.26 Pr 4.20
10 Cr 4.07 Mv 4.28 Al 4.18 Pr 4.22 Ae 4.25 Ae 4.18
11 Pr 4.03 Cr 4.17 Sp 4.10 Mv 4.20 Si 4.09 Si 4.08
12 Si 3.66 Si 3.88 Si 4.04 Si 4.16 In 4.09 Mv 4.03
13 Co 3.64 Es 3.82 Es 3.69 Es 3.57 Es 3.90 Es 3.68
14 Va 3.63 Va 3.69 Va 3.30 Va 3.57 Va 3.46 Va 3.62
15 Es 3.60 Co 3.46 Co 3.19 Co 3.38 Co 3.45 Co 3.50
Medie general 4.13 4.23 4.08 4.18 4.21 4.13
Medii top + M 4.34 4.45 4.29 4.37 4.41 4.39
Medii Slabe 3.71 3.78 3.66 3.78 3.80 3.76
superiorii, ambiana fizic; n fine, treimea versatil n care rangurile ne spun c ele
sunt, n principiu, valori consistente, fie i numai pentru c niciuna dintre acestea
nu cade n treimea inferioar. Micarea acestei ultime treimi pare a fi cea
mai lent la adolescenii mari, specializarea tehnico-tiinific i, evident, la
studeni.
Despre tezaurul de disponibilitate de-a lungul adolescenei, este cazul s
vorbim, alturi de abiliti i atitudini pe cale de maturizare, de o mare rezerv de
potenial intelectiv cu efervescena lui cunoscut la aceast vrst. Din acest
rezervor, ne vom ocupa sumar de corelativitate, aceast poart inevitabil a
analizei factoriale.
4. INTRA-CORELATIVITATE PERSONOLOGIC
(mostr: o matrice proprie adolescenilor mari)
4.1. PREMISE
Tabelul nr. 5
Inter-corelativitate personologic (trsturi-factori i valori;
Mostr: o imagine proprie adolescenilor mari)
Var. A B C E F G H I L M N O Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
Al .24 .60 .44 .33 .42 .35 .37 .25 .44 .36 .55 .17 .59 .29 .37 .06
Es .50 .31 .36 .24 .19 .24 .27 .10 .53 -.04 .68 .05 .05 .15 .05 .29
Si .36 .61 .39 .30 .52 .28 .65 .53 .27 .38 .45 .36 .24 .14 .42 .05
Rp .18 .50 .50 .60 .38 .50 .48 .18 .27 .20 .53 .37 .33 .19 .46 .15
In .15 .50 .16 .19 .07 .09 .38 .24 .55 .22 .45 -.03 .35 .36 .16 .27
Pr .27 .70 .19 .57 .29 -.06 .70 .19 .18 .16 .38 .29 .35 -.06 .41 .20
Co .22 .28 .21 -.14 .37 .09 .25 .28 .15 .20 .32 -.07 .19 .23 .21 .09
Ae .35 .23 .50 .20 .38 .57 .54 .17 .29 .23 .53 .26 .44 .24 .44 .08
Sp .73 .67 .52 .10 .15 -.08 .16 .14 -.03 .46 .52 -.04 .67 -.18 .50 -.07
Af -.02 .41 .26 .58 .06 .08 .35 -.05 .43 .22 .26 .12 .12 .19 .34 .29
Rs -.03 .38 .47 .21 -.02 .11 .23 -.02 .23 .31 .41 .05 .30 .11 .48 .24
Rc .12 .33 .68 .42 .15 -.11 .28 -.08 .23 .13 .33 .40 .37 .02 .59 .06
Mv .41 .73 .55 .46 .41 .53 .61 .14 .47 .62 .64 .26 .57 .17 .60 .24
Va .42 .32 .35 .11 .22 .13 .25 .41 .16 .31 .14 .26 -.07 .34 .10 .34
Cr .15 .76 .50 .23 .73 .14 .22 .56 .24 .31 .09 .33 .55 .16 .39 .24
Tabelul nr. 6
Variabile
A B C E F G H I L M N O Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Total
Nivel de
semnificaie
nalt 6 1 3 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6
Mediu 40 1 5 6 3 1 3 3 2 2 1 6 0 4 0 3 0 40
Slab 80 5 6 5 4 6 2 6 2 6 6 6 5 6 3 8 4 80
Total 126 7 14 11 7 8 5 10 4 8 7 12 5 10 3 11 4 126
Tabelul nr. 7
Niveluri de semnificaie
Variabile
Al Es Si Rp In Pr Co Ae Sp Af Rs Rc Mv Va Cr Total
Nivel de
semnificaie
nalt 6 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 2 6
Mediu 40 3 3 4 5 2 1 0 4 5 1 0 2 7 0 3 40
Slab 80 4 4 9 6 5 6 4 5 1 5 6 6 4 7 3 80
Total 126 12 7 13 11 7 9 4 9 7 6 6 6 12 7 8 126
Tabelul nr. 8
Intercorelaii
Inter-corelaii Inteligen
Creativitate Trsturi factori Valori profesionale
semnificative general
Nr. % Nr. % Nr. % Nr. %
Loturi
Preadolesceni 12 100 14 46,67 65 27,08 76 36,19
Adolesceni mici socio-
12 100 18 60,00 100 41,67 98 46,67
uman
Adolesceni mici tehnoco-
12 100 18 60,00 100 41,67 102 48,57
tiinific
Adolesceni mari socio-
12 100 24 80,00 130 54,17 108 51,43
uman
Adolesceni mari tehnico-
12 100 26 86,67 136 56,67 114 54,24
tiinific
Studeni 12 100 27 90,00 149 62,08 127 60,48
Total semnificativ i %
72 100 127 680 549
per lot
6. CONCLUZII GENERALE
BIBLIOGRAFIE
REZUMAT
Aceast a doua parte a studiului Preliminarii metodologice la abordarea unui profil cognitiv
personologic n adolescen relev procesul agregrii incipiente a structurilor definitorii de
personalitate din perspectiva inter-acionismului variabilelor, ct i din cea a inter-corelativitii sub-
dimensiunilor ca atare a trsturilor-factori i a valorilor profesionale. Sub raport ipotetic i prin
prisma obiectivelor am obinut rezultatele ateptate, n urma investigaiilor fcute pe grupul-int de
adolesceni, flancai de preadolesceni i studeni. Metodele folosite sunt consacrate, cu ajutorul lor s-
au obinut rezultate n multe cercetri, cu deosebire teze de doctorat recunoscute.
PUNCTE DE VEDERE
CAMELIA POPA,
Institutul de Filosofie i Psihologie C. Rdulescu-Motru
ADELA MAGDALENA CIOBANU,
Universitatea de Medicin i Farmacie Carol Davila
Abstract
The article is a brief presentation of some of the latest research on dysfunctional social
correlates in personality disorders. The examination of social implications of these disorders is a less
discussed topic in local literature in the field, but extensively studied by the international scientific
community. Our analysis is carried out on three major coordinates: social incompetence, emotional
dysfunctions and maladaptive cognitive schemas expressed by individuals with personality disorders.
Knowing all these maladaptive traits allows clinicians the establishment of appropriate intervention
measures.
Cuvinte-cheie: tulburri de personalitate, corelate sociale, incompeten social, emotivitate
negativ, anxietate social.
Keywords: personality disorders, correlated social, social incompetence, negative emotion,
social anxiety.
1. INTRODUCERE
*
Institutul de Filosofie i Psihologie Constantin Rdulescu-Motru, Departamentul de Psihologie,
Calea 13 Septembrie nr. 13, sector 5, Bucureti; e-mail: Camelia.Popa@ipsihologie.ro.
Rev. Psih., vol. 60, nr. 1, p. 7988, Bucureti, ianuarie martie 2014
80 Camelia Popa, Adela Magdalena Ciobanu 2
2. INCOMPETEN SOCIAL
3. DISFUNCII EMOIONALE
5. CONCLUZII
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REZUMAT
Articolul are ca obiectiv prezentarea succint a unora dintre cele mai recente cercetri n
domeniul corelatelor sociale disfuncionale ale tulburrilor de personalitate. Examinarea implicaiilor
sociale ale acestor tulburri este un subiect mai puin abordat n literatura autohton de profil, dar
intens studiat de comunitatea tiinific internaional. Analiza noastr se realizeaz pe trei coordonate
majore: incompetena social, disfunciile emoionale i schemele cognitive dezadaptative manifestate
de indivizii cu tulburri de personalitate. Cunoaterea tuturor acestor trsturi dezadaptative permite
clinicienilor instituirea unor msuri adecvate de intervenie.
INTEGRAREA UMORULUI N PSIHOTERAPIE
VALENTIN DINU
Cabinet Individual de Psihologie Dinu Valentin
Abstract
This article aims to highlight the importance of humor in the therapeutic approach. Integrative
psychotherapy, focused on achieving client wellbeing through intervention on several plans
(biological, intrapsychic, interpersonal, intracultural, ecological and transcendental), could represent
the fertile ground for systematic use of such techniques. This article presents a brief overview of the
conditions that humorous interventions must meet, but also of the benefits they provide, especially for
improving the therapeutic relationship and to defeat defense mechanisms and client resistance to
changing.
Cuvinte-cheie: psihoterapie integrativ, umor, rezisten la schimbare.
Keywords: integrative psychotherapy, humor, resistance to change.
1. INTRODUCERE
*
Cabinet Individual de Psihologie Dinu Valentin, psiholog clinician, psihoterapeut integrativ,
tel. 0722.290.243, e-mail: dinu_valentin@yahoo.com.
Rev. Psih., vol. 60, nr. 1, p. 8999, Bucureti, ianuarie martie 2014
90 Valentin Dinu 2
n Dicionarul Explicativ al Limbii Romne, termenul UMR s.n. este definit ca:
1. nclinare spre glume i ironii, ascunse sub o aparen de seriozitate;
manifestare prin vorbe sau prin scris a acestei nclinaii;
2. Categorie estetic ce const n sublinierea incompatibilitii i absurditii
laturilor unor situaii n general fireti; evidenierea ngduitoare a nepotrivirii i a
absurditii unor situaii considerate normale.
n sensul restrns reinut de Freud (cit. Ionescu, 2002), umorul const n
prezentarea unei situaii trite ca traumatizante astfel nct s fie reliefate aspectele
ei plcute, ironice, insolite. Numai n acest caz (umor aplicat siei) umorul poate fi
considerat un mecanism de aprare.
Umorul este un mijloc de retragere a energiei din stri afective negative ca:
furie, durere, nelinite i transformarea ei ntr-o emoie acceptabil i productoare
de plcere. Umorul implic transformarea fr efort contient a durerii n plcere,
aceasta din urm aprnd ca energie valabil pentru realizarea altor scopuri.
Umorul e vzut ca un proces existent la un nivel mai matur de dezvoltare dect
gluma sau comicul. El este n mod primar o atitudine fa de un eveniment sau
situaie care fac amuzant ceea ce ar fi putut fi altfel trist. Umorul e considerat deci
un semn al maturitii emoionale (Haig, 1986, apud Nicolae, 1999).
3 Integrarea umorului n psihoterapie 91
Umorul, estimeaz Freud (1927, apud Ionescu, 2002), este un dar preios i
rar. Un studiu al lui Vaillant (1977) (op. cit.) ajunge la concluzia c aceast aprare,
clasat ca matur, este cel mai puin utilizat, pe cnd unele aprri mai puin
adaptate, cum sunt refugiul n reverie i activismul, sunt adoptate mult mai des.
O ntoarcere la viziunea freudian se nregistreaz n D.S.M. IV, care trece
umorul la rubrica celor mai adaptate funcionri defensive.
O seam de ali autori vin n sprijinul acestei idei: dup Maslow, indivizii
autoactualizai, normali, au un sim al umorului (Nevo, 1986). n contrast cu pacienii
psihiatrici, indivizii normali posed un umor filosofic obiectiv (Allport apud
Leventon, 1992). Vaillant de asemenea consider umorul ca tip de aprare matur,
ce poate sta alturi de sublimare, suprimare, altruism i anticipare. Umorul poate fi
astfel utilizat ca strategie de a face fa greutilor.
O ncercare de sistematizare o face A. J. Foster n 1978 (cit. Nicolae, 1999)
elabornd urmtoarele presupoziii privitoare la umor:
1. Dei umorul poate fi o caracteristic universal, modul n care fiecare
individ l pune n practic i l nelege ar trebui s fie considerat dintr-un cadru
fenomenologic. Nu exist absolutizri. Fiecare individ i are propriile msuri
pentru aprecierea umorului;
2. Umorul poate conine elemente de natur afectiv sau cognitiv;
3. Umorul poate fi folosit constructiv pentru dezvoltarea persoanei sau
distructiv pentru a ctiga superioritatea asupra altora;
4. Dei e recunoscut faptul c umorul poate fi angajat n mod defensiv de
ctre consilier, el e mai ales gndit ca expresie creativ. n acest sens, umorul apare
n mod spontan i onest;
5. Se poate argumenta c umorul poate masca depresia, nefericirea, suferina.
Umorul, aa cum e conceput aici, se refer la o stare mental plcut la care se
poate ajunge doar dup ce o stare neplcut s-a depit sau s-a risipit prin utilizarea
umorului i a altor tehnici terapeutice;
6. Cu toate c frecvent izbucnirile n rs i exprimarea umorului pot masca
tulburri emoionale, mai ales cnd aceste izbucniri sunt nepotrivite, n general
vorbind, simul umorului, i n special abilitatea de a rde cnd i cnd de tine
nsui, e considerat un atribut al sntii.
Allport are n acest sens o poziie similar. El vede umorul ca indispensabil
sntii mentale. Umorul apare astfel nu doar ca indice al sntii mentale, dar i
ca vehicul prin care aceasta poate fi conservat.
O perspectiv i mai clar ni se contureaz dac raportm aplicaiile practice
ale umorului la marile orientri teoretice din psihologie. Din acest punct de vedere,
se disting:
abordarea psihanalitic reprezentat de Freud (1860), Grotjahn (1957),
Kris (1953) i Kubie (1971). Aceast abordare subliniaz potenialul diagnostic al
nelegerii umorului pe care l folosete pacientul umor vzut ca o abreacie a
impulsurilor instinctuale, mai ales a celor agresive. Oricum, folosirea activ a
92 Valentin Dinu 4
Kubie (1971) unul dintre criticii cei mai vehemeni ai locului umorului n
terapie, recunoate totui c umorul poate avea o influen umanizatoare, uneori
poate fi un lubrifiant social n diminuarea tensiunii i jenei ori poate facilita
iniiativa n comunicare i conversaie. La fel de bine ns, o atmosfer impersonal de
jovialitate poate inhiba. Mai departe spune el e adevrat c umorul uneori
exprim cldur i afeciune. Alteori, prin aceasta el mascheaz ostilitatea. S-a
argumentat faptul c, ndreptat ctre oponenii din viaa pacientului, umorul
comunic o atingere uman, un contact, crescnd apropierea ntre terapeut i pacient.
Cu toate acestea, exist uneori la pacient ndoiala c de fapt el ar fi inta indirect a
acestui atac.
n cazurile cele mai rele, n loc de a facilita comunicarea, umorul se
transform ntr-o tentativ de constrngere a pacientului n a reaciona cu umor
ceea ce nu poate dect s-1 blocheze pe acesta, s i anuleze cu totul exprimarea
sentimentelor negative fa de acest lucru i n final s submineze terapia.
Pe de alt parte, dac modul normal de comunicare al pacientului include
tachinarea i hazul, terapeutul trebuie s fie capabil de reciprocitate i de a participa n
acest fel la nceput pentru a ajuta terapia.
Exist de altfel o categorie special de pacieni la care pericolul respingerii
unui astfel de nceput umoristic e mult mai riscant e vorba despre adolesceni, la
care dificultatea de integrare n terapie poate fi depita tocmai rspunznd pozitiv
unei astfel de atitudini umoristice. n plus, printr-o asemenea atitudine, ei pot de
fapt ncerca abilitatea terapeutului de a-i nelege. Desigur, aceast tendin poate
exprima i o evitare a adevratelor probleme, iar atunci terapeutul i va asuma,
deloc uoara sarcin de a-l ajuta pe adolescent s delimiteze comicul de seriozitate,
distracia de angajament (Rosenheim, op. cit.).
Este important s amintim i potenialul destructiv pe care umorul l poate
avea n comunicare; btaia de joc, sarcasmul, discreditarea, ironia sunt doar cteva
exemple. El poate fi la fel de bine o arm care rnete n situaii unde nu exist
respect mutual.
Folosit n mod judicios, umorul poate fi ns element de cretere, element al
unei schimbri necesare. I se recunoate ca trstur universal aceast calitate de
schimbare brusc sau lrgire a orizontului experienial al receptorului prin revelarea
de noi opiuni (Henscher, 1980).
Umorul, clovneria ritual, jocul de rol ne fac s sesizm n mod critic
stilurile noastre de via obinuite.
Aducndu-ne nainte lumi alternative, diferite, lrgite, ne ajut s contientizm
ideile de baz pe care ne-am construit lumea, schemele bine ascunse cu care trim.
Avem libertatea de a alege vreuna dintre alternative ori chiar s nu ne schimbm
stilul de via.
nsui faptul de a realiza c lumea noastr individual sau cultural e ntot-
deauna una selectat, restrns, i de a recunoate c am putea alege altceva ne
aduce ntr-un nou raport mai liber cu lumea noastr prezent. Uneori, psihoterapia
94 Valentin Dinu 6
Mai nti de toate, umorul reduce anxietatea pe care adesea clienii o experi-
menteaz n terapie. S-a speculat n acest sens c folosirea lui poate demonstra
clientului c terapeutul l va accepta i trata ca pe o persoan mai degrab dect ca
pe o problem. O lumin asupra mecanismului intim al relaiei umor anxietate
ne-o aduce Wolfenstein (Domash, 1975), care face o comparaie interesant ntre
folosirea ambigu a cuvintelor n glume i poezie; n poezie nelesurile multiple
ale cuvintelor se ntresc unele pe altele aproximativ la fel cum se face fuziunea
imaginilor n vise, astfel intensificndu-se impactul emoional. n glume, utilizarea
dublului neles al cuvintelor reduce impactul imaginilor prin incompatibilitatea lor
reciproc i scade anxietatea. Cu valen negativ, umorul poate, pe de alt parte,
doar s mascheze anxietile terapeutului sau pacientului, mai ales pe cele greu
tolerabile.
O alt contribuie de amintit este umorul ca potenator al alianei terapeutice
(Haig, 1986). Prin aceasta el d posibilitatea pacientului de a se implica ntr-o
experien interioar ce presupune naturalee i intimitate i i poate facilita
contacte mai gratificante cu alii, mai ales cnd apare spontan n terapie.
n ipostaza de avocat al acuzrii, Kubie (1971) este de prere c umorul
submineaz de fapt relaia terapeutic, incognito-ul necesar terapiei analitice care
presupune separarea relaiilor profesionale de cele sociale pentru a proteja pacientul
fa de slbiciunile morale ale terapeutului. Trebuie s spunem aici c psihoterapia
n general i psihanaliza trebuie privite difereniat, n psihoterapie relaia pacient
terapeut e mult mai tranzacional i remediabil cu accent pe interaciune, iar
interaciunea poate fi facilitat prin umor.
Umorul mai apare de asemenea ca o cale acceptabil de evacuare a senti-
mentelor de ostilitate (Haig, 1986) i ca moderator al tendinelor intrapunitive. De
multe ori ns, el este ambivalent i foarte greu de separat n inteniile sale ostile
sau binevoitoare.
ntr-o alt ipostaz dual, umorul poate reprezenta un element de ntrire a
forei eului cnd urmrete triumful individului asupra lumii periculoase i trans-
formarea durerii sau tristeii n stri pozitive, sau un element de slbire a forei
eului cnd are ca finalitate triumful narcisismului.
O alt utilizare a umorului are ca scop a face o impresie bun terapeutului, a
plcea, a-i ctiga acceptabilitatea. Reciproc, terapeutul poate recurge i el la
aceasta pentru a se face plcut, a-i ctiga admiraia pacientului, a se prezenta pe
sine favorabil.
7 Integrarea umorului n psihoterapie 95
n fapt, clientul rmne n mare msur arbitrul eficacitii terapiei, dar terapeutul
diagnosticheaz starea de pregtire a clientului pentru un astfel de rspuns. E
nevoie de asemenea s se ia n considerare nevoile clientului i structura sa de
personalitate.
Mindess (1971): cea mai bun cale pe care o preconizez pentru noi ca
terapeui pentru a ncuraja o atitudine umoristic la pacienii notri este de a
menine o astfel de atitudine n noi nine.
De partea opus, Kubie (1971) afirm c, dei este un instrument sigur i
eficace n mna terapeuilor experimentai, pentru terapeuii nceptori umorul este
un pericol complex, subtil i adesea impredictibil. Mai ales pentru acetia, spune el,
poate prea mult mai uor s introduc anumite teme de discuie dureroase (i
pentru terapeut, i pentru client) prin intermediul umorului dect pe alte ci. Pentru
orice nceptor, a face fa unei situaii terapeutice noi nseamn a-i asuma
responsabilitatea printr-o combinaie de teroare mascat i furie umorul aprnd
atunci simultan ca o scpare i ca o defens.
Umorul nseamn a transforma suferina prin rs i nu a produce suferin
prin rs (Goodman apud Goldstein, McGee, 1983).
Umorul n diverse orientri terapeutice
n istoria psihoterapiei sunt puine ci deja btute n aceast direcie; doar
cteva dintre orientri s-au ocupat n mod sistematic de punerea n practic a
acestei variabile i de urmrirea efectelor lor n timp i pe trei dintre acestea e
important s le menionm.
A. Prima ar fi terapia provocativ ntemeiat de F. Farrelly i J. Brandsma
n 1974. Ea pornete de la dou ipoteze de baz:
1. La provocarea terapeutului (umoristic, perceptiv i din interiorul
cadrului de referin propriu al clientului), clientul se va direciona n sens opus
definiiei pe care terapeutul o face despre client ca persoan.
2. n urma ndemnurilor insistente ale terapeutului de a-i continua comporta-
mentele sale deviante, dezadaptative, clientul se va angaja ntr-o mbuntire a
comportamentelor sale, conform normelor societale.
Raiunea de a fi a umorului n terapie este justificat n acest mod: Umorul
este un ingredient esenial n terapia provocativ. Departe de a fi folosit la
ntmplare, el este un instrument tactic i strategic, ce ndeplinete funcii specifice
(F. Farrelly n Fry, Salameh, 1987).
Clienii accept mult mai probabil mesajele terapeutului cnd acestea sunt
comunicate ntr-un stil umoristic (direct sau indirect). Terapeutul provocativ n
mod tipic nu-i comunic grija sau simpatia fa de client explicit. Cldura este
comunicat implicit, prin umor, atingeri fizice, expresia ochilor.
Muli terapeui cred n aa-numita cretere prin suferin ca coal de
gndire, sigur c un anumit disconfort e inevitabil n anumite sarcini. Terapia
provocativ crede n posibilitatea de cretere prin bucurie i nu prin tristee. nsei
9 Integrarea umorului n psihoterapie 97
voie ie nsui s fii imperfect este una dintre cile de a descoperi spiriduul din
tine. Martin P. Seligman spunea: Optimismul presupune curajul de a fi imperfect
(Ravich, 2010).
n esen: ia-i slujba sau rolul n serios, dar nu te lua pe tine nsui prea n
serios. Pentru asta nimic nu e mai uor dect s notezi n fiecare zi n jurnalul tu
umoristic o list cu propriile defecte, scpri, slbiciuni, s te joci cu propria
realitate crendu-i propriile tale legi de tip Murphy.
Cteva tehnici specifice pentru practicarea umorului n viaa de zi cu zi:
exagerarea, care ne ajut s minimalizm, s deturnm problema respectiv, s
o punem n perspectiv. i cu ct mai mare faci o problem, cu att ea devine mai
mic n ochii ti;
reflectarea realitii, a obinuinelor, ticurilor, rutinelor, evenimentelor triviale
din viaa de zi cu zi;
a te juca cu situaiile, cu cuvintele;
inversiunea: a ntoarce cu 180 grade perspectiva, cnd lucrurile par s
mearg din prost n mai prost. i o cale foarte simpl pentru a nelege aceasta este
a exagera cum nu trebuie fcut o deprindere nou pentru a ajunge s nelegi cum
trebuie fcut.
O alternativ la aceasta se numete paranoia invers oameni care cred c
lumea caut binele cu orice pre.
Creeaz noi idei, cci umorul i creativitatea sunt cel puin veriori. Una
conduce adesea la cealalt, aa de exemplu ideile nostime pot aduce o soluie nou
la problema n cauz sau ideile creative au tendina s antreneze rsul. Pentru
aceasta ncurajeaz-i ideile, orict de neobinuite ar fi ele i fii productiv! Cu ct
mai multe, cu att sporete ansa calitii lor.
Probabil c aceast viziune asupra umorului este i cea mai generoas care s-
ar putea emite de ctre un adept al umorului.
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REZUMAT