11.1 Theory of Flight (Repaired)

Training Centre Module 11A - TURBINE AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS
Category B1.1 Basic Sub Module 11.1 - Theory of Flight
MODULE11A.TURBINE AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS

11.1 Theory of Flight
11.2 Airframe Structures General Concepts
11.3 Airframe Structures Aeroplanes
11.4 Air Conditioning and Cabin Pressurization (ATA 21)
11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems
11.6 Electrical Power (ATA 24)
11.7 Equipment and Furnishings (ATA 25)
11.8 Fire Protection (ATA 26)
11.9 Flight Controls (ATA 27)
11.10 Fuel Systems (ATA 28)
11.11 Hydraulic Power (ATA 29)
ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
MODULE11A.TURBINE AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS
11.12 Ice and Rain Protection (ATA 30)
11.13 Landing Gear (ATA 32)
11.14 Lights (ATA 33)
11.15 Oxygen (ATA 35)
11.16 Pneumatic/Vacuum (ATA 36)
11.17 Water/Waste (ATA 38)
11.18 On Board Maintenance Systems (ATA 45)

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MODULE 11A
Sub Module 11.1
THEORY OF FLIGHT

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Contents
11.1.1 AEOROPLANE AEORODYNAMICS AND FLIGHT CONTROLS

AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS AND FLIGHT CONTROLS ------------------- 1 DRAG INDUCING DEVICES ------------------------------------------------------ 34
OPERATION AND EFFECT OF ROLL CONTROL -------------------------------- 7 SPOILERS AND LIFT DUMPERS ------------------------------------------------- 34
AILERONS AND SPOILERS --------------------------------------------------------- 7 SPEED BRAKES --------------------------------------------------------------------- 34
OPERATION AND EFFECT OF PITCH CONTROL -----------------------------13 EFFECT OF WING FENCES ------------------------------------------------------- 43
ELEVATORS --------------------------------------------------------------------------13 EFFECT OF SAW TOOTH LEADING EDGES ----------------------------------- 43
STABILATORS -----------------------------------------------------------------------13 BOUNDARY LAYER CONTROL -------------------------------------------------- 45
VARIABLE INCIDENCE STABILISERS --------------------------------------------13 VORTEX GENERATORS ----------------------------------------------------------- 45
CANARD AIRCRAFT ----------------------------------------------------------------15 STALL WEDGES -------------------------------------------------------------------- 45
OPERATION AND EFFECT OF YAW CONTROL -------------------------------18 LEADING EDGE DEVICES --------------------------------------------------------- 45
RUDDERS ----------------------------------------------------------------------------18 OPERATION AND EFFECT OF TRIM TABS ------------------------------------ 47
RUDDER LIMITER ------------------------------------------------------------------19 BALANCE TABS--------------------------------------------------------------------- 49
CONTROL USING ELEVON AND RUDDERVATORS --------------------------20 ANTI-BALANCE TABS ------------------------------------------------------------- 49
ELEVONS -----------------------------------------------------------------------------20 SERVO TABS ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 49
RUDDERVATOR---------------------------------------------------------------------20 SPRING TABS ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 51
HIGH LIFT DEVICES ----------------------------------------------------------------22 MASS BALANCE -------------------------------------------------------------------- 53
SLOTS AND SLATS------------------------------------------------------------------23 CONTROL SURFACE BIAS -------------------------------------------------------- 54
FLAPS ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------27 AERODYNAMIC BALANCE PANELS -------------------------------------------- 54
FLAPERONS -------------------------------------------------------------------------33

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11.1.2 HIGH SPEED FLIGHT -----------------------------------------------------57

SPEED OF SOUND ------------------------------------------------------------------58
SUBSONIC FLIGHT -----------------------------------------------------------------59
TRANSONIC FLIGHT ---------------------------------------------------------------60
SUPERSONIC FLIGHT --------------------------------------------------------------61
MACH NUMBER --------------------------------------------------------------------61
CRITICAL MACH NUMBER -------------------------------------------------------62
COMPRESSIBILITY BUFFET -------------------------------------------------------63
SHOCK WAVES ---------------------------------------------------------------------64
AERODYNAMIC HEATING --------------------------------------------------------80
AREA RULE --------------------------------------------------------------------------82
FACTORS AFFECTING AIRFLOW IN ENGINE INTAKES OF HIGH SPEED
AIRCRAFT ----------------------------------------------------------------------------83
EFFECTS OF SWEEPBACK ON CRITICAL MACH NUMBER -----------------85

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AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS AND FLIGHT CONTROLS The primary control surfaces are used to "steer" the airplane in
flight to make it go where the pilot wishes it to go and to cause
INTRODUCTION it to execute certain maneuvers. The secondary control
surfaces are used to change the lift and drag characteristics of
An airplane is equipped with certain fixed and movable the aircraft or to assist the primary controls.
surfaces, or airfoils, which provide for stability and control
during flight. These are illustrated in Figures 1 and 2. Each of Large turbine aircraft, gliders, and some other types of
the named airfoils is designed to perform a specific function in aircraft are equipped with lift-control devices called spoilers (see
the flight of the airplane. Figure b), which may be used as or assist the primary roll
control.
FIXED AIRFOILS
The fixed airfoils are the wings, the horizontal stabilizer, and the
vertical stabilizer (fin). The function of the wings has been
previously discussed. The tail section of the airplane, including
the stabilizers, elevators, and rudder, is commonly called the
empennage.
MOVABLE CONTROL SURFACES
Movable flight control surfaces are divided into two categories;
Primary flight controls
Secondary flight controls
The primary control surfaces of an airplane include the ailerons,

elevators, and rudder.
The secondary control surfaces include flaps; trim tabs,

spoilers, and slats. The principles of the operation of flaps
Figure 1
and spoilers are discussed later in this module.

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Figure 2

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CONTROL OF AN AIRPLANE
Forwards and sideways movement of the control column can be
Whether an airplane is stable or unstable, it is necessary for carried out simultaneously, causing both the nose and the left
the pilot to be able to control it, so that he can maneuver it into wing to be depressed.
any desired position.
In many modern airplanes the control column can only move in
Longitudinal control is provided by the elevators, i.e. a fore-and-aft direction, Lateral control being provided by a
airfoils hinged behind the tail plane. wheel similar to the steering wheel of a motorcar mounted on
the control column; an anti-clockwise rotation of the wheel will
Lateral control is provided by the ailerons, i.e. airfoils cause the left wing to drop.
hinged at the rear of the airfoils near each wing tip.
As an alternative to the wheel there may be some form
Directional control is provided by the rudder, i.e. a of "spectacles," or handle-bars," i.e. a horizontal bar fitted to the
vertical airfoil hinged to trailing edge of vertical stabilizer. top of the control column, a hand grip at each end so that it can
be tilted to right or left; this is a variation of the wheel system,
The system of control is the same in each case, i.e. if the the principle being exactly the same.
control surface is moved it will, in effect, alter the angle of attack
and the camber of the complete surface to which it is hinged, On some modern airplanes a joystick mounted by the side of
and therefore change the force upon it (see Fig 3). the crew seats has replaced the control column but the
responses of the surfaces to stick movements remain the same.
The control surfaces are connected to controls in the pilots
cockpit. The elevators and ailerons are both moved by a single In the case of the rudder, if the right foot is pressed forward the
column on a universal joint (or by a wheel or handle-bars) rear of the rudder will be moved to the right (called "right
and the rudder by two rudder pedals. rudder") and the airplane turns to the right. .
The control is instinctive, i.e. a forward movement of the control In each instance it will be noticed that the control surfaces are
column depresses the elevators, increases the lift on the tail, placed as far as possible away from the center of gravity so as
and so causes the nose of the airplane to drop. to provide sufficient leverage to alter the position of the aircraft.
If the control column is moved to the left, the right aileron will
depress and right wing will rise at the same time the left aileron
will raise and left wing will lower causing airplane to bank left.
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Generation of aerodynamic force

Fig 3

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FIXED AIRFOILS VERTICAL FINS
HORIZONTAL STABILIZERS The vertical stabilizer for an airplane is the fixed airfoil section
forward of the rudder and is used to provide directional stability
As has been discussed, the horizontal stabilizer is used to (yaw) for the aircraft, as has been previously discussed. This
provide longitudinal pitch stability and is usually attached to the unit is commonly called the fin.
aft portion of the fuselage. It may be located either above or
below the vertical stabilizer or at some midpoint of the A problem encountered on single-engine airplanes where the
stabilizer. Conventional tails (horizontal stabilizers) are placed propeller is at the front of the aircraft is that as the propeller
aft of the wing and set at a slight negative angle with respect to turns clockwise, a rotating flow of air is moved rearward (see
the wing chord line. This configuration gives a downward lift Figure 5), striking the left side of the fin and rudder, which
force on the tail, as shown in Figure 4. results in a left-yawing moment.
The down-lift force is dependent on the size of stabilizer and To counteract this effect, many airplanes have the leading
the distance aft that it is placed from the C.G. the horizontal edge of the vertical fin offset slightly to the left, thereby allowing
stabilizer may be designed as a fixed surface attached to the the slipstream to pass evenly around it.
tail or as a movable surface used to trim the aircraft or provide
pitch control.

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Figure 4
Figure 5

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OPERATION AND EFFECT OF ROLL CONTROL
AILERONS AND SPOILERS
The ailerons are the primary flight control surfaces used to The ailerons are moved by means of a control wheel or stick in
provide lateral (roll) control of the aircraft; that is; they control the cockpit. If a pilot wants to roll the airplane to the right, he or
aircraft movement about the longitudinal axis. They are usually she turns the wheel or stick to the right. After the desired
mounted on the trailing edge of the wing near the tip, as was degree of bank is obtained, the wheel is returned to neutral to
shown in Figure a. They are rigged so that when one is moving stop the roll. During normal turns of an airplane, the movement
upward on one wing, the other is moving downward on the of the ailerons is coordinated with movements of the rudder and
opposite wing. This movement changes the camber of the elevators to provide a banked horizontal turn without "slip' or
respective wings, with the down-ward-moving aileron "skid."
increasing the camber and lift, and the upward-moving aileron
decreasing the camber and lift. A slip, or sideslip, is a movement of an airplane
partially sideways. In a turn, the slip is downward and
Since the ailerons are located outboard of the roll axis, this inward toward the turn.
change in camber will result in a rolling motion. This action is
illustrated in Figure 6 and 7. A skid in a turn is a movement of the airplane sideways
and outward from the turn.
Large turbine aircraft often employ two sets of ailerons, one set
being approximately mid-wing or immediately outboard of
the inboard flaps, and the other set being in the
conventional location near the wingtips, as is shown in Figure b.
The outboard ailerons become active whenever the flaps are
extended beyond a fixed setting (at low speeds). As the flaps
are retracted, the outboard aileron control system is "locked out"
and flairs with the basic wing shape. Thus, during cruise
flight at comparatively high speeds, only the inboard ailerons
are used for control. The outboard ailerons are active during
landings and other slow-flight operations. This is primarily to
reduce wing-bending moments. Fig. 6

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Figure 7

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ADVERSE YAW OTHER WAYS OF OVERCOMING ADVERSE YAW ARE;
Aileron control in an airplane is complicated somewhat by an Frise," or other specially shaped ailerons (Fig 9). This is a
effect called adverse yaw. An aileron that moves down at the patented device, the idea being so to shape the aileron
trailing edge of a wing creates considerably more drag than the that when it is moved downwards the complete top surface
aileron on the opposite wing that moves upward the same of the main plane and the aileron will have a smooth,
amount. Also due to the induced turn the down-going wing will uninterrupted contour causing very little drag, but when it is
have a lesser speed than that of the up-going wing increasing moved upwards the aileron, which is of the balanced variety,
the drag on the up-going wing. Therefore, if the ailerons were will project below the bottom surface of the main plane and
rigged to move the same distance in response to the movement cause excessive drag.
of the cockpit control, the drag of the downward moving aileron
would cause the airplane to turn toward the side on which the This method has the great advantage of being simple, and it
downward-moving aileron is located. undoubtedly serves to decrease the adverse yawing effect of
the ailerons, and therefore it is often used.
Thus, a pilot wishing to make a left turn would move the
control to the left, causing the right aileron to move downward, Spoiler control (Fig 10). Spoilers are long narrow plates fitted on
but the drag caused by the aileron would cause the airplane the upper or lower surfaces of a wing, or both, sometimes
to turn to the right, except for strong rudder control. near to the leading edge, sometimes in front of the ailerons. In
the ordinary way they lie flush with the surface, or even inside it,
To overcome adverse yaw, the ailerons of an airplane are and have no effect on the performance of the aerofoil, but
rigged for differential movement. The differential control causes they can be connected to the aileron controls in such a way
the up- moving aileron to move a greater distance than the that when an aileron is moved up beyond a certain angle the
down-moving aileron. The amount of differential is sufficient spoiler is raised at right angles to the airflow, or comes up
to balance the drag between the ailerons, thus eliminating the through a slit, causing turbulence, decrease in lift and
yaw effect (Fig 8) increase in drag. This, means that the wing on which the
aileron goes down gets more lift, and very little extra drag, while
on the other wing the lift is 'spoilt" and the drag greatly
increased. Thus we have a large rolling effect in the right
direction combined with a yawing effect, also in the right
direction.

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Fig. 9
Fig. 8
Fig. 10

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Mar, 2014
This is what we aimed at, and there is the further advantage If the wheel is moved to the right, the right aileron must move
that the mechanical operation of the spoiler is easy, since the up and the left aileron must move down. Reverse movement of
forces acting upon it are small. This method of control feels control should then cause a reverse of position of the ailerons.
strange to the pilot who is unaccustomed to it because the loss
of lift caused by the spoiler will result in a decided drop of that
wing, which may be alarming when near the ground. But any AILERON REVERSAL
such strangeness can soon be overcome and the pilot begins
to realize the advantages of maintaining good lateral control, up If we want to increase lift on one wing in order to roll the aircraft
to and beyond the normal stalling angle. The improvement in we deflect the aileron down on the wing we want raised. But as
maneuverability is particularly noticeable when the airplane the wing C.G.is ahead of the aileron and the wing is flexible the
approaches its ceiling. But, whatever its merits, the spoiler took forces created on the aileron will have a negative moment
a long time to become popular as a means of control, around the C.G. of the wing The wing will twist and will result in
though it was, and is, used extensively as an air brake. a reduction of angle of attack for the wing.
It is rather curious that we have been describing the use of If L2 is greater than L1 there is a net reduction in lift rather
spoilers as an aid to lateral control at low speeds; and this than an increase and the aircraft will roll in the opposite
indeed was their original purpose, but in many types of modem direction than intended. This is known as aileron reversal (Fig
aircraft it is at high speed that the aileron control by itself is too 11)
slow in action and spoilers are used differentially being linked
to the ailerons to improve the control. They may even be To prevent this from happening the following methods could be
rendered inoperative at low speeds, and especially for used
maneuvering near the ground and for landing, because they are
too sensitive. By placing ailerons inboard
The correct rigging of the ailerons is of primary importance. Reducing the aerodynamic loading on the aileron by
After an airplane has been overhauled and during pre-flight using spoiler for lateral control
inspections, the direction of aileron movement with respect to
control-stick movement must be carefully noted.

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L1 - increase in lift due to increased

camber of the wing
L2 - reduction in lift due to reduced

angle of attack () due to twisting of the
wing
Fig 11

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OPERATION AND EFFECT OF PITCH CONTROL
ELEVATORS STABILATORS
The elevators are the control surfaces, which govern the A special type of elevator that combines the functions of the
movement of the aircraft around the lateral axis (pitch). elevator and the horizontal stabilizer is called a stabilator.
They are normally attached to hinges on the rear spar of the A stabilator is an all-moving tail that works by changing the
horizontal stabilizer. When the control column or stick in the angle of attack of the stabilator and thereby changing the
airplane is pulled back, the elevators are raised. The force of amount of downward lift that is generated by the tail. When this
the relative wind on the elevator surfaces tends to press the tail type of control airfoil is installed on an airplane, there is no fixed
down, thus causing the nose to pitch up and the angle of horizontal stabilizer. The stabilator is an airfoil that responds to
attack of the wings to increase. The reverse action takes the normal elevator control and serves as an elevator as well
place when the control column or stick is pushed forward. The as a stabilizer. A stabilator is illustrated in Figure 13.
action of the elevators is illustrated in Figure 12
VARIABLE INCIDENCE STABILISERS
During flight of an airplane the operation of the elevators is
quite critical, especially at low speeds. When power is off and In sweptback wings when fuel is consumed by the engines the
the airplane is gliding, the position of the elevators will aircraft C.G. shifts greatly within the limits. Hence there is a
determine whether the airplane dives, glides at the correct need to trim the aircraft by use of the elevators to prevent the
angle, or stalls. Remember that an airplane will not necessarily aircraft pitching about. By deflecting elevators trim drag is
climb when the control is pulled back. It is the power developed increased and elevator authority is reduced. Instead of
by the engine that determines the rate of climb of an airplane deflecting elevators if the horizontal stabilizer itself could be
rather than the position of the elevators. If the elevators are moved to trim the aircraft we can reduce trim drag and retain
held in a fixed position, the throttle alone can be used to make full authority of the elevators. Variable incidence stabilizers
the airplane climb, dive, or maintain level flight. (Trimmable horizontal stabilizers) do just that.
The position of the elevator is important, however, to Incorporating a conventional elevator control system, the
establish the most efficient rate of climb and a good gliding variable incidence horizontal stabiliser is often used for pitch
angle when power is off. It is also most essential for proper trim. Normally a powerful electric motor is used to vary its angle
control when "breaking the glide" and holding the airplane in of attack when trim switches on the flight deck are operated. A
landing position. Variable incidence stabiliser is illustrated in Figure 14.

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Figure 12 Figure 13
Figure 14

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CANARD AIRCRAFT This is achieved by having the center of gravity well ahead of
the aft wing. The aft wing pitching moment also adds to the
The earliest powered aircraft, such as the Wright Flyer (see fore plane load.
Figure 15), had horizontal surfaces located ahead of the wings.
This configuration, also on the Beech Starship (Figure 16),
which has two lifting surfaces, with the forward airfoil being In a well-designed canard, the forward wing must always stall
called a canard, is an appealing way to assist in carrying some at a lower angle of attack than the aft wing. If the aft wing were
of the airplane weight to reduce drag and increase cruising to stall first, the aircraft would pitch up, deepening the stall.
speed. With the canard stalling at a lower angle, the aircraft could be
flown with the canard alternately stalling and un-stalling, the
Conventional airplane designs that have tail surfaces located nose bobbing up and down gently in a porpoising mode. The
behind the wing use the horizontal tail to balance the wing CG location in a canard-equipped aircraft is very critical, with
pitching moment. This means a down load on the tail, as the requirement being that the CG always be located between
previously discussed, and requires an increase in the lift the canard and the main wing.
coefficient to support the added wing load. Since wing drag
increases with wing lift, a climb-and-cruise penalty is paid for
the stability offered by an aft-Located horizontal tail.
With the horizontal stabilizer being mounted forward, a nose-up

balancing moment is provided by an upward-Lifting force on the
canard. The canard airplane has no stabilizing down loads
because the canard, being mounted forward, shares the lifting
loads with the wing. This lift adds to the wings' lift and results
in a higher LID ratio for the airplane.
The canard design, with both surfaces providing lift, makes the
aircraft somewhat unstable. This instability is referred to as
relaxed static stability. The forward wing (canard) lifts a greater
share of the total weight per square foot of wing area (i.e., it
has a heavier wing loading) than the aft wing. Fig 15

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Fig 16

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T-TAILS
The T -tail arrangement positions the stabilizer and elevator

at the top of the vertical fin. A T -tail is illustrated in Figure 17.
The use of a T -tail configuration not only makes the fin and
rudder more effective because of the end-plate action of the
stabilizer location which act similar to the addition of an end
plate on a wingtip, as was discussed in module 8, but it also
positions the horizontal tail above wing turbulence. A T -tail
structure will be somewhat heavier than a conventional tail
arrangement due to combined horizontal tail-and-fin bending
loads which must be carried by the fin and the fuselage.
With this type of arrangement there is a disadvantage of deep

stall since the tail plane is shielded by the main planes at large
angles of attack. But has the advantage of keeping clear of the
hot jets and prop wash of wing mounted engines.
There are many shapes and sizes of airplanes, most of

which are similar in appearance. In its traditional form, the
airplane is marked by an arrangement of clearly distinguishable Fig 17
parts. The traditional design of the fuselage supported by wing
lift, stabilized by the tail surfaces, and propelled by the engine in
the nose has worked well over the years. However, many
variations of the standard design appear to work equally well.

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OPERATION AND EFFECT OF YAW CONTROL
RUDDERS
The rudder is a vertical control surface that is usually hinged to Too much of a bank without sufficient rudder in a turn will cause
the tail post aft of the vertical stabilizer and designed to apply slipping; that is, the airplane will slide down toward the inside of
yawing moments to the airplane, that is, to make it turn to the turn. It is therefore necessary that the proper amount of
the right or the left about the vertical axis. rudder and aileron be applied when entering a turn in order to
produce what is termed a coordinated turn. Usually, after the
The movement of the rudder is controlled by pedals operated airplane is placed in a turn, the rudder pressure is almost
by the feet of the pilot. The pedals are interconnected so that neutralized to hold the turn. Likewise, it is necessary to
when one is pressed the other one move in the opposite reduce the amount of aileron used to place the airplane in turn.
direction. When the right pedal is pressed, the rudder swings to
the right, thus bringing an increase of dynamic air pressure Another factor to note concerning turns is that the steeper the
on its right side. This increased pressure causes the tail of the turn, the more the elevator will have to be used. Thus a
airplane to swing to the left and the nose to turn to the right. properly executed turn requires the use of all three of the
The operation of a rudder is shown in Figure 18. primary controls.
Although it appears that the rudder causes the airplane to turn, Rudder is also used for correcting asymmetry caused by
it must be pointed out that the rudder itself cannot cause the engine failure of a multi engine aircraft and for control (steering)
airplane to make a good turn. Newton's first law of motion of aircraft on ground at high speeds. For these reasons rudder
states that a moving body tends to continue moving in a is made large and placed at the tail so that it has a large
straight line unless some outside force changes its direction. moment arm.
When rudder is applied to an airplane in flight, the airplane will
turn, but it will continue to travel in the same direction as before
unless a correcting force is applied.
Thus, with rudder only, the airplane will turn sideways and
skid. In order to prevent this skid in a turn, the ailerons are used
to bank the airplane. In a car, a banked turn is much easier to
negotiate at comparatively high speeds than a flat turn. It is the
same with an airplane. To prevent skidding in a turn, the
airplane must be banked.

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RUDDER LIMITER
But because of its size and placement, at high speeds a little

movement of the rudder will cause the aircraft to yaw
dangerously. Therefore as the speed of the aircraft increases
the rudder travel needs to be limited. This is achieved by
progressively mechanically limiting rudder travel when aircraft
speed is increased beyond a certain speed sometimes pedal
travel too may get limited. Some manufacturers even go to the
extent of limiting the rate of deflection of rudder with increasing
aircraft speed.
Fig 18

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Mar, 2014
CONTROL USING ELEVON AND RUDDERVATORS
ELEVONS
Elevons are combination elevators and ailerons used on the With a ruddervator, when a pilot wants to increase the angle of
outer tips of some delta wings. When used as elevators, they attack, he or she pulls back the control column or stick and both
both move in the same direction; when used as ailerons, they ruddervators move upward and inward, as shown in Figure B.
move in opposite directions. Elevons are especially needed for
delta wing airplanes. When the wheel is pushed forward, the ruddervators move
downward and outward, as illustrated.
RUDDERVATOR
If a pilot wants to yaw an airplane with ruddervators and the
Some airplanes have been designed with special types of right rudder is applied, the right ruddervator moves downward
control surfaces that do not fit into the descriptions of the and outward while the left ruddervator moves upward and
conventional controls. One such control is the ruddervator. inward.
The ruddervator is used on airplanes with a V-tail, and the These movements are in response to the movement of the
surfaces serve both as rudders and as elevators. A V -tail has a rudder pedals and provide the forces necessary to rotate the
slight drag reduction due to the reduction of interference drag, airplane about the vertical axis. The turning action of the
since there is one less intersection than on a conventional tail. ruddervators is also illustrated in Figure 20.
However, since the total surface area must be the same as on
a conventional tail, there is no reduction in skin-friction drag. A
disadvantage of the V-tail is that the heavier tail structure
necessary to support combined horizontal and vertical surface
loading along with a somewhat heavier control system make
the V -tail generally as heavy as the conventional design it
would replace. The other disadvantage to a V-tail is that it is
susceptible to roll tendencies, and the stability characteristics
are somewhat less desirable, particularly in rough air.

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Fig 19 Fig 20

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SECONDARY FLIGHT CONTROLS (AIRFLOW CONTROL

DEVICES)
You have seen that the way in which the air flows across a wing
has a direct result on the lift that is produced. Items such as
camber, aspect ratio, and laminar flow are all important in the
generation of lift. The ability to vary these characteristics Vsf = stall speed with flaps down
results in an aircraft that has more desirable aerodynamic
characteristics over a wider operating range. Vs = stall speed without flaps
There are many different types of devices that can either CLm = maximum lift coefficient of the clean configuration
increase or decrease lift, such as flaps, slots, slats, and
spoilers. There are also devices that affect the airflow as it CLmf = maximum lift coefficient with flaps down
passes over the wing, such as wing fences and vortex
generators. For example, assume the airplane described by the lift curves
of figure has a stall speed of 100 knots at the landing, weight
HIGH LIFT DEVICES in the clean configuration. If the flaps are lowered the reduced
stall speed is reduced to:
The primary purpose of high lift devices flaps, slots, slats, etc.
is to increase the CLmax of the airplane and reduce the stall V = 100 x 1.5
speed. The takeoff and landing speeds are consequently 2
reduced. The effect of a typical high lift device is shown by the
airplane lift curves of figure and is summarized here: = 86.5 knots
Thus, with the higher lift coefficient available, less dynamic

pressure is required to provide the necessary lift. Because of
the stated variation of stall speed with CLmax, large changes in
CLmax are necessary to produce significant changes in stall
speed.
The principal effect of the extension of flaps is to increase the
CLmax and reduce the angle of attack for any given lift coefficient.
The increase in CLmax afforded by flap deflection reduces stall
speed in a certain proportion, the effect described by equation:
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SLOTS AND SLATS
Another device that is used on the leading edge of a wing is a The airfoil is shown in a stalling position because the burbling
slot. A slot is also a high-Lift device because it improves lift. It is of the air reaches almost the leading edge of the wing. The
a nozzle-shaped passage through a wing designed to improve automatic slot has disadvantages as well as advantages. The
the airflow conditions at high angles of attack and slow speeds. number of moving parts and the weight of the wing are
As the angle of attack of the wing increases, air from the high- increased. The slots must be installed properly and operate
pressure region below the wing flows to the low-pressure area equally well on both wings or they are useless. If a slot on one
above the wing, as shown in the bottom drawing of Figure wing opens before the slot on the opposite wing does so,
a. This flow of air postpones the breakdown of streamline flow disastrous results could occur. I.e. differential lift on the wings
that accompanies an increase in the angle of attack. A slot is could cause the aircraft to roll which if it happens at takeoff or
normally placed very near the leading edge. Slots are landing could result in loss of aircraft.
illustrated in Figures 20 and 21.
The usual location of slots is such that they are subjected to ice
There are two general types of slots: the fixed and the formation, and in spite of any anti-icing or deicing
automatic. When the fixed type is used, the airflow depends on equipment, they may fail to function. If any of these factors
the angle of attack. The disadvantage of a fixed slot is that it causes a lack of balance, lateral control may be impaired. For
adds excessive drag at low angles of attack. The automatic slot these reasons, a device is usually provided for locking slots in a
is formed by having a lead.ng-edge airfoil that will separate closed position if they do not function properly.
from the main leading edge to form a slot. This auxiliary airfoil
is commonly referred to as a slat. Figure 23 illustrates the effect of a slot on the lift
coefficient. Notice that at angles where the slot is opened, the
The automatic slot is nested into the leading edge of the wing lift is greater and the maximum CL occurs at a much higher
while the wing is at low angles of attack but is free to move angle of attack. This indicates that an airplane with a slotted
forward a definite distance from the leading edge at high angles wing has a lower stalling speed than one without slots, other
of attack. things being equal.
This forms a slot through which a portion of the airstream flows A slat is a movable auxiliary airfoil attached to the leading
and is deflected along the upper surface of the wing, thus edge of the wing which, when closed, falls within the original
maintaining a streamline flow around the wing. Figure a; shows contour of the wing and which, when opened, forms a slot.
the effect of the airstream diverted by a slot and the advantage
gained by its use. The top picture shows the airfoil with its slot
closed at a high angle of attack.

11.1. - 23 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
Fig 21
Fig 22

11.1. - 24 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
Slots and slats can produce significant increases in CL but the

increased angle of attack for maximum lift can be a
disadvantage. If slots were the only high lift device on the wing,
the high take off and landing angles of attack may complicate
the design of the landing gear. For this reason slots or slats are
usually used in conjunction with flaps since the flaps provide
reduction in the maximum lift angle of attack.
Figure illustrates the effect of having a combination of slots and

flaps. With this arrangement, it is possible to have a much
lower landing speed, better control of the flight path, and at
least a partial elimination of the nose heaviness that may result
from the use of flaps alone. It should be understood that Figure
is based upon a particular set of conditions and does not
illustrate the effect produced by various airfoils and
combinations of different flaps and slots.

11.1. - 25 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
Figure 23

11.1. - 26 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
FLAPS
The split flaps shown in figure consist of plate deflected from
There are many different types of high lift devices used to the lower surface of the section and produces a slightly
increase the maximum lift co-efficient for low speed flight. The greater change in CLmax than the plain flap. However, a much
high lift devices applied to the trailing edge of a section consist larger change in drag results from the great turbulent wake
of a flap. produced by this type flap.
NASA defines a wing flap as a hinged, pivoted, or sliding airfoil, The greater drag may not be such a disadvantage when it is
usually near the trailing edge of the wing. It is designed to realized that it may be advantageous to accomplish
increase the lift, drag, or both when deflected and is used steeper landing approaches over obstacles or require higher
principally for landing, although large airplanes use partial flap power from the engine during approach (to minimize engine
deflection for takeoff. Most flaps are usually 15 to 25% of the acceleration time for wave-off).
airfoil's chord. The deflection of a flap produces the effect of
adding a large amount of camber well aft on the chord. The The slotted flap is similar to the plain flap but the gap
more camber that the airfoil has results in a greater pressure between the main section and flap leading edge is given
differential and the creation of more lift. This makes it specific contours. High-energy air from the lower surface is
possible for the airplane to have a steeper angle of descent for ducted to the flap upper surface. The high-energy air from the
the landing without increasing the airspeed. Flaps are normally slot accelerates the upper surface boundary layer and delays
installed on the inboard section of the wing trailing edge. airflow separation to some higher lift coefficient. The slotted flap
can cause much greater increases in CLmax than the plain or
The principal types of flaps are shown applied to a basic split flap and section drags are much lower.
section of airfoil. The effect of a 30 deflection of a 25 percent
chord flap is shown on the lift and drag curves of figure. The Fowler flap arrangement is similar to the slotted flap. The
difference is that the deflected flap segment is moved aft along
The plain flap shown in figure is a simple hinged portion of the a set of tracks, which increases the chord and affects an
trailing edge. The effect of the camber added well aft on increase in wing area. The Fowler flap is characterized by large
the chord causes a significant increase in CLmax. In addition, the increases in CLmax with minimum changes in drag.
zero lift angle changes to a more negative value and the drag
increases greatly.

11.1. - 27 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
Fig 24

11.1. - 28 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
Fig 25

11.1. - 29 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
As shown in Figure 26, when the fowler flap opens, the One additional factor requiring consideration in a comparison of
small airfoil slides downward and backward on tracks until it flap types is the aerodynamic twisting moments caused by the
reaches the position desired, thus providing a wing with a flap. Positive camber produces a nose down twisting moment-
variable coefficient of lift and a variable area. especially great when large camber is used well aft on the
chord (an obvious implication is that flaps are not practical on a
With the Fowler flap, the wing area can be increased, causing flying wing or tailless airplane).
large increases in lift with minimum increases in drag, the exact
amount of increase of each depending upon the angle to which The deflection of a flap causes large nose down moments,
the flap is lowered. The Fowler flap is one of the designs, which which create important twisting loads on the structure and
are particularly well adapted for use at takeoff as well as landing. pitching moments that must be controlled with the horizontal
tail. Unfortunately, the flap types producing the greatest
A variation, and improvement, to the basic Fowler and slotted increases in CLmax usually cause the greatest twisting moments.
flaps is the slotted Fowler flap. When such flaps are initially The Fowler flap causes the greatest change in twisting
extended, they move aft on their track. Once past a certain moment while the split flap causes the least. This factor-along
point on the track, further aft movement is accompanied by a with mechanical complexity of the installation-may complicate
downward deflection, which opens up one or more slots. the choice of a flap configuration.
A triple-slotted Fowler flap is shown in Figure 26 and 27 The effectiveness of flaps on a wing configuration depends on
many different factors. One important factor is the amount of
The slotted fowler flap can provide much greater increases in the wing area affected by the flaps. Since a certain amount of
lift than the plain or split flap, and corresponding drag changes the span is reserved for ailerons, the actual wing maximum lift
are much lower. This type of flap requires the installation of a properties will be less than that of the flapped two-dimensional
rather complicated structure. The slotted Fowler flap is usually section. If the basic wing has a low thickness, any type of
used on the trailing edge of most turbine transport category flap will be less effective than on a wing of greater thickness.
aircraft. Sweepback of the wing can cause an additional significant
reduction in the effectiveness of flaps.

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Mar, 2014
Fig 26

11.1. - 31 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
Fig 27

11.1. - 32 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
FLAPERONS
Ailerons that are rigged to serve as ailerons or flaps are called

flaperons. When employed as flaps, flaperons on opposite
wings move either upward or downward together.
When employed as ailerons, the flaperons move in opposite

directions. The use of flaperons allows the wings to vary in
camber or curvature. By varying the wings' camber, the pilot
gives the aircraft better performance capabilities over a wider
operating range. The use of ailerons that can be drooped to
change a wing's camber and, in effect, function as flaperons is
becoming popular on transport category aircraft. This allows the
entire trailing edge to be equipped with flaps to vary the
camber.
Additionally, on a few aircraft, ailerons designed to 'droop' when

the trailing edge flaps are lowered to certain positions, act as
additional plain flaps. Roll control is retained, but extra lift (and
drag) is generated during landing. These surfaces are usually
referred to as Flaperons or sometimes called droop ailerons.
Fig 28 - DROOP AILERON

11.1. - 33 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
DRAG INDUCING DEVICES

Secondly, the spoilers can be used in a symmetrical, part-
There are several situations where the aircraft must slow down deployed position, allowing the aircraft to slow down quickly in
fairly quickly. With slower, high drag, light aircraft, simply closing the cruise, or descend at a much steeper rate without
the throttle allows the high drag of the airframe and the idling accelerating. On some aircraft, the deployment angle of the
propeller to slow the aircraft down, to gliding speed prior to spoiler panels can be varied by changing the position of the
landing approach, for example modern airliner is an extremely control lever in the flight compartment.
smooth, low drag design which, if only the throttles are retarded,
will continue in level flight for many miles before slowing down. Lift dumpers are, as their name describes, are spoiler panels
Furthermore, if the nose were lowered more than a degree or incorporated solely to dump lift. They are normally deployed
so, the aircraft will begin to accelerate again. after landing, destroying the lift of the wing and producing high
drag, to assist in stopping the aircraft efficiently and thereby
In order to overcome the problems of low drag on large aircraft allowing the wheel brakes to be operated more effectively.
with high momentum, the designers have introduced a variety of
drag inducing devices. These include spoilers, lift dumpers,
speed brakes and in unusual circumstances, lowering the SPEED BRAKES
landing gear and operating in-flight thrust reversers.
Whilst it is true that the in-flight use of spoilers may be referred
to as selecting the 'speed brakes', the term more accurately
SPOILERS AND LIFT DUMPERS describes devices which are solely for the production of drag
without any change of trim. The rear fuselage mounted
Spoilers and Lift Dumpers are usually hinged panels located 'clamshell-type doors are true speed brakes (or air brakes) and
about mid-chord position on the upper surface of the wing. have the following major advantage over the use of spoilers for
Hydraulically operated, they produce a large amount of producing drag.
turbulence and drag when deployed, resulting in a reduction of
lift. When the wing mounted spoilers are deployed, vibration or
rumble is often felt in the passenger cabin, which some people
Spoilers, have a variety of uses, all of which involve spoiling the may find disturbing. The aft mounted speed brakes not only
lift of the wing. Some of the following facilities can be combined, produce high drag at any airspeed, but their selection is virtually
so that one set of panels can have more than one job. Firstly, vibration free. Also, lift will be completely unaffected, thus
they can be the primary roll control of the aircraft. permitting their deployment on approach and making a go
around much safer.

11.1. - 34 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
Fig 29 SPOILERS AND LIFT DUMPERS Fig - 30 SPEED BRAKES

11.1. - 35 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
CONDITIONS LEADING TO A STALL WING TIP STALL
In module 8 it was pointed out that a stall occurs when the Figure shows the stall pattern of a tapered swept wing. On
angle of attack becomes so great that the laminar airflow such wings, there is a tendency to develop a strong span wise
separates from the surface of an airfoil, leaving an area flow of the boundary layer toward the tip when the wing is at
of burbling that destroys the low-pressure area normally high lift coefficients. This span wise flow produces a relatively
existing at the upper surface of a wing in flight. low energy and thick boundary layer, which can easily
separate, near the tip.
When an airplane is in flight, there are a number of flight
conditions that may lead to a stall. First, if an airplane is If an actual wing were allowed to stall in this fashion, the stall
pulled up sharply until its forward speed diminishes to a point would be accompanied by aileron buffet and wing drop. There
where lift is less than gravity; the airplane will begin to lose would be no buffet at the empennage or the aft fuselage, no
altitude. The angle of attack increases, and when it reaches the strong nose down moment (there maybe even a nose up
stalling value (about 20), the wing stalls and the airplane stops movement), and very little if any aileron effectiveness.
flying. If the stall is balanced on both sides of the airplane, it will
pitch forward and may soon regain flying speed. In order to prevent such undesirable happenings the wing must
be tailored to achieve a favored stall pattern. This is achieved
Stalls may also occur at high speeds. Stalls occurring under by using the following
these conditions are called high-speed stalls, and they occur
when an airplane is pulled up so abruptly that the angle of Washout
attack exceeds the stall angle. This type of stall is not often Wing fences
encountered because under ordinary conditions it is not Saw tooth leading edge
necessary to pull an airplane up sharply enough to cause a stall. Winglets
Stalls are more likely to occur during turns than in level flight.
This is because greater lift is required to maintain level flight in
a turn.

11.1. - 36 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
Figure 31

11.1. - 37 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
EFFECT OF WASHOUT
The wing may be given a geometric twist termed washout to wing. The step where the change occurs, tends to form an
decrease the local angle of attack at the tip. In addition, the invisible 'wall' of high velocity air, which flows over the wing and
airfoil section may be varied throughout the span such that straightens the spanwise flow. It functions in much the same
sections with greater thickness and camber are located in the way as the wing fence but removes the extra drag and weight
areas of highest local lift coefficients. The higher Cl max of penalty.
such sections can then develop higher lifts without the danger of
stall.
EFFECT OF WINGLETS
EFFECT OF WING FENCES
These can be seen on a variety of the later generation airliners
These devices are usually fitted to aircraft with swept wings. and business jets.The outboard part of the wing are upswept to
Total airflow over a swept wing, splits into two components, one an extreme dihedral angle. These winglets work best at higher
moving across the wing chord parallel to the airflow and the speeds and, by clever aerodynamic design, will give better
other flowing spanwise towards the wing tip. airflow control and reduce the drag produced by the wing. It
does this by using the up-flow from below the wing to produce a
The fences are fitted about mid-span, on the leading edge of the forward thrust from the winglet, rather like a yacht sail. The
wing and extending rearwards. They are designed to control the winglets add weight to the aircraft as well as increasing parasitic
spanwise flow of the boundary layer air over the top of the wing. drag, but the large reduction in induced drag at the wingtip,
Also they will straighten the airflow over the ailerons, improving results in a significant fuel saving.
their effectiveness and straighten the air nearer the wing tip,
resulting in less 'spillage' of air from beneath the wing to the top,
thereby producing less drag.
EFFECT OF SAW TOOTH LEADING EDGES
This form of airflow control is more common on military aircraft

than modern commercial airliners. The saw tooth or notch is
simply a small increase in wing chord on the outer portion of the

11.1. - 43 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
Fig 31
Fig 32
Fig 34
Fig 33

11.1. - 44 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
BOUNDARY LAYER CONTROL

edge In this way,the small amount of drag created by the
The boundary layer is that layer of air adjacent to the aerofoil vortices is far more than compensated by the considerable
surface (the boundary between metal and air). If measured, boundary layer drag which they save. They also weaken the
the air velocity in the layer will vary from zero directly on the shock wave at high speed and reduce shock drag also
surface, to the relevant velocity of the free stream at the outer
extremity of the boundary layer. STALL WEDGES
Normally, at the leading edge of the wing the boundary layer will We have seen previously that washout on a wing permits the
be laminar, (in smooth thin sheets close to the surface), but as root of the wing to stall first, allowing the pilot to retain roll
the air moves over the wing towards the trailing edge, the control during the stall. Even with a degree of washout, the
boundary layer becomes thicker and turbulent. The region aircraft will drop a wing on occasions due to adverse boundary
where the flow changes from laminar to turbulent is called the layer air causing the outer part of the wing to stall first. This can
transition point. .As airspeed increases, the transition point be overcome with the use of stall wedges, or stall strips, as they
tends to move forward, so the designer tries to prevent this thus are sometimes known.
maintaining laminar flow, over the top of the wing for as far back
as possible. Methods of boundary layer control are as follows: Stall Wedges are small, wedge-shaped strips mounted on the
leading edge of the wings at about one third span. The are
BOUNDARY LAYER CONTROL designed to disrupt the boundary layer airflow, at large angles of
attack approaching the stall, thus ensuring the airflow breaks
VORTEX GENERATORS away,(stalls), at the root end of the wing first.
One way of stimulating the boundary layer and stopping the LEADING EDGE DEVICES
airflow becoming increasingly sluggish towards the trailing edge
is the use of vortex generators. Other devices to prevent laminar separation at the low speed
end of the range and thus control boundary layer air are leading
Vortex generators are small plates or wedges projecting up from edge droop flaps and Kreuger flaps. They can be a droop snoot
the surface of an aerofoil about 25mm.(about 3 times the typical or permanent droop type, or can be adjusted during flight.
boundary layer thickness), into the free stream air. Their
purpose is to shed small but lively vortices from their tip, which Additionally they produce a similar effect to a wing fence at
act as scavengers to direct and mix the high energy free stream smaller angles of attack resulting in a smoother airflow over the
air into the sluggish boundary layer air and invigorate it. This ailerons, thus retaining optimum roll control.
action pushes the transition point backwards towards the trailing

11.1. - 45 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
Fig 36
Fig 35
Fig 37

11.1. - 46 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
OPERATION AND EFFECT OF TRIM TABS CONTROLLABLE TRIM TABS
During a flight an aircraft will develop a tendency to deviate from A controllable trim tab is adjusted from the flight deck, with its
a straight and level hands-off attitude. This may be due to position being transmitted back to a flight deck indicator
changes in fuel state, speed, load position or flap/landing gear showing trim units, left and right of neutral.
selection and could be countered by applying a continuous
correcting force to the primary controls. This would be fatiguing Flight deck controls are trim-wheel, lever, switch, etc., with the
for the crew and difficult to maintain for long periods, so trim actuation of the tab by mechanical, electrical or hydraulic
tabs are used for this purpose instead. means. Trim facilities are normally provided on all three axes
Trim tabs move the primary control surface aerodynamically in Note: Aircraft with hydraulic fully powered controls do not have
the opposite direction to the movement of the tab. To correct an trim tabs. Since fully powered controls are termed irreversible,
aircraft nose down out of trim condition, the elevator tab is trim tabs if fitted, would be aerodynamically ineffective. With
moved down, resulting in the elevator moving up, the tail of the these systems, trimming is achieved by moving the primary
aircraft moving down, so that the nose comes up, correcting the control surface to a new neutral datum.
fault.
FIXED TRIM TABS
A fixed trim tab may be a simple section of sheet metal attached

to the trailing edge of a control surface. It is adjusted on the
ground by simply bending it up or down, to a position resulting
in zero control forces during cruise. Alternatively, the tab is
connected to the primary control by a ground-adjustable
connecting rod. Finding the correct position for both types is by
trial and error.

11.1. - 47 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
Fig 39 CONTROLLABLE TRIM TAB

Fig 38 FIXED TRIM TAB

11.1. - 48 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
BALANCE TABS ANTI-BALANCE TABS
Balance tabs assist the pilot in moving the primary control Anti-balance tabs operate in a similar way aerodynamically as
surface. The flight deck controls are connected to the primary balance tabs but with a reverse effect. The difference is in the
control surface whereas the balance tab, hinged to the trailing way it is connected to the fixed aerofoil. It is routed so that the
edge of the primary surface, is connected to the fixed aerofoil. tab moves, relative to and in the same direction as, the primary
For example, the elevator balance tab, will be connected by an control surface. The effect is to add a loading to the pilot effort,
adjustable rod to the horizontal stabiliser and is so arranged, making it slightly heavier and thus providing feel, to prevent the
that it tends to maintain the tab at the same relative angle to the possibility of over-stressing the airframe structure
stabiliser when the pilot moves the elevator.
SERVO TABS
Aerodynamically, therefore, the tab is moving in the opposite
direction to the control surface and assists its movement. Sometimes referred to as the flight tabs, servo tabs are
Adjusting the length of the connecting rod will alter the positioned on the trailing edge of the primary control surface
displacement of the effective range of the tab about the mid- and connected directly to the flight deck control inputs. They act
point datum. as a form of power booster, since pilot effort is only required to
deflect the relatively small area of the servo tab into the air
Some types of balance tab have more than one point of stream.
attachment and it is possible with these so called geared
balance tabs, to alter the range of tab deflection. Movement of the flight deck control input moves the tab up or
down and the aerodynamic force created on the tab, moves the
The function of a balance tab can also be combined with that of primary control, until the aerodynamic load on the control
a trim tab, by adjusting the length of the balance tab connecting surface balances that on the tab. Moving the tab down will
rod from the flight deck. This is usually achieved by installing a cause the primary control to move up and vice-versa.
form of linear actuator in the rod and is termed a trim/balance
tab.

11.1. - 49 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
BALANCE TAB
Fig 40 SERVO TAB
Fig 41 ANTI-BALANCE TAB

11.1. - 50 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
SPRING TABS
At high speed, control surfaces operated directly from the flight The tab deflection provides an added aerodynamic load which
deck, become increasingly difficult to deflect from neutral, due assists the flight deck effort. The faster the aircraft flies, the
to the force of the aerodynamic loads caused by the airstream greater the airflow force and therefore the greater the spring tab
around them. deflection, resulting in a progressively increasing assistance in
moving the primary control.
The spring tab is progressive in its operation and provides
increasing aerodynamic assistance in moving the control
surface, with an increase in aircraft forward speed. The flight
deck controls are connected to the spring tab in a similar
manner to the servo tab previously described, except the
linkage is routed via a torque rod assembly (or spring box)
attached to the primary control surface.
When the aircraft is stationary or flying at low airspeed the air

loads are non-existent or very small. If the flight deck controls
are deflected from neutral, the rigidity of the torque tube (or
spring force) causes the primary control to be deflected together
with the spring tab. The tab will remain in the same relative
position with the primary control and consequently provides no
additional aerodynamic assistance.
As the aircraft flies faster, the increased force produced by the

airflow, opposes the movement of the primary control surface
from its neutral position. Deflection of the flight deck controls in
this case causes the torque tube to twist (or the spring to
compress), resulting in a deflection of the spring tab.

11.1. - 51 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
Fig- 42 SPRING TAB

11.1. - 52 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
MASS BALANCE
All aircraft structures are distorted when loads are applied. If the
structure is elastic, as all good structures are, it will tend to
spring back when the load is removed, or its point of application
is changed.
Since a control surface is hinged near its leading edge, the
centre of gravity (C of G) will be behind the hinge and as a
consequence, there will be more weight aft of the hinge line
than in front of it .
In the case of an aileron for example, should the air load distort
the wing upwards, it is likely that the aileron will lag behind and
distort downwards. This effectively produces an extra upward
aerodynamic force which pushes the wing up even further. Fig 43 EXTERNAL MASS WEIGHTS
Due to its elasticity, the wing will spring back and the aileron will
lag again but this time upwards, aerodynamically forcing the
wing down further than it would normally go due to elastic recoil
alone. Now the cycle is repeated and a high speed oscillation
will result. This unwanted phenomenon is referred to as flutter.
Flutter can be prevented if the C of G of the control surface is

moved in line with, or slightly in front of, the hinge line. The
normal way of achieving this is to add a number of high density
weights, either within the leading edge of the surface itself or
externally, ahead of the hinge line. The addition of these
weights, normally made from lead or depleted uranium, is
closely controlled and calculated to ensure that the exact
balance is obtained.
Fig - 44 INTEGRAL MASS WEIGHTS
This procedure of adding weights is referred to as mass
balancing of the controls.

11.1. - 53 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
CONTROL SURFACE BIAS AERODYNAMIC BALANCE INSET HINGE
True control surface bias is achieved in manually operated This method is similar to and has the same effect as the horn
controls by the use of fixed or adjustable trim tabs, as previously balance. Instead of having a forward projection at one or both
discussed. In power operated controls the input signal to the ends of the control surface, the hinges are set back so that the
hydraulic servo valve is adjusted to offset the primary control area forward of the hinge line, which projects into the air flow
surface. when the control surface is moved from neutral, is spread
evenly along its whole length.
However in order to overcome the high stick forces on larger
aircraft at higher speeds, the surfaces themselves are used to
lighten the forces. AERODYNAMIC BALANCE BALANCE PANELS
This is referred to as Aerodynamic Balancing and the three A device fitted to a few aircraft is the aerodynamic balance
principal ways of achieving it are: horn balance, inset hinge and panel. Often used in the aileron system, the panel is fitted
pressure balancing between the leading edge of the aileron, ahead of the hinge and
the rear face of the wing. When the aileron is deflected upwards
(downwards) from neutral, the high velocity, low pressure air
AERODYNAMIC BALANCE PANELS passing over the lower (upper) gap decreases the air pressure
under (above) the balance panel and pulls it down (up). The
AERODYNAMIC BALANCE HORN BALANCE force on the balance panel is proportional to airspeed and
control surface deflection and assists the pilot in moving the
In this method, a small part of the primary control surface ahead controls accordingly.
of the hinge will project into the airflow when the control is
deflected from neutral. The airflow on this side assists the
movement of the control in the desired direction and will attempt
to move the control further away from the neutral position.
Air loads on the control side, aft of the hinge, try to push the
surface back towards neutral. (This is the force that would
normally make the controls heavy). If the proportion of balance
area forward of the hinge and control area aft of the hinge is
correct, the pilot will feel that his control loads are more
manageable, making the aircraft easier to fly.

11.1. - 54 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
Fig 45 HORN BALANCE
Fig 47 AERODYNAMIC BALANCE PANEL
Fig 46 INSET HINGE BALANCE

11.1. - 55 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
MODULE 11
Sub Module 11.1.2
HIGH SPEED FLIGHT

11.1. - 56 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
11.1.2 HIGH SPEED FLIGHT
INTRODUCTION
Developments in aircraft and power plants have produced high The compressible nature of air makes itself evident in a
performance airplanes with capabilities for very high-speed number of ways, which have a marked effect on aircraft in flight.
flight. The study of aerodynamics at these very high flight Knowledge of the fundamental changes in the airflow brought
speeds has many significant differences from the study of about the compressibility of air and their effects on aircraft
classical low speed aerodynamics. Therefore, it is quite enables one to understand certain peculiarities in aircraft
behavior.
necessary that the aircraft technician be familiar with the
nature of high-speed airflow and the characteristics of high
AIR PRESSURE
performance airplane configurations.
At standard sea-level temperature, individual molecules of
NATURE OF COMPRESSIBILITY
air are in constant motion in random directions at a speed of
about 1,700 ft.p.s.(1,000 knots). Air pressure is thus the total
At low flight speeds the study of aerodynamics is greatly
effect of the impact of air molecules on any surface exposed to
simplified by the fact that air may experience relatively small
their movements. The speed of the molecules depends on their
changes in pressure with only negligible changes in density.
temperature, the higher the temperature the greater the speed.
This airflow is termed incompressible since the air may
Thus a small balloon, which is warmed, expands as the
undergo changes in pressure without apparent changes in
molecular speed rises with temperature and so increases the
density. Such a condition of airflow is analogous to the flow of
pressure.
water, hydraulic fluid, or any other incompressible fluid.
However, at high flight speeds the pressure changes that take

place are quite large and significant changes in air density
occur. The study of airflow at high speeds must account for
these changes in air density and must consider that the air is
compressible and that there will be 'Compressibility effects."

11.1. - 57 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
HIGH SPEED FLIGHT
Advancement in modern aircraft and engine design has

produced very large airliners capable of cruising at 87% of the
speed of sound. Typically at an altitude of 11,000 metres
(approximately 36,000feet), this will amount to an airspeed of
about 575 miles per hour.
Earlier in the course the effects of subsonic air were considered.

As airspeed increases, the aerodynamic effects of airflow
passing over an aircraft, go through a series of changes, which
will now be considered.
SPEED OF SOUND
One of the most important measurements in high speed

aerodynamics is based on the speed of sound and so called
mach number. Fig 1
Mach number is named after the Austrian physicist Ernst Mach

(1838-1916) and is the ratio of true airspeed of an aircraft to the
local speed of sound at that altitude.
Sound waves, like those produced by a stationary object

vibrating at certain frequencies, will cause a continuous series
of pulses or pressure waves, to radiate outwards equally in all
directions from the point of origin and travel in exactly the same
manner as the ripples on a pond.

11.1. - 58 Rev. 00
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Additionally, in any one of the fluids, speed will vary with a Consequently, anyone standing ahead of the aircraft, would
change in temperature. As temperature increases, the speed of hear it coming and be able to detect the change in the nature of
sound will increase and vice-versa, so that in Air on a standard the pressure waves as the aircraft passed by. It would be similar
day at sea level (15oC approx), the waves will travel at 761mph to the change in the pitch of the siren of a passing emergency
(661.7 knots), whereas at 11,000 metres altitude, the speed will road vehicle.
fall to 661mph, since the temperature has dropped to -56oC at
this altitude.
This is often referred to as Doppler shift or Doppler effect.
Note: At altitudes above 11,000 metres and up to about 27,000
metres, the temperature and hence the speed of sound, will
remain constant.
SUBSONIC FLIGHT
The propagation of the pressure waves from a stationary object

has been discussed above.
When an aircraft begins to move through the air at subsonic

speeds, (a speed less than pressure wave propagation speed)
the waves still travel forward and it is as if a message is sent
ahead of the aircraft to warn of its approach.
On receipt of this message, the air streams begin to divide to

make way for the aircraft but there is very little, if any change in
FIG 2
the density of the air as it flows over the aircraft. This warning
message can be detected perhaps 100metres in front of the
aircraft.

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TRANSONIC FLIGHT
At subsonic speeds, the study of aerodynamics is simplified by

the fact that air passing over a wing experiences only very small
changes in pressure and density. The airflow is termed
incompressible as, when it passes through a venturi, the
pressure changes without the density changing
At higher speeds, the change in air pressure and density

becomes significant and is called the compressibility effect.
When air enters a venturi at supersonic speeds, the airflow
slows down and must compress in order to pass through its
throat. Once a fluid compresses, its pressure and density
willboth increase.
Fig 3
Fig 4

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SUPERSONIC FLIGHT
The transonic flight range encompasses sound wave velocity
and consequently is the most difficult realm of flight since some Once the aircraft is supersonic, all parts of it are considered to
of the air flowing over the aircraft, particularly the wings, is be above the speed of sound and therefore travelling faster than
subsonic and some is supersonic. As the aircraft approaches the rate of propagation of the pressure waves. An infinite
the speed of sound, the pressure waves ahead of it will be number of pressure waves are produced and form a cone, the
travelling at the same speed as the aircraft and are therefore inclination of which will change as the aircraft speed changes.
relatively stationary. They accumulate to form a continuous
pressure wave and consequently will result in the removal of MACH NUMBER
any advance warning of the approach of the aircraft.
Mach number is the ratio of the true airspeed of the aircraft and
At these speeds other pressure waves, or shock waves form the local speed of sound at that altitude. An aircraft travelling at
wherever the airflow reaches the speed of sound. These waves exactly the speed of sound is said to be travelling at Mach 1.
will upset the aerodynamic balance of the wing and this
It follows therefore that an aircraft travelling at twice the speed
of sound would be travelling at Mach 2 and at half the speed of
sound, Mach 0.5, etc,.
The following definitions regarding airflow and mach number

apply:
Subsonic Flow Mach Numbers below Mach 0.75
Transonic Flow Mach Numbers between Mach 0.75 and 1.2
Supersonic Flow Mach Numbers between Mach 1.2 and 5.0
Hypersonic Flow Mach Numbers above Mach 5.0
Fig 5

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This means that although the aircraft itself may be travelling at

an airspeed well below Mach 1, the airflow over the thickest part
of the wing chord, may have already reached Mach 1 .
As will be discussed later, many unwanted effects occur when

the wing approaches and reaches Mach 1. Therefore, the
designers may either incorporate features that will lessen the
unwanted effects, or limit the aircraft to a predetermined
maximum airspeed, that will ensure the wing speed remains
below Mach 1 and thus avoids the unwanted effects altogether.
For each aircraft type therefore, a unique maximum aircraft

forward speed will be calculated, corresponding to a wing speed
of Mach 1. This aircraft speed (always be less than Mach 1) is
called the Critical Mach Number or M.crit and non-supersonic
Fig 6 aircraft flying in the transonic flight range, will normally be
CRITICAL MACH NUMBER limited to a maximum speed set below the Critical Mach
number.
At any constant aircraft forward speed, the speed of the airflow
will vary over the curves and cambers on the different areas of
the airframe. The behaviour of the airflow over the wing will be
particularly significant, since this is the major lift provider for the
aircraft.
As air flows over the camber on the upper surface of the wing,
its speed will increase as it flows rearwards from the leading
edge, reaching a maximum at the thickest part of the wing
chord.
Fig 7

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ADVERSE TRANSONIC EFFECTS

A thick wing will cause the airflow to speed up over the camber
and reach Mach 1 more quickly than a thin wing of similar chord Even though the onset of compressibility is gradual, it begins to
length. Consequently, the Critical Mach number for the thinner have a significant effect as the Critical Mach number is
wing will be a higher value than the thicker wing. approached. Unwanted adverse effects including, buffeting,
shock waves, increase in drag, decrease in lift and movement of
This in turn will mean that the aircraft with a thin wing, will be the centre of pressure occur.
able to fly faster in the transonic flight range than the one with
the thicker wing, before the unwanted effects caused by the If uncontrolled, these effects could result in the aircraft
wing reaching Mach 1 ensue. becoming difficult to fly and to behave in a similar manner to a
low speed high incidence stall, even though the aircraft is at
Conversely, less lift will be produced by a thin wing, than a thick high speed and low angle of incidence.
wing of similar chord length, but this can be overcome by the so
called Supercritical wing chord. COMPRESSIBILITY BUFFET
In this design, the total amount of lift lost by the shallower Previously discussed has been the build up of the pressure
camber of the thin wing is restored by making the chord longer. wave in front of the aircraft as it approaches Mach 1, including
This is perfect for transonic cruise conditions, but at low the fact that other parts of the airframe, in particular the wing,
airspeeds, lift on a clean wing will be insufficient and so are likely to reach Mach 1 well before the complete aircraft
extensive use of high lift devices (slots, slats and flaps) is does.
necessary
When this occurs the smoothness of the airflow over the wing is
severely affected. This region, as well as those on the flying
control aerofoils, experience violent vibration and so-called
compressibility buffeting of the airframe. If allowed to continue,
control loss or possible structural damage can occur.
Fig 8 Supercritical Wing

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SHOCK WAVES
TYPICAL SUPERSONIC FLOW PATTERNS
Figure shows the wave pattern associated with point source p of If the velocity of the point source increases above the
weak pressure disturbances when stationary and when moving acoustic speed (u = la in this example), the eccentric
in a straight line at different velocity regimes. The surrounding circles will intersect one another and all the circles will
fluid is assumed to be at rest. The circles represent the wave be tangential to two symmetrically inclined lines (a
fronts at a particular instant of time. If the time elapsed since the cone in three dimension) whose apex is the point
wave front was emanated is t, the radius of a wave front is at, source. These lines are termed Mach waves or Mach
where a is the acoustic speed. lines, and in three dimensions there is a Mach cone. The
semi vertex angle is termed the mach angle () the
The source is at rest. In two-dimensional flow the wave mach angle, would become smaller as the speed rose.
fronts are concentric circle whereas in the three
dimensional case they are concentric spheres. The cone, which marks the boundary of the sphere of
influence of the body, is called a mach cone. All objects
When the point source moves at a velocity u, less than a which are within the mach cone would experience the
(u = 0.5a) the wave fronts adopt a different pattern. The effects of the passage of the body; all these outside
individual wave fronts remain circular with their centers would be unaffected.
on the line of motion of the source and are eccentric but
non- intersecting. Note. If the speed a increases the Mach angle reduces. The
pressure disturbances are confined to the Mach cone. The area
The point source moves through a distance ut in the time the outside is known as the zone of silence, and it is totally unaware
wave moves through a greater distance at. Once again, the of the moving object.
waves signaling the pressure disturbance will move through the
whole region of the fluid, ahead and behind the moving source.
If the velocity of the point source is increased to the

value of the acoustic speed (u = a), all the eccentric
circles will be tangent to one another at the most forward
point i.e., the point source itself.

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Fig-9 Formation of pressure waves

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The knowledge of the flow pattern of a point source can be Various types of waves can occur in supersonic flow and the
extended to understand the changes undergone by supersonic nature of the wave formed depends upon the airstream and the
flow when encountered with an object of a particular shape. shape of the object causing the flow change. Essentially, there
Unlike the subsonic flow, the supersonic flow will not get prior are three fundamental types of waves form in supersonic flow:
information about an object in the downstream flow path as
weak pressure waves cannot propagate forward.
So there won't be an up-wash ahead of the leading edge and

the airflow will not accelerate as it moves over the leading edge The oblique shock wave (compression),
of a convex profile.
The normal shock wave (compression),
When moving along a flat plate, the Mach waves generated by
small irregularities will be parallel to one another. As the flow The expansion wave (no shock).
suddenly encounters a corner, the Mach waves will converge or
diverge to create a compression wave, or an expansion wave
respectively, depending upon the contour. The compression
wave is termed a shock wave.
When supersonic flow is clearly established, all changes in

velocity, pressure, density, flow direction, etc., take place quite
suddenly and in relatively confined areas. The areas of flow
change are generally distinct and the phenomena are referred
to as "wave" formations. All compression waves occur suddenly
and are wasteful of energy. Hence, the compression waves are
distinguished by the sudden "shock" type of behavior .All
expansion waves are not so sudden in their occurrence and are
not wasteful of energy like the compression shock waves.

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Mar, 2014
Fig 11
Fig 10

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Mar, 2014
OBLIQUE SHOCK WAVE

The oblique shock will form on each surface of the wedge and
Consider the case where a supersonic airstream is turned into the inclination of the shock wave will be a function of the free
the preceding airflow. Such would be the case of a supersonic stream Mach number and the wedge angle.
flow' 'into a corner' as shown in figure 12. It will decelerate
unlike in the subsonic case where it would have accelerated. As As the free stream Mach number increases, the shock wave
the flow decelerates, Mach waves converge to form a angle decreases.
compression wave termed an oblique shock wave.
If the wedge angle is increased to some critical amount, the
A supersonic air stream passing through the oblique shock shock wave will detach from the leading edge of the wedge. It is
wave will experience these changes: important to note that detachment of the shock wave will
produce subsonic flow immediately after the central portion of
The airstream is slowed down; the velocity and Mach
the shock wave.
number behind the wave are reduced but the flow is still
supersonic
Figure 14 illustrates these typical flow patterns and the effect
The flow direction is changed to flow along the surface of Mach number and wedge angle.
The static pressure of the airstream behind the wave is

increased
The density of airstream behind the wave is increased
Some of the available energy of the airstream (indicated

by the sum of dynamic and static pressure) is dissipated
and turned into unavailable heat energy. Hence, the
shock wave is wasteful of energy.
A typical example is the shock wave formation at a wedge

pointed into a supersonic air stream, as illustrated in figure 13.

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Mar, 2014
Fig 12
Fig. 13

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Mar, 2014
NORMAL SHOCK WAVE
If a blunt nosed object is placed in a supersonic airstream the

shock wave which is formed will be detached from the leading
edge. This detached wave also occurs when a wedge or cone
angle exceeds some critical value. Whenever the shock wave
forms perpendicular to the upstream flow, the shock wave is
termed a "normal" shock wave and the flow immediately behind
the wave is subsonic. Any relatively blunt object in a supersonic
airstream will form a normal shock wave immediately ahead of
the leading edge slowing the airstream to subsonic so the
airstream may feel the presence of the blunt nose and flow
around it.
Once past the blunt nose the airstream may remain subsonic or
accelerate back to supersonic depending on the shape of the
nose and the Mach number of the free stream. See figure 15.
In addition to the formation of normal shock waves described

above, this same type of wave may be formed in an entirely
different manner when there is no object in the supersonic
airstream.
It is particular that whenever a supersonic airstream is slowed to

subsonic without a change in direction a normal shockwave will
form as a boundary between the supersonic and subsonic
Fig. 14 wedge placed in supersonic flow regions. This is an important fact since aircraft usually
encounter some. Compressibility effects" before the flight
speed is sonic. Figure b illustrates the manner in which an airfoil
at high subsonic speeds has local flow velocities, which are
supersonic.

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Mar, 2014
As the local supersonic flow moves aft, a normal shock wave

forms slowing the flow to subsonic. The transition of flow from
subsonic to supersonic is smooth and is not accompanied by
shock waves if the transition is made gradually with a smooth
surface. The transition of flow from supersonic to subsonic
without direction change always forms a normal shock wave.
A supersonic airstream passing through a normal shock wave

will experience these changes:
The airstream is slowed to subsonic; the local Mach

number behind the wave is approximately equal to the
reciprocal of the Mach number ahead of the wave-e.g. If
Mach number ahead of the wave is 1.25, the Mach
number of the flow behind the wave is approximately
0.80. Fig 15
The airflow direction immediately behind the wave is

unchanged.

increased greatly.
The density of the airstream behind the wave is

increased greatly.
The energy of the airstream (indicated by total pressure-

dynamic plus static) is greatly reduced. The normal
shock wave is very wasteful of energy.

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EXPANSION WAVE
When turning around a corner as shown in figure 18, a

supersonic airflow does not create sharp, sudden changes and
hence it is not a shock wave. The flow accelerates and the
Mach waves diverge to create an expansion wave. The
changes take place in a rather gradual manner and no energy
loss will take place. In contrast, a subsonic flow would have
Fig 16 decelerated around this corner causing a rise in static pressure.
A supersonic wave passing through an expansion wave will

experience the following changes:
The airstream is accelerated; the velocity and Mach

number behind the wave are greater.
The flow direction is changed to flow along the surface-

provided separation does not occur.

decreased.
The density of -the airstream behind the wave is

decreased.
Since the flow changes in a rather gradual manner there

is no, shock, and no loss of energy in the airstream.
The expansion wave does not dissipate airstream
energy.
The table summarizes the characteristics of the three principal

waveforms encountered with supersonic flow.

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Mar, 2014
Fig 17

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Mar, 2014
Fig 19
Fig 18

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Mar, 2014
SECTIONS IN SUPERSONIC FLOW

The air stream moving over the surface passes through an
In order to appreciate the effect of these various waveforms on oblique shock, an expansion wave, and another oblique shock.
the aerodynamic characteristics in supersonic flow, inspect The resulting pressure distribution on the surfaces produces no
figures that follow. net lift, but the increased pressure on the forward half of the
chord along with the decreased pressure on the aft half of the
Parts (a) and (b) of fig show the wave pattern and resulting chord produces a "wave" drag. This wave drag is caused by the
pressure distribution for thin flat plate at positive angle of attack. components of pressure forces, which are parallel to the free
stream direction.
The airstream moving over the upper surface passes through
an expansion wave at the leading edge and then an oblique The wave drag is in addition to the drag due to friction,
shock wave at the trailing edge. Thus, a uniform suction separation, lift, etc., and can be a very considerable part of the
pressure exists over the upper surface. The airstream moving total drag at high supersonic speeds.
underneath the flat plate passes through an oblique shock wave
at the leading edge then an expansion wave at the trailing edge.
This produces a uniform positive pressure on the underside of
the section. This distribution of pressure on the surface will
produce a net lift and incur a subsequent drag due to lift from
the inclination of the resultant lift from a perpendicular to the
free stream.
Parts (c) and (d) of Figure show the wave pattern and resulting
pressure distribution for a double wedge airfoil at zero lift.

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Fig 20 Sections in supersonic flow

11.1. - 76 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
Parts (e) and (f) of figure below illustrate the wave pattern and All changes in velocity, pressure, density and flow
resulting pressure distribution for the double wedge airfoil at a direction will take place quite suddenly through the
small positive angle of attack. various waveforms. The shape of the object and the
required flow direction change dictate the type and
The net pressure distribution produces an inclined lift with drag strength of the wave formed.
due to lift, which is in addition to the wave drag at zero lift.
The amount of acceleration and drop in pressure is
Part (g) of figure shows the wave pattern for a circular arc airfoil. proportional to the slope of the upper surface.
After the airflow traverses the oblique shock wave at the leading
edge, the airflow undergoes a gradual but continual expansion As always, lift results from the distribution of pressure on
until the trailing edge shock wave is encountered. a surface and is the net force perpendicular to the free
stream direction. Any component of the lift in a direction
Part (h) of figure illustrates the wave pattern on a conventional parallel to the wind stream will be drag due to lift.
blunt nose airfoil in supersonic flow. When the nose is blunt the
wave must detach and become a normal shock wave In supersonic flight, the zero lift drag of an airfoil of some
immediately ahead of the leading edge. Of course, this wave finite thickness will include a "wave drag. The thickness
form produces an area of subsonic airflow at the leading edge of the airfoil will have an extremely powerful effect on
with very high pressure and density behind the detached wave. this wave drag since the wave drag varies as the square
of the thickness ratio-if the thickness is reduced 50
The mechanics of supersonic lift are simpler than those of percent; the wave drag is reduced 75 percent. The
subsonic because the pressure at any point over the wing is leading edges of supersonic shapes must be sharp or
dependent only on the slope of the surface over which it is the wave formed at the leading edge will be a strong
passing. If the slope is towards the free stream, the pressure is detached shock wave.
always positive if away it is always negative. Only varying the
angle of attack can therefore change pressure. Once the flow on the airfoil is supersonic, the
aerodynamic center of the surface 'will be located
The figures discussed illustrate the typical patterns of approximately at the 50 per-cent chord position. As this
supersonic flow and point out these facts concerning contrasts with the subsonic location for the aerodynamic
aerodynamic surfaces in two-dimensional supersonic flo center of the 25 percent chord position, significant
changes in aerodynamic trim and stability may be
encountered in transonic flight.

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Mar, 2014
Fig 21 Sections in supersonic flow

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Mar, 2014
One of the most interesting, and perhaps surprising, Features The theoretical pressure distribution of a double-wedge aerofoil
of the flow is that there is no up-wash in front of the aerofoil at a high angle of attack, divorced from boundary layer and
(how can there be when the airflow doesn't know that the other effects, can therefore be shown as two sets of parallel
aerofoil is coming) - and no appreciable downwash behind the lines (Fig. b). The area between the lines of the upper and lower
aerofoil; the deflection of the air (the eventual cause of the lift) is surfaces being proportional to the lift. The C.P. will be at the 50
only between the Shock waves. The pressure distribution over percent chord position; Fig c is a typical lift curve for a wedge
the aerofoil accounts for both lift and drag. shaped aerofoil at supersonic speed.
Figure a. shows a double wedge aerofoil at the angle of attack

for best L/D ratio. This angle is equal to half the angle of the
wedge and it can be seen that the upper front and lower rear
surfaces are parallel to the airflow. Consequently the free air
stream is virtually unaffected by these surfaces and is only
acted upon by the two inclined surfaces. Therefore around the
corner of the upper surface the flow is accelerated through the
expansions and swung round parallel to the rear portion with a
drop in pressure; at the trailing edge the shock restores the
pressure and velocity to free-stream conditions. On the lower
surface at the lower front portion and an expansion of the corner
restores the higher pressure portion and an expansion of the
corner restores the higher pressure and reduces speed to free-
stream values. Thus only two shock waves are attached to the
wing at this angle of attack and the wave drag is therefore less
than that at any other angle of attack, at which all four planes of
the section are affecting the flow.
At a still larger angle - but the reader may like to draw this for
himself. Eventually, as the angle of attack is increased, the bow
wave will become detached, as it always is in front of a blunt
nose.

11.1. - 79 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
AERODYNAMIC HEATING
One of the biggest problems of sustained supersonic flight is

aerodynamic heating of the aircraft structure. An extreme
example of aerodynamic heating might be a shooting star,
when its material overheats to the point of destruction, from the
heat generated by friction-heating with the earth's atmosphere.
In fact, if it were not for the special ceramic tile heat-sink
insulation on the structure of the Space Shuttle, a similar fate
might occur to it on re-entry.
In the commercial world, Concorde is probably the only airliner

where aerodynamic heating presents a significant problem.
When the aircraft is flown at Mach 2, the friction of the air
passing around the aircraft heats the skin considerably even at
altitudes in excess of 17,000 metres. The point of maximum
heating is on the nose where the rise in temperature could
reach 1750C.
As a precaution, a probe on the nose of the aircraft monitors the

temperature during flight. When a reading of 1270C is reached,
the flight deck is directed to reduce the speed to about Mach
1.8, to bring the temperature back within limits.
Fig 22
Concorde uses conventional aluminium alloys in its
construction. If future aircraft are required to travel within the
atmosphere at even higher Mach numbers, other materials such
as titanium alloy or stainless steel would need to be considered.

11.1. - 80 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
Fig 23

11.1. - 81 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
AREA RULE
Area rule is an aerodynamic technique used in the design of

high speed aircraft. If drag is to be kept to a minimum at
transonic speeds, aircraft must be slim, smooth and
streamlined. In general terms it means that the wings, fuselage,
empennage and other appendages have to be considered
together when working out the total streamlining. This is
necessary so that the cross-sectional area of successive slices
of the aircraft from nose to tail, conform to those of a simple
body of streamline shape.
Area rule is defined as: For the minimum drag at the

connections, (wing/fuselage), the variation of the aircrafts total
cross-sectional area along its length, should approximate that of
an ideal shape having minimum wave drag.
Without area rule, the greatest frontal cross-sectional area of

the fuselage would occur where the wings are attached to the
fuselage. Therefore, one method of achieving area rule in this
situation, is to reduce the cross-sectional area of the fuselage,
thereby cancelling out the increase caused by the wings.
Alternatively, the fuselage cross-section could be increased with

the use of enlarged sections behind and in front of the wings to
eliminate sudden changes in the cross-sectional area and
achieve the same result.
Fig 24

11.1. - 82 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
FACTORS AFFECTING AIRFLOW IN ENGINE INTAKES OF

HIGH SPEED AIRCRAFT
Other methods to control airflow reaching the compressor is to
Engine intakes on aircraft that operate in the subsonic flight make use of the fact that air passing through a shock wave
range only can be of almost any form. The main criteria is that slows down to a lower speed. This type of intake design is
the airflow reaching the compressor stage of the engine during usually characterised by the bullet fairing, which on some
cruise ideally does not exceed Mach 0.5. This is normally aircraft can translate in and out of the intake to reposition the
achieved by the careful design of the intake ducts. shock wave during low or high supersonic flight speeds.
Obviously, if the aircraft never exceeds Mach 0.5, a parallel

intake duct could be employed, but if the aircraft is to cruise at
airspeeds in excess of this, yet below Mach 1, a divergent duct
must be utilised to slow the airflow at the compressor down to
Mach 0.5.
If the aircraft is designed to cruise above Mach 1, the air

entering the intakes will be supersonic and will behave in
accordance with the rules of supersonic flow. In this case a
convergent duct would be necessary to slow down the airflow to
the compressor. However the aircraft must fly through the
transonic range in order to reach supersonic speed so both
types of duct will be necessary.
One way to overcome the problem is to have moveable doors

which change the intake duct shape from divergent to
convergent cross-section as the aircraft passes through Mach 1.
See figure 25. This technique can be found on the intakes of
Concorde.
Intake Moveable doors
Figure 25

11.1. - 83 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
Fig 27
Fig 26

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Mar, 2014
EFFECTS OF SWEEPBACK ON CRITICAL MACH NUMBER
In order to fly at high speed in the transonic range without

encountering the problems caused by the production of shock
waves, the Critical Mach number needs to be as high as
possible. As has already been shown, one way is to have as
thin a wing as possible. This of course is an acceptable solution
in theory, but in practice there will be structural integrity
problems, such as wing loading, strength and flexibility.
Another way of raising the Critical Mach number without the

structural limitations is by the use of swept wings. Sweepback
not only delays the production of the shock wave, but reduces
the severity of the shock stall should it occur. The theory behind
this is that it is only the component of velocity over the wing
chord which is responsible for the pressure distribution and so
for causing the shock wave to develop. The other velocity
component which travels spanwise causes only frictional drag
and has no effect on shock wave production.
This theory is borne out by the fact that when it does appear,
the shock wave lies parallel to the span of the wing. Therefore
only that part of the velocity perpendicular to the shock wave,
i.e. across the chord, is reduced by the shock wave to subsonic
speeds.
The greater the sweepback, the smaller will be the component

of velocity affected, resulting in a higher Critical Mach number
and a reduction in drag at all transonic speeds. Additionally
sweepback results in a thinner mean aerodynamic chord which
raises the Critical Mach number even more.

11.1. - 85 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014
Fig 28

11.1. - 86 Rev. 00
Mar, 2014

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Training Centre Module 11A - TURBINE AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS

Category B1.1 Basic Sub Module 11.1 - Theory of Flight

MODULE11A.TURBINE AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS

11.2 Airframe Structures General Concepts

11.3 Airframe Structures Aeroplanes

11.4 Air Conditioning and Cabin Pressurization (ATA 21)

11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems

11.6 Electrical Power (ATA 24)

11.7 Equipment and Furnishings (ATA 25)

11.8 Fire Protection (ATA 26)

11.9 Flight Controls (ATA 27)

11.10 Fuel Systems (ATA 28)

11.11 Hydraulic Power (ATA 29)

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

MODULE11A.TURBINE AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS

11.12 Ice and Rain Protection (ATA 30)

11.13 Landing Gear (ATA 32)

11.14 Lights (ATA 33)

11.15 Oxygen (ATA 35)

11.16 Pneumatic/Vacuum (ATA 36)

11.17 Water/Waste (ATA 38)

11.18 On Board Maintenance Systems (ATA 45)

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

11.1.1 AEOROPLANE AEORODYNAMICS AND FLIGHT CONTROLS

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

11.1.2 HIGH SPEED FLIGHT -----------------------------------------------------57

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

MOVABLE CONTROL SURFACES

Movable flight control surfaces are divided into two categories;

Primary flight controls

Secondary flight controls

The primary control surfaces of an airplane include the ailerons,

The secondary control surfaces include flaps; trim tabs,

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Generation of aerodynamic force

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

FIXED AIRFOILS VERTICAL FINS

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

OPERATION AND EFFECT OF ROLL CONTROL

AILERONS AND SPOILERS

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ADVERSE YAW OTHER WAYS OF OVERCOMING ADVERSE YAW ARE;

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

L1 - increase in lift due to increased

L2 - reduction in lift due to reduced

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

OPERATION AND EFFECT OF PITCH CONTROL

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

With the horizontal stabilizer being mounted forward, a nose-up

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

The T -tail arrangement positions the stabilizer and elevator

With this type of arrangement there is a disadvantage of deep

There are many shapes and sizes of airplanes, most of

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

OPERATION AND EFFECT OF YAW CONTROL

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only