Materials

The pressure vessel in a boiler is usually made of steel (or alloy steel), or historically of wrought iron. Stainless steel is virtually
prohibited (by the ASME Boiler Code) for use in wetted parts of modern boilers, but is used often in superheater sections that will not
be exposed to liquid boiler water. In live steam models, copper or brass is often used because it is more easily fabricated in smaller
size boilers. Historically, copper was often used for fireboxes (particularly for steam locomotives), because of its better formability
and higher thermal conductivity; however, in more recent times, the high price of copper often makes this an uneconomic choice and
cheaper substitutes (such as steel) are used instead.

For much of the Victorian "age of steam", the only material used for boiler making was the highest grade of wrought iron, with
assembly by rivetting. This iron was often obtained from specialist ironworks, such as at Cleator Moor (UK), noted for the high
quality of their rolled plate and its suitability for high-reliability use in critical applications, such as high-pressure boilers. In the 20th
century, design practice instead moved towards the use of steel, which is stronger and cheaper, with welded construction, which is
quicker and requires less labour.

Cast iron may be used for the heating vessel of domestic water heaters. Although such heaters are usually termed "boilers", their
purpose is usually to produce hot water, not steam, and so they run at low pressure and try to avoid actual boiling. The brittleness of
cast iron makes it impractical for high pressure steam boilers.

Carbon steel, also called plain carbon steel, is steel where the main alloying constituent is carbon. The AISI defines carbon steel as:
"Steel is considered to be carbon steel when no minimum content is specified or required for chromium, cobalt, columbium
[niobium], molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten, vanadium or zirconium, or any other element to be added to obtain a desired
alloying effect; when the specified minimum for copper does not exceed 0.40 per cent; or when the maximum content specified for
any of the following elements does not exceed the percentages noted: manganese 1.65, silicon 0.60, copper 0.60."[1]

The term "carbon steel" may also be used in reference to steel which is not stainless steel; in this use carbon steel may include alloy
steels.

Steel with a low carbon content has properties similar to iron. As the carbon content rises, the metal becomes harder and stronger but
less ductile and more difficult to weld. In general, higher carbon content lowers the melting point and its temperature resistance.
Carbon content influences the yield strength of steel because carbon atoms fit into the interstitial crystal lattice sites of the body-
centered cubic (BCC) arrangement of the iron atoms. The interstitial carbon reduces the mobility of dislocations, which in turn has a
hardening effect on the iron. To get dislocations to move, a high enough stress level must be applied in order for the dislocations to
"break away". This is because the interstitial carbon atoms cause some of the iron BCC lattice cells to distort.

85% of all steel used in the U.S. is carbon steel.[1]

Carbon steel is broken down in to four classes based on carbon content:

Mild and low carbon steel

Mild steel is the most common form of steel as its price is relatively low while it provides material properties that are acceptable for
many applications. Low carbon steel contains approximately 0.050.15% carbon [1] and mild steel contains 0.160.29%[1] carbon,
therefore it is neither brittle nor ductile. Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and malleable; surface hardness
can be increased through carburizing.[2]

It is often used when large amounts of steel is needed, for example as structural steel. The density of mild steel is 7,861.093 kg/m
(0.284 lb/in), the tensile strength is a maximum of 500 MPa (73,000 psi) and the Young's modulus is 210,000 MPa (30,000,000 psi).

Low carbon steels suffer from yield-point runout where the materials has two yield points. The first yield point (or upper yield point)
is higher than the second and the yield drop dramatically after the upper yield point. If a low carbon steel is only stressed to some
point between the upper and lower yield point then the surface may develop luder bands.[3]

Higher carbon steels

Carbon steels which can successfully undergo heat-treatment have carbon content in the range of 0.301.70% by weight. Trace
impurities of various other elements can have a significant effect on the quality of the resulting steel. Trace amounts of sulfur in
particular make the steel red-short. Low alloy carbon steel, such as A36 grade, contains about 0.05% sulfur and melts around 1426
1538 C (26002800 F).[4] Manganese is often added to improve the hardenability of low carbon steels. These additions turn the
material into a low alloy steel by some definitions, but AISI's definition of carbon steel allows up to 1.65% manganese by weight.

Medium carbon steel

Approximately 0.300.59% carbon content.[1] Balances ductility and strength and has good wear resistance; used for large parts,
forging and automotive components.[5]

High carbon steel

Approximately 0.60.99% carbon content.[1] Very strong, used for springs and high-strength wires.[6]

Ultra-high carbon steel

Approximately 1.02.0% carbon content.[1] Steels that can be tempered to great hardness. Used for special purposes like (non-
industrial-purpose) knives, axles or punches. Most steels with more than 1.2% carbon content are made using powder metallurgy.

Steel can be heat treated which allows parts to be fabricated in an easily-formable soft state. If enough carbon is present, the alloy can
be hardened to increase strength, wear, and impact resistance. Steels are often wrought by cold working methods, which is the
shaping of metal through deformation at a low equilibrium or metastable temperature.

Heat treatment

Iron-carbon phase diagram, showing the temperature and carbon ranges for certain types of heat treatments.

The purpose of heat treating carbon steel is to change the mechanical properties of steel, usually ductility, hardness, yield strength, or
impact resistance. Note that the electrical and thermal conductivity are slightly altered. As with most strengthening techniques for
steel, Young's modulus is unaffected. Steel has a higher solid solubility for carbon in the austenite phase; therefore all heat treatments,
except spheroidizing and process annealing, start by heating to an austenitic phase. The rate at which the steel is cooled through the
eutectoid reaction affects the rate at which carbon diffuses out of austenite. Generally speaking, cooling swiftly will give a finer
pearlite (until the martensite critical temperature is reached) and cooling slowly will give a coarser pearlite. Cooling a hypoeutectoid
(less than 0.77 wt% C) steel results in a pearlitic structure with -ferrite at the grain boundaries. If it is hypereutectoid (more than 0.77
wt% C) steel then the structure is full pearlite with small grains of cementite scattered throughout. The relative amounts of
constituents are found using the lever rule. Here is a list of the types of heat treatments possible:

Spheroidizing: Spheroidite forms when carbon steel is heated to approximately 700 C for over 30 hours. Spheroidite can
form at lower temperatures but the time needed drastically increases, as this is a diffusion-controlled process. The result is a
structure of rods or spheres of cementite within primary structure (ferrite or pearlite, depending on which side of the
eutectoid you are on). The purpose is to soften higher carbon steels and allow more formability. This is the softest and most
ductile form of steel. The image to the right shows where spheroidizing usually occurs. [7]
Full annealing: Carbon steel is heated to approximately 40 C above Ac3 or Ac1 for 1 hour; this assures all the ferrite
transforms into austenite (although cementite might still exist if the carbon content is greater than the eutectoid). The steel
must then be cooled slowly, in the realm of 38 C (100 F) per hour. Usually it is just furnace cooled, where the furnace is
turned off with the steel still inside. This results in a coarse pearlitic structure, which means the "bands" of pearlite are thick.
Fully-annealed steel is soft and ductile, with no internal stresses, which is often necessary for cost-effective forming. Only
spheroidized steel is softer and more ductile.[8]

Process annealing: A process used to relieve stress in a cold-worked carbon steel with less than 0.3 wt% C. The steel is
usually heated up to 550650 C for 1 hour, but sometimes temperatures as high as 700 C. The image rightward shows the
area where process annealing occurs.

Isothermal annealing: It is a process in which hypoeutectoid steel is heated above the upper critical temperature and this
temperature is maintained for a time and then the temperature is brought down below lower critical temperature and is again
maintained. Then finally it is cooled at room temperature. This method rids any temperature gradient.

Normalizing: Carbon steel is heated to approximately 55 C above Ac3 or Acm for 1 hour; this assures the steel completely
transforms to austenite. The steel is then air-cooled, which is a cooling rate of approximately 38 C (100 F) per minute. This
results in a fine pearlitic structure, and a more-uniform structure. Normalized steel has a higher strength than annealed steel;
it has a relatively high strength and ductility.[9]

Quenching: Carbon steel with at least 0.4 wt% C is heated to normalizing temperatures and then rapidly cooled (quenched)
in water, brine, or oil to the critical temperature. The critical temperature is dependent on the carbon content, but as a general
rule is lower as the carbon content increases. This results in a martensitic structure; a form of steel that possesses a super-
saturated carbon content in a deformed body-centered cubic (BCC) crystalline structure, properly termed body-centered
tetragonal (BCT), with much internal stress. Thus quenched steel is extremely hard but brittle, usually too brittle for practical
purposes. These internal stresses cause stress cracks on the surface. Quenched steel is approximately three to four (with more
carbon) fold harder than normalized steel.[10]

Martempering (Marquenching): Martempering is not actually a tempering procedure, hence the term "marquenching". It is
a form of isothermal heat treatment applied after an initial quench of typically in an oil or brine solution at a temperature
right above the "martensite start temperature". At this temperature, residual stresses within the material are relieved and some
 bainite may be formed from the retained ferrite which did not have time to transform into anything else. In industry, this is a
process used to control the ductility and hardness of a material. With longer marquenching, the ductility increases with a
minimal loss in strength; the steel is held in this solution until the inner and outer temperatures equalize. Then the steel is
cooled at a moderate speed to keep the temperature gradient minimal. Not only does this process reduce internal stresses and
stress cracks, but it also increases the impact resistance. [11]

Quench and tempering: This is the most common heat treatment encountered, because the final properties can be precisely
determined by the temperature and time of the tempering. Tempering involves reheating quenched steel to a temperature
below the eutectoid temperature then cooling. The elevated temperature allows very small amounts of spheroidite to form,
which restore ductility, but reduces hardness. Actual temperatures and times are carefully chosen for each composition. [12]

Austempering: The austempering process is the same as martempering, except the steel is held in the brine solution through
the bainite transformation temperatures, and then moderately cooled. The resulting bainite steel has a greater ductility, higher
impact resistance, and less distortion. The disadvantage of austempering is it can only be used on a few steels, and it requires
a special brine solution.[13]

Case hardening

Case hardening processes harden only the exterior of the steel part, creating a hard, wear resistant skin (the "case") but preserving a
tough and ductile interior. Carbon steels are not very hardenable; therefore wide pieces cannot be thru-hardened. Alloy steels have a
better hardenability, so they can thruharden and do not require case hardening. This property of carbon steel can be beneficial,
because it gives the surface good wear characteristics but leaves the core tough.

Wrought iron is commercially pure iron. In contrast to steel, it has a very low carbon content. It is a fibrous material due to the slag
inclusions (a normal constituent). This is also what gives it a "grain" resembling wood, which is visible when it is etched or bent to
the point of failure. Wrought iron is tough, malleable, ductile and easily welded.

Examples of items that used to be produced from wrought iron include: rivets, chains, railway couplings, water and steam pipes, raw
material for manufacturing of steel, nuts, bolts, horseshoes, handrails, straps for timber roof trusses, boiler tubes, and ornamental
ironwork.

Wrought iron is no longer produced on a commercial scale.[1] Many products described as wrought iron, such as guard rails, are made
of mild steel.[1] They retain that description because they were formerly made of wrought iron or have the appearance of wrought iron.
True wrought iron is occasionally required for the authentic conservation of historic structures.

Terminology

Wrought iron is so named because it is worked from a bloom of porous iron mixed with slag and other impurities. The word
"wrought" is an archaic past tense form of the verb to work. As irregular past-tense forms in English have historically been phased out
over long periods of time, wrought became worked. Wrought iron literally means worked iron. Another theory is that "wrought" is the
past tense of "wring".

Wrought iron is a general term for the commodity, but is also used more specifically for finished iron goods, as manufactured by a
blacksmith or other smith. It was used in this narrower sense in British Customs records, such manufactured iron being subject to a
higher rate of duty than what might be called "unwrought" iron.

In the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, wrought iron went by a wide variety of terms according to its form, origin, or quality.

Form

Bar iron iron in bars, which are the usual product of the finery forge, but not necessarily made by that process. These
might be square or flat, and flat bars might be narrow or broad.
Rod iron cut from flat bar iron in a slitting mill to provide the raw material for nails.

Hoop iron suitable for the hoops of barrels, apparently made by passing rod iron through flat rolls.

Plate iron sheets of iron suitable for use as boiler plate.

Blackplate sheets of iron, perhaps thinner than plate iron, from the black rolling stage of tinplate production.

Voyage iron narrow flat bar iron, made or cut into bars of a particular weight, a commodity for sale in Africa for the
Atlantic slave trade. The number of bars per ton gradually increased from 70 per ton in the 1660s to 7580 per ton in 1685
and "near 92 to the ton" in 1731.[2]
Origin

Oregrounds iron a particularly pure grade of bar iron made ultimately from iron ore from the Dannemora mine in
Sweden. Its most important use was as the raw material for the cementation process of steelmaking.
Danks iron originally iron imported to Great Britain from Danzig (now Gdansk), but in the 18th century more probably
the kind of iron (from eastern Sweden) that once came from Danzig.

Forest iron iron from the Forest of Dean, where haematite ore enabled tough iron to be produced.

Lukes iron iron imported from Lige, whose Dutch name is "Luik."[3]

Ames iron or amys iron another variety of iron imported to England from northern Europe. Its origin has been suggested
to be Amiens, but it seems to have been imported from Flanders in the 15th century and Holland later, suggesting an origin
in the Rhine valley. Its origins remain controversial.[3]

Botolf iron or Boutall iron from Butow (Pommerania) or Beuthen (Silesia).[3]

Sable iron (or Old Sable) iron bearing the mark (a sable) of the Demidov family of Russian ironmasters, one of the better
brands of Russian iron.[4]

Quality

Tough iron also spelt "tuf".

Blend iron made using a mixture of different types of pig iron.

Best iron in the 19th century, iron that had gone through several stages of piling and rolling, might reach the stage of
being best iron.

Marked Bar iron iron made by members of the Marked Bar Association and marked with the maker's brand mark as a
sign of its quality.

Defective quality

Iron is redshort if it contains sulfur in excess quantity. It has sufficient tenacity when cold, but cracks when bent or finished
at a red heat. It is therefore useless for welding or forging.
Iron is coldshort (or "coldshear" or "colshire" or "bloodshot"), if it contains phosphorus in excess quantity. It is very brittle
when it is cold. It cracks if bent. It may, however, be worked at high temperature. Historically, coldshort iron was considered
good enough for nails. Nevertheless, phosphorus is not necessarily detrimental to iron:

o Ancient Indian smiths did not add lime to their furnaces; the absence of CaO in the slag, and the deliberate use of
wood with high phosphorus content during the smelting, induces a higher P content (> 0.1%, average 0.25%) than
in modern iron. There is more phosphorus as solid solution throughout the metal than in the slags (one analysis
gives 0.10% in the slags for .18% in the iron itself, for a total P content of 0.28% in the metal). This high P content
and particular repartition are essential factors in the formation of a passive protective film of misawite (d-
FeOOH), an amorphous iron oxyhydroxide that forms a barrier by adhering next to the interface between metal and
rust. From this technology recently rediscovered by metallurgists at IIT Kanpur through the study of the Iron Pillar
of Delhi, rust-proof iron is at the last stages of being commercialized. This 1600 years-old rust-proof pillar is also of
a remarkable strength, having withstood the impact of a cannon ball in the 18th century. Copper has a similar effect
as phosphate regarding the formation of a passive protection film.[5][6][7]

o Furthermore, the presence of phosphorus (without carbon) produces a ductile iron suitable for wire drawing, for
piano wire.[8]

The puddling process of smelting iron ore to make wrought iron from pig iron, the right half of the illustration (not shown) displays
men working a blast furnace, Tiangong Kaiwu encyclopedia published in 1637, written by Song Yingxing (15871666).

Overview

Wrought iron has been used for many centuries, and is the "iron" that is referred to throughout western history. The other form of iron,
cast iron, was not introduced into Western Europe until the 15th century; even then, due to its brittleness, it could only be used for a
limited number of purposes. Throughout much of the Middle Ages iron was produced by the direct reduction of ore in manually
operated bloomeries, although waterpower had begun to be employed by 1104.[9]

The raw material produced by all indirect processes is pig iron. It has a high carbon content and as a consequence it is brittle and
could not be used to make hardware. The osmond process was the first of the indirect processes, developed by 1203, but bloomery
production continued in many places. The process depended on the development of the blast furnace, of which medieval examples
have been discovered at Lapphyttan, Sweden and in Germany.

The bloomery and osmond processes were gradually replaced from the 15th century by finery processes, of which there were two
versions, the German and Walloon. They were in turn replaced from the late 18th century by puddling, with certain variants such as
the Swedish Lancashire Process. These too are now obsolete, and wrought iron is no longer manufactured commercially, except one
brand "Pure Iron" which is made for artist blacksmiths and restorations of older ironworks. [citation needed]

Bloomery process

Main article: Bloomery

Wrought iron was originally produced by a variety of smelting processes, all described today as bloomeries. Different forms of
bloomery were used at different places and times. The bloomery was charged with charcoal and iron ore and then lit. Air was blown
in through a tuyere to heat the bloomery to a temperature somewhat below the melting point of iron. In the course of the smelt, slag
would melt and run out, and carbon monoxide from the charcoal would reduce the ore to iron, which formed a spongy mass. The iron
remained in the solid state. If the bloomery was allowed to become hot enough to melt the iron, carbon would dissolve into it and
form pig or cast iron, but that was not the intention.

After smelting was complete, the bloom was removed, and the process could then be started again. It was thus a batch process, rather
than a continuous one. The spongy mass contained iron and also silicate (slag) from the ore; this was iron bloom from which the
technique got its name. The bloom had to be forged mechanically to consolidate it and shape it into a bar, expelling slag in the
process.[10]

During the Middle Ages, water-power was applied to the process, probably initially for powering bellows, and only later to hammers
for forging the blooms. However, while it is certain that water-power was used, the details of this remain uncertain. [11] This was the
culmination of the direct process of ironmaking. It survived in Spain and southern France as Catalan Forges to the mid 19th century,
in Austria as the stuckofen to 1775,[12] and near Garstang in England until about 1770;[13] it was still in use with hot blast in New York
State in the 1880s.[14]

Osmond process

Osmond iron consisted of balls of wrought iron, produced by melting pig iron and catching the droplets on a staff, which was spun in
front of a blast of air so as to expose as much of it as possible to the air and oxidise its carbon content. [15] The resultant ball was often
forged into bar iron in a hammer mill.

Finery process

In the 15th century, the blast furnace spread into what is now Belgium and was improved. From there, it spread via the Pays de Bray
on the boundary of Normandy and then to the Weald in England. With it, the finery forge spread. These remelted the pig iron and (in
effect) burnt out the carbon, producing a bloom, which was then forged into a bar iron. If rod iron was required, a slitting mill was
used.

The finery process existed in two slightly different forms. In Great Britain, France, and parts of Sweden, only the Walloon process
was used. This employed two different hearths, a finery hearth for fining the iron and a chafery hearth for reheating it in the course of
drawing the bloom out into a bar. The finery always burnt charcoal, but the chafery could be fired with mineral coal, since its
impurities would not harm the iron when it was in the solid state. On the other hand, the German process, used in Germany, Russia,
and most of Sweden used a single hearth for all stages.[16]

The introduction of coke for use in the blast furnace by Abraham Darby in 1709 (or perhaps others a littler earlier) initially had little
effect on wrought iron production. Only in the 1750s was coke pig iron used on any significant scale as the feedstock of finery forges.
However, charcoal continued to be the fuel for the finery.

Potting and stamping

From the late 1750s, ironmasters began to develop processes for making bar iron without charcoal. There were a number of patented
processes for this, which are referred to today as potting and stamping. The earliest were developed by John Wood of Wednesbury and
his brother Charles Wood of Low Mill at Egremont, patented in 1763.[17] Another was developed for the Coalbrookdale Company by
the Cranage brothers.[18] Another important one was that of John Wright and Joseph Jesson of West Bromwich.[19]

Puddling process

Schematic drawing of a puddling furnace

A number of processes for making wrought iron without charcoal were devised as the Industrial Revolution began during the latter
half of the 18th century. The most successful of these was puddling, using a puddling furnace (a variety of the reverberatory furnace).
This was invented by Henry Cort in 1784.[20] It was later improved by others including Joseph Hall. In this type of furnace, the metal
does not come into contact with the fuel, and so is not contaminated by impurities in it. The flame from the fire is reverberated or sent
back down onto the metal on the fire bridge of the furnace.

Unless the raw material used is white cast iron, the pig iron or other raw material first had to be refined into refined iron or finers
metal. This would be done in a refinery where raw coal is used to remove silicon and convert carbon from a graphitic form to a
combined form.

This metal was placed into the hearth of the puddling furnace where it was melted. The hearth was lined with oxidizing agents such as
haematite and iron oxide.[21] This mixture is subjected to a strong current of air and stirred with long bars, called puddling bars or
rabbles,[22][23] through working doors.[24] The air, stirring, and "boiling" action of the metal help the oxidizing agents to oxidize the
impurities and carbon out of the pig iron to their maximum capability. As the impurities oxidize, the retaining material solidifies into
spongy wrought iron balls, called puddle balls.[21]

Shingling

There is still some slag left in the puddle balls so while they are still hot they must be shingled [25] to remove the remaining slag and
cinder.[25][21] It may be achieved by forging the balls under a power hammer or by squeezing the bloom in a machine. The material
obtained at the end of shingling is known as bloom and it is still red-hot. [25] The blooms are not useful in this form so they must be
rolled into a final product.

Sometimes European ironworks would skip this step completely and roll the puddle balls. The only drawback to this is that the edges
of the rough bars are not as well compressed. When the rough bar is reheated, the edges may separate and be lost into the furnace. [25]

Rolling

The bloom is passed through grooved rollers and flat bars were produced. These bars of wrought iron were of poor quality, called
muck bars[25][26] or puddle bars.[21] To improve the quality of wrought iron, these bars were cut up, piled and tied together by wires, a
process known as faggoting or piling.[25] They were then reheated and rolled again in merchant rolls. This process may be repeated
several times to get wrought iron of desired quality. Wrought iron that has been rolled multiple times is called merchant bar or
merchant iron.[23][27]

Lancashire process

The advantage of puddling was that it used coal, not charcoal as fuel. However this was little advantage in Sweden, which lacks coal.
Gustaf Ekman observed charcoal fineries at Ulverstone, which were quite different from any in Sweden. After his return to Sweden in
the 1830s, he experimented and developed a process similar to puddling but using forewood and charcoal, which was widely adopted
in the Bergslagen in the following decades.[28]

The Aston process

In 1925, James Aston of the United States developed a process for manufacturing wrought iron quickly and economically. It involves
taking molten steel from a Bessemer converter and pouring it into cooler liquid slag. The temperature of the steel is about 1500 C
and the liquid slag is maintained at approximately 1200 C. The molten steel contains a large amount of dissolved gases so when the
liquid steel hits the cooler surfaces of the liquid slag the gases are liberated. The molten steel then freezes to yield a spongy mass
having a temperature of about 1370 C.[21] This spongy mass must then be finished by being shingled and rolled as described under
puddling (above). Three to four tons can be converted per batch with this method.[21]

Wrought iron is no longer commercially produced. The last wrought iron facility shut down in 1969. [1] In the 1960s the price of steel
production was dropping due to recycling and even using the Aston process wrought iron production was a labor intensive process. It
has been estimated that the production of wrought iron costs approximately twice as much as the production of low carbon steel. [1]

Properties

The microstructure of wrought iron, showing dark slag inclusions in ferrite (iron)

The slag inclusions in wrought iron give it properties not found in other forms of ferrous metal. There are approximately 250,000
inclusions per square inch.[1] A fresh fracture shows a clear bluish color with a high silky luster and fibrous appearance.
Wrought iron lacks the carbon content necessary for hardening through heat treatment, but in areas where steel was uncommon or
unknown, tools were sometimes cold-worked (hence cold iron) in order to harden them. An advantage of its low carbon content is its
excellent weldability.[1] Furthermore, sheet wrought iron cannot bend as much as steel sheet metal (when cold worked). [29][30][31]
Wrought iron can be cast, however there is no engineering advantage as compared to cast iron; cast iron is much easier to produce and
thus cheaper, so it is exclusively chosen over wrought iron.[32][33]

Due to the variations in iron ore origin and iron manufacture, wrought iron can be inferior or superior in corrosion resistance
compared to other iron alloys.[34][1][35][36] There are many mechanisms behind this corrosion resistance. Chilton and Evans found that
nickel enrichment bands reduce corrosion.[37] They also found that in puddled and forged and piled the working over of the iron spread
out copper, nickel and tin impurities, which produce electrochemical conditions that slow down corrosion. [35] The slag inclusions have
been shown to disperse corrosion in to an even film to resist pitting. [1] Another study has shown that slag inclusions are pathways to
corrosion.[38] Other studies show that sulfur impurities in the wrought iron decrease corrosion resistance, [36] but phosphorus increase
corrosion resistance.[39] Environments with a high concentration of chlorine ions also decreases wrought iron's corrosion resistance. [36]

Wrought iron has a rough surface so it can hold platings and coatings better. For instance, a galvanic zinc finish is approximately 25
40% thicker than the same finish on steel.[1]

In Table 1, the chemical composition of wrought iron is compared to that of pig iron and carbon steel. Although it appears that
wrought iron and plain carbon steel have similar chemical compositions, this is deceiving. Most of the manganese, sulfur, phosphorus,
and silicon are incorporated into the slag fibers present in the wrought iron, so wrought iron really is purer than plain carbon steel. [25]

Table 1: Chemical composition comparison of pig iron, plain carbon steel, and wrought iron[25]
Material Iron Carbon Manganese Sulfur Phosphorus Silicon
Pig iron 9194 3.54.5 0.52.5 0.0180.1 0.030.1 0.253.5
Carbon steel 98.199.5 0.071.3 0.31.0 0.020.06 0.0020.1 0.0050.5
Wrought iron 9999.8 0.050.25 0.010.1 0.020.1 0.050.2 0.020.2
All units are percent weight
Table 2: Properties of wrought iron
Property Value
Ultimate tensile strength [psi (MPa)][40] 34,00054,000 (234372)
[40]
Ultimate compression strength [psi (MPa)] 34,00054,000 (234372)
Ultimate shear strength [psi (MPa)][40] 28,00045,000 (193310)
Yield point [psi (MPa)][40] 23,00032,000 (159221)
Modulus of elasticity (in tension) [psi (MPa)][40] 28,000,000 (193,100)
[41]
Melting point [F (C)] 2,800 (1,540)
7.67.9[42]
Specific gravity
7.57.8[43]

Amongst its other properties, wrought iron becomes soft at red heat, and can be easily forged and forge welded.[44] It can be used to
form temporary magnets, but cannot be magnetized permanently,[45][46] and is ductile, malleable and tough.[25]

STAINLESS SSTEEL
In metallurgy, stainless steel is defined as a steel alloy with a minimum of 10% chromium content by mass.[1] Stainless
steel does not stain, corrode, or rust as easily as ordinary steel (it stains less), but it is not stain-proof. [2] It is also called corrosion-
resistant steel or CRES when the alloy type and grade are not detailed, particularly in the aviation industry. There are different
grades and surface finishes of stainless steel to suit the environment to which the material will be subjected in its lifetime. Common
uses of stainless steel are cutlery and watch straps.

Stainless steel differs from carbon steel by amount of chromium present. Carbon steel rusts when exposed to air and moisture. This
iron oxide film is active and accelerates corrosion by forming more iron oxide. Stainless steels have sufficient amount of chromium
present so that a passive film of chromium oxide forms which prevents further surface corrosion and blocks corrosion spreading in the
metal's internal structure.

An announcement, as it appeared in the 1915 New York Times, of the discovery of stainless steel.[3]

A few corrosion-resistant iron artifacts survive from antiquity. A famous (and very large) example is the Iron Pillar of Delhi, erected
by order of Kumara Gupta I around the year AD 400. Unlike stainless steel, however, these artifacts owe their durability not to
chromium, but to their high phosphorus content, which, together with favorable local weather conditions, promotes the formation of a
solid protective passivation layer of iron oxides and phosphates, rather than the non-protective, cracked rust layer that develops on
most ironwork.

The corrosion resistance of iron-chromium alloys was first recognized in 1821 by the French metallurgist Pierre Berthier, who noted
their resistance against attack by some acids and suggested their use in cutlery. Metallurgists of the 19th century, however, were
unable to produce the combination of low carbon and high chromium found in most modern stainless steels, and the high-chromium
alloys they could produce were too brittle to be practical.

In the late 1890s, Hans Goldschmidt of Germany developed an aluminothermic (thermite) process for producing carbon-free
chromium. In the years 19041911 several researchers, particularly Leon Guillet of France, prepared alloys that would today be
considered stainless steel.

Friedrich Krupp Germaniawerft built the 366-ton sailing yacht Germania featuring a chrome-nickel steel hull in Germany in 1908. [4]
In 1911, Philip Monnartz reported on the relationship between the chromium content and corrosion resistance. On October 17, 1912,
Krupp engineers Benno Strauss and Eduard Maurer patented austenitic stainless steel.[5]

Similar developments were taking place contemporaneously in the United States, where Christian Dantsizen and Frederick Becket
were industrializing ferritic stainless.

In 1913, Harry Brearley of the Brown-Firth research laboratory in Sheffield, England, while seeking an erosion-resistant alloy for gun
barrels, discovered and subsequently industrialized a martensitic stainless steel alloy. The discovery was announced two years later in
a January 1915 newspaper article in The New York Times.[3] This was later marketed under the "Staybrite" brand by Firth Vickers in
England and was used for the new entrance canopy for the Savoy Hotel in 1929 in London.[6]

Properties

High oxidation-resistance in air at ambient temperature are normally achieved with additions of a minimum of 13% (by weight)
chromium, and up to 26% is used for harsh environments.[7] The chromium forms a passivation layer of chromium(III) oxide (Cr2O3)
when exposed to oxygen. The layer is too thin to be visible, and the metal remains lustrous. It is impervious to water and air,
protecting the metal beneath. Also, this layer quickly reforms when the surface is scratched. This phenomenon is called passivation
and is seen in other metals, such as aluminium and titanium. Corrosion resistance can however be adversely affected if the component
is used in a non-oxygenated environment, a typical example being underwater keel-bolts buried in timber. When stainless steel parts
such as nuts and bolts are forced together, the oxide layer can be scraped off causing the parts to weld together. When disassembled,
the welded material may be torn and pitted, an effect that is known as galling. This destructive galling can be best avoided by the use
of dissimilar materials, e.g. bronze to stainless steel, or even different types of stainless steels ( martensitic against austenitic, etc.),
when metal-to-metal wear is a concern. In addition, Nitronic alloys (trademark of Armco, Inc.) reduce the tendency to gall through
selective alloying with manganese and nitrogen.

Nickel also contributes to passivation, as do other less commonly used ingredients such as molybdenum and vanadium.

Applications
The pinnacle of New York's Chrysler Building is clad with type 302 stainless steel.[8]
An art deco sculpture on the Niagara-Mohawk Power building in Syracuse, New York
Pipes and fittings made of stainless steel

Stainless steels resistance to corrosion and staining, low maintenance, relatively low cost, and familiar luster make it an ideal base
material for a host of commercial applications. There are over 150 grades of stainless steel, of which fifteen are most common. The
alloy is milled into coils, sheets, plates, bars, wire, and tubing to be used in cookware, cutlery, hardware, surgical instruments, major
appliances, industrial equipment, and as an automotive and aerospace structural alloy and construction material in large buildings.
Orange juice and other food transport and storage tankers are often made of stainless steel, due to its corrosion resistance and
antibacterial properties. This also influences its use in commercial kitchens and food processing plants, as it can be steam cleaned,
sterilized, and does not need painting or application of other surface finishes.

Stainless steel is also used for jewellery and watches. The most common stainless steel alloy used for this is 316L. It can be re-
finished by any jeweller and will not oxidize or turn black.

Some firearms incorporate stainless steel components as an alternative to blued or parkerized steel. A few more expensive revolvers
like the Smith and Wesson Model 60 are milled entirely from stainless steel. This gives a high-luster finish similar in appearance to
nickel plating but, unlike plating, not subject to rust when scratched.

Uses in sculpture, building facades and building structures

Stainless steel was in vogue during the art deco period. The most famous example of this is the upper portion of the Chrysler
Building (illustrated to the right). Diners and fast food restaurants feature large ornamental panels, stainless fixtures and
furniture. Owing to the durability of the material, many of these buildings retain their original appearance.
The forging of stainless steel has given rise to a fresh approach to architectural blacksmithing in recent years.
 The Gateway Arch (picture above) is clad entirely in stainless steel: 886 tons (804 metric tonnes) of 0.25 in (6.4 mm) plate,
#3 finish, type 304 stainless steel.[1]

Type 316 stainless is used on the exterior of both the Petronas Twin Towers and the Jin Mao Building, two of the world's
tallest skyscrapers. [2]

The Parliament House of Australia in Canberra has a stainless steel flagpole weighing over 220 tons.

The aeration building in the Edmonton Composting Facility, the size of 14 hockey rinks, is the largest stainless steel building
in North America. [3]

The United States Air Force Memorial has an austenitic stainless steel structural skin.

Recycling & reuse

Stainless steel is 100% recyclable. In fact, an average stainless steel object is composed of about 60% recycled material, 25%
originating from end-of-life products and 35% coming from manufacturing processes. [9]

Types of stainless steel

There are different types of stainless steels: when nickel is added, for instance, the austenite structure of iron is stabilized. This crystal
structure makes such steels non-magnetic and less brittle at low temperatures. For greater hardness and strength, carbon is added.
When subjected to adequate heat treatment, these steels are used as razor blades, cutlery, tools, etc.

Significant quantities of manganese have been used in many stainless steel compositions. Manganese preserves an austenitic structure
in the steel as does nickel, but at a lower cost.

Stainless steels are also classified by their crystalline structure:

Austenitic, or 300 series, stainless steels comprise over 70% of total stainless steel production. They contain a maximum of
0.15% carbon, a minimum of 16% chromium and sufficient nickel and/or manganese to retain an austenitic structure at all
temperatures from the cryogenic region to the melting point of the alloy. A typical composition of 18% chromium and 10%
nickel, commonly known as 18/10 stainless, is often used in flatware. Similarly, 18/0 and 18/8 are also available.
Superaustenitic stainless steels, such as alloy AL-6XN and 254SMO, exhibit great resistance to chloride pitting and crevice
corrosion due to high molybdenum content (>6%) and nitrogen additions, and the higher nickel content ensures better
resistance to stress-corrosion cracking versus the 300 series. The higher alloy content of superaustenitic steels makes them
more expensive. Other steels can offer similar performance at lower cost and are preferred in certain applications. [citation needed]

The low carbon version of the Austenitic Stainless Steel, for example 316L or 304L, are used to avoid corrosion problem
caused by welding. The "L" means that the carbon content of the Stainless Steel is below 0.03%, this will reduce the
sensitization effect, precipitation of Chromium Carbides, due to the high temperature produced by welding operation.

Ferritic stainless steels are highly corrosion-resistant, but less durable than austenitic grades. They contain between 10.5%
and 27% chromium and very little nickel, if any, but some types can contain lead. Most compositions include molybdenum;
some, aluminium or titanium. Common ferritic grades include 18Cr-2Mo, 26Cr-1Mo, 29Cr-4Mo, and 29Cr-4Mo-2Ni.

Martensitic stainless steels are not as corrosion-resistant as the other two classes but are extremely strong and tough, as well
as highly machineable, and can be hardened by heat treatment. Martensitic stainless steel contains chromium (12-14%),
molybdenum (0.2-1%), nickel (0-<2%), and carbon (about 0.1-1%) (giving it more hardness but making the material a bit
more brittle). It is quenched and magnetic.

Precipitation-hardening martensitic stainless steels have corrosion resistance comparable to austenitic varieties, but can be
precipitation hardened to even higher strengths than the other martensitic grades. The most common, 17-4PH, uses about
17% chromium and 4% nickel. There is a rising trend in defense budgets to opt for an ultra-high-strength stainless steel when
possible in new projects, as it is estimated that 2% of the US GDP is spent dealing with corrosion. The Lockheed-Martin
Joint Strike Fighter is the first aircraft to use a precipitation-hardenable stainless steelCarpenter Custom 465in its
airframe.

Duplex stainless steels have a mixed microstructure of austenite and ferrite, the aim being to produce a 50/50 mix, although
in commercial alloys, the mix may be 40/60 respectively. Duplex steels have improved strength over austenitic stainless
steels and also improved resistance to localised corrosion, particularly pitting, crevice corrosion and stress corrosion
cracking. They are characterised by high chromium (1928%) and molybdenum (up to 5%) and lower nickel contents than
austenitic stainless steels. The most used Duplex Stainless Steel are the 2205 (22% Chromium, 5% Nickel) and 2507 (25%
Chromium, 7% Nickel) sometimes the 2507 is also called "SuperDuplex" due to the higher Corrosion resistance.
Comparison of standardized steels

Stainless steel grades

100 Seriesaustenitic chromium-nickel-manganese alloys

o Type 101austenitic that is hardenable through cold working for furniture

o Type 102austenitic general purpose stainless steel working for furniture

200 Seriesaustenitic chromium-nickel-manganese alloys

o Type 201austenitic that is hardenable through cold working

o Type 202austenitic general purpose stainless steel

300 Seriesaustenitic chromium-nickel alloys

o Type 301highly ductile, for formed products. Also hardens rapidly during mechanical working. Good weldability.
Better wear resistance and fatigue strength than 304.

o Type 302same corrosion resistance as 304, with slightly higher strength due to additional carbon.

o Type 303free machining version of 304 via addition of sulfur and phosphorus. Also referred to as "A1" in
accordance with ISO 3506.[10]

o Type 304the most common grade; the classic 18/8 stainless steel. Also referred to as "A2" in accordance with
ISO 3506.[10]

o Type 304L same as the 304 grade but contains less carbon to increase weldability. Is slightly weaker than 304.

o Type 304LNsame as 304L, but also nitrogen is added to obtain a much higher yield and tensile strength than
304L.

o Type 308used as the filler metal when welding 304

o Type 309better temperature resistance than 304, also sometimes used as filler metal when welding dissimilar
steels, along with inconel.

o Type 316the second most common grade (after 304); for food and surgical stainless steel uses; alloy addition of
molybdenum prevents specific forms of corrosion. It is also known as marine grade stainless steel due to its
increased resistance to chloride corrosion compared to type 304. 316 is often used for building nuclear reprocessing
plants. 316L is an extra low carbon grade of 316, generally used in stainless steel watches and marine applications
due to its high resistance to corrosion. Also referred to as "A4" in accordance with ISO 3506.[10] 316Ti includes
titanium for heat resistance, therefore it is used in flexible chimney liners.

o Type 321similar to 304 but lower risk of weld decay due to addition of titanium. See also 347 with addition of
niobium for desensitization during welding.

400 Seriesferritic and martensitic chromium alloys

o Type 405 ferritic for welding applications

o Type 408heat-resistant; poor corrosion resistance; 11% chromium, 8% nickel.

o Type 409cheapest type; used for automobile exhausts; ferritic (iron/chromium only).

o Type 410martensitic (high-strength iron/chromium). Wear-resistant, but less corrosion-resistant.

o Type 416easy to machine due to additional sulfur

o Type 420Cutlery Grade martensitic; similar to the Brearley's original rustless steel. Excellent polishability.

o Type 430decorative, e.g., for automotive trim; ferritic. Good formability, but with reduced temperature and
corrosion resistance.

o Type 439ferritic grade, a higher grade version of 409 used for catalytic converter exhaust sections. Increased
chromium for improved high temperature corrosion/oxidation resistance.
 o Type 440a higher grade of cutlery steel, with more carbon, allowing for much better edge retention when
properly heat-treated. It can be hardened to approximately Rockwell 58 hardness, making it one of the hardest
stainless steels. Due to its toughness and relatively low cost, most display-only and replica swords or knives are
made of 440 stainless. Also known as razor blade steel. Available in four grades: 440A, 440B, 440C, and the
uncommon 440F (free machinable). 440A, having the least amount of carbon in it, is the most stain-resistant; 440C,
having the most, is the strongest and is usually considered more desirable in knifemaking than 440A, except for
diving or other salt-water applications.

o Type 446For elevated temperature service

500 Seriesheat-resisting chromium alloys

600 Seriesmartensitic precipitation hardening alloys

o 601 through 604: Martensitic low-alloy steels.

o 610 through 613: Martensitic secondary hardening steels.

o 614 through 619: Martensitic chromium steels.

o 630 through 635: Semiaustenitic and martensitic precipitation-hardening stainless steels.

Type 630 is most common PH stainless, better known as 17-4; 17% chromium, 4% nickel.

o 650 through 653: Austenitic steels strengthened by hot/cold work.

o 660 through 665: Austenitic superalloys; all grades except alloy 661 are strengthened by second-phase precipitation.

Type 2205 the most widely used duplex (ferritic/austenitic) stainless steel grade. It has both excellent corrosion resistance
and high strength.

Stainless steel designations[11]

SAE UNS %
% Cr % Ni %C % Si %P %S %N Other
designation designation Mn
Austenitic
5.5
201 S20100 1618 3.55.5 0.15 0.75 0.06 0.03 0.25 -
7.5
7.5
202 S20200 1719 46 0.15 0.75 0.06 0.03 0.25 -
10.0
0.12 14 0.32
205 S20500 16.518 11.75 0.75 0.06 0.03 -
0.25 15.5 0.40
301 S30100 1618 68 0.15 2 0.75 0.045 0.03 - -
302 S30200 1719 810 0.15 2 0.75 0.045 0.03 0.1 -
302B S30215 1719 810 0.15 2 2.03.0 0.045 0.03 - -
0.15
303 S30300 1719 810 0.15 2 1 0.2 - Mo 0.60 (optional)
min
303Se S30323 1719 810 0.15 2 1 0.2 0.06 - 0.15 Se min
304 S30400 1820 810.50 0.08 2 0.75 0.045 0.03 0.1 -
304L S30403 1820 812 0.03 2 0.75 0.045 0.03 0.1 -
304Cu S30430 1719 810 0.08 2 0.75 0.045 0.03 - 34 Cu
0.10
304N S30451 1820 810.50 0.08 2 0.75 0.045 0.03 -
0.16
10.50
305 S30500 1719 0.12 2 0.75 0.045 0.03 - -
13
308 S30800 1921 1012 0.08 2 1 0.045 0.03 - -
309 S30900 2224 1215 0.2 2 1 0.045 0.03 - -
309S S30908 2224 1215 0.08 2 1 0.045 0.03 - -
310 S31000 2426 1922 0.25 2 1.5 0.045 0.03 - -
310S S31008 2426 1922 0.08 2 1.5 0.045 0.03 - -
314 S31400 2326 1922 0.25 2 1.53.0 0.045 0.03 - -
316 S31600 1618 1014 0.08 2 0.75 0.045 0.03 0.10 2.03.0 Mo
316L S31603 1618 1014 0.03 2 0.75 0.045 0.03 0.10 2.03.0 Mo
0.10
316F S31620 1618 1014 0.08 2 1 0.2 - 1.752.50 Mo
min
316N S31651 1618 1014 0.08 2 0.75 0.045 0.03 0.10 2.03.0 Mo
 0.16
0.10
317 S31700 1820 1115 0.08 2 0.75 0.045 0.03 3.04.0 Mo
max
0.10
317L S31703 1820 1115 0.03 2 0.75 0.045 0.03 3.04.0 Mo
max
0.10
321 S32100 1719 912 0.08 2 0.75 0.045 0.03 Ti 5(C+N) min, 0.70 max
max
329 S32900 2328 2.55 0.08 2 0.75 0.04 0.03 - 12 Mo
0.75
330 N08330 1720 3437 0.08 2 0.04 0.03 - -
1.50
347 S34700 1719 913 0.08 2 0.75 0.045 0.030 - Nb + Ta, 10 x C min, 1 max
Nb + Ta, 10 x C min, 1 max, but
348 S34800 1719 913 0.08 2 0.75 0.045 0.030 -
0.10 Ta max; 0.20 Ca
384 S38400 1517 1719 0.08 2 1 0.045 0.03 - -
Ferritic
11.5
405 S40500 - 0.08 1 1 0.04 0.03 - 0.10.3 Al, 0.60 max
14.5
10.5
409 S40900 0.05 0.08 1 1 0.045 0.03 - Ti 6 x C, but 0.75 max
11.75
429 S42900 1416 0.75 0.12 1 1 0.04 0.03 - -
430 S43000 1618 0.75 0.12 1 1 0.04 0.03 - -
0.15
430F S43020 1618 - 0.12 1.25 1 0.06 - 0.60 Mo (optional)
min
430FSe S43023 1618 - 0.12 1.25 1 0.06 0.06 - 0.15 Se min
434 S43400 1618 - 0.12 1 1 0.04 0.03 - 0.751.25 Mo
0.751.25 Mo; Nb+Ta 5 x C min,
436 S43600 1618 - 0.12 1 1 0.04 0.03 -
0.70 max
442 S44200 1823 - 0.2 1 1 0.04 0.03 - -
446 S44600 2327 0.25 0.2 1.5 1 0.04 0.03 - -
Martensitic
11.5
403 S40300 0.60 0.15 1 0.5 0.04 0.03 - -
13.0
11.5
410 S41000 0.75 0.15 1 1 0.04 0.03 - -
13.5
11.5 1.25
414 S41400 0.15 1 1 0.04 0.03 - -
13.5 2.50
0.15
416 S41600 1214 - 0.15 1.25 1 0.06 - 0.060 Mo (optional)
min
416Se S41623 1214 - 0.15 1.25 1 0.06 0.06 - 0.15 Se min
0.15
420 S42000 1214 - 1 1 0.04 0.03 - -
min
0.15 0.15
420F S42020 1214 - 1.25 1 0.06 - 0.60 Mo max (optional)
min min
11.0 0.20 0.5 0.901.25 Mo; 0.200.30 V; 0.90
422 S42200 0.501.0 0.5 0.025 0.025 -
12.5 0.25 1.0 1.25 W
1.25
431 S41623 1517 0.2 1 1 0.04 0.03 - -
2.50
0.60
440A S44002 1618 - 1 1 0.04 0.03 - 0.75 Mo
0.75
0.75
440B S44003 1618 - 1 1 0.04 0.03 - 0.75 Mo
0.95
0.95
440C S44004 1618 - 1 1 0.04 0.03 - 0.75 Mo
1.20
Heat resisting
0.10
501 S50100 46 - 1 1 0.04 0.03 - 0.400.65 Mo
min
502 S50200 46 - 0.1 1 1 0.04 0.03 - 0.400.65 Mo

Stainless steel finishes

316L stainless steel, with an unpolished, mill finish.

Standard mill finishes can be applied to flat rolled stainless steel directly by the rollers and by mechanical abrasives. Steel is first
rolled to size and thickness and then annealed to change the properties of the final material. Any oxidation that forms on the surface
(scale) is removed by pickling, and the passivation layer is created on the surface. A final finish can then be applied to achieve the
desired aesthetic appearance.

No. 0 - Hot rolled, annealed, thicker plates

No. 1 - Hot rolled, annealed and passivated

No. 2D - Cold rolled, annealed, pickled and passivated

No. 2B - Same as above with additional pass-through highly polished rollers

No. 2BA - Bright annealed (BA or 2R) same as above then Bright annealed under Oxygen-free atmospheric conditions

No. 3 - Coarse abrasive finish applied mechanically

No. 4 - Brushed finish

No. 5 - Satin finish

No. 6 - Matte finish

No. 7 - Reflective finish

No. 8 - Mirror finish

No. 9 - Bead blast finish

No. 10 - heat colored finish-wide range of electropolished & heat colored surfaces

Copper

Copper (pronounced /kp/) is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (Latin: cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal
with an excellent thermal and electrical conductivity. Copper is rather supple in its pure state and (when fresh) has a pinkish or peachy
color, which (besides gold) is unusual for metals, which are usually silvery or grayish. It is used as a thermal conductor, an electrical
conductor, a building material, and a constituent of various metal alloys.

Copper is an essential trace nutrient to all high plant and animal life. In animals, including humans, it is found primarily in the
bloodstream, as a co-factor in various enzymes and in copper-based pigments. However, in sufficient amounts, copper can be
poisonous and even fatal to organisms.

Copper has played a significant part in the history of mankind, which has used the easily accessible uncompounded metal for
thousands of years. Evidence has been preserved from several early civilizations of the use of copper. In the Roman era, copper was
principally mined on Cyprus, hence the origin of the name of the metal as Cyprium, "metal of Cyprus", later shortened to Cuprum.

A number of countries, such as Chile and the United States, still have sizable reserves of the metal which are extracted through large
open pit mines. However, like tin, there may be insufficient reserves to sustain current rates of consumption. [1] High demand relative
to supply caused a price spike in the 2000s.[2]

Copper has a significant presence in decorative art. It can also be used as an anti-germ surface that can add to the anti-bacterial and
antimicrobial features of buildings such as hospitals.[3]

Copper Age

Copper, as native copper, is one of the few metals to naturally occur as an un-compounded mineral. Copper was known to some of the
oldest civilizations on record, and has a history of use that is at least 10,000 years old [citation needed]. No one knows exactly when copper
was first discovered, but earliest estimates place this event around 9000 BC in the Middle East.[4] A copper pendant was found in what
is now northern Iraq that dates to 8700 BC.[citation needed] It is probable that gold and iron were the only metals used by humans before
copper.[5] By 5000 BC, there are signs of copper smelting: the refining of copper from simple copper compounds such as malachite or
azurite. Among archaeological sites in Anatolia, atal Hyk (~6000 BC) features native copper artifacts and smelted lead beads, but
no smelted copper. Can Hasan (~5000 BC) had access to smelted copper but the oldest smelted copper artifact found (a copper chisel
from the chalcolithic site of Prokuplje in Serbia) has pre-dated Can Hasan by 500 years. The smelting facilities in the Balkans appear
to be more advanced than the Turkish forges found at a later date, so it is quite probable that copper smelting originated in the
Balkans. Investment casting was realized in 4500-4000 BCE in Southeast Asia.[4]

Ancient Copper ingot from Zakros, Crete is shaped in the form of an animal skin typical for that era.
Zopper smelting appears to have been developed independently in several parts of the world. In addition to its development in the
Balkans by 5500 BC, it was developed in China before 2800 BC, in the Andes around 2000 BC, in Central America around 600 AD,
and in West Africa around 900 AD.[6] Copper is found extensively in the Indus Valley Civilization by the 3rd millennium BC.[7] In
Europe, tzi the Iceman, a well-preserved male dated to 3300-3200 BC, was found with an axe with a copper head 99.7% pure. High
levels of arsenic in his hair suggest he was involved in copper smelting. Over the course of centuries, experience with copper has
assisted the development of other metals; for example, knowledge of copper smelting led to the discovery of iron smelting.

In the Americas production in the Old Copper Complex, located in present day Michigan and Wisconsin, was dated back to between
6000 to 3000 BC.[8]

Bronze Age

Alloying to make brass or bronze was realized soon after the discovery of copper itself. There exist copper and bronze artifacts from
Sumerian cities that date to 3000 BC, and Egyptian artifacts of copper and copper-tin alloys nearly as old. In one pyramid, a copper
plumbing system was found that is 5000 years old. The Egyptians found that adding a small amount of tin made the metal easier to
cast, so copper-tin (bronze) alloys were found in Egypt almost as soon as copper was found. Very important sources of copper in the
Levant were located in Timna valley (Negev, now in southern Israel) and Faynan (biblical Punon, Jordan).[9]

By 2000 BC, Europe was using bronze. The use of bronze became so pervasive in a certain era of civilization (approximately 2500
BC to 600 BC in Europe) that it has been named the Bronze Age. The transitional period in certain regions between the preceding
Neolithic period and the Bronze Age is termed the Chalcolithic ("copper-stone"), with some high-purity copper tools being used
alongside stone tools. Brass (copper-zinc alloy) was known to the Greeks, but only became a significant supplement to bronze during
the Roman empire.

In alchemy the symbol for copper, perhaps a stylized mirror, was also the symbol for the goddess and planet Venus.

During the Bronze Age, one copper mine at Great Orme in North Wales, extended for a depth of 70 metres. [10] At Alderley Edge in
Cheshire, carbon dates have established mining at around 2280 to 1890 BC (at 95% probability). [11]

Antiquity and Middle Ages

In Greek the metal was known by the name chalkos (). Copper was a very important resource for the Romans, Greeks and
other ancient peoples. In Roman times, it became known as aes Cyprium (aes being the generic Latin term for copper alloys such as
bronze and other metals, and Cyprium because so much of it was mined in Cyprus). From this, the phrase was simplified to cuprum,
whence the English copper. Copper was associated with the goddess Aphrodite/Venus in mythology and alchemy, owing to its
lustrous beauty, its ancient use in producing mirrors, and its association with Cyprus, which was sacred to the goddess. In astrology,
alchemy the seven heavenly bodies known to the ancients were associated with seven metals also known in antiquity, and Venus was
assigned to copper.[12]

Britain's first use of brass occurred some time around the 3rd - 2nd century B.C. In North America, copper mining began with
marginal workings by Native Americans. Native copper is known to have been extracted from sites on Isle Royale with primitive
stone tools between 800 and 1600.[13]

Copper metallurgy was flourishing in South America, particularly in Peru around the beginning of the first millennium AD. Copper
technology proceeded at a much slower rate on other continents. Africa's major location for copper reserves is Zambia. Copper burial
ornamentals dated from the 15th century have been uncovered, but the metal's commercial production did not start until the early
1900s. Australian copper artifacts exist, but they appear only after the arrival of the Europeans; the aboriginal culture apparently did
not develop their own metallurgical abilities.

Crucial in the metallurgical and technological worlds, copper has also played an important cultural role, particularly in currency.
Romans in the 6th through 3rd centuries B.C. used copper lumps as money. At first, just the copper itself was valued, but gradually
the shape and look of the copper became more important. Julius Caesar had his own coins, made from a copper-zinc alloy, while
Octavianus Augustus Caesar's) coins were made from Cu-Pb-Sn alloys.

The gates of the Temple of Jerusalem used Corinthian bronze made by depletion gilding. Corinthian bronze was most prevalent in
Alexandria, where alchemy is thought to have begun. In ancient India (before 1000 B.C.), copper was used in the holistic medical
science Ayurveda for surgical instruments and other medical equipment. Ancient Egyptians (~2400 B.C.) used copper for sterilizing
wounds and drinking water, and as time passed, (~1500 B.C.) for headaches, burns, and itching. Hippocrates (~400 B.C.) used copper
to treat leg ulcers associated with varicose veins. Ancient Aztecs fought sore throats by gargling with copper mixtures.

Copper is also the part of many rich stories and legends, such as that of Iraq's Baghdad Battery. Copper cylinders soldered to lead,
which date back to 248 B.C. to 226 A.D, resemble a galvanic cell, leading people to believe this may have been the first battery. This
claim has so far not been substantiated.
The Bible also refers to the importance of copper: "Men know how to mine silver and refine gold, to dig iron from the earth and melt
copper from stone" (Job. 28:1-2).

Modern period

Miners at the Tamarack Mine in Copper Country, Michigan, USA in 1905

Throughout history, copper's use in art has extended far beyond currency. Vannoccio Biringuccio, Giorgio Vasari and Benvenuto
Cellini are three Renaissance sculptors from the mid 1500s, notable for their work with bronze. From about 1560 to about 1775, thin
sheets of copper were commonly used as a canvas for paintings. Silver plated copper was used in the pre-photograph known as the
daguerreotype. The Statue of Liberty, dedicated on October 28, 1886, was constructed of copper thought to have come from French-
owned mines in Norway.

Plating was a technology that began started in the mid 1600s in some areas. One common use for copper plating, widespread in the
1700s, was the sheathing of ships' hulls. Copper sheathing could be used to protect wooden hulled ships from algae, and from the
shipworm "toredo". The ships of Christopher Columbus were among the earliest to have this protection. [14][15]

In the early 1800s, it was discovered that copper wire could be used as a conductor, but it wasn't until 1990 that copper, in oxide form,
was discovered for use as a superconducting material. The German scientist Gottfried Osann invented powder metallurgy of copper in
1830 while determining the metal's atomic weight. Around then it was also discovered that the amount and type of alloying element
(e.g. tin) would affect the tones of bells, allowing for a variety of rich sounds, leading to bell casting, another common use for copper
and its alloys.

The Norddeutsche Affinerie in Hamburg was the first modern electroplating plant.[citation needed]

Flash smelting, which is still used today, was developed in Europe in order to make the smelting process more energy efficient. In
1908, in Outokumpu, Finland, a large deposit of copper ore was discovered, which eventually led to the development of flash
smelting.

Copper has been pivotal in the economic and sociological worlds, notably disputes involving copper mines. The 1906 Cananea Strike
in Mexico dealt with issues of work organization. The Teniente copper mine (1904-1951) raised political issues about capitalism and
class structure. Japan's largest copper mine, the Ashio mine, was the site of a riot in 1907. The Arizona miners' strike of 1938 dealt
with American labor issues including the "right to strike".

Characteristics

Color

Copper just above its melting point keeps its pink luster color when enough light outshines the orange incandescence color.

Copper has a reddish, orangish, or brownish color because a thin layer of tarnish (including oxides) gradually forms on its surface
when gases (especially oxygen) in the air react with it. But pure copper, when fresh, is actually a pinkish or peachy metal. Copper and
gold are the only two elemental metals with a natural color other than gray or silver. [16] The usual gray color of metals depends on
their "electron sea" that is capable of absorbing and re-emitting photons over a wide range of frequencies. Copper has its
characteristic color because of its band structure. In its liquefied state, a pure copper surface without ambient light appears somewhat
greenish, a characteristic shared with gold. When liquid copper is in bright ambient light, it retains some of its pinkish luster.

When copper is burnt in oxygen it gives off a black oxide.

Group 11 of the periodic table

Copper occupies the same family of the periodic table as silver and gold, since they each have one s-orbital electron on top of a filled
electron shell which forms metallic bonds. This similarity in electron structure makes them similar in many characteristics. All have
very high thermal and electrical conductivity, and all are malleable metals. Among pure metals at room temperature, copper has the
second highest electrical and thermal conductivity, after silver.[17]

Occurrence

Copper can be found as native copper in mineral form (for example, in Michigan's Keewenaw Peninsula). Minerals such as the
sulfides: chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), bornite (Cu5FeS4), covellite (CuS), chalcocite (Cu2S) are sources of copper, as are the carbonates:
azurite (Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2) and malachite (Cu2CO3(OH)2) and the oxide: cuprite (Cu2O).

Mechanical properties
A single crystal copper consists of a few micrometres of small crystals. In this form of crystal (c), the yield stress is high and crystal
undergoes a large amount of elastic deformation before going into the plastic deformation region. The plastic deformation region has
an unpredictable outcome. The stress level decreases significantly as necking begins to occur.

Polycrystal copper has many crystal of different geometries combined. The plastic deformation of polycrystal is similar to mild steel.
Copper has a high ductility and will continue to elongate as stress is applied. It is very useful in copper wire drawing.

Numerous copper alloys exist, many with important historical and contemporary uses. Speculum metal and bronze are alloys of
copper and tin. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Monel metal, also called cupronickel, is an alloy of copper and nickel. While the
metal "bronze" usually refers to copper-tin alloys, it also is a generic term for any alloy of copper, such as aluminium bronze, silicon
bronze, and manganese bronze.

Electrical properties

Copper electrical busbars distributing power to a large building.

At 59.6 106 S/m copper has the second highest electrical conductivity of any element after silver. This high value is due to virtually
all the valence electrons (one per atom) taking part in conduction. The resulting free electrons in the copper amounting to a huge
charge density of 13.6x109 C/m3. This high charge density is responsible for the rather slow drift velocity of currents in copper cable
(drift velocity may be calculated as the ratio of current density to charge density). For instance, at a current density of 5x10 6 A/m2
(typically, the maximum current density present in household wiring and grid distribution) the drift velocity is just a little over
mm/s.[18]

Corrosion

Pure water and air

Copper is a metal that does not react with water (H 2O), but the oxygen of the air will react slowly at room temperature to form a layer
of brown-black copper oxide on copper metal.

The Pourbaix diagram for copper in pure water, perchloric acid or sodium It can be seen that copper in "pure" water is more noble
than hydrogen. As a result it does not corrode in oxygen free water and the corrosion rate in oxygenated water is low. hydroxide[19]

It is important to note that in contrast to the oxidation of iron by wet air that the layer formed by the reaction of air with copper has a
protective effect against further corrosion. On old copper roofs a green layer of copper carbonate, called verdigris, can often be seen.
Another notable example of this is on the Statue of Liberty.

In contact with other metals

Copper should not be in only mechanical contact with metals of different electropotential (for example, a copper pipe joined to an
iron pipe), especially in the presence of moisture, as the completion of an electrical circuit (as through the common earth ground) will
cause the juncture to act as an electrochemical cell (as is a single cell of a battery). The weak electrical currents themselves are
harmless but the electrochemical reaction will cause the conversion of the iron to other compounds, eventually destroying the
functionality of the union. This problem is usually solved in plumbing by separating copper pipe from iron pipe with some non-
conducting segment (usually plastic or rubber).

Sulfide media

Copper metal does react with hydrogen sulfide- and sulfide-containing solutions. A series of different copper sulfides can form on the
surface of the copper metal.

The Pourbaix diagram for copper in a sulfide containing aqueous medium[19]

Note that the copper sulfide area of the plot is very complex due to the existence of many different sulfides, a close up is also
provided to make the graph more clear. It is clear that the copper is now able to corrode even without the need for oxygen as the
copper is now less noble than hydrogen. This can be observed in everyday life when copper metal surfaces tarnish after exposure to
air which contains sulfur compounds.

The Pourbaix diagram for copper in a sulfide containing aqueous medium[19]

Ammonia media
Copper does react with oxygen-containing ammonia solutions because the ammonia forms water-soluble copper complexes. The
formation of these complexes causes the corrosion to become more thermodynamically favored than the corrosion of copper in an
identical solution that does not contain the ammonia.

The Pourbaix diagram for copper in 10 M ammonia solution[19]

Chloride media

Copper does react with a combination of oxygen and hydrochloric acid to form a series of copper chlorides. It is interesting to note
that if copper(II) chloride (green/blue) is boiled with copper metal (with little or no oxygen present) then white copper(I) chloride will
be formed.

The Pourbaix diagram for copper in a chloride solution[19]

Germicidal effect

Copper is germicidal, via the oligodynamic effect. For example, brass doorknobs disinfect themselves of many bacteria within a
period of eight hours.[20] Antimicrobial properties of copper are effective against MRSA,[21] Escherichia coli[22] and other pathogens.[23]
[24][25]
In colder temperature, longer time is required to kill bacteria.

Copper has the intrinsic ability to kill a variety of potentially harmful pathogens. On February 29, 2008, the United States EPA
registered 275 alloys, containing greater than 65% nominal copper content, as antimicrobial materials [26]. Registered alloys include
pure copper, an assortment of brasses and bronzes, and additional alloys. EPA-sanctioned tests using Good Laboratory Practices were
conducted in order to obtain several antimicrobial claims valid against: methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA),
Staphylococcus aureus, Enterobacter aerogenes, E. coli O157: H7 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The EPA registration allows the
manufacturers of these copper alloys to legally make public health claims as to the health effects of these materials. Several of the
aforementioned bacteria are responsible for a large portion of the nearly two million hospital-acquired infections contracted each year
in the United States[27]. Frequently touched surfaces in hospitals and public facilities harbor bacteria and increase the risk for
contracting infections. Covering touch surfaces with copper alloys can help reduce microbial contamination associated with hospital-
acquired-infections on these surfaces.

Isotopes

Copper has 29 distinct isotopes ranging in atomic mass from 52 to 80. Two of these, 63Cu and 65Cu, are stable and occur naturally,
with 63Cu comprising approximately 69% of naturally occurring copper.[28]

The other 27 isotopes are radioactive and do not occur naturally. The most stable of these is 67Cu with a half-life of 61.83 hours. The
least stable is 54Cu with a half-life of approximately 75 ns. Unstable copper isotopes with atomic masses below 63 tend to undergo +
decay, while isotopes with atomic masses above 65 tend to undergo decay. 64Cu decays by both + and .[28]

68
Cu, 69Cu, 71Cu, 72Cu, and 76Cu each have one metastable isomer. 70Cu has two isomers, making a total of 7 distinct isomers. The most
stable of these is 68mCu with a half-life of 3.75 minutes. The least stable is 69mCu with a half-life of 360 ns.[28]

Output

In 2005, Chile was the top mine producer of copper with at least one-third world share followed by the USA, Indonesia and Peru,
reports the British Geological Survey.

Most copper ore is mined or extracted as copper sulfides from large open pit mines in porphyry copper deposits that contain 0.4 to 1.0
percent copper. Examples include: Chuquicamata in Chile and El Chino Mine in New Mexico. The average abundance of copper
found within crustal rocks is approximately 68 ppm by mass, and 22 ppm by atoms.

The Intergovernmental Council of Copper Exporting Countries (CIPEC), defunct since 1992, once tried to play a similar role for
copper as OPEC does for oil, but never achieved the same influence, not least because the second-largest producer, the United States,
was never a member. Formed in 1967, its principal members were Chile, Peru, Zaire, and Zambia.

The copper price has quintupled from the 60-year low in 1999, rising from US$0.60 per pound (US$1.32/kg) in June 1999 to
US$3.75 per pound (US$8.27/kg) in May 2006, where it dropped to US$2.40 per pound (US$5.29/kg) in February 2007 then
rebounded to US$3.50 per pound (US$7.71/kg = 3.89 = 5.00) in April 2007.[29] By early February 2009, however, weakening global
demand and a steep fall in commodity prices since the previous year's highs had left copper prices at US$1.51 per pound. [30]
The Earth has an estimated 61 years of copper reserves remaining. [31] Environmental analyst, Lester Brown, however, has suggested
copper might run out within 25 years based on a reasonable extrapolation of 2% growth per year. [32]

Copper has been in use at least 10,000 years, but more than 95 percent of all copper ever mined and smelted has been extracted since
1900. And as India and China race to catch up with the West, copper supplies are getting tight. [33] Copper is among the most important
industrial metals. Like fossil fuels, copper is a finite resource. Peak copper is the point in time at which the maximum global copper
production rate is reached, according to Hubbert peak theory, the rate of production enters its terminal decline.

Methods

Piping

including water supply.

Assorted copper fittings.

used extensively in refrigeration and air conditioning equipment because of its ease of fabrication and soldering.

system.

Compounds

Common oxidation states of copper include the less stable copper(I) state, Cu +; and the more stable copper(II) state, Cu 2+, which
forms blue or blue-green salts and solutions. Under unusual conditions, a 3+ state and even an extremely rare 4+ state can be
obtained. Using old nomenclature for the naming of salts, copper(I) is called cuprous, and copper(II) is cupric. In oxidation copper is
mildly basic.

Copper(II) carbonate is green from which arises the unique appearance of copper-clad roofs or domes on some buildings. Copper(II)
sulfate forms a blue crystalline pentahydrate which is perhaps the most familiar copper compound in the laboratory. It is used as a
fungicide, known as Bordeaux mixture.

There are two stable copper oxides, copper(II) oxide (CuO) and copper(I) oxide (Cu2O). Copper oxides are used to make yttrium
barium copper oxide (YBa2Cu3O7-) or YBCO which forms the basis of many unconventional superconductors.

Copper(I) compounds: copper(I) chloride, copper(I) bromide, copper(I) iodide, copper(I) oxide.

Copper(II) compounds: copper(II) acetate, copper(II) carbonate, copper(II) chloride, copper(II) hydroxide, copper(II)
nitrate, copper(II) oxide, copper(II) sulfate, copper(II) sulfide, copper(II) tetrafluoroborate, copper(II) triflate.

Copper(III) compounds, rare: potassium hexafluorocuprate (K3CuF6)

Copper(IV) compounds, extremely rare: caesium hexafluorocuprate (Cs2CuF6)

See also: Category:Copper compounds

Tests for copper(II) ion

Add aqueous sodium hydroxide. A blue precipitate of copper(II) hydroxide should form.

Ionic equation:

Cu2+(aq) + 2OH(aq) Cu(OH)2(s)

The full equation shows that the reaction is due to hydroxide ions deprotonating the hexaaquacopper (II) complex:

[Cu(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 2 OH(aq) Cu(H2O)4(OH)2(s) + 2 H2O (l)

Adding ammonium hydroxide (aqueous ammonia) causes the same precipitate to form. It then dissolves upon adding excess
ammonia, to form a deep blue ammonia complex, tetraamminecopper(II).

Ionic equation:

Cu(H2O)4(OH)2(s) + 4 NH3(aq) [Cu(H2O)2(NH3)4]2+(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2 OH(aq)

A more delicate test than ammonia is potassium ferrocyanide, which gives a brown precipitate with copper salts.

Biological role

Rich sources of copper include oysters, beef or lamb liver, Brazil nuts, blackstrap molasses, cocoa, and black pepper. Good sources
include lobster, nuts and sunflower seeds, green olives, avocados and wheat bran.

Copper is essential in all plants and animals. Copper is carried mostly in the bloodstream on a plasma protein called ceruloplasmin.
When copper is first absorbed in the gut it is transported to the liver bound to albumin. Copper is found in a variety of enzymes,
including the copper centers of cytochrome c oxidase and the enzyme superoxide dismutase (containing copper and zinc). In addition
to its enzymatic roles, copper is used for biological electron transport. The blue copper proteins that participate in electron transport
include azurin and plastocyanin. The name "blue copper" comes from their intense blue color arising from a ligand-to-metal charge
transfer (LMCT) absorption band around 600 nm.

Most molluscs and some arthropods such as the horseshoe crab use the copper-containing pigment hemocyanin rather than iron-
containing hemoglobin for oxygen transport, so their blood is blue when oxygenated rather than red.[42]

It is believed that zinc and copper compete for absorption in the digestive tract so that a diet that is excessive in one of these minerals
may result in a deficiency in the other. The RDA for copper in normal healthy adults is 0.9 mg/day. On the other hand, professional
research on the subject recommends 3.0 mg/day.[43] Because of its role in facilitating iron uptake, copper deficiency can often produce
anemia-like symptoms. In humans, the symptoms of Wilson's disease are caused by an accumulation of copper in body tissues.

Reference ranges for blood tests, comparing blood content of copper (shown in light blue in middle) with other constituents.

Chronic copper depletion leads to abnormalities in metabolism of fats, high triglycerides, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), fatty
liver disease and poor melanin and dopamine synthesis causing depression and sunburn. Food rich in copper should be eaten away
from any milk or egg proteins as they block absorption.

Toxicity

Toxicity can occur from eating acidic food that has been cooked with copper cookware. Cirrhosis of the liver in children (Indian
Childhood Cirrhosis) has been linked to boiling milk in copper cookware. The Merck Manual states that recent studies suggest that a
genetic defect is associated with this cirrhosis, but this should not be regarded as an endorsement of the practice since other toxicity
besides cirrhosis can occur as in adults.[44]

Cast iron

Iron alloy phases

vde
Ferrite (-iron, -iron; soft)
Austenite (-iron; harder)
Spheroidite
Pearlite (88% ferrite, 12% cementite)
Bainite
Martensite
Ledeburite (ferrite-cementite eutectic, 4.3% carbon)
Cementite (iron carbide, Fe3C; hardest)
Steel classes
Carbon steel (2.1% carbon; low alloy)
Stainless steel (+chromium)
Maraging steel (+nickel)
Alloy steel (hard)
Tool steel (harder)
Other iron-based materials
Cast iron (>2.1% carbon)
Ductile iron
Wrought iron (contains slag)

Iron-Cementite meta-stable diagram.

Cast iron usually refers to grey cast iron, but also identifies a large group of ferrous alloys, which solidify with a eutectic. The color
of a fractured surface can be used to identify an alloy. White cast iron is named after its white surface when fractured due to its
carbide impurities which allow cracks to pass straight through. Grey cast iron is named after its grey fractured surface, which occurs
because the graphitic flakes deflect a passing crack and initiate countless new cracks as the material breaks.
Iron (Fe) accounts for more than 95 %wt of the alloy material, while the main alloying elements are carbon (C) and silicon (Si). The
amount of carbon in cast irons is 2.1-4 %wt. Cast irons contain appreciable amounts of silicon, normally 1-3 %wt, and consequently
these alloys should be considered ternary Fe-C-Si alloys. Despite this, the principles of cast iron solidification are understood from
the binary iron-carbon phase diagram, where the eutectic point lies at 1154 C and 4.3 wt% carbon. Since cast iron has nearly this
composition, its melting temperature of 1150 to 1200 C is about 300 C lower than the melting point of pure iron.

Cast iron tends to be brittle, except for malleable cast irons. With its low melting point, good fluidity, castability, excellent
machinability, resistance to deformation, and wear resistance, cast irons have become an engineering material with a wide range of
applications, including pipes, machine and car parts, such as cylinder heads, blocks, and gearbox cases. It is resistant to destruction
and weakening by oxidization (rust).

Production

Cast iron is made by remelting pig iron, often along with substantial quantities of scrap iron and scrap steel, and taking various steps
to remove undesirable contaminants such as phosphorus and sulfur. Depending on the application, carbon and silicon content are
reduced to the desired levels, which may be anywhere from 2% to 3.5% and 1% to 3% respectively. Other elements are then added to
the melt before the final form is produced by casting.[citation needed]

Iron is most commonly melted in a special type of blast furnace known as a cupola. After melting is complete, the molten iron is
removed or ladled from the forehearth of the blast furnace.

Varieties of cast iron

Grey cast iron

Silicon is essential to making grey cast iron as opposed to white cast iron. When silicon is alloyed with ferrite and carbon in amounts
of about 2 percent, the carbide of iron becomes unstable. Silicon causes the carbon to rapidly come out of solution as graphite, leaving
a matrix of relatively pure, soft iron. Weak bonding between planes of graphite lead to a high activation energy for growth in that
direction, resulting in thin, round flakes. This structure has several useful properties.

The metal expands slightly on solidifying as the graphite precipitates, resulting in sharp castings. The graphite content also offers
good corrosion resistance.

Graphite acts as a lubricant, improving wear resistance. The exceptionally high speed of sound in graphite gives cast iron a much
higher thermal conductivity[citation needed].. Since ferrite is so different in this respect (having heavier atoms, bonded much less tightly)
phonons tend to scatter at the interface between the two materials. In practical terms, this means that cast iron tends to damp
mechanical vibrations (including sound), which can help machinery to run more smoothly.

All of the properties listed in the paragraph above ease the machining of grey cast iron. The sharp edges of graphite flakes also tend to
concentrate stress, allowing cracks to form much more easily, so that material can be removed much more efficiently.

Easier initiation of cracks can be a drawback once an item is finished, however: grey cast iron has less tensile strength and shock
resistance than steel. It is also difficult to weld. However, compressive strength can be almost as high as for some mild steels.

Grey cast iron's high thermal conductivity and specific heat capacity are often exploited to make cast iron cookware and disc brake
rotors.

Other cast iron alloys

With a lower silicon content and faster cooling, the carbon in white cast iron precipitates out of the melt as the metastable phase
cementite, Fe3C, rather than graphite. The cementite which precipitates from the melt forms as relatively large particles, usually in a
eutectic mixture where the other phase is austenite (which on cooling might transform to martensite). These eutectic carbides are
much too large to provide precipitation hardening (as in some steels, where cementite precipitates might inhibit plastic deformation
by impeding the movement of dislocations through the ferrite matrix). Rather, they increase the bulk hardness of the cast iron simply
by virtue of their own very high hardness and their substantial volume fraction, such that the bulk hardness can be approximated by a
rule of mixtures. In any case, they offer hardness at the expense of toughness. Since carbide makes up a large fraction of the material,
white cast iron could reasonably be classified as a cermet. White iron is too brittle for use in many structural components, but with
good hardness and abrasion resistance and relatively low cost, it finds use in such applications as the wear surfaces (impeller and
volute) of slurry pumps, shell liners and lifter bars in ball mills and autogenous grinding mills, balls and rings in coal pulverisers and
(conceivably?) balls for rolling-element bearings and the teeth of a backhoe's digging bucket (although the latter two applications
would normally use high quality wrought high-carbon martensitic steels and cast medium-carbon martensitic steels respectively).
It is difficult to cool thick castings fast enough to solidify the melt as white cast iron all the way through. However, rapid cooling can
be used to solidify a shell of white cast iron, after which the remainder cools more slowly to form a core of grey cast iron. The
resulting casting, called a chilled casting, has the benefits of a hard surface and a somewhat tougher interior.

White cast iron can also be made by using a high percentage of chromium in the iron; Cr is a strong carbide-forming element, so at
high enough percentages of chrome, the precipitation of graphite out of the iron is suppressed. High-chrome white iron alloys allow
massive castings (for example, a 10-tonne impeller) to be sand cast, i.e., a high cooling rate is not required, as well as providing
impressive abrasion resistance.

Malleable iron starts as a white iron casting, that is then heat treated at about 900 C. Graphite separates out much more slowly in
this case, so that surface tension has time to form it into spheroidal particles rather than flakes. Due to their lower aspect ratio,
spheroids are relatively short and far from one another, and have a lower cross section vis-a-vis a propagating crack or phonon. They
also have blunt boundaries, as opposed to flakes, which alleviates the stress concentration problems faced by grey cast iron. In
general, the properties of malleable cast iron are more like mild steel. There is a limit to how large a part can be cast in malleable iron,
since it is made from white cast iron.

A more recent development is nodular or ductile cast iron. Tiny amounts of magnesium or cerium added to these alloys slow down
the growth of graphite precipitates by bonding to the edges of the graphite planes. Along with careful control of other elements and
timing, this allows the carbon to separate as spheroidal particles as the material solidifies. The properties are similar to malleable iron
but parts can be cast with larger sections.

Cast iron is melted in furnaces usually in half ton measures [citation needed]. The metal melted usually consists of discs and drums [citation needed]
and its properties are changed by adding an inoculant. This alters the characteristics of the metal to various grades and
between grey and SG iron.

Comparative qualities of cast irons[1]

Nominal Yield strength Tensile Hardness
Form and Elongation [%
Name composition [% [ksi (0.2% strength [Brinell Uses
condition (in 2 inches)]
by weight] offset)] [ksi] scale]
Engine blocks, fly-
Cast grey iron C 3.4, Si 1.8, Mn
Cast 25 0.5 180 wheels, gears,
(ASTM A48) 0.5
machine-tool bases
C 3.4, Si 0.7, Mn
White Cast (as cast) 25 0 450 Bearing surfaces
0.6
Axle bearings, track
Malleable iron C 2.5, Si 1.0, Mn Cast
33 52 12 130 wheels, automotive
(ASTM A47) 0.55 (annealed)
crankshafts
C 3.4, P 0.1, Mn
Ductile or Gears, cams,
0.4, Ni 1.0, Mg Cast 53 70 18 170
nodular iron crankshafts
0.06
Ductile or
Cast (quench
nodular iron 108 135 5 310
tempered)
(ASTM A339)
C 2.7, Si 0.6, Mn
Ni-hard type 2 Sand-cast 55 550 Strength
0.5, Ni 4.5, Cr 2.0
C 3.0, Si 2.0, Mn Resistance to heat
Ni-resist type 2 Cast 27 2 140
1.0, Ni 20.0, Cr 2.5 and corrosion

Brass

Brass is any alloy of copper and zinc; the proportions of zinc and copper can be varied to create a range of brasses with varying
properties.[1] In comparison, bronze is principally an alloy of copper and tin.[2] Despite this distinction, some types of brasses are
called bronzes. Brass is a substitutional alloy. It is used for decoration for its bright gold-like appearance; for applications where low
friction is required such as locks, gears, bearings,doorknobs, ammunition, and valves; for plumbing and electrical applications; and
extensively in musical instruments such as horns and bells for its acoustic properties. It is also used in zippers.

Brass has a muted yellow color, somewhat similar to gold. It is relatively resistant to tarnishing, and is often used as decoration and
for coins. In antiquity, polished brass was often used as a mirror.

Brass has likely been known to humans since prehistoric times, even before zinc itself was discovered. It was produced by melting
copper together with calamine, a zinc ore. In the German village of Breinigerberg, an ancient Roman settlement was discovered
where a calamine ore mine existed. During the melting process, the zinc is extracted from the calamine and mixes with the copper.
Pure zinc, on the other hand, has too low a boiling point to have been produced by ancient metalworking techniques. The many
references to 'brass' appearing throughout the King James Bible are thought to signify another bronze alloy, or copper, rather than the
strict modern definition of 'brass'.[3]

Properties

The malleability and acoustic properties of brass have made it the metal of choice for brass musical instruments such as the trombone,
tuba, trumpet, euphonium, and the French horn. Even though the saxophone is classified as a woodwind instrument and the
harmonica is a free reed aerophone, both are also often made from brass. In organ pipes designed as "reed" pipes, brass strips are used
as the "reeds".

Brass has higher malleability than copper or zinc. The relatively low melting point of brass (900 to 940C, depending on composition)
and its flow characteristics make it a relatively easy material to cast. By varying the proportions of copper and zinc, the properties of
the brass can be changed, allowing hard and soft brasses. The density of brass is approximately 8400 to 8730 kilograms per cubic
metre[4] (equivalent to 8.4 to 8.73 grams per cubic centimetre).

Today almost 90%[citation needed] of all brass alloys are recycled. Because brass is not ferromagnetic, it can be separated from ferrous
scrap by passing the scrap near a powerful magnet. Brass scrap is collected and transported to the foundry where it is melted and
recast into billets. Billets are heated and extruded into the desired form and size.

Aluminium makes brass stronger and more corrosion resistant. Aluminium also causes a highly beneficial hard layer of aluminium
oxide (Al2O3) to be formed on the surface that is thin, transparent and self healing. Tin has a similar effect and finds its use especially
in sea water applications (naval brasses). Combinations of iron, aluminium, silicon and manganese make brass wear and tear resistant.
A well known alloy used in the automotive industry is 'LDM C673', where the combination of manganese and silicon leads to a strong
and resistant brass.

Applications

The so called dezincification resistant (DZR) brasses, like alloy 'LDM G563' (known for its brand name 'Enkotal'), are used where
there is a large corrosion risk and where normal brasses do not meet the standards. Applications with high water temperatures,
chlorides present or deviating water qualities (soft water) play a role. DZR-brass is excellent in water boiler systems. This brass alloy
must be produced with great care, with special attention placed on a balanced composition and proper production temperatures and
parameters to avoid long-term failures.

The copper in brass makes brass germicidal, via the oligodynamic effect. For example, brass doorknobs disinfect themselves of many
bacteria within eight hours[5]. This effect is important in hospitals, but useful in many contexts.

Brass door hardware is generally lacquered when new, which prevents tarnishing of the metal for a few years when located outside
(and indefinitely when located indoors). After this most manufacturers recommend that the lacquer is removed (e.g. with paint
stripper) and the items regularly polished to maintain a bright finish. Unlacquered brass weathers more attractively than brass with
deteriorated lacquer, even if polishing is not carried out. Freshly polished brass is similar to gold in appearance, but becomes more
reddish within days of exposure to the elements. A traditional polish is Brasso.

Brass was used to make fan blades, fan cages and motor bearings in many antique fans that date before the 1930s. Brass can be used
for fixings for use in cryogenic systems, however its use is not limited to this.[6]

Due to its natural heat conducting properties and its availability, brass was used to create the infamous Brazen Bull, a torture and
execution device in ancient Greece.

Season cracking

Brass is susceptible to stress corrosion cracking, especially from ammonia or substances containing or releasing ammonia. The
problem is sometimes known as season cracking after it was first discovered in brass cartridge cases used for rifle ammunition during
the 1920s in the Indian Army. Brittle cracks could cause serious accidents if the case was too weak to resist the charge when the rifle
was fired. The problem was caused by high residual stresses from cold forming of the cases during manufacture, and was cured by
annealing the cases.

Brass types

Admiralty brass contains 30% zinc and 1% tin which inhibits dezincification in most environments.
Alpha brasses with less than 35% zinc, are malleable, can be worked cold, and are used in pressing, forging, or similar
applications. They contain only one phase, with face-centered cubic crystal structure. Prince's metal or Prince Rupert's
metal is a type of alpha brass containing 75% copper and 25% zinc. Due to its beautiful yellow color, it is used as an
imitation of gold.[7] The alloy was named after Prince Rupert of the Rhine.
 Alpha-beta brass (Muntz metal), also called duplex brass, is 35-45% zinc and is suited for hot working. It contains both
and ' phase; the '-phase is body-centered cubic and is harder and stronger than . Alpha-beta brasses are usually worked
hot.

Aluminium brass contains aluminium, which improves its corrosion resistance. It is used in Euro coins (Nordic gold).

Arsenical brass contains an addition of arsenic and frequently aluminium and is used for boiler fireboxes.

Beta brasses, with 45-50% zinc content, can only be worked hot, and are harder, stronger, and suitable for casting.

Cartridge brass is a 30% zinc brass with good cold working properties.

Common brass, or rivet brass, is a 37% zinc brass, cheap and standard for cold working.

DZR brass is dezincification resistant brass with a small percentage of arsenic.

Gilding metal is the softest type of brass commonly available. An alloy of 95% copper and 5% zinc, gilding metal is
typically used for ammunition components.

High brass contains 65% copper and 35% zinc, has a high tensile strength and is used for springs, screws, and rivets.

Leaded brass is an alpha-beta brass with an addition of lead. It has excellent machinability.

Low brass is a copper-zinc alloy containing 20% zinc with a light golden color and excellent ductility; it is used for flexible
metal hoses and metal bellows.

Naval brass, similar to admiralty brass, is 40% zinc and 1% tin.

Red brass is an American term for the copper-zinc-tin alloy known as gunmetal, which is technically not brass,.

Rich low brass (Tombac) is 15% zinc. It is often used in jewelry applications.

White brass contains more than 50% zinc and is too brittle for general use.

Yellow brass is an American term for 33% zinc brass.

Manganese brass is a brass most notably used in making Golden Dollar coins in the United States. It contains roughly 70%
copper, 29% zinc, and 1.3% manganese [2]

Firebox (steam engine)

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For other uses, see Firebox.
The firebox of a coal-fired train steam engine.
In a steam engine, the firebox is the area where the fuel is burned, producing heat to boil the water in the boiler. Most are
somewhat box-shaped, hence the name.

In the standard steam locomotive firetube type boiler, the firebox is surrounded by water space on five sides. The underside
is not so surrounded. If the engine burns solid fuel, there is a grate covering most of the bottom of the firebox to hold the
fuel. An ashpan collects the solid combustion waste below. Combustion air generally enters at the base, and the airflow is
usually controlled by damper doors. There is a large brick arch (made from fire brick) at the front of the box which directs
heat and flames back towards the firedoor at the rear. Without the arch, flames would be sucked straight into the firetubes
and only the front of the box would receive heat. Both the brick arch and the bars of the grate require periodic replacement
due to the extreme heat to which they are subjected.

Section of typical boiler and firebox

Firetubes are attached to one wall of the firebox (the front wall for a longitudinal boiler, the top for a vertical boiler) and
carry the hot gaseous products of combustion through the boiler water, heating it, before they escape to the atmosphere.

The metal walls of the firebox are normally called sheets, which are separated by stays. Since any corrosion is hidden, the
stays may have longitudinal holes, called tell-tales, drilled in them which leak before they become unsafe. The crown sheet is
the top of the firebox.

Normally the top of the firebox is semicircular to match the contour of the boiler, however the Belpaire firebox has more of a
square shape and is usually made as large as possible within the loading gauge, to offer the greatest heating surface where
the fire is hottest.
 The Wootten firebox was very tall and wide to allow combustion of anthracite coal waste. Its size necessitated unusual
placement of the crew, examples being camelback locomotives.

Cutaway of locomotive firebox and boiler. Note the stays to support the "sheets" (plates) against pressure, the fusible plugs
and the "mudhole" to allow access for scraping away scale
Some fireboxes were equipped with a so-called combustion chamber which placed additional space between the fire and the
boiler. This allowed more complete combustion and thus greater heat.

The fireman's chief duty on a steam locomotive is to maintain the boiler water level so that it covers the firebox crown sheet
at all times. Otherwise, the latter will desiccate, overheat and weaken, and a boiler explosion may result.

] Different Types of Firebox

Locomotive with a normal The flat sides and square corners show the The Wootten firebox can be seen as the large
firebox. The round top of the shape of the Belpaire firebox. This offers a construction just in front of the tender. Note the
firebox makes attaching the greater heating surface, increasing the unusual position of the drivers cab. The fireman was
boiler easier efficiency of the engine left exposed between firebox and tender

Rolling is a fabricating process in which the metal, plastic, paper, glass, etc. is passed through a pair (or pairs) of rolls. There are two
types of rolling process, flat and profile rolling. In flat rolling the final shape of the product is either classed as sheet (typically
thickness less than 3 mm, also called "strip") or plate (typically thickness more than 3 mm). In profile rolling the final product may
be a round rod or other shaped bar, such as a structural section (beam, channel, joist etc). Rolling is also classified according to the
temperature of the metal rolled. If the temperature of the metal is above its recrystallization temperature, then the process is termed as
hot rolling. If the temperature of the metal is below its recrystallization temperature, the process is termed as cold rolling. Another
process also termed as 'hot bending' is induction bending, whereby the section is heated in small sections and dragged into a required
radius.

Heavy plates tend to be formed using a press process, which is termed forming, rather than rolling.

Hot Rolling

Hot rolling is a hot working metalworking process where large pieces of metal, such as slabs or billets, are heated above their
recrystallization temperature and then deformed between rollers to form thinner cross sections. Hot rolling produces thinner cross
sections than cold rolling processes with the same number of stages. Hot rolling, due to recrystallization, will reduce the average grain
size of a metal while maintaining an equiaxed microstructure where as cold rolling will produce a hardened microstructure.

Hot Rolling Process

A slab or billet is passed or deformed between a set of work rolls and the temperature of the metal is generally above its
recrystallization temperature, as opposed to cold rolling, which takes place below this temperature. Hot rolling permits large
deformations of the metal to be achieved with a low number of rolling cycles. As the rolling process breaks up the grains, they
recrystallize maintaining an equiaxed structure and preventing the metal from hardening. Hot rolled material typically does not
require annealing and the high temperature will prevent residual stress from accumulating in the material resulting better dimensional
stability than cold worked materials.

Hot rolling is primarily concerned with manipulating material shape and geometry rather than mechanical properties. This is achieved
by heating a component or material to its upper critical temperature and then applying controlled load which forms the material to a
desired specification or size.

Hot Rolling Applications

Hot rolling is used mainly to produce sheet metal or simple cross sections such as rail road bars from billets.

Mechanical properties of the material in its final 'as-rolled' form are a function of:

material chemistry,
reheat temperature,

rate of temperature decrease during deformation,

rate of deformation,

heat of deformation,

total reduction,
 recovery time,

recrystallisation time, and

subsequent rate of cooling after deformation.

Types of Hot Rolling Mills

Prior to continuous casting technology, ingots were rolled to approximately 200 millimetres (7.9 in) thick in a slab or bloom mill.
Blooms have a nominal square cross section, whereas slabs are rectangular in cross section.

Slabs are the feed material for hot strip mills or plate mills and blooms are rolled to billets in a billet mill or large sections in a
structural mill.

The output from a strip mill is coiled and, subsequently, used as the feed for a cold rolling mill or used directly by fabricators. Billets,
for re-rolling, are subsequently rolled in either a merchant, bar or rod mill.

Merchant or bar mills produce a variety of shaped products such as angles, channels, beams, rounds (long or coiled) and hexagons.
Rounds less than 16 millimetres (0.63 in) in diameter are more efficiently rolled from billet in a rod mill.

Cold rolling

Rolling mill for cold rolling metal sheet like this piece of brass sheet.

Cold rolling is a metalworking process in which metal is deformed by passing it through rollers at a temperature below its
recrystallization temperature. Cold rolling increases the yield strength and hardness of a metal by introducing defects into the metal's
crystal structure. These defects prevent further slip and can reduce the grain size of the metal, resulting in Hall-Petch hardening.

Cold rolling is most often used to decrease the thickness of plate and sheet metal.

Physical metallurgy of cold rolling

Cold rolling is a method of cold working a metal. When a metal is cold worked, microscopic defects are nucleated throughout the
deformed area. These defects can be either point defects (a vacancy on the crystal lattice) or a line defect (an extra half plane of atoms
jammed in a crystal). As defects accumulate through deformation, it becomes increasingly more difficult for slip, or the movement of
defects, to occur. This results in a hardening of the metal.

If enough grains split apart, a grain may split into two or more grains in order to minimize the strain energy of the system. When large
grains split into smaller grains, the alloy hardens as a result of the Hall-Petch relationship. If cold work is continued, the hardened
metal may fracture.

During cold rolling, metal absorbs a great deal of energy. Some of this energy is used to nucleate and move defects (and subsequently
deform the metal). The remainder of the energy is released as heat.

While cold rolling increases the hardness and strength of a metal, it also results in a large decrease in ductility. Thus metals
strengthened by cold rolling are more sensitive to the presence of cracks and are prone to brittle fracture.

A metal that has been hardened by cold rolling can be softened by annealing. Annealing will relieve stresses, allow grain growth, and
restore the original properties of the alloy. Ductility is also restored by annealing. Thus, after annealing, the metal may be further cold
rolled without fracturing.

Degree of cold work

Cold rolled metal is given a rating based on the degree it was cold worked. "Skin-rolled" metal undergoes the least rolling, being
compressed only 0.5-1% to harden the surface of the metal and make it more easily workable for later processes. Higher ratings are
"quarter hard," "half hard" and "full hard"; in the last of these, the thickness of the metal is reduced by 50%.

Cold rolling as a manufacturing process

Cold rolling is a common manufacturing process. It is often used to form sheet metal. Beverage cans are closed by rolling, and steel
food cans are strengthened by rolling ribs into their sides. Rolling mills are commonly used to precisely reduce the thickness of strip
and sheet metals.
Foil rolling

Foil rolling is a continuous deformation process compressing metal between a pair of rollers called work rolls.[1] Another term for this
process is called plate roll bending. This is defined as a cold forming process where plate and steel metal is formed into cylindrical
shapes by a combination of three rolls arranged in a pyramid formation. Two of the rolls are power driven, in a fixed position, and the
third is adjustable to suit the desired bend radius and workpiece thickness.

Foil is produced for several applications:

Thermal insulation for the construction industry

Fin stock for air conditioners

Electrical coils for transformers

Capacitors for radios and televisions

Insulation for storage tanks

Decorative products

Containers and packaging

Foil stock is reduced in thickness by a rolling mill, where the material is passed several times through metal work rolls. As the sheets
of metal pass through the rolls, they are squeezed thinner and extruded through the gap between the rolls. The work rolls are paired
with heavier rolls called backup rolls, which apply pressure to help maintain the stability of the work rolls. The work and backup rolls
rotate in opposite directions. As the foil sheets come through the rollers, they are trimmed and slitted with circular or razor-like knives
installed on the rolling mill. Trimming refers to the edges of the foil, while slitting involves cutting it into several sheets.[2]

Aluminium alloys are most commonly produced in the foil rolling process because the raw materials necessary for its manufacture are
abundant. Aluminium foil is inexpensive, durable, non-toxic, and greaseproof. Iron, silicon, and manganese are all major alloying
elements. Sheet metals with a thickness below 200 micrometers are considered foils (Some foils may be as thin as 6.3 micrometers). [3]

Plate Roll Bending

"Plate Roll Bending is a cold forming process. Plate or steel metal is formed into cylindrical shapes by a combination of three rolls
arranged in a pyramid formation. Two of the rolls are power driven, in a fixed position, and the third is adjustable to suit the desired
bend radius and workpiece thickness."[4]

Workpiece Geometry

"Shapes produced range from simple cylindrically shaped parts to more complex parts, such as conical and flattened from 1/16in to
6in, and lengths of up to 20in, or more, can be formed by this method."[5]

Progressive Roll Forming

Roll forming, also spelled rollforming, is a continuous bending operation in which a long strip of metal (typically coiled steel) is
passed through consecutive sets of rolls, or stands, each performing only an incremental part of the bend, until the desired cross-
section profile is obtained. Roll forming is ideal for producing parts with long lengths or in large quantities.

Geometric Possibilities

The geometric possibilities can be very broad and even include enclosed shapes so long as it is the same cross-section throughout.
Typical sheeting thicknesses range from 0.025in. to 0.25in., but they can exceed that. Length is almost unaffected by the rolling
process. The part widths typically aren't smaller than 1in. however they can exceed 20in.[6]

Welding

Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, usually metals or thermoplastics, by causing coalescence. This is
often done by melting the workpieces and adding a filler material to form a pool of molten material (the weld pool) that cools to
become a strong joint, with pressure sometimes used in conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce the weld. This is in contrast
with soldering and brazing, which involve melting a lower-melting-point material between the workpieces to form a bond between
them, without melting the workpieces.

Gas metal arc welding

Many different energy sources can be used for welding, including a gas flame, an electric arc, a laser, an electron beam, friction, and
ultrasound. While often an industrial process, welding can be done in many different environments, including open air, under water
and in outer space. Regardless of location, however, welding remains dangerous, and precautions must be taken to avoid burns,
electric shock, eye damage, poisonous fumes, and overexposure to ultraviolet light.

Until the end of the 19th century, the only welding process was forge welding, which blacksmiths had used for centuries to join metals
by heating and pounding them. Arc welding and oxyfuel welding were among the first processes to develop late in the century, and
resistance welding followed soon after. Welding technology advanced quickly during the early 20th century as World War I and World
War II drove the demand for reliable and inexpensive joining methods. Following the wars, several modern welding techniques were
developed, including manual methods like shielded metal arc welding, now one of the most popular welding methods, as well as
semi-automatic and automatic processes such as gas metal arc welding, submerged arc welding, flux-cored arc welding and
electroslag welding. Developments continued with the invention of laser beam welding and electron beam welding in the latter half
of the century. Today, the science continues to advance. Robot welding is becoming more commonplace in industrial settings, and
researchers continue to develop new welding methods and gain greater understanding of weld quality and properties.

The history of joining metals goes back several millennia, with the earliest examples of welding from the Bronze Age and the Iron Age
in Europe and the Middle East. Welding was used in the construction of the iron pillar in Delhi, India, erected about 310 AD and
weighing 5.4 metric tons.[1] The Middle Ages brought advances in forge welding, in which blacksmiths pounded heated metal
repeatedly until bonding occurred. In 1540, Vannoccio Biringuccio published De la pirotechnia, which includes descriptions of the
forging operation. Renaissance craftsmen were skilled in the process, and the industry continued to grow during the following
centuries.[2] Welding, however, was transformed during the 19th centuryin 1800, Sir Humphry Davy discovered the electric arc, and
advances in arc welding continued with the invention of metal electrodes in the late 1800s by a Russian, Nikolai Slavyanov, and an
American, C. L. Coffin, even as carbon arc welding, which used a carbon electrode, gained popularity. Around 1900, A. P. Strohmenger
released a coated metal electrode in Britain, which gave a more stable arc, and in 1919, alternating current welding was invented by
C. J. Holslag but did not become popular for another decade.[3]

Resistance welding was also developed during the final decades of the 19th century, with the first patents going to Elihu Thomson in
1885, who produced further advances over the next 15 years. Thermite welding was invented in 1893, and around that time another
process, oxyfuel welding, became well established. Acetylene was discovered in 1836 by Edmund Davy, but its use was not practical
in welding until about 1900, when a suitable blowtorch was developed.[4] At first, oxyfuel welding was one of the more popular
welding methods due to its portability and relatively low cost. As the 20th century progressed, however, it fell out of favor for
industrial applications. It was largely replaced with arc welding, as metal coverings (known as flux) for the electrode that stabilize the
arc and shield the base material from impurities continued to be developed. [5]

World War I caused a major surge in the use of welding processes, with the various military powers attempting to determine which of
the several new welding processes would be best. The British primarily used arc welding, even constructing a ship, the Fulagar, with
an entirely welded hull. Arc welding was first applied to aircraft during the war as well, as some German airplane fuselages were
constructed using the process.[6] Also noteworthy is the first welded road bridge in the world, designed by Stefan Brya of the Warsaw
University of Technology in 1927, and built across the river Sudwia Maurzyce near owicz, Poland in 1929.[7]

During the 1920s, major advances were made in welding technology, including the introduction of automatic welding in 1920, in
which electrode wire was fed continuously. Shielding gas became a subject receiving much attention, as scientists attempted to protect
welds from the effects of oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere. Porosity and brittleness were the primary problems, and the
solutions that developed included the use of hydrogen, argon, and helium as welding atmospheres. [8] During the following decade,
further advances allowed for the welding of reactive metals like aluminum and magnesium. This in conjunction with developments in
automatic welding, alternating current, and fluxes fed a major expansion of arc welding during the 1930s and then during World War
II.[9]

During the middle of the century, many new welding methods were invented. 1930 saw the release of stud welding, which soon
became popular in shipbuilding and construction. Submerged arc welding was invented the same year and continues to be popular
today. Gas tungsten arc welding, after decades of development, was finally perfected in 1941, and gas metal arc welding followed in
1948, allowing for fast welding of non-ferrous materials but requiring expensive shielding gases. Shielded metal arc welding was
developed during the 1950s, using a flux coated consumable electrode, and it quickly became the most popular metal arc welding
process. In 1957, the flux-cored arc welding process debuted, in which the self-shielded wire electrode could be used with automatic
equipment, resulting in greatly increased welding speeds, and that same year, plasma arc welding was invented. Electroslag welding
was introduced in 1958, and it was followed by its cousin, electrogas welding, in 1961.[10]

Other recent developments in welding include the 1958 breakthrough of electron beam welding, making deep and narrow welding
possible through the concentrated heat source. Following the invention of the laser in 1960, laser beam welding debuted several
decades later, and has proved to be especially useful in high-speed, automated welding. Both of these processes, however, continue to
be quite expensive due the high cost of the necessary equipment, and this has limited their applications. [11]

Processes
Arc

These processes use a welding power supply to create and maintain an electric arc between an electrode and the base material to melt
metals at the welding point. They can use either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-consumable
electrodes. The welding region is sometimes protected by some type of inert or semi-inert gas, known as a shielding gas, and filler
material is sometimes used as well.

Power supplies

To supply the electrical energy necessary for arc welding processes, a number of different power supplies can be used. The most
common welding power supplies are constant current power supplies and constant voltage power supplies. In arc welding, the length
of the arc is directly related to the voltage, and the amount of heat input is related to the current. Constant current power supplies are
most often used for manual welding processes such as gas tungsten arc welding and shielded metal arc welding, because they
maintain a relatively constant current even as the voltage varies. This is important because in manual welding, it can be difficult to
hold the electrode perfectly steady, and as a result, the arc length and thus voltage tend to fluctuate. Constant voltage power supplies
hold the voltage constant and vary the current, and as a result, are most often used for automated welding processes such as gas metal
arc welding, flux cored arc welding, and submerged arc welding. In these processes, arc length is kept constant, since any fluctuation
in the distance between the wire and the base material is quickly rectified by a large change in current. For example, if the wire and
the base material get too close, the current will rapidly increase, which in turn causes the heat to increase and the tip of the wire to
melt, returning it to its original separation distance.[12]

The type of current used in arc welding also plays an important role in welding. Consumable electrode processes such as shielded
metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding generally use direct current, but the electrode can be charged either positively or
negatively. In welding, the positively charged anode will have a greater heat concentration, and as a result, changing the polarity of
the electrode has an impact on weld properties. If the electrode is positively charged, the base metal will be hotter, increasing weld
penetration and welding speed. Alternatively, a negatively charged electrode results in more shallow welds. [13] Nonconsumable
electrode processes, such as gas tungsten arc welding, can use either type of direct current, as well as alternating current. However,
with direct current, because the electrode only creates the arc and does not provide filler material, a positively charged electrode
causes shallow welds, while a negatively charged electrode makes deeper welds. [14] Alternating current rapidly moves between these
two, resulting in medium-penetration welds. One disadvantage of AC, the fact that the arc must be re-ignited after every zero
crossing, has been addressed with the invention of special power units that produce a square wave pattern instead of the normal sine
wave, making rapid zero crossings possible and minimizing the effects of the problem.[15]

Processes

Shielded metal arc welding

One of the most common types of arc welding is shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), which is also known as manual metal arc
welding (MMA) or stick welding. Electric current is used to strike an arc between the base material and consumable electrode rod,
which is made of steel and is covered with a flux that protects the weld area from oxidation and contamination by producing CO2 gas
during the welding process. The electrode core itself acts as filler material, making a separate filler unnecessary.

The process is versatile and can be performed with relatively inexpensive equipment, making it well suited to shop jobs and field
work.[16] An operator can become reasonably proficient with a modest amount of training and can achieve mastery with experience.
Weld times are rather slow, since the consumable electrodes must be frequently replaced and because slag, the residue from the flux,
must be chipped away after welding. [17] Furthermore, the process is generally limited to welding ferrous materials, though special
electrodes have made possible the welding of cast iron, nickel, aluminium, copper, and other metals. Inexperienced operators may
find it difficult to make good out-of-position welds with this process.

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), also known as metal inert gas or MIG welding, is a semi-automatic or automatic process that uses a
continuous wire feed as an electrode and an inert or semi-inert gas mixture to protect the weld from contamination. As with SMAW,
reasonable operator proficiency can be achieved with modest training. Since the electrode is continuous, welding speeds are greater
for GMAW than for SMAW. Also, the smaller arc size compared to the shielded metal arc welding process makes it easier to make
out-of-position welds (e.g., overhead joints, as would be welded underneath a structure).

The equipment required to perform the GMAW process is more complex and expensive than that required for SMAW, and requires a
more complex setup procedure. Therefore, GMAW is less portable and versatile, and due to the use of a separate shielding gas, is not
particularly suitable for outdoor work. However, owing to the higher average rate at which welds can be completed, GMAW is well
suited to production welding. The process can be applied to a wide variety of metals, both ferrous and non-ferrous. [18]

A related process, flux-cored arc welding (FCAW), uses similar equipment but uses wire consisting of a steel electrode surrounding a
powder fill material. This cored wire is more expensive than the standard solid wire and can generate fumes and/or slag, but it permits
even higher welding speed and greater metal penetration.[19]
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), or tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding (also sometimes erroneously referred to as heliarc welding),
is a manual welding process that uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode, an inert or semi-inert gas mixture, and a separate filler
material. Especially useful for welding thin materials, this method is characterized by a stable arc and high quality welds, but it
requires significant operator skill and can only be accomplished at relatively low speeds.

GTAW can be used on nearly all weldable metals, though it is most often applied to stainless steel and light metals. It is often used
when quality welds are extremely important, such as in bicycle, aircraft and naval applications. [20] A related process, plasma arc
welding, also uses a tungsten electrode but uses plasma gas to make the arc. The arc is more concentrated than the GTAW arc, making
transverse control more critical and thus generally restricting the technique to a mechanized process. Because of its stable current, the
method can be used on a wider range of material thicknesses than can the GTAW process, and furthermore, it is much faster. It can be
applied to all of the same materials as GTAW except magnesium, and automated welding of stainless steel is one important
application of the process. A variation of the process is plasma cutting, an efficient steel cutting process.[21]

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a high-productivity welding method in which the arc is struck beneath a covering layer of flux. This
increases arc quality, since contaminants in the atmosphere are blocked by the flux. The slag that forms on the weld generally comes
off by itself, and combined with the use of a continuous wire feed, the weld deposition rate is high. Working conditions are much
improved over other arc welding processes, since the flux hides the arc and almost no smoke is produced. The process is commonly
used in industry, especially for large products and in the manufacture of welded pressure vessels. [22] Other arc welding processes
include atomic hydrogen welding, carbon arc welding, electroslag welding, electrogas welding, and stud arc welding.

Gas welding a steel armature using the oxy-acetylene process.

Gas

The most common gas welding process is oxyfuel welding, also known as oxyacetylene welding. It is one of the oldest and most
versatile welding processes, but in recent years it has become less popular in industrial applications. It is still widely used for welding
pipes and tubes, as well as repair work. It is also frequently well-suited, and favored, for fabricating some types of metal-based
artwork. Oxyfuel equipment is versatile, lending itself not only to some sorts of iron or steel welding but also to brazing, braze-
welding, metal heating (for bending and forming), and also oxyfuel cutting.

The equipment is relatively inexpensive and simple, generally employing the combustion of acetylene in oxygen to produce a
welding flame temperature of about 3100 C. The flame, since it is less concentrated than an electric arc, causes slower weld cooling,
which can lead to greater residual stresses and weld distortion, though it eases the welding of high alloy steels. A similar process,
generally called oxyfuel cutting, is used to cut metals. [5] Other gas welding methods, such as air acetylene welding, oxygen hydrogen
welding, and pressure gas welding are quite similar, generally differing only in the type of gases used. A water torch is sometimes
used for precision welding of small items such as jewelry. Gas welding is also used in plastic welding, though the heated substance is
air, and the temperatures are much lower.

Resistance

Resistance welding involves the generation of heat by passing current through the resistance caused by the contact between two or
more metal surfaces. Small pools of molten metal are formed at the weld area as high current (1000100,000 A) is passed through the
metal. In general, resistance welding methods are efficient and cause little pollution, but their applications are somewhat limited and
the equipment cost can be high.

Spot welder

Spot welding is a popular resistance welding method used to join overlapping metal sheets of up to 3 mm thick. Two electrodes are
simultaneously used to clamp the metal sheets together and to pass current through the sheets. The advantages of the method include
efficient energy use, limited workpiece deformation, high production rates, easy automation, and no required filler materials. Weld
strength is significantly lower than with other welding methods, making the process suitable for only certain applications. It is used
extensively in the automotive industryordinary cars can have several thousand spot welds made by industrial robots. A specialized
process, called shot welding, can be used to spot weld stainless steel.

Like spot welding, seam welding relies on two electrodes to apply pressure and current to join metal sheets. However, instead of
pointed electrodes, wheel-shaped electrodes roll along and often feed the workpiece, making it possible to make long continuous
welds. In the past, this process was used in the manufacture of beverage cans, but now its uses are more limited. Other resistance
welding methods include flash welding, projection welding, and upset welding.[23]

Energy beam
Energy beam welding methods, namely laser beam welding and electron beam welding, are relatively new processes that have
become quite popular in high production applications. The two processes are quite similar, differing most notably in their source of
power. Laser beam welding employs a highly focused laser beam, while electron beam welding is done in a vacuum and uses an
electron beam. Both have a very high energy density, making deep weld penetration possible and minimizing the size of the weld
area. Both processes are extremely fast, and are easily automated, making them highly productive. The primary disadvantages are
their very high equipment costs (though these are decreasing) and a susceptibility to thermal cracking. Developments in this area
include laser-hybrid welding, which uses principles from both laser beam welding and arc welding for even better weld properties. [24]

Solid-state

Like the first welding process, forge welding, some modern welding methods do not involve the melting of the materials being joined.
One of the most popular, ultrasonic welding, is used to connect thin sheets or wires made of metal or thermoplastic by vibrating them
at high frequency and under high pressure. The equipment and methods involved are similar to that of resistance welding, but instead
of electric current, vibration provides energy input. Welding metals with this process does not involve melting the materials; instead,
the weld is formed by introducing mechanical vibrations horizontally under pressure. When welding plastics, the materials should
have similar melting temperatures, and the vibrations are introduced vertically. Ultrasonic welding is commonly used for making
electrical connections out of aluminum or copper, and it is also a very common polymer welding process.

Another common process, explosion welding, involves the joining of materials by pushing them together under extremely high
pressure. The energy from the impact plasticizes the materials, forming a weld, even though only a limited amount of heat is
generated. The process is commonly used for welding dissimilar materials, such as the welding of aluminum with steel in ship hulls
or compound plates. Other solid-state welding processes include co-extrusion welding, cold welding, diffusion welding, friction
welding (including friction stir welding), high frequency welding, hot pressure welding, induction welding, and roll welding.[25]

Geometry

Common welding joint types (1) Square butt joint, (2) Single-V preparation joint, (3) Lap joint, (4) T-joint.

Welds can be geometrically prepared in many different ways. The five basic types of weld joints are the butt joint, lap joint, corner
joint, edge joint, and T-joint. Other variations exist as wellfor example, double-V preparation joints are characterized by the two
pieces of material each tapering to a single center point at one-half their height. Single-U and double-U preparation joints are also
fairly commoninstead of having straight edges like the single-V and double-V preparation joints, they are curved, forming the
shape of a U. Lap joints are also commonly more than two pieces thickdepending on the process used and the thickness of the
material, many pieces can be welded together in a lap joint geometry. [26]

Often, particular joint designs are used exclusively or almost exclusively by certain welding processes. For example, resistance spot
welding, laser beam welding, and electron beam welding are most frequently performed on lap joints. However, some welding
methods, like shielded metal arc welding, are extremely versatile and can weld virtually any type of joint. Additionally, some
processes can be used to make multipass welds, in which one weld is allowed to cool, and then another weld is performed on top of it.
This allows for the welding of thick sections arranged in a single-V preparation joint, for example.[27]

The cross-section of a welded butt joint, with the darkest gray representing the weld or fusion zone, the medium gray the heat-
affected zone, and the lightest gray the base material.

After welding, a number of distinct regions can be identified in the weld area. The weld itself is called the fusion zonemore
specifically, it is where the filler metal was laid during the welding process. The properties of the fusion zone depend primarily on the
filler metal used, and its compatibility with the base materials. It is surrounded by the heat-affected zone, the area that had its
microstructure and properties altered by the weld. These properties depend on the base material's behavior when subjected to heat.
The metal in this area is often weaker than both the base material and the fusion zone, and is also where residual stresses are found. [28]

Quality

Most often, the major metric used for judging the quality of a weld is its strength and the strength of the material around it. Many
distinct factors influence this, including the welding method, the amount and concentration of energy input, the base material, the
filler material, the flux material, the design of the joint, and the interactions between all these factors. To test the quality of a weld,
either destructive or nondestructive testing methods are commonly used to verify that welds are defect-free, have acceptable levels
of residual stresses and distortion, and have acceptable heat-affected zone (HAZ) properties. Welding codes and specifications exist to
guide welders in proper welding technique and in how to judge the quality of welds.
Heat-affected zone

(Expression error: Unexpected < operator)}} C). This is an accurate way to identify temperature, but does not represent the HAZ
width. The HAZ is the narrow area that immediately surrounds the welded base metal.

The effects of welding on the material surrounding the weld can be detrimentaldepending on the materials used and the heat input
of the welding process used, the HAZ can be of varying size and strength. The thermal diffusivity of the base material plays a large
roleif the diffusivity is high, the material cooling rate is high and the HAZ is relatively small. Conversely, a low diffusivity leads to
slower cooling and a larger HAZ. The amount of heat injected by the welding process plays an important role as well, as processes
like oxyacetylene welding have an unconcentrated heat input and increase the size of the HAZ. Processes like laser beam welding
give a highly concentrated, limited amount of heat, resulting in a small HAZ. Arc welding falls between these two extremes, with the
individual processes varying somewhat in heat input. [29][30] To calculate the heat input for arc welding procedures, the following
formula can be used:

where Q = heat input (kJ/mm), V = voltage (V), I = current (A), and S = welding speed (mm/min). The efficiency is dependent on the
welding process used, with shielded metal arc welding having a value of 0.75, gas metal arc welding and submerged arc welding, 0.9,
and gas tungsten arc welding, 0.8.[31]

[edit] Distortion and cracking

Welding methods that involve the melting of metal at the site of the joint necessarily are prone to shrinkage as the heated metal cools.
Shrinkage, in turn, can introduce residual stresses and both longitudinal and rotational distortion. Distortion can pose a major
problem, since the final product is not the desired shape. To alleviate rotational distortion, the workpieces can be offset, so that the
welding results in a correctly shaped piece. [32] Other methods of limiting distortion, such as clamping the workpieces in place, cause
the buildup of residual stress in the heat-affected zone of the base material. These stresses can reduce the strength of the base material,
and can lead to catastrophic failure through cold cracking, as in the case of several of the Liberty ships. Cold cracking is limited to
steels, and is associated with the formation of martensite as the weld cools. The cracking occurs in the heat-affected zone of the base
material. To reduce the amount of distortion and residual stresses, the amount of heat input should be limited, and the welding
sequence used should not be from one end directly to the other, but rather in segments. The other type of cracking, hot cracking or
solidification cracking, can occur with all metals, and happens in the fusion zone of a weld. To diminish the probability of this type of
cracking, excess material restraint should be avoided, and a proper filler material should be utilized. [33]

Weldability

The quality of a weld is also dependent on the combination of materials used for the base material and the filler material. Not all
metals are suitable for welding, and not all filler metals work well with acceptable base materials.

Steels

The weldability of steels is inversely proportional to a property known as the hardenability of the steel, which measures the
probability of forming martensite during welding or heat treatment. The hardenability of steel depends on its chemical
composition, with greater quantities of carbon and other alloying elements resulting in a higher hardenability and thus a lower
weldability. In order to be able to judge alloys made up of many distinct materials, a measure known as the equivalent carbon
content is used to compare the relative weldabilities of different alloys by comparing their properties to a plain carbon steel. The
effect on weldability of elements like chromium and vanadium, while not as great as carbon, is more significant than that of
copper and nickel, for example. As the equivalent carbon content rises, the weldability of the alloy decreases. [34] The disadvantage
to using plain carbon and low-alloy steels is their lower strengththere is a trade-off between material strength and weldability.
High strength, low-alloy steels were developed especially for welding applications during the 1970s, and these generally easy to
weld materials have good strength, making them ideal for many welding applications. [35]

Stainless steels, because of their high chromium content, tend to behave differently with respect to weldability than other steels.
Austenitic grades of stainless steels tend to be the most weldable, but they are especially susceptible to distortion due to their high
coefficient of thermal expansion. Some alloys of this type are prone to cracking and reduced corrosion resistance as well. Hot
cracking is possible if the amount of ferrite in the weld is not controlledto alleviate the problem, an electrode is used that deposits a
weld metal containing a small amount of ferrite. Other types of stainless steels, such as ferritic and martensitic stainless steels, are not
as easily welded, and must often be preheated and welded with special electrodes. [36]

Aluminum
The weldability of aluminum alloys varies significantly, depending on the chemical composition of the alloy used. Aluminum alloys
are susceptible to hot cracking, and to combat the problem, welders increase the welding speed to lower the heat input. Preheating
reduces the temperature gradient across the weld zone and thus helps reduce hot cracking, but it can reduce the mechanical properties
of the base material and should not be used when the base material is restrained. The design of the joint can be changed as well, and a
more compatible filler alloy can be selected to decrease the likelihood of hot cracking. Aluminum alloys should also be cleaned prior
to welding, with the goal of removing all oxides, oils, and loose particles from the surface to be welded. This is especially important
because of an aluminum weld's susceptibility to porosity due to hydrogen and dross due to oxygen.[37]

Unusual conditions

Underwater welding

While many welding applications are done in controlled environments such as factories and repair shops, some welding processes are
commonly used in a wide variety of conditions, such as open air, underwater, and vacuums (such as space). In open-air applications,
such as construction and outdoors repair, shielded metal arc welding is the most common process. Processes that employ inert gases
to protect the weld cannot be readily used in such situations, because unpredictable atmospheric movements can result in a faulty
weld. Shielded metal arc welding is also often used in underwater welding in the construction and repair of ships, offshore platforms,
and pipelines, but others, such as flux cored arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding, are also common. Welding in space is also
possibleit was first attempted in 1969 by Russian cosmonauts, when they performed experiments to test shielded metal arc welding,
plasma arc welding, and electron beam welding in a depressurized environment. Further testing of these methods was done in the
following decades, and today researchers continue to develop methods for using other welding processes in space, such as laser beam
welding, resistance welding, and friction welding. Advances in these areas could prove indispensable for projects like the construction
of the International Space Station, which will likely rely heavily on welding for joining in space the parts that were manufactured on
Earth.[38]

Safety issues

Arc welding with a welding helmet, gloves, and other protective clothing.

Welding, without the proper precautions, can be a dangerous and unhealthy practice. However, with the use of new technology and
proper protection, risks of injury and death associated with welding can be greatly reduced. Because many common welding
procedures involve an open electric arc or flame, the risk of burns is significant. To prevent them, welders wear personal protective
equipment in the form of heavy leather gloves and protective long sleeve jackets to avoid exposure to extreme heat and flames.
Additionally, the brightness of the weld area leads to a condition called arc eye in which ultraviolet light causes inflammation of the
cornea and can burn the retinas of the eyes. Goggles and welding helmets with dark face plates are worn to prevent this exposure, and
in recent years, new helmet models have been produced that feature a face plate that self-darkens upon exposure to high amounts of
UV light. To protect bystanders, translucent welding curtains often surround the welding area. These curtains, made of a polyvinyl
chloride plastic film, shield nearby workers from exposure to the UV light from the electric arc, but should not be used to replace the
filter glass used in helmets.[39]

Welders are also often exposed to dangerous gases and particulate matter. Processes like flux-cored arc welding and shielded metal
arc welding produce smoke containing particles of various types of oxides, which in some cases can lead to medical conditions like
metal fume fever. The size of the particles in question tends to influence the toxicity of the fumes, with smaller particles presenting a
greater danger. Additionally, many processes produce fumes and various gases, most commonly carbon dioxide, ozone and heavy
metals, that can prove dangerous without proper ventilation and training. Furthermore, because the use of compressed gases and
flames in many welding processes poses an explosion and fire risk, some common precautions include limiting the amount of oxygen
in the air and keeping combustible materials away from the workplace. [40] Welding fume extractors are often used to remove the fume
from the source and filter the fumes through a HEPA filter.

Costs and trends

Arc welding with industrial robots (KUKA)

As an industrial process, the cost of welding plays a crucial role in manufacturing decisions. Many different variables affect the total
cost, including equipment cost, labor cost, material cost, and energy cost. Depending on the process, equipment cost can vary, from
inexpensive for methods like shielded metal arc welding and oxyfuel welding, to extremely expensive for methods like laser beam
welding and electron beam welding. Because of their high cost, they are only used in high production operations. Similarly, because
automation and robots increase equipment costs, they are only implemented when high production is necessary. Labor cost depends
on the deposition rate (the rate of welding), the hourly wage, and the total operation time, including both time welding and handling
the part. The cost of materials includes the cost of the base and filler material, and the cost of shielding gases. Finally, energy cost
depends on arc time and welding power demand.

For manual welding methods, labor costs generally make up the vast majority of the total cost. As a result, many cost-savings
measures are focused on minimizing the operation time. To do this, welding procedures with high deposition rates can be selected,
and weld parameters can be fine-tuned to increase welding speed. Also, removal of welding spatters generated during welding process
is highly labor intensive and time consuming. Implementation of Welding Anti Spatter & Flux which is safe and non-polluting is
considered as a welcome change in cost cutting and weld joint quality improvement measures. [41] Mechanization and automation are
often implemented to reduce labor costs, but this frequently increases the cost of equipment and creates additional setup time.
Material costs tend to increase when special properties are necessary, and energy costs normally do not amount to more than several
percent of the total welding cost.[42]

In recent years, in order to minimize labor costs in high production manufacturing, industrial welding has become increasingly more
automated, most notably with the use of robots in resistance spot welding (especially in the automotive industry) and in arc welding.
In robot welding, mechanized devices both hold the material and perform the weld,[43] and at first, spot welding was its most common
application. But robotic arc welding has been increasing in popularity as technology has advanced. Other key areas of research and
development include the welding of dissimilar materials (such as steel and aluminum, for example) and new welding processes, such
as friction stir, magnetic pulse, conductive heat seam, and laser-hybrid welding. Furthermore, progress is desired in making more
specialized methods like laser beam welding practical for more applications, such as in the aerospace and automotive industries.
Researchers also hope to better understand the often unpredictable properties of welds, especially microstructure, residual stresses,
and a weld's tendency to crack or deform.[44]

Boiler Water Treatment - Industrial & Process

Applications
Boiler Water Treatment - In this short paper we take a brief look at industrial boiler water treatment and the
management of steam boilers from an industrial perspective. We examine some of the problems that can occur
when steam boilers are used in industrial and process situations. We also look at solutions to the problems that
arise with steam boiler systems, specific products and where they are used, how these solutions are applied, and
more.

What is steam?

Steam is vaporised water, being part gas, part liquid. Steam itself is usually
interspersed with minute droplets of water in its liquid state, which gives it a
white, cloudy appearance. In industrial and process situations, steam is often
generated using water boilers that are heated to create steam under controlled
conditions. The energy generated is then transferred and used in many different
ways.
Advanced Chemical Technologies
In nature, steam is produced by the heating of underground water by volcanic processes
and is emitted from hot springs, geysers, fumaroles, and certain types of volcanoes.

Steam is used as a heat transfer medium in several industries including food, paper, process, chemical
manufacture ...etc. In industry steam is produced by water boilers, which come in all shapes, sizes, types and
pressures and the water within them likewise. This is what makes the life of a water treatment specialist
interesting....having to deal with all the alternatives and know all the ways of treating those alternatives.

Why is boiler water used?

Steam under pressure is at elevated temperatures, greater than 100C and therefore can be used to transfer
energy to different parts of a system. This energy can then be used to cook, create energy for chemical
reactions, heat water and a myriad of other uses. Steam being "pure" water dissolves other materials into it very
easily and it is these other materials that cause problems requiring treatments. Materials such as metals from the
system, Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide to name but a few.

What problems arise and how do they occur?

There are several problems within a boiler system some of which require chemical treatment or other
mechanical means to overcome them. The major problems are:

o Scale
 o Corrosion

o Boiler Water Carryover

o Sludge Deposition

These can cause problems in all parts of the system starting with the feed tank leading through the boiler and
into the condensate system. The problems arise from the quality of the water used within the steam raising
system and the manner in which the system is operated and hence it is not only chemical issues that need to be
addressed.

What happens if problems are not treated?

In extreme cases is has been known for steam boilers to explode causing much damage and even death. So it is
for this reason that strict standards have arisen on how to treat and maintain boilers and associated systems.
Then there are efficiency problem with excess fuel being used to raise the steam or leaks causing loss of water,
chemicals and energy from the system. All of these issues are avoidable with simple chemicals and good
maintenance regimes.

Effective Boiler Maintenance

By Thomas A. Westerkamp

Boiler operation and maintenance are closely tied together. Good operation includes performing necessary daily
and periodic maintenance. Low maintenance cost depends on good daily operating control, given that the
system and fuel are compatible.

Operating a steam generator whether it is a low-, medium-, or high-pressure design is a complex

undertaking. Important physical and chemical balances are necessary for safe and efficient control.

Achieving Efficiency

The primary duty of the boiler operator is to achieve optimum operating efficiency of the equipment consistent
with high reliability and low cost. The steam generators efficiency depends on proper control of time,
temperature, turbulence and oxygen.

Time and temperature. Before a boiler begins to achieve efficient operation, the technician must raise the
furnace to operating temperature. The fuel-burning rate must be maintained to produce the desired number of
pounds of steam per hour to run the stream of turbines if generating electricity and supply steam for heat
and process needs.

Turbulence. The turbulence in fossil-fuel boiler systems results from the combination of forced-draft fans
located in the fuel-supply section and the induced-draft fans located in the stack breeching. The drafts
introduced by these large-volume air handlers produce the turbulence necessary for efficient operation. They
also create a demand for emission controls, which are very important to air-quality improvements that are being
emphasized today and will only be more important in the future.

Efficiency and Maintenance

Modern equipment contains very effective instrumentation to control these four key operating characteristics.
Simultaneous with operating control, those same instruments provide the indicators that predict maintenance
needs and timing.
During daily operations, operators prepare log books with information collected from instrumentation at
frequent enough intervals to detect trends early. This early detection is critical to operating efficiently and at
low cost.

To understand this control sequence, it is necessary to look at some common types of equipment and their
makeups.

The furnace and steam-generating boiler are made up of a setting, or support structure, a fuel-handling and
-supply system, a fuel-burning control system, space above the fuel for heat transfer by radiation and
convection, boiler tubes for conducting heat to the water, boilers for steam generation and storage, air- and ash-
handling equipment, and many support systems, such as condensers, pumps, deaerators, water softeners, and
soot blowers.

For smaller steam requirements, highly efficient packaged boilers and steam generators are available. Where
loads fluctuate greatly or where frequent startups and shutdowns are necessary, it might be preferable to install
several smaller, packaged units rather than one large furnace and boiler. These units are usually gas or oil fired.

Failure cause and Prevention

The primary cause for boiler failure during operation is low water. According to authorities on boiler
explosions, an estimated 75 percent of boiler failures are due to this cause. The main cause for this high level of
accidents is the assumption that boilers require little or no attention because of the redundant, automatic
controls they feature.

But without regular operation and maintenance controls, a series of automatic-control failures can occur,
preceding an explosion. First, the automatic feed device fails, causing the low-water condition.

Then, the low-water fuel cutout fails to sense the low-water condition and stop the fuel supply. Third, the safety
pop valve fails to actuate to relieve the pressure buildup.

Although all of these devices are automatic, they have a finite life span under the conditions in which they
operate. Mechanical wear, fatigue, corrosion and erosion take their toll.

Preventing Failure

These four steps will ensure more reliable and energy-efficient boiler operations and prevent failure.

First, match the best equipment available with the type of service and fuel required. Second, verify proper
operation, including all necessary controls and safety equipment, by having the installation checked annually
by the insurance companys service representative.

Third, specify as a part of the installation contract that the system is inspected by an authorized insurance
company or state or local inspector before acceptance. This step ensures the installation meets all ordinances
and that installers followed good practices.

Finally, provide operators with a log book for recording daily events and a preventive maintenance program for
regular, daily, weekly, monthly, semiannual, and annual maintenance procedures. These procedures should
include repair, replacement, inspection, cleaning, and lubricating. Technicians should schedule these tests
annually and perform them periodically.

Unit Heaters

Many institutional and commercial organizations also use unit heaters to provide heat to parts of their facilities.
These units heat space by a combination of conduction, convection, and radiation, and steam and hot water are
the most frequently used sources.
The most common reasons unit heaters fail include improper installation, installation in a corrosive
environment, and lack of maintenance. Annual inspection and cleaning several months before the heating
season is highly recommended.

Steam and hot-water heaters often fail due to internal corrosion and water hammer. Technicians can minimize
corrosion by treating the makeup water with a filming amine, which protects the tube walls, due to the
formation of carbonic acid.

Technicians can control water hammer by using the right type and size of steam trap for removing condensate
from the heaters. They should check traps for proper operation and clean steam-line filters annually. Long drip
legs correctly installed in the condensate lines help to keep a static head of condensate to overcome pressure
loss across condensate piping, strainers and traps.

Technicians can remove the drip-leg caps annually for cleanout and inspection to determine the amount of scale
buildup occurring. They can install vacuum breakers between the heating units and the trap if a control valve
regulates the steam supply. This tactic prevents pressure in the tubes from dropping below atmospheric
pressure.

Gas- and oil-fired heaters are subject to internal corrosion due to atmospheric conditions. The only solution is
to move them to a location less vulnerable to corrosive substances. Overfiring caused by drafts can occur,
causing the burners to fail prematurely. If technicians cannot eliminate the draft, adding outside air might
reduce the overfiring problem.

Finally, technicians should clean the contactors and inspect them for oxidation and pitting, replacing them if
they look badly burned. The coil itself can crack and break from fatigue, due to frequent cooling and heating.
Technicians can make a temporary fix by reconnecting the broken ends with a conducting fastener and washers,
but they should replace the faulty coil with the proper part as soon as possible.

Providing appropriate training and conducting operating-floor visits can help managers ensure technicians
follow these procedures and log all important events, including unsafe conditions, operating problems, and
equipment issues.