Analog Digital

Signal Analog signal is a continuous Digital signals are discrete time signals
signal which represents physical generated by digital modulation.
measurements.

Waves Denoted by sine waves Denoted by square waves

Representation Uses continuous range of values Uses discrete or discontinuous values to

to represent information represent information

Example Human voice in air, analog Computers, CDs, DVDs, and other digital
electronic devices. electronic devices.

Technology Analog technology records Samples analog waveforms into a limited

waveforms as they are. set of numbers and records them.

Data transmissions Subjected to deterioration by Can be noise-immune without

noise during transmission and deterioration during transmission and
write/read cycle. write/read cycle.

Response to Noise More likely to get affected Less affected since noise response are
reducing accuracy analog in nature

Flexibility Analog hardware is not flexible. Digital hardware is flexible in

implementation.

Uses Can be used in analog devices Best suited for Computing and digital
only. Best suited for audio and electronics.
video transmission.

Applications Thermometer PCs, PDAs

Bandwidth Analog signal processing can be There is no guarantee that digital signal
done in real time and consumes processing can be done in real time and
less bandwidth. consumes more bandwidth to carry out
the same information.

Memory Stored in the form of wave Stored in the form of binary bit
signal

Power Analog instrument draws large Digital instrument drawS only negligible
power power
 Analog Digital
Cost Low cost and portable Cost is high and not easily portable

Impedance Low High order of 100 megaohm

Errors Analog instruments usually have Digital instruments are free from
a scale which is cramped at observational errors like parallax and
lower end and give considerable approximation errors.
observational errors.

Transmission Impairment
List THREE (3) causes of transmission impairment
Explain each causes of transmission impairment. Use a diagram to support your answer.
Attenuation:
Attenuation means a loss of energy The strength of a signal falls off with distance over any
transmission medium. For guided media, this reduction in strength, or attenuation, is generally
logarithmic and is thus typically expressed as a constant number of decibels per unit distance. In
fig. shows the effect of attenuation and amplification.

Fig-2: Attenuation
For unguided media, attenuation is a more complex function of distance and of the makeup of the
atmosphere. Attenuation introduces three considerations for the transmission engineer. First, a
received signal must have sufficient strength so that the electronic circuitry in the receiver can
detect and interpret the signal. Second, the signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher than
noise to be received without error. Third, attenuation is an increasing function of frequency.
Distortion:
Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape. Delay distortion is a phenomenon
peculiar to guided transmission media. The distortion is caused by the fact that the velocity of
propagation of a signal through a guided medium varies with frequency. For a bandlimited signal,
the velocity tends to be highest near the center frequency and lower toward the two edges of the
band.
Thus, various frequency components of a signal will arrive at the receiver at different times.
This effect is referred to as delay distortion, as the received signal is distorted due to variable
delay in its components. The distortion effect as shown in fig-3.

Fig-3: Distortion
Delay distortion is particularly critical for digital data. Consider that a sequence of bits is being
transmitted, using either analog or digital signals. Because of delay distortion, some of the signal
components of one bit position will spill over into other bit positions, causing intersymbol
interference, which is a major limitation to maximum bit rate over a transmission control.
Equalizing techniques can also be used for delay distortion.
Noise:
Noise is refers to any unwanted signal. For any data transmission event, the received signal will
consist of the transmitted signal, modified by the various distortions imposed by the transmission
system, plus additional unwanted signals that are inserted somewhere between transmission and
reception; the latter, undesired signals are referred to as noise-a major limiting factor in
communications system performance.
 Fig-4: Noise

Pengertian Amplitudo Getaran

Coba kamu perhatikan kembali percobaan mistar yang digetarkan pada pembahasan
sebelumnya! Percobaan tersebut menunjukkan bahwa mistar bergerak dari titik A lalu ke B dan
kembali lagi ke A dengan melewati titik O.

Satu Gerakan penuh tersebut dapat disingkat AOBOA.

Dengan demikian, dapat dikatakan bahwa ujung mistar melakukan satu getaran sempurna.

Satu getaran sempurna (penuh) merupakan gerak benda kembali ke suatu

titik yang dipakai sebagai titik awal gerakan. Dalam hal ini, titik A dipakai
sebagai titik awal gerakan.
Jarak mistar yang digetarkan dari titik setimbangnya disebut dengan terbesar yang dikenal
dengan amplitudo.

Jadi, amplitudo getaran adalah simpangan terbesar dari titik setimbang (A

OB).

Gambar: Percobaan Getaran

Pengertian Frekuensi dan Periode Getaran
Dari pembahasan sebelumnya telah kita ketahui bahwa mistar yang digetarkan akan bergerak
bolak-balik melalui titik setimbangnya. Hal ini berarti bahwa mistar akan melakukan sejumlah
getaran setiap sekonnya.

Sejumlah getaran yang dilakukan setiap sekon disebut frekuensi getaran.

Jadi, frekuensi getaran adalah banyaknya getaran yang dilakukan tiap satu
satuan waktu.

Rumus Frekuensi Getaran

Besar frekuensi getar dapat ditentukan dengan rumus:

f = n/t
Keterangan:
f : frekuensi (1/s atau Hz)
n : banyaknya getaran
t : waktu melakukan getaran (s)

Satuan frekuensi dinyatakan dalam hertz (Hz). Satu Hz = 1 getaran / sekon. Berikut ini adalah
konversi satuan hertz.
1 KHz = 103 Hz
1 MHz = 103 KHz = 106 Hz
1 GHz = 103 MHz = 106 KHz = 109 Hz

Untuk melakukan satu kali getaran, mistar membutuhkan waktu tertentu.

Waktu yang dibutuhkan untuk melakukan satu kali getaran penuh (AOBOA)
disebut periode getaran.

Rumus Periode Getaran

Periode getaran dapat ditentukan dengan menggunakan rumus berikut.

T = t/n
Keterangan:
T : periode (s)

Nilai frekuensi dan periode selalu tetap, meskipun besar simpangannya berbeda. Dengan demikian,
besarnya frekuensi dan periode tidak tergantung pada amplitudo.
Hubungan frekuensi dan periode dapat dirumuskan sebagai berikut.

T = 1/f atau f = 1/T

Agar kamu lebih memahami penerapan matematis rumus-rumus di atas, pelajarilah contoh soal
berikut!

Contoh Soal
Sebuah tali bergetar sebanyak 60 kali selama 0,5 menit. Tentukan:
a. periode dan
b. frekuensi getarnya!

Penyelesaian:

Diketahui:
n = 60
t = 0,5 menit = 0,5 60 sekon = 30 sekon

Ditanyakan:
a. T = . . .?
b. f = . . .?

Jawab :

Jadi, periode getar tali tersebut adalah 0,5 sekon.

Jadi, frekuensi getar tali tersebut adalah 2 Hz.

Demikian pembahasan tentang pengertian amplitudo, frekuensi dan periode getaran dilengkapi
dengan contoh soalnya masing-masing.

Transmitting signal is measured based on the performance of the network. Explain THREE (3)
performance criteria of a network!

Bandwidth[edit]
Main article: Bandwidth (computing)
The available channel bandwidth and achievable signal-to-noise ratio determine the maximum
possible throughput. It is not generally possible to send more data than dictated by the Shannon-
Hartley Theorem.

Throughput[edit]
Main article: Throughput

Throughput is the number of messages successfully delivered per unit time. Throughput is controlled
by available bandwidth, as well as the available signal-to-noise ratio and hardware limitations.
Throughput for the purpose of this article will be understood to be measured from the arrival of the
first bit of data at the receiver, to decouple the concept of throughput from the concept of latency. For
discussions of this type the terms 'throughput' and 'bandwidth' are often used interchangeably.
The Time Window is the period over which the throughput is measured. Choice of an appropriate
time window will often dominate calculations of throughput, and whether latency is taken into
account or not will determine whether the latency affects the throughput or not.

Latency[edit]
Main article: Latency (engineering)

The speed of light imposes a minimum propagation time on all electromagnetic signals. It is not
possible to reduce the latency below
where s is the distance and cm is the speed of light in the medium. This approximately means 1
extra millisecond RTT for 100km/62miles of distance between hosts.
Other delays also occur in intermediate nodes. In packet switched networks delays can occur
due to queueing.

itter[edit]
Main article: Jitter

Jitter is the undesired deviation from true periodicity of an assumed

periodic signal in electronics and telecommunications, often in relation to a reference clock source.
Jitter may be observed in characteristics such as the frequency of successive pulses, the
signal amplitude, or phase of periodic signals. Jitter is a significant, and usually undesired, factor in
the design of almost all communications links (e.g., USB, PCI-e, SATA, OC-48). In clock
recovery applications it is called timing jitter.[1]

Error rate[edit]
Main article: Bit error rate

In digital transmission, the number of bit errors is the number of received bits of a data stream over
a communication channel that have been altered due to noise, interference, distortion or bit
synchronization errors.
The bit error rate or bit error ratio (BER) is the number of bit errors divided by the total number of
transferred bits during a studied time interval. BER is a unitless performance measure, often
expressed as a percentage.
The bit error probability pe is the expectation value of the BER. The BER can be considered as an
approximate estimate of the bit error probability. This estimate is accurate for a long time interval and
a high number of bit errors.

Interplay of factors[edit]
All of the factors above, coupled with user requirements and user perceptions, play a role in
determining the perceived 'fastness' or utility, of a network connection. The relationship between
throughput, latency, and user experience is most aptly understood in the context of a shared network
medium, and as a scheduling problem.

1. Define the definition of the data rate and the signal rate.