Social Marketing: An Approach
to Planned Social Change
PHILIP KOTLER
and
GERALD ZAL TMAN
Can marketing concepts
and techniques be effectively
applied to the promotion of
social objectives such as
brotherhood, safe driving, and
family planning? The applica-
bility of marketing concepts
to such social problems is ex-
amined in this article. The au-
thors show how social causes
can be advanced more suc-
cessfully through applying
principles of marketing analy-
sis, planning, and control to
problems of social change.
Journal of Marketing, Vol. 35 (July,
pp. 3-12.
IN 1952, G. D. Wiebe raised the question "Why can't
you sell brotherhood like you sell soap ?"1 This statement
implies that
sellers of commodities such as soap are generally effective, while
"sellers" of social causes are generally ineffective. Wiebe examined
four social campaigns to determine what conditions or character-
istics accounted for their relative success or lack of success. He
found that the more the conditions of the social campaign re-
sembled those of a product campaign, the more successful the
social campaign. However, because many social campaigns are
conducted under quite un-market-like circumstances, Wiebe also
noted clear limitations in the practice of social marketing.
,/ \ A different view is implied in Joe McGinniss's best-selling book
I
The Selling of the President 1968.!J Its theme seems to be "You
can sell a presidential candidate like you sell soap." Once Nixon
gave the word: "We're going to build this whole campaign around
television ... you fellows just tell me what you want me to do and
I'll do it," the advertising men, public relations men, copywriters,
makeup artist, photographers, and others joined together to create
the image and the aura that would make this man America's
favorite "brand."
These and other cases suggest that the art of selling cigarettes,
soap, or steel may have some bearin g on the art of selling social
causes. People like McGinniss-and before him John K. Gal-
braith and Vance Packard-believe everything and anything can
be sold by Madison Avenue, while people like Wiebe feel this is
exaggerated. To the extent that Madison Avenue has this power,
some persons would be heartened because of the many good causes
in need of an effective social marketing technology, and others
would despair over the spectre of mass manipulation.
Unfortunately there are few careful discussions of the power
and limitations of social marketing. It is the authors' view that
social marketing is a promising framework for planning and
implementing social change. At the same time, it is poorly under-
stood and often viewed suspiciously by many behavioral scientists.
The application of commercial ideas and methods to promote social
goals will be seen by many as another example of business's lack
of taste and self-restraint. Yet the application of the logic of
marketing to social goals is a natural development and on the
whole a promising one. The idea will not di sappear by ignoring
it or raIling against it.
1G. D. Wiebe, "Merchandising Commodities and Citizenship on Tele-
vision," Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 15 (Winter, 1951-52), pp. 679-
1971), 691, at p. 679.
2 Joe McGinniss, The Selling of the President 1968 (New York: Trident
Press, 1969).
3
4 Journal of Marketing, July, 1971
 This article integrative function management is the Thus marketing
discusses the meaning, in policy making; as analysis, planning, management occurs
power, and limitations a sense of business implementation, and when people become
of social marketing purpose; as an control of programs
conscious of an
as an approach to economic process; designed to bring
opportunity to gain
planned social change. as a structure about desired
exchanges with from a more careful
First, this will of institutions; as
the process of target audiences for planning of their
require delineating the
exchanging or the purpose of exchange relations.
generic nature of
transferring personal or mutual Although planned
marketing phe- nomena
ownership of gain. It relies social change is not
and some recent often viewed from the
conceptual products; as a heavily on the
process of adaptation and client's point of view, it
developments in the involves very much an
marketing field. This concentration, coordination of
exchange relationship
will be followed by a equalizationr-and product, price,
between client and
definition of social dispersion; as the promotion, and place
change agent."
marketing and an creation of time, for achieving
place and possession effective response." The practice of
examination of the marketing management
conditions under utili- ties; as a
as ap- plied to products
which it may be process of 3 Marketing Staff of
and services has
carried out effectively. demartdand supply the Ohio State
University, "A become increas- ingly
The instruments of adjust- ment; and
Statement of sophisticated. The
social market- ing are many other things.e Marketing responsibility of
defined, followed by a In spite of the Philosophy," JOURNAL
launching new products
systems view of the confusing jumble of OF MARKETING, Vol. 29
(January, 1965), p. on a national basis
application of definitions, the core
43. involving the in-
marketing logic to idea of marketing lies
4 Cyril S. Belshaw, vestment and risk of
social objectives. in the exchange Traditional Exchange millions of dollars
process. Marketing and Modern
and the uncertainties
W does not occur unless Markets (Englewood
Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice- of consumer and
h there are two or more competitor responses,
Hall, Inc.,
a parties, each with 1965) . has led to an increased
t sometnima to 5 Philip Kotler, reliance on formal
Marketing
exchange, and both research and planning
i Management:
able to carry out Analysis, Planning throughout the product
s
communications and and development and
distribu- tion. Typically Control, Second introduction cycle.
M the subject of Edition (Englewood
Marketing
a Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-
marketing is the ex- Hall, Inc., 1972). management examines
r
change of goods or the wants, attitudes,
k
services for other and behavior of po-
e
goods or ser- vices or tential customers
t
for money. Belshaw, which could aid in
i
n in an excellent study of designing a desired
g marketing exchange product and in
? and its evolution from
merchandising,
tra- ditional to modern
promoting, and
The following markets, shows the
statement testifies distributing it
exchange process in
that there is no marketing to be a successfully.
universal agreement fundamental aspect of Management goes
on what marketing both primitive and through a formal
is. advanced social life.4 process of strategy
Given that the core determination, tactical
It has been
idea of marketing programming, regional
described by one
lies in exchange and national imple-
person or another as
a business activity; processes, another
as a group of related concept can be postu- 6 Arthur H. Niehoff,
lated, that of A Casebook of
busi- ness activities; Social Change
marketing
as a trade (Chicago: Aldine,
management, which
phenomenon; as a 1966); Warren G.
can be defined as: Bennis, Ken- neth D.
frame of mind; as
a coordinative, Marketing Benne and Robert
 Chin, The Planning sion - change, and the sociology
of Change (New York: Maki age of science.
Holt, Rinehart & ng: ment The authors would like
Winston, A and to express their appreciation
1969) . Mod Facu to the Educational
el~B lty Foundation of the
uildi Asso American Association of
ng ciate Ad- vertising Agencies for
Appr of their support which
oach the permitted activities leading
AB . Cent to many of the ideas
OU Prof er expressed in this article.
T essor for
THE Kotl the
AU er Inter
TH is disci
ORS also plina
. advi ry
Phili sory Stud
p edito y of
Kotl r Scie
er is of nce
A. the and
Mon Holt, Tech
tgo Rine nolo
mer hart gy
y and at
Ward Wins Nort
Prof ton h-
esso Mar west
r ketin ern
of g Univ
Mar Serie ersit
ketin s, y.
g form He
at er holds
the chair an
Grad man MB
uate of A
Scho the degr
ol Coll ee
of ege from
Man on Marketing of the The
age Institute of Management Univ
ment Sciences, and presently a ersit
. director of the American y
Nort Marketing Association. of
hwe Chic
stern ago
G
Univ and
erald
ersit a
Zalt
y. He PhD
man
is in
is
the soci
asso
auth olog
ciate
or y
prof
of from
es-
Mar The
sor
ketin John
of
g s
beha
Man Hopkins University.
viora
age- Professor Zaltman
l
ment is author of Marketing:
scien
: Contributions
ce,
Anal from the Behavioral
Depa
ysis, Sciences, co-editor of
rtme
Plan Creating Social Change (in
nt of
ning press). Perspectives on
Mar
and Social Change (in press),
ketin
Cont and a contributor to
g,
rol numerous books and
Grad
and journals. His major research
uate
Mar interests and writing
Scho
ketin concern the diffusion of
ol
g inno- vations,
of
Deci communication. social
Man
Social Marketing: An Approach to Planned Social Change 5
mentation, of selling and mar- Beautiful," "Join the other sentiment held
performance keting; that is, a Peace Corps," "Buy by any individual
measurement, and changestrategy and a Bonds," and "Go to who wishes to present
feedback control. response strategy. In College." In fact, social such sentiment to
There has been a both cases, marketing advertising has become the public."
shift from a sales management is an established Social advertising
to a market- becoming a phenomenon on the has become such a
ing orientation in sophisticated action American scene. feature of
recent years. A sales technology that draws Sandage says: American society that
orientation considers heavily on the True, (advertising's) it is no longer a
the job as one of behavioral sciences for communication question of whether to
finding customers for clues to solving function has been use it, but how to use
existing products and problems of it. It has been very
confined largely to
convincing them to communication and successful in some
informing and
buy these products. persua- sion related to cases and conspicuously
persuading people in
This sales concept is influencing the un- successful in others.
respect to products
implicit in The Sell- ing acceptability of com- At fault to a large
mercial products and and services. . On
of the President 1968, the other hand, it extent is the tendency
since one is actually services. In the hands of social campaigners
of its best practitioners, can be made equally
not developing a new to assign ad- vertising
marketing management available to those who
"product" for the job, the primary, if not
is applied behavioral wish to inform and
but rather trying to the exclusive, role in
science. persuade people in
sell a given one with accomplishing their
respect to a city
a suggestion that it is social objectives. This
S bond issue, cleaning
somewhat "new and ignores the marketing
o up com- munity
improved." The c truism that a given
marketing concept, on crime, the "logic" marketing ob- jective
i
the other hand, calls of atheism, the requires the
a
for most of the effort l needs for better coordination of the
to be spent on educational facilities, promotional mix with
discovering the wants the abusive tac- tics the goods and services
M
of a tar- get audience a of given law and mix and with the
and then creating the r enforcement officers, distribution mix.
goods and ser- vices to k or any Social marketing is a
satisfy them. "I'his e much larger idea than
view seems privately t social advertising and
and socially more i even social com-
acceptable. In private n munication. To
g
terms, the seller emphasize this, the
recognizes that it is An increasing authors define social
easier to create number of nonbusiness marketing in the
products and services institu- tions have following way:
for existing wants begun to examine Social marketing is
than to try to alter marketing logic as a the design,
wants and attitudes means to furthering implementation, and
toward existing their institutional control of programs
products. In social goals and products. calculated to
terms, it is held that Marketing men have influence the
this marketing advised churches on acceptability of
philoso- phy restores how to increase social ideas and
consumer sovereignty membership, charities involving
in the determi- nation on how to raise money, considerations of
of the society's and art museums and product planning,
product mix and the symphonies on how to pricing, com-
use of national attract more patrons. munication,
resources. In the social sphere, the distribution, and
In practice, since at Advertising Council marketing research.
any tim' there are both of America has Thus, it is the explicit
prod- ucts in existence conducted campaigns use of marketing
and new-products being for social objectives, skills to help translate
born, most marketing including "Smokey the present social action
efforts are a mixture Bear," "Keep America efforts into more
effectively designed believed that the
and communicated effective- ness of mass
pro- grams that elicit media for propaganda
desired audience purposes de- pended
response. In other on three conditions,
words, marketing one or more of which
techniques are the is lacking in most
bridging mechanisms propaganda situations.
between the simple The first
possession of knowl-
edge and the socially 7C. H. Sandage, "Using
useful implementation Advertising to
of what knowledge Implement the
Concept of Freedom of
allows. Speech," in The Role
of Ad-
The ertieitu), C. H.
Requisite Sandage and V.
Conditions Fryburger, eds.
for (Homewood, Ill.:
Effective Richard D. Irwin,
S Inc., 1960), pp.
o 222-223.
8Paul F. Lazarsfeld
c and Robert K. Merton,
i "Mass
a Communication,
l Popular Taste, and
Organized Social
M Action," in Mass
Communications,
a
William Schramm,
r ed. (Urbana, Ill.:
k University of Illinois
e Press, 1949), pp. 459-
t 480, and same
i reference .as footnote
n 1.
g 9 Lazarsfeld and Merton,
same reference as
Some clues footnote 8,
concerning the p.462.
difference between
social advertising and
social marketing are
contain- ed in early
papers by Lazarsfeld
and Merton and by
Wiebe which attempt
to explain the
limitations of social
advertising. 8

Lazarsleld and Merton's

Analysis
Lazarsfeld and
Merton took exception
with the view of many
people that mass
media can easily be
used to control people's
minds: "It is our
tentative judgment that
the social role played
by the very existence
of the mass media
has been commonly
overestimated.?? They
~.-c .~
if; 6 base for the canalization new
sc- 'ii feelings is always prod
----------------------------------------------
that the an easier ucts
condition is real social task than and
or psychological communicat social servi
monopolization by ors are reconditioni ces
the media; that striving to ng. whic
is, a condition shape. The h
marked by the They authors requ
absence of asserted accept this ire
counterpropaganda. that typical idea but majo
This characterizes com- would add r
the totalitarian mercial that many attitu
state and accounts advertising business dinal
for the greater is effective marketing reori
effectiveness of because the situations entat
these regimes in task is not also ions.
molding public one of involve the L
opinion through instilling task of azar
mass media. It is basic new reshaping sfeld
attitudes basic and
found occasion- ally
or creating attitudes Mert
in free societies
significantly rather on
under special
new than ca- call
circumstances, such
behavior nalizing the
as a wartime effort.
patterns, existing third
For example, Kate
but rather ones. For con
Smith's effectiveness
ca- nalizing example, ditio
in selling war consider
existing n
bonds over the busi- ness
attitudes supp
radio during World efforts to
and leme
War II was partially influence
behavior ntati
due to the mara- farmers to
in one di- on
thon nature of the change by
rection or
event and the fact time- whic
another.
that every- one honored h
Thus,
believed in the farming they
t1iffseller
cause; i.e., there practices, mea
of
was no counter- doctors to n
toothpaste
propaganda. does not tryout the
However, most have to new drugs, effor
campaigns in a socialize and males t
free society in persons to dress to
peace time into new with more follo
compete with so dental care fashion w
many other causes habits, but and flair. up
and everyday rather into Canalizatio mass
distractions that which n is com
the monopoly brand of a always mun
condition is fa- miliar easier, but icati
lacking, and this and desired the authors on
condition reduces product to would like cam
the effectiveness of purchase. to paig
such campaigns. If the pre- emphasize ns
Lazarsfeld and existing that with
Merton said the attitudes business pro-
second condition are present, marketers, gra
required for then like social ms
effective mass promotional marketers, of
propaganda is campaigns often try face
canaliza- tion, the are more to diffuse -to-
presence of an effective, funda- face
existing attitudinal since mentally cont
acts. In trying to Journal tivation. De- fense
explain the success of 3. The Mechanism. The volunteers, many
of the rightist Marketing, existence of an agency of the same factors
Father Coughlin July, that enables the were present except
move- ment in the 1971 person to translate that the social
thirties, Lazarsfeld his moti- vation into mechanism was not
and Merton This approach is standard action.
11 Same reference as
observe: in many closed societies 4. Adequacy and footnote l.
This combination and organizations and Compatibility. The 12 Same reference as
of a central suggests another key ability and footnote 1, p. 633.
supply of propa- differ- ence between social effectiveness of the
ganda advertising and social agency in
(Coughlin's market- ing. Whereas a performing its task.
addresses on a social advertising 5. Distance. The
nationwide net- approach con- trives only audience member's
work), the the event of mass media estimate of the
coordinated communication and leaves energy and cost
distribution of the response to natural required to
newspapers and social processes, social consummate the
pamphlets and marketing arranges for a motivation in
locally organized step down commu- nication relation to the
face-to-face process. The message is reward.
discussions passed on and dis- cussed To show how these
among relatively factors operate, Wiebe
in more familiar
small groups-this first analyzed the Kate
surroundings to increase
complex of Smith compaign to sell
its memorability,
reciprocal bonds during World War
penetration, and action
reinforcement II. This campaign was
conse- quences. Thus
by mass media emi- nently successful,
supplementation,
and personal according to Wiebe,
monopolization, and
relations proved because of the presence
canalization are critical
spectacularly of force (patriotism),
factors influencing the ef-
successfuJ.1O direction (buy bonds),
fectiveness of any social
10 Lazarsfeld and marketing effort. mechanism (banks, post
Merton, same offices, telephone orders),
reference as footnote Wiebe's Analysis adequacy and
8. compatibility (so many
An additional
contribution was made cen- ters to purchase the
by Wiebe in his attempt bonds), and distance
to understand the (ease of purchase) . In
differential effec- tiveness fact, extra telephone
of four social campaigns.U lines were in- stalled on
He explained the relative the night of the
campaign at 134 CBS
effectiveness of these
stations to take orders
campaigns in terms of
during her appeal. The
the audience member's
effort to buy bonds
experience with regard to
... was literally
five factors:
reduced to the distance
1. The Force. The
intensity of the person's between the listener and
mo- his telephone.
tivation toward the Psychological dis- tance
goal as a was also minimized.
combination of his The listener remained in
predisposition prior his own home. There
to the message and were no new people to
the stimulation of meet, no unfamiliar
the message. procedures, no forms
to fill out, no
2. The Direction.
explanation, no waiting
Knowledge of how
.... 12
or where the person
might go to In the case of a
consummate his mo- campaign to recruit Civil
Social Marketing: An Approach to Planned Social Change 7
Social Marketing: An Approach to Planned Social Change 7

prepared to handle and compatibility. The audiences find desirable attitudes in the
the large volume of skepticism prevalent and are willing to population. There is
response, and this at the time purchase. This cor- no one product that
reduced the concerning the chances responds to Wiebe's can accomplish this.
campaign's success. of anything beneficial idea of a mechanism. Various product-s
Teachers, manuals, happening as a result Product design is have to be designed
equipment, and of the hearings was typically more that 'will make partial
registration and ample evidence that challenging in the contributions to the
adminis- tration considerable social area than it is social objective. A
procedures were psychological distance in the business area. public education
inadequate, and many existed between the Con- sider the problem media
re- sponding citizens audience and the of marketing "safer campaign providing
were turned away mechanisms for driving." The social tips on safe driving
and disap- pointed action. objective is to create is one
after they were led safer driving habits such product; the
to believe that their The Social Marketing and offering of "defensive
services were urgently Approach driving courses" is
needed. The Lazarsfeld and 13 E. Jerome McCarthy, another; the creation
Basic Marketing: A
The third Merton conditions Managerial Approach,
of insurance poli- cies
campaign, a and the Wiebe factors Third which reduce
documentary on provide a useful Edition (Homewood, premiums for safer
juvenile delinquency, background for view- Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, drivers is still another
did not meet with ing the conceptual" Inc., 1968), pp. 31- product. In general,
33.
maximum success framework used by the social mar- keter
because of the absence marketing strategists. remains aware of the
of a mechanism. Marketers view the core product (safer
Instead of being marketing problem as driving) and tries to
directed to an existing one of developing the create various tangible
agency, people were right product backed prod- ucts and services
urged to form by the right promotion which are "buyable"
neighborhood councils and put in the right and which advance the
themselves. This place at the right social objective.
certainly takes far price. These key Identical reasoning
more effort than variables in the is required by
simply picking up the marketing mix have those who
phone to buy a war been named the four market altruistic
bond, or "stop- ping P's by McCarthy.18 causes (e.g., charity
in" to register at the The authors shall giving, blood donation),
nearest Civil Defense examine each of these personal health causes
unit. variables, designated (e.g., nonsmoking, better
The fourth control variables, in nutrition), and social
campaign revolved terms of some well- betterment causes
around the goal of the known social issues. (e.g., civil rights,
Kefauver committee Product. In business improved housing,
hearings to arouse marketing, sellers better environment) .
citizens to "set their study the needs and In each case, the
house in order." This wants of target social marketer must
campaign met with a buyers and attempt define the change
notable lack of to design products sought, which may be
success, however, and services that a change in values,
because citizens were meet their de- sires. beliefs, affects,
not directed to an If well-designed and behavior, or some
appropriate mech- affordable, these mixture. He must
anism despite the products will be meaningfully segment
fact that one existed purchased. In social the target markets.
in prin- ciple in the marketing, sellers He must design social
political party also have to study the products for each
organizations. target audiences and market which are
Political party design ap- propriate "buyable," and which
organizations products. They must instrumentally serve
apparently left much "package" the social the so- cial cause. In
to be de- sired in idea in a manner some social causes, the
terms of availability which their target most difficult problem
 Social Marketing: An Approach to Planned Social Change 7

will be to innovate Each of these

appropriate products; promotional tools
in other cases it will involves complex issues
be to motivate in strategy and tactics.
purchase. With respect to ad-
Promotion. The vertising, the marketer
marketing man's has to determine the
second control variable size of the total
is promotion. It is advertising budget,
the communication- the choice of ap- peals,
persuasion strategy the development of
and tactics that will attention-getting copy,
make the product the selection of
familiar, acceptable, effective and efficient
and even desirable to media, the scheduling
the audience. Wiebe's
of the advertising
counterpart to
inputs, and the meas-
promotion is "force."
urement of overall and
The social campaign
segment-level results.
strategist will tend to
With respect to personal
think of this as mass
selling, the marketer
media communication,
must de- termine the
but promotion is
size of the total sales
actually a much larger
force, the de-
idea. To the marketing
man, promotion
includes the following
major activities:
Advertising: Any
paid form of
nonpersonal pres-
entation and
promotion of
products, services,
or ideas by an
identified sponsor.
Personal Selling:
Any paid form of
personal
presentation and
promotion of
products, service, or
ideas by an
identified sponsor.
Publicity: Any
unpaid form of
nonpersonal pres-
entation and
promotion of
products, services,
or ideas where the
sponsor is
unidentified.
Sales Promotion:
Miscellaneous paid
forms (spe- cial
programs, incentives,
materials, and
events) designed to
stimulate audience
interest and ac-
ceptance of a
product.
velopment of sales territory boundaries and assign-
ments, the development of personal presentation
strategies, the degree and type of salesforce moti-
vation and supervision, and the evaluation of sales-
force effectiveness. Publicity necessitates arranging
for significant news about the product to appear in
various media. Sales promotion calls for developing
special display, premiums, programs, and events that
might be useful in stimulating interest or action.
Each of these activities is a specialty in which
the experts have achieved sophisticated levels of
knowledge and techniques. This is especially ap-
parent when one examines social campaigns de-
veloped by amateurs where the appeals and copy
seem very naive. Even behavioral science consult-
ants to social campaign organizations often fail to
make a maximum contribution because of their in-
ability or reluctance to view the issue in broad
marketing terms instead of in strictly social or
ethical terms.
Recently Nathaniel Martin criticized the Indian
government for failing to handle family planning
as a marketing problem.
Selling birth control is as much a marketing job
as selling any other consumer product. And where
no manufacturer would contemplate developing
and introducing a new product without a thorough
understanding of the variables of the market,
planners in the highest circles of Indian govern-
ment have blithely gone ahead without under-
standing that marketing principles must deter-
mine the character of any campaign of voluntary
control. The Indians have done only the poorest
research. They have mismanaged distribution of
contraceptive devices. They have ignored the im-
portance of "customer service." They have pro-
ceeded with grossly inadequate undertrained
staffs; they have been blind to the importance of
promotion and advertisinz.t!
This is not to deny that the Indian government
has undertaken some innovative promotional ap-
proaches. Referral fees are paid to salesmen, bar-
bers, and others who bring in consenting males for
sterilization. The consenting male is given a tran-
sistor radio or a small payment to cover his costs of
being absent from work. Women have been offered
gifts for consenting to use intrauterine contracep-
tive devices. But Martin feels that the total pro-
gram lacks the qualities of an organized, well-
planned, and continuous marketing effort.15
14 Nathaniel A. Martin, "The Outlandish Idea: How a
Marketing Man Would Save India," Marketing/Com-
munications, Vol. 297 (March, 1968), pp. 54-60.
15 For two analyses of the marketing issues and oppor-
tunities in the family planning issue, see Julian L.
Simon, "A Huge Marketing Research Task-Birth
Control," Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 5
(February, 1968), pp. 21-27; and Glen L. Urban,
"Ideas on a Decision-Information System for Family
Planning," Industrial Management Review, Vol. 10
(Spring, 1969), pp. 45-61.
An example of careful promotional planning for
a social objective is found in the American Cancer
Society efforts to raise money for cancer research.
In their brochure directed to local units, they at-
tempt to educate the volunteer and professional
chapters on the handling of newspapers, pictures,
company publications, radio and television, movies,
special events, and controversial arguments. For
example, in \ terms of special events:
Dramatic special events attract attention to the
American Cancer Society. They bring color, ex-
citement, and glamour to the program. Well
planned, they will get excellent coverage in news-
papers, on radio and TV, and in newsreels ....
A Lights-on-Drive, a one-afternoon or one-night
House-to-House program have such dramatic ap-
peal that they stir excitement and enthusiasm ...
keep in mind the value of bursts of sound such
as fire sirens sounding, loud-speaker trucks, fife
and drum corps .... A most useful special event
is the ringing of church bells to add a solemn,
dedicated note to the launching of a drive or
education project. This should be organized on
a Division or community basis, and the church
bell ringing may be the signal to begin a House-
to-House canvass. Rehearsals of bell ringing,
community leaders tugging at ropes, offer good
picture possibilities.w
Some readers might be critical of this approach
to a worthwhile social objective, but two things
should be mentioned. The first is that this should
not be identified as the marketing approach to social
obiectives. Many persons mistakenly assume that
marketing means hard selling. This is only a par-
ticular style of marketing, and it has its critics
both inside and outside the profession. There are
many firms that market their products with taste
and sensitivity; examples include Xerox, Container
Corporation, and Hallmark. It is important to
recognize that this is not nonmarketing but rather
a style of marketing that was chosen in the belief
of its greater effectiveness in accomplishing the
goals of the organization.
Second, the issue is not whether a particular ap-
proach suits one's personal taste, but whether it
works. If a "hard" marketing style raises sub-
stantially more money for cancer research than a
"soft" marketing style, it must be respected by
those who think cancer research is more important
than personal aesthetics.
Place. The third element of the marketing ap-
proach to social campaigns calls for providing ade-
quate and compatible distribution and response
channels. Motivated persons should know where the
product can be obtained. Place is equivalent to two
of Wiebe's five conditions for an effective mass
communication campaign (direction, and adequacy
and compatibility). The poor results of many social
16 Public Information Guide (New York: American Can-
cer Society, Inc., 1965), p. 19.
Social Marketing: An Approach to Planned Social Change 9
Social Marketing: An Approach to Planned Social Change
campaigns can be broadcast. Strategists
attributed in part to of anticigarette
their failure to suggest campaigns have
clear action outlets recognized the need for
for those motivated to action chan- nels by
acquire the product. setting up smoker's
The current campaign clinics in many large
to interest people in cities. They could
the pollution problem even go further and
may suffer from this provide tele- phone
defect. It is advice and even social
succeeding in making calls if the economics
every- one not only would justify these
aware of additional channels.
environmental pollution An adver- tising
but also fearful of it. agency is planning a
People want to do campaign called "Pick
something about it. Your Issue" in which
But for the most part several different social
they cannot act issues would be
because there is not a individually featured.
clear product to The point would be
"buy" (such as a made that because the
petition to sign, an busy citizen does not
election in which to have time to become
choose an antipollution involved in all issues,
candidate, or a this should not be an
pending piece of na- excuse to remain
tional legislation). uninvolved in any
N or does the average issues. The good
person have a clear citizen should "pick
picture of the an issue." Each issue
alternative channels advertisement will
of action for expressing contain information on
his interest in the the organizations
issue. There are so active in that area and
many ad hoc inform the citizen
organizations working about where to write
without coordination for further in-
and at times with formation.
cross-purpose, that the
Thus, place means
average person is
arranging for
likely to "tune out"
accessible out- lets
from further messages
which permit the
because of personal
translation of
frustration. Saturation
motivations into actions.
campaigns
Planning in this area
unaccompanied by the
entails selecting or
pro- vision of adequate
developing appropriate
response channels may
outlets, deciding on
result in "interest
their number, average
overkill."
size, and locations,
The importance of and giving them
place has been proper motivation to
recognized in several perform their part
campaigns. The most of the job.
notable example is the
Price. The final
Kate Smith bond-
control variable that
selling campaign and
must be planned is
its imag- inative
price. Price
establishment of
represents the costs
telephone order
that the buyer must
channels during the
accept in order to
9
obtain the product. It The cost of giving up
resembles Wiebe's smoking is largely
concept of distance and psycho- logical, since
incorporates some there is actually a
aspects of adequacy financial saving in
and com- patibility. breaking the habit.
Price includes money The cost of using seat
costs, opportunity costs, belts is the charge for
energy costs, and buying them, the
psychic costs. Thus, effort to lock and
the cost to persons unlock them, and the
asked to appear for psychological cost of
immunization shots not being completely
includes any possible sure one is better off in
money charge, any an accident wearing
op- portunities them or not wearing
foregone, the them.
expenditure of energy, The functioning of
and this concept can also
. the psychological be illus- trated in
concerns aroused by terms of an
inoculation. interesting
phenomenon in health
care services where
many poor patients
prefer to patronize
unlicensed practitioners
and pay a fee instead
of going to the free
hospital. In Caracas,
Venezuela, for
example, although
there is a free hospital
for the indigent, many
of them patronize
private clinics which
cost them 20
bolivares for
consultation. Why?
Because while there
is no charge at the
free hospital, there is
a substantial cost to the
patient in terms of
energy and psycho-
logical abuse. When
a patient arrives at
the hos- pital, he has
to wait to see a
social worker first.
When he is finally
interviewed, the social
worker asks many
questions about his
income to determine
whether he is really
indigent. Then he
sees a number of other
hospital staff members
for various tests, and
again is asked about
his income. Finally, he
sees the doctor who
 Social Marketing: An Approach to Planned Social Change 9

might discover that he only in the economist's

really needs to see a model of eco- nomic
specialist who will not man, but also in
be available for several behavioristic theory
weeks. Throughout with its emphasis on
the experience, the rewards and costs, in
person is made to Gestalt theory with its
feel inferior and a emphasis on positive
nuisance. Therefore, it and negative valences,
is not surprising that and in management
he wishes to avoid theory with its
these energy and emphasis on incentives
psychological costs and constraints. The
even if it means paying marketer's approach to
for the services. selling a social product
But even monetary is to consider how
charges may play the rewards for buying
a useful the product can be
role in leading the increased relative to
poor back to free the costs, or the costs
hospital ser- vices. In reduced relative
private correspondence,
a social psycholo- gist
suggested:
It is a surprising
discovery that even
free medical care
presents a
marketing problem.
Maybe we should
apply dissonance
theory and introduce
such medical care at
a high price to make
it look more
desirable. Then let
us apply a cents-off
special introductory
offer to make the
service attractive.
The marketing
man's approach to
pricing the social
product is based on
the assumption that
members of a target
audience perform a
cost-benefit analysis
when considering the
investment of money,
time, or energy in the
issue. They somehow
process the major
benefits and compare
them to the major
costs, and the strength
of their motivation to
act is directly related
to the magnitude of
the excess benefit.
This type of
conceptualization of
behavior is found not
 Journal of Marketing, July, 1971

PLANNING
VARIABLES MARKETS

Product Primary target

market
 1. Core product
2. Tangible
products
CHANNELS
Mass and special-
ized media

Promotion
1. Advertising
Secondary
2. Personal
target
selling
market
3. Publicity
4. Sales
ENVIRONMENT CHANGE AGENCY
promotion Paid agents
1. Economic
2. Political Research Planning
3. Technological Unit Unit
4. Cultural Place
5. Competitive
1. Channel types
2. Number
3. Size
4. Locations
5. Compatibility

Price
1. Money costs
2. Opportunity Miscellaneous
costs target
3. Energy costs markets
4. Psychic costs

FIGURE 1. Social marketing planning system.

to the rewards, or trying to find a mix of product, ments (new birth control techniques and devices),
promotion, place, and price that will simultaneously cultural developments (attitudinal changes toward
increase the rewards and reduce the costs. The main birth control), and competitive developments (ac-
point is that social marketing requires that careful tions of similar and competing groups). The re-
thought be given to the manner in which manage- search unit also collects information on the past
able, desirable, gratifying, and convenient solutions effectiveness of various programs as well as infor-
to a perceived need or problem are presented to its mation on audience attitudes, desires, and behavior.
potential buyers. The change agent's planning unit formulates
short- and long-range social marketing plans on
The Social Marketing Planning Process the basis of this information. For example, the
family planning organization carefully considers the
The "four P's" of marketing management are
role of different products, promotions, places, and
integrated in an administrative process framework prices. It would identify the major channels of
in Figure 1. Continuous information is collected communication and distribution, such as mass or
from the environment by the change agency. Plans specialized media, paid agents, and volunteer groups.
and messages are created and sent through channels It would differentiate the programs intended for
to audiences, and the results are monitored by the its primary target market (large and low-income
change agency. families), secondary target market (other child-
The change agency operates a research unit and bearing families), tertiary target market (sources
a planning unit. The research unit collects several of funds and additional volunteer efforts), and mis-
types of information. It monitors the environment cellaneous target markets (politicians and church
-economic, political, technological, cultural, and groups). Finally, it would continuously gather ef-
competitive influences-for important developments fectiveness measures on these programs for re-
affecting its social policies and objectives. For ex- cycling its planning. .
ample, a family planning agency would monitor eco- This approach represents an application of busi-
nomic-demographic developments (income and popu- ness marketing principles to the problem of market-
lation trends), political developments (liberalization ing social change. It is already manifest in some
of birth control information), technological develop- of the larger social change agencies. For example,
Social Marketing: An Approach to Planned Social Change 11

1. Mas s media advertising campaigns _.,."

2. Special presentations to executives BUSINESS

FIRMS

1. Group discounts
... SERVICE _,.
ORGANIZA TlONS 2. Fund raising ~
Social Marketing: An Approach to Planned Social Change 11

Film .
.-
-.. DRIVERS

1. Direct recruit-
SCHOOLS ment
2. Flyers which '
children bring
home to their
parents
1. Monthly DDC bulletin 1. Local advertising
NATIONAL
SAFETY
2.
3. Consumer leaflets
LOCAL
SAFETY
2.
3.
Direct mail
Dashboard stickers
.. POLICE AND ..
COURTS
COUNCIL1. Mass4. media
Trainingadvertising
plans for campaigns
plants COUNCILS 4. Bring-a-friend disoount
2. Selective media advertising campaig_ns 5. Tie-in sales
3. Sales promotion
4. Publ icity

FIGURE 2. Marketing channels and tools: Defensive driving course.

consider the work of the National Safety Council. paign organizations to full-time marketing organi-
Its staff includes an advertising manager, a sales zations which go through cycles of information
promotion management, an Advertising Council of gathering, planning, product development, measur-
America coordinator, a research director, and a ing, and reprogramming.
program director. One of its products is a defensive
driving course. Figure 2 shows the various chan- Social Implications of Social Marketing
nels through which this course is marketed along
with the promotional tools it uses. The National The authors believe that specific social causes
Safety Council reaches potential prospects through could benefit from marketing thinking and plan-
business firms, service organizations, schools, and ning. Problems of pollution control, mass transit,
the police and court system. For the 1970s, the private education, drug abuse, and public medicine
National Safety Council has adopted are in need of innovative solutions and approaches
for gaining public attention and support. Marketing
. . . a four point marketing program. . . . One men by their training are finely attuned to market
of the first objectives is to increase the sales needs, product development, pricing and channel
effectiveness of our existing 150 state and local issues, and mass communication and promotion tech-
safety council cooperating agencies. . . . The niques, all of which are critical in the social area.
second part of the program is to create 500 new At the same time, social marketing is sufficiently
training agencies in communities not now served distinct from business marketing to require fresh
by safety councils. . . . A third part of the thinking and new approaches. Social marketing
marketing program will be aimed at selling big typically has to deal with the market's core be-
industry on adopting DDC as a training course liefs and values, whereas business marketing often
for all employees or selected categories of em- deals with superficial preferences and opinions. So-
ployees in plant-run training programs .... The cial marketing must search harder for meaningful
fourth part of the marketing plan deals with a quid PTO quo.') to gain acceptance or adoption of
nationwide promotional effort built around a se- its products. Social marketing has to work with
ries of community special-emphasis campaigns
channel systems that are less well-defined and less
running from February 1 through Memorial Day
pecuniarily motivated. Only through applying mar-
each year of the decade.tt
keting concepts and tools to a large number of
This example illustrates the possibilities of the cases will the powers and limits of the social mar-
marketing approach for furthering social causes. keting approach be learned.
The National Safety Council and several other so- In addition, there is the definite possibility that
cial agencies have graduated from occasional cam- the overt marketing of social objectives will be
17 Chris Imhoff, "DDC's Decisive Decade," Traffic Safe- resented and resisted. There will be charges that
ty Magazine, Vol. 69 (December, 1969), pp. 20 and 36. it is "manipulative," and consequently contributes
Journal 0/ Marketing, July, 1971
to bringing the society closer to Orwell's 1984.
There will be charges that even if. not manipula-
tive, social marketing will increase the amount of
"promotional noise" in the society, which is found
distasteful both because it emphasizes "trivial dif-
ferences" and because it is "noise." Finally, social
marketing will be accused of increasing the costs
of promoting social causes beyond the point of a
net gain either to the specific cause or the society
as a whole. In the charities industry, professional
marketing increases the absolute cost of raising
money, but it usually succeeds in raising more
money after these costs are taken into account.
However, when one considers the entire picture,
it is possible that the total amount donated to
charities may not increase by the same amount as
the professional marketing costs.
The authors are concerned with these possible
dysfunctional consequences, and they must obviously
be subtracted from the potential benefits that social
marketing might produce. Since social marketing
is just emerging, those concerned are encouraged
to monitor it closely in the same dispassionate spirit
that business marketers have so ably analyzed and
documented the many manifestations of business
marketing practice over the years.
Summary
This article considered the applicability of mar-
keting concepts to the problem of promoting social
causes. Social marketing was defined as the design,
implementation, and control of programs calculated
to influence the acceptability of social ideas and
involving considerations of product planning, pric-
ing, communication, distribution, and marketing
research.
Too often, social advertising rather than social
marketing is practiced by social campaigners. La-
zarsfeld and Merton attributed the failure of many
social advertising campaigns to the frequent ab-
sence of conditions of monopolization, canalization,
and supplementation in the social arena. Wiebe, in
his examination of four campaigns, concluded that
a campaign's effectiveness depended on the presence
of adequate force, direction, an adequate and com-
patible social mechanism, and distance. To the mar-
keter, the success of the campaign depends on the
proper development of product, promotion, place,
and price considerations. These concepts were de-
fined and were shown to have applicability to social
causes. The social marketing process calls for
marketing research and the subsequent develop-
ment of a well-conceived product and appeals mov-
ing through mass and specialized communication
media and through paid agents and voluntary groups
to reach targeted audiences. The marketing style
may be hard or soft, depending on which is deemed
most effective in accomplishing the social objectives.
A marketing planning approach does not guaran-
tee that the social objectives will be achieved, or
that the costs will be acceptable. Yet social mar-
keting appears to represent a bridging mechanism
which links the behavioral scientist's knowledge of
human behavior with the socially useful implemen-
tation of what that knowledge allows. It offers a
useful framework for effective social planning at a
time when social issues have become more relevant
and critical.

MARKETING MEMO
The Marketing Concept and Technology ...
. . . It is a mistake to think of technology as entirely autonomous, although it has
secured for itself a great deal of autonomy. And it is a mistake to think that the
technological system is self-justifying in its own terms. The present ecological crisis
and fundamental rethinking of technology's role in the society of the future is the
prima facie illustration of this point. We are going to abandon many technological
developments even though the existing technological order justifies their further
development. We are going to introduce many new technologies for which there
is no need in the existing technological system. And we are going to evolve and
invent many new forms of technological knowledge which are either unnecessary or
simply go against the grain of the existing technological system. We are going to
do these things because we are in process of changing the nature of the dialogue
concerning the needs of society and the potentials of technology.
-Henryk Skolimowski, "Problems of
Truth in Technology," Ingenor 8 (Win-
ter, 1970/71, College of Engineering,
The University of Michigan), pp. 5-7,
41-46, at p. 42.