The Conservation Challenges and Opportunities of Protected Area

Management in Ethiopia: In the case of National Parks

By
Yoseph Maru (PhD candidate)

Seminar II

Harmony and coexistence

Harmony Awesome
Awesomebird
birdspecies
species

Submitted to Getachew Mulugeta (PhD)

 Table of contents
Contents Page

Abstract2

1. Introduction..4
1.1 Introduction....6
1.2 Objectives of review paper6
1.3 Methods.6
1.4 The status and conservation issues of national parks.7
2. The challenges and conservation threats of PAs10
2.1 Habitat reduction (conversion)21
2.2 Overgrazing and wildlife.13
2.3 Limited governmental and institutional implementation
constraints14
2.4 Fortress approaches..15
2.5 Involuntary displacement.....16
2.6 Political instability (unrest)..17
2.7 Poor infrastructural development ....18
3. Potential opportunities...18

3.1 The presence of diversified natural resources.....18

3.2 The advocacy of participatory resource management18
3.3 Overwhelming policies and strategies.20
3.4 Ecotourism and Tourism development policies...20

4. Conclusion and recommendations.21

4.1 Conclusion...21
4.2 Recommendations..22
5. References..23

2|Page
 Abstract
The main objective of this review paper is assessing the conservation challenges and
opportunities of protected areas management in Ethiopia. The country is endowed with bountiful
Biodiversity such as forest, wildlife, water, land and genetic resources. However, due to different
driving factors the critical ecosystems like wildlife and their habitats have been experiencing
depletion and illegal encroachments. In order to avert the loss of biodiversity particularly
wildlife, the country has designated protected areas that dedicated to conservation and
protection of biodiversity. However, protected area management of Ethiopia were under serious
threat, despite the presence of parks and protected areas, deforestation, farm expansion, habitat
reduction, overgrazing, wildfire, conflict and violence, population growth, weak enforcement
and lack of community involvement in conservation and management of natural resources were
prevalent and predominant problems in the country. Contrary, bountiful biodiversity potential,
ecotourism development, government commitment towards biodiversity conservation by
formulation of different national environmental policies and strategies were the tremendous
opportunities to utilize its natural resources for socio-economic development. Moreover, this
review article is recommended that community based wildlife conservation, strong enforcement,
effective integration among the stakeholders and equitable benefit sharing amongst the people
around the protected areas were an important solution and perhaps it could save the remnants of
country biodiversity and protected area management.

Keywords: protected area management, Biodiversity, National parks, Conservation

3|Page
 1.1 Introduction
Biodiversity provides the basis for life on earth, including human life, and is the key to
safeguarding the wealth of the world for future generations. However, the current rate of loss of
biodiversity perhaps described as a crisis and a great extinction of natural resources including
faunal species. According to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), are
witnessing the greatest extinction crisis have been occurring since dinosaurs disappeared from
our planet 65 million years ago (IUCN, 2010). The Earths ecosystems have now been
dramatically transformed through human actions, and the resulting biodiversity loss is
undermining the provision of a wide range of ecosystem services on which humanity depends
(MA, 2005).
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) (1994) defined protected areas as
land or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and
of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective
means. The Convention on iological iversity C ), however, uses a different definition a
geographically defined area which is designated and managed to achieve specific conservation
objectives Phillips, 2003). oth the IUCN and the CBD agree that protected areas are used as
environmental conservation units and use different terminologies such as national Parks, wildlife
sanctuary, nature reserve, game reserve, game ranch and nature conservancy (Mulder and
Coppolillo, 2005). The IUCN clarified the implication of different types of protected areas under
six management categories:
Table 1: IUCN Protected areas category
Category Type Primarily management objective
Ia Strict Natural Reserve Scientific purposes
Ib Wilderness Area Wilderness protection
II National Park Ecosystem protection and recreation
III Natural Monument Conservation of specific natural feature
IV Management Area Conservation through management
(Habitat/Species) intervention
V Landscape/seascape protection landscape/seascape conservation or
recreation

4|Page
VI Managed Resource sustainable use of natural resources
Protected Area
Protected areas (PAs) have long been and remain the cornerstone of biodiversity conservation. It
is dedicated to sustainable conservation and protection of biological diversity (CBD).
Consequently, PAs are expected to play a central role in addressing the global biodiversity crisis
and it have been implemented in different developed and developing countries to enhance
species of degraded ecosystems (Bruner et al., 2004). Currently, some 14.6% of land and 9.7%
of coastal waters are under some form of protection and conservation (UN, 2013). Protected
areas, concurrently its dedicated objective of conservation, it has enormous values in terms of
environmental services (e.g. climate stabilization, carbon sequestration, provision of clean water,
erosion control, etc.) than the value of direct benefits through tourism and employment (USAID,
2006).
The number and total area of protected areas has grown enormously in the World. Ethiopia with
a land area of 1.12 million square kilometers is a relatively vast country having a wide variety of
topography and climate with bountiful biodiversity resources (BIDNTF, 2010). In the country,
there are number of protected areas (National Parks). Along the different ecosystems, many
designated protected areas, Ethiopia including national parks, wildlife reserves, priority forests,
biosphere reserves, sanctuaries and community conservation areas (Young, 2012). The main
objectives of these protected areas are to protect natural resources of the country (Shibru Tedla,
1994) but recently most of protected areas of Ethiopia are exposed to severe degradations due to
the innumerable setbacks such as weak enforcement, poor management, lack of community
participation and illegal encroachments and poaching (IUCN, 2010). Moreover, this review
paper is focusing or assessing the threats and management challenges of protected areas in
Ethiopia and its conservation (IUCN category 2).

5|Page
Table 2: Overall protected areas in Ethiopia
No Protected area Federal Region Total
1 National parks 11 10 21
2 Wildlife 2 1 3
sanctuaries
3 Wildlife reserves 1 2 3
4 Controlled - 18 18
hunting area
5 Open hunting - 7 7
area
6 Community - 3 3
conservation
areas
1.2 The objective of the review paper
1.2.1 To assess the conservation challenges of Ethiopia protected area management
1.2.2 To identify the potential and opportunities of protected area development in Ethiopia
1.2.3 To recommend important insights for policy makers and concerned governmental
organization in the area of natural resource conservation
1.3 Methods
This study is based on thorough literature review. This paper synthesizes protected area
management and its conservation challenges. Relevant literatures to protected area management
at national and global scales, Ethiopias protected area management (national parks),
development and conservation policy, reports and directives under different regimes from Derge
regime to current regime were reviewed conceptually and based on the review paper objectives.

6|Page
1.4 Geographical location and Map of Protected areas in Ethiopia

Figure 1. Geographical location of protected areas in Ethiopia (Source; EWCA).

Result and Discussion

2. Evaluation current Status of Some Selected National Parks and Its conservation issues
2.1 Awash National Park
The Awash National Park was established in 1966 and gazetted in 1969. It is located at the
southern tip of the Afar Region, 225 kilometers east of Addis Ababa and a few kilometers west
of Awash, with its southern boundary along the Awash River. The park covers at least 756
square kilometers of acacia woodland and grassland. The Addis Ababa-Dire Dawa highway
passes through this park, separating the Illala Saha Plains to the south from the Kudu Valley to
the north (USAID, 2008).
Wildlife in this park include the East African oryx, Soemmerring's gazelle, dik-dik, and the lesser
and greater kudus, as well as more than 450 species of native birds (Birdlife International). In the
upper Kudu Valley at Filwoha is hot springs amid groves of palm trees. Awash National Park is

7|Page
recognized as an excellent birding site by the African Bird Club and is recognized as an
Important Bird Area by Birdlife International (Birdlife International). The Awash is a major river
in Ethiopia that is recognized as a World Heritage Site (IUCN, 2009).
2.1.1 Conservation issues of Awash N. Park
The most important issue has been and continues to be intertribal conflict over the traditional
rights of the Kerreyu, Afar, and Itu pastoralists for dry-season grazing and access to water, and
the absence of adequate alternatives or compensation for these people. The infrastructure is
largely intact, including about 180 kilometers of tracks, an airstrip, headquarters (including a
small museum), staff buildings, a caravan hotel (in need of a major upgrade or revision to attract
the modern tourist), and a campsite for visitors. The parks management faces escalating human
pressure from several permanent settlements in the park, and various tribal groups and their
animals have moved into much of the park. It needs strong enforcement and re-visitation of
policy implementation (USAID, 2008). Above all, livestock grazing is probably the most
damaging resource use in the park, given the extensive area that is used for grazing and the
current overstocking (IUCN, 2006).

Uncontrolled cattle grazing in ANP

Cattle grazing in Awash national park

2.2 Abijatta-Shalla National Park
Abijata Shalla Lakes National Park is one of the nine national Parks in Ethiopia which is
established mainly for conservation of spectacular number of water birds, which use Lake
Abijata for feeding and Lake Shalla as nesting site (Tefera and Almaw, 2002). It is located in the
Oromia region, 200 kilometers south of Addis Ababa and east of the ZiwayShashamane

8|Page
highway. The park contains 887 square kilometers, including the Rift Valley lakes of Abijatta
and Shalla. More than 450 species of birds have been recorded in the park, which is recognized
as an Important Bird Area by Birdlife. Apart from the two lakes, the primary attraction of this
national park is a number of hot springs at the northeast corner of Lake Abijatta and large
numbers of flamingoes on the lake (IUCN, 2007).

Photo- 2 Tourism resources of ASLNP

In addition to its bird fauna, woodland together with the savannah habitat in ASLNP also
provides home for mammals. According to the Park document a total of 76 mammal species
have been recorded so far, of which the most commonly spotted are Grants gazelle, Oribi,
Warthog and the Golden Jackal (Tafesse, 2008).
2.2.1 Conservation issues in Abijata Shalla Lakes National Park
Poverty, Illegal settlements and agriculture practices, lack of enforcement and rapid
intensification of upstream agricultural activities led to overexploitation of water resources and
threatening of biodiversity in the Park. Further increase in land and water resource use will
further endanger the potential and existing Park functions (Tafesse, 2008). Above all, the Park
has no legal boundary but functioning with proposed National Park boundary (UNESCO, 2004.
Apparently the number of these birds is decreasing because of decreasing the fish at Lake
Abijata affected by Soda Ash factory, which is situated at the shore. The lake water is polluted
causing loss of algae on which fish feeds. As a result, the Pelicans that feed on the fish migrated
(UNESCO, 2004).
2.3. Simien Mountain National Park (SMNP)
The Simien Mountains National Park (SMNP) was one of the first properties inscribed on the
World Heritage List in 1978. The property was inscribed on the basis of its importance for
biodiversity (criterion IV) and its exceptional natural beauty (criterion iii) (IUCN, 2010). The

9|Page
park is home to a number of threatened and endemic species. Of the 21 large mammal species
that can be found in the park, three are locally endemic (Walia ibex) or endemic to Ethiopia
(Ethiopian wolf and Gelada baboon) these are the flagship species of SMNP. The Walia ibex
(Capra walie) and the Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis; also called Simien fox) are considered as
critically endangered and endangered, respectively (IUCN 2006 Red List) (IUCN, 2006).
Other large mammal species include the Anubis baboon, Hamadryas baboon, klipspringer, and
golden jackal. The mountains are also home to 5 small mammal species and 16 bird species
endemic to Eritrea and/or Ethiopia as well as an important population of the rare lammergeyer, a
spectacular vulture species(USAID, 2008).

Photo 3 endemic species of SMNP

2.3.1 Conservation issues in Simien Maintain National Park (SMNP)
SMNP was created in 1969. At the time of its creation, a number of villages and important tracts
of land used by the local communities were included within the parks boundaries. This situation
had not changed at the time of inscription of the park on the World Heritage List. In fact, the
nomination document mentions that 80 % of the park was subjected to human use, in particular
livestock grazing, agriculture and human settlement, leaving only 20 % undisturbed and
available for the Walia ibex (IUCN, 2006). Thus, Cultivation inside the park remains a serious
concern. This form of land use is incompatible with the conservation objectives of the park and
therefore should be phased out in the future (USAID, 2008).

10 | P a g e
 Spectacular and seldom vulture species
species
Photo 4 spectacular vulture species (lammergeyer)
2.4. Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP)
The Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) is one of the protected areas in southeastern
Ethiopia with the largest areas of continuous Afroalpine and Afromontane forest habitats in
Africa (Alers et al., 2007). The park was established in 1970 containing an area of 240,000
hectares in the Bale massif. It was established by the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation
Organization (EWCO) with the primary objective of conserving the wildlife (endemic species
like the Mountain Nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) and the Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis) and
other valuable natural resources in the area (Anteneh and Temesgen, 2009).
It is one of the 34 conservation international biodiversity hotspots and qualified for world
heritage site and biosphere reserve listing. The BMNP supports high levels of species richness
and endemism (OFWE et al., 2014). To date, 78 mammal species have been recorded in BMNP,
of which 22 of these mammals are endemic to Ethiopia (Alers et al., 2007). From the total
endemic mammals recorded in the Ethiopian highlands, 67% are endemic to the Bale Mountains
(OFWE et al., 2014).
In addition, 278 bird species have been recorded; 16 birds are Ethiopian endemics (Alers et al.,
2007). 57% of Ethiopias endemic birds are found in the ale Mountains, such as Rougets rail,
spot-breasted plover, blue-winged goose, the black headed siskin and white-backed black tit
(Frankfurt Zoological Society).
2.4.1 Conservation Issues in and around BMNP
Agricultural land in BMNP has been expanding. Land has been cleared mainly for wheat, barley
and garlic production. About 10,000 ha land area inside BMNP is used for agriculture (ETFF,
2007). Recently, agricultural expansion extends at 3,300 m asl on the afroalpine grasslands.

11 | P a g e
Sixty percent of all land above 3,200 m has been converted into farmland. In addition to this,
there are recurrent fires in the Bale mountains massif. However, the forest fire that occurs
between February and April 2000 is the most sever. This fire destroyed more than 90,000 ha of
the countrys moist evergreen forest in the ale Zone alone, which was the worst fire of the past
one hundred years (Vial, 2010). Uncontrolled cattle grazing are also overwhelming conservation
issues in Bale mountain national park (USAID, 2008).

Cattle grazing inside of park

cccfr

Endangered Ethiopian wolf

Photo 5 Endangered Ethiopian wolf with cattle in Bale Mountains National Park
3. Challenges and Threats to National Park Management in Ethiopia
Mankinds use of biodiversity and ecosystem services ES) has contributed to human well-
being and economic development. However, continuing use and unwise management of its
resources can create heavy pressure and exhaustion (FAO, 2014). Today protected areas are
aimed at conserving biodiversity and large scale of natural ecosystems in the country. The
protected areas are home for diversified and awesome wildlife conservation and protection
(IUCN, 2006). However, these protected areas are increasingly facing a number of challenges
and vulnerable (Wearing and Neil, 1999).

12 | P a g e
The major threats to the protected areas and its associated biodiversity are unsustainable
utilization of natural resources (over-harvesting), deforestation, conversion of natural vegetation
to farmland, expansion of commercial farm, forest fires, settlement /encroachment, invasive
species, illegal trafficking of domestic and wild animals, poaching, wetland destruction and
climate change. These threats can be broadly linked to the following categories: limited
governmental, institutional, and legal capacity; population growth; land degradation; weak
management of protected areas (CBD, 2012).
3.1 Population growth and Habitat Reduction
Population growth is among the threats in Ethiopia, population growth is the one that most
directly drives and exacerbates the effects of the others. With population growth estimated at
more than 2.2 percent per year, and with 85 percent of the population relying on farming or
herding for their livelihoods, population growth places greater pressure on the land and resources
to provide for immediate human needs (USAID, 2010). The need for cultivated land, wood for
fuel and wood for construction materials were increased deforestation (Berry, 2003).
Deforestation has occurred in Ethiopia for 2,500 years and has reduced the original forest cover
area from an estimated forty-percent to 2.2 percent of the country today (Booth, 2004). The total
forest area of Ethiopia in 2000 was 4,593,000 hectares. Since 1990, there was a 0.8 percent
reduction in total forest cover (World Resources Institute, 2004). When land is developed,
whether for plantations, pastureland or farmland, or as part of the process of industrialization and
urbanisation, the resulting conversion from natural to a developed state represents a direct loss to
biodiversity (Murray, 2002).

Photo: 6 habitat destruction for house energy

The habitat reduction is now a day common challenge and driver for loss and fragmentation of
protected area in Ethiopia and Kenya. Grevys zebra has undergone one of the most substantial

13 | P a g e
reductions of range of African mammals, and is found today in only two range states: Kenya and
Ethiopia (table 1). The species has undergone significant decline, from an estimated 15,000
individuals in the late 1970s to a present-day estimate of 2,400 individuals, an 85% decline over
a period of about 30 years (Musyoki, 2012). The number of giraffes in Africa has declined by
30% over the last decade as a direct result of habitat fragmentation, habitat loss, increasing
human populations, and humanwildlife conflicts (IUCN, 2007).
Threats Causes Threatened population (s)
Reduction of water Unsustainable extraction of All populations, those
resources perennial river for irrigation dependents on river. Affects
60-70% Kenyans and
Ethiopian population
Restricted access to water Exclusion of wildlife from The small and potentially
water resources by pastoral isolated populations in more
people arid areas
Habitat degradation and loss Heavy grazing by livestock In all lowland population in
historic range of Grevy Zebra
Competition for resources Competition with high All lowland populations.
densities of livestock by Competition my result in low
limited resources juvenile survival
Hunting Historical: killed for skin, The population in general
currently killed for meat,
medicinal and cultural
purposes
Predation Disproportionate predation: Protected areas where the lion
specifically by lion is abundant
Disease Endemic anthrax particularly Wildlife-livestock interface
from unvaccinated livestock
Inter-specific hybridization Hybridization between
Grevys and plains Zebra
Table 2 Summary of threats to Grevys zebra in Kenya and Ethiopia (Musyoki, 2012)
Simien national park in Ethiopia, the continued human pressure on the park, with 60% of the
park subjected to human use and over 4500 people living in the park and a further 30,000 living
in its immediate vicinity, the increased use of the remaining wildlife habitats by livestock, the
expansion of agricultural fields in the park make vulnerable the habitat of park (IUCN, 2006).
Thus, World Heritage Committee at its 20th session (Merida, 1996) decided to inscribe the
property on the List of World Heritage in Danger (IUCN, 2006).

14 | P a g e
 Farmland inside
BMNP

Photo 7: Farmland inside the Park viewed from the view point
On the other hand, in BMNP, agricultural land has been expanding. Land has been cleared
mainly for wheat, barley and garlic production (Photo 4). About 10,000 ha land area inside
BMNP is used for agriculture (ETFF, 2007). Recently, agricultural expansion extends at 3,300 m
asl on the afroalpine grasslands. Sixty percent of all land above 3,200 m has been converted into
farmland. In addition to this, there are recurrent fires in the Bale mountains massif. However, the
forest fire that occurs between February and April 2000 is the most sever.
3.2 Overgrazing and wildfire
Overgrazing is overwhelming practice in Ethiopia. The country protected areas, sanctuaries and
reserves, and the rich biodiversity of the country are under a serious threat by open livestock
grazing (IBC Report, 2009). Implemented management approaches and human and livestock
population pressure are identified as threat to all National Parks in the country (Duckworth,
2002). For instance, livestock population in BMNP has increased from 10,500 in 1986 to
168,000 in 2004 as a result of population expansion within the park and of the immigration of
pastoralist communities from the lowlands (ETFF, 2007). Likewise, in Maze and Awash Narks
due to the lack of a buffer zone, high number of cattle and other domestic animals graze on the
edges of the Park (photo 7). Therefore, deterioration of vegetation is close to the edges that might
influence the destruction of park resources (Negese Nako, 2014).
Clearing and burning of forests and woodland savannas during the dry season for the expansion
of cultivable and grazing land, for charcoal production and for honey production has been one of
the major causes of deforestation in Ethiopia (Gashaw, 2001). This fire destroyed more than
15 | P a g e
90,000 ha of the countrys moist evergreen forest in the ale Zone alone, which was the worst
fire of the past one hundred years (Vial, 2010). The causes of fire in BMNP are anthropogenic in
which farmers set fire for various activities: honey collection, agricultural land preparation,
improved forage quality, and reduce suspected livestock predators such as Leopards, Panthera
pardus, spotted hyenas and Crocuta crocuta (Alers et al., 2007; Vial, 2010) were responsible
factors for loss of wildlife in the park.

Photo 8: Grazing and Fire in Maze N.Park

3.3 Limited Capacity of Governmental Institutions
Legislation designed to protect the PAs has proven very difficult to enforce under the existing
conditions in Ethiopia. Wildlife regulation in the country was introduced in 1908, during the
reign of Emperor Menelik II, in the form of a nine-article law strictly forbidding the hunting of
young elephants (EWCA, 2012). Ethiopian ivory exports, which were at their highest between
1900 and 1909, consequently decreased sharply in 1910 (Donham & James, 2002).
In 1944, three years after Ethiopias brief period under colonial rule (19361941), the first
Preservation of Game Proclamation was issued, which defined wildlife as a finite natural
resource. Similar proclamations and regulations were also endorsed following the establishment
of the Department of Forestry, Game, and Fishery by the Ministry of Agriculture in 1945. The
Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organization (EWCO) was established in 1965 and formally
recognized as an autonomous body five years later under Order No. 65/1970. Subsequently,
Awash and Semien National Parks were established in 1969 as the first Ethiopian PAs
(Nishizaki, 2014).

16 | P a g e
The country has good framework for natural resource management and to restore its degraded
biodiversity. The EPA and the IBC are good examples of dynamic institutions involved with
monitoring, legislation, and research in the sector (FAO, 2014). Above all, updating,
strengthening and implementing legislation to enact protection, and to make protection stick, is
another extremely important element in the portfolio of responses needed to make protection
work. However, in practice there is only limited on-the-ground implementation, weak
enforcements and poor stakeholder participation for policies (Nishizaki, 2014).
In addition to this, lack of integrated management and weak local communities involvement in
conservation of national parks. Thus, in spite of its huge potential and importance, ecological
degradation is rapid and poses a severe threat to the survival of most of overwhelming species in
Ethiopa (Farm Africa, 2008). For instance, in BMNP, there is rapid village expansion in and
around the park (Jacobs and Schloeder, 2001). Parallel to village expansion, agricultural lands
are expanding, forests are being destroyed, overgrazing is overwhelming and forest fire is
recurrent due to the weak enforcement (Alers et al., 2007).
On other hand, the gap between policy and implementation can be explained by multiple issues,
including policies that are unclear or that conflict with one another and a lack of clear authority
both between federal and regional authorities and between agencies at the same level (USAID,
2008). Thus, the protected areas have been affected by the local people attracted by the well
preserved wildlife habitats. The existing laws have had no effect in controlling the human
interference in these designated wildlife conservation areas (EPA, 2008).
3.4 Fortress approaches and antagonistic feeling of local community towards PAs
Protected areas contain human populations many belonging to communities resident for
hundreds or even thousands of years. These communities need to agree with and participate in
the management of the protected area (Carey, 2000). In Ethiopia the management of formal Pas
has never been successful both in terms of biodiversity conservation. The absence of any
consideration for the local communities both during the imperial time and the following socialist
period produced an antagonistic feeling towards government protected areas. For instance, when
the government collapsed in 1991, parks facilities were looted and in some cases wildlife was
deliberately killed in retaliation to unjust management (Bassi, 2003). For example, in 1991, at the
very end of the socialist regime, local people started to destroy the Senkelle sanctuary office
buildings, steal office equipment, and poach hartebeests (Nishizaki, 2004).

17 | P a g e
The conservation system generally failed to incorporate local interests. As a result, after the
change of government in 1991, many of the national parks were looted and the infrastructure
previously established was destroyed (Delellegn, 1996). For example, local communities set fire
to Bale National Park and extensively devastated it, since they were not getting any sort of
benefit from the income being generated out of their resources which they had been maintaining
for several years (Soromessa, 2007). Generally, the conservation aim of biodiversity failed for
fortress approaches, less communities ownership over protected areas and unfair distribution of
income generated from protected areas have been affecting and impeding factors in the country
(USAID, 2008).
3.5 Involuntary displacement
Many protected areas (PAs) in Africa have been the cause of conflict, particularly because the
establishment of many PAs during the colonial era required forcible eviction of local
communities (USAID, 2008). Displacement is often referred to as a forced removal of people
from their land without their consent (FAO, 2008). There is also another aspect of displacement
as Coad et.al (2008) noted that conservation displacement comprises two processes. These are:
the forced removal of people from their homes and economic displacement, the exclusion of
people from particular areas in their pursuit of a livelihood.
Both types of displacement have been evident in the Ethiopia (USIAD, 2009). The exclusion of
human activity from the Protected Areas is imperfect and often very poor in the country (EEPA,
1998). The first type, which is physical removal of houses, was witnessed during the Derg
regime. Following the expansion of the parks territory, many people were forced to leave the
area and settled in the surrounding peasant associations. Large size of land was incorporated to
the protected areas without concede of local communities (Bayissa K, 2013). Above all, when
the parks are formulated in Ethiopia, Many people were removed from the area and settled in the
surrounding peasant associations. Then, the area was included in the boundary of the protected
area (park). The dislocation was forceful; people had no say rather to quickly leave the area as
ordered (USAID, 2008).
Such exclusion of local people from their environment raises both ethical and practical questions.
Both governments and international conservation organizations (Saalismaa, 2000) recognize that
new management approaches are needed to build a more positive relationship with the people
who live in and around protected areas. Ongugo et.al (2001) claimed that attempts to protect

18 | P a g e
forest reserves and national parks through exclusion have often led to local people developing
hostile attitudes towards forests and wildlife. Even open conflicts were reported to have occurred
which have resulted into losses of life and property. For instance in Ethiopia, Nowadays,
however, the second type of displacement or economic displacement characterizes the nature of
displacement underway in the country (USAID, 2008). People are not directly forced to move
their houses or leave the area; but lack of job; denial to use land for construction, cultivation and
grazing, low payment and poor infrastructure force the community to move out in search for
livelihood opportunities in the nearby towns (Bayissa K, 2013).
3.6 Conflict and Instability
Historical conflicts also put its own negative impacts in resource governance in Ethiopia. For
example, shortly after the inscription, the political conflict in the country escalated in a civil war
and in 1983, the State Party reported that park staff was forced to abandon the property, which
was occupied by rebels. There is evidence that the Walia ibex was heavily poached during this
period and that part of the population moved into better protected areas to the east of the park. In
1991, at the end of the conflict, the State Party submitted a report on the state of conservation of
the property, noting that while all park infrastructures was destroyed during the conflict (IUCN,
2006).The degradation and its ecological impacts have forced both the Walia ibex and Ethiopian
wolf to vacate some of their original ranges and to move further up into the less disturbed
highlands (IUCN, 2006).
Conflict and post-conflict situations pose a number of critical challenges to biodiversity
conservation. For example, the 12-year conflict (1980-1992) between RENAMO and FRELIMO,
forces that followed Mozambiques independence, severely depleted the natural resource base.
The flagship Gorongosa National Park suffered massive declines in large mammal populations,
including elephants (from 3,000 pre-conflict to 108 in 1994), buffalo, hippo, wildebeest, and
waterbuck. These losses can be attributed to hunting and poaching by armed groups and civilians
who occupied the area after park officials were forced to flee in 1981 (USAID, 2008). Likewise,
recent armed conflicts in the Central African Republic have had a devastating impact on the
country's biodiversity. Conflict in the continually insecure northern part of the country has led to
a drop in the elephant population and extinction of an estimated 10,000 rhinoceros (USAID,
2008).

19 | P a g e
3.7 Poor Infrastructural development in and around Protected Areas (Parks)
Infrastructural services are another problem that associated with national parks in Ethiopia. The
local community has no school, clinic or health centre, transportation and electric services.
Recent wildlife policies and regulations emphasize development-oriented conservation, the
practical use of tourism, and the local peoples participation in natural resource management and
utilization (Beche, 2016).
In addition, local people inhabiting the surrounding of PAs should benefited from national parks
and permitted to engage in the seasonal utilization of natural resources, such as beekeeping,
honey harvesting, cutting, taking, or foraging of vegetation, under controlled conditions. For
example, game hunting is allowed for people over 18 years old who possess a resident hunter
license (available for a yearly fee of 2,000 birr). People are also permitted to hunt, under
controlled conditions, wildlife that endangers human life or damage property. The income
generated from tourism business must fairly allocate within communities for further
development and conservation (Nishizaki, 2014).
4. Potential Opportunities towards protected area management
4.1 The Presence of Diversified Wildlife and expansion of protected areas
Ethiopia is one of the richest countries in the world in terms of biodiversity. Ethiopia is located at
330'N and 1500'N latitude and 33E and 48E longitudes in the horn of Africa, and one of the
wildlife biodiversity centers of the world. Ethiopia is one of the top 25 biodiversity-rich
countries in the world, and hosts two of the worlds 34 biodiversity hotspots, namely: the Eastern
Afromontane and the Horn of Africa hotspots (Amare et al, 2009). Generally, the country has
over 6,000 species of vascular plant (with 625 endemic species and 669 near-endemic species,
and one endemic plant genus), 860 avian species (16 endemic species and two endemic genera),
279 species of mammal (35 endemic species and six endemic genera), 201 species of reptile (14
endemic species), 23 species of amphibians (23 endemic species), 150 freshwater fish (6
endemic species) (Young, 2012).
Protected areas are the main focus for the maintenance of biological diversity and contribute for
economic developments of a nation. In the past few decades, the numbers of protected areas in
developing countries are expanding (Bruche, 2012). The forest cover of Ethiopia declined from
47% to only 3% for the past few decades due to ever increasing population and anthropogenic
effect. Ethiopia had 40 protected areas covers about 16.4% of the countrys land area, and

20 | P a g e
currently have more than 17.1% of its land, ranked third in African country next to Tanzania and
Uganda Ethiopia (Figure 2). This crisis seems under recovering slowly in the future. The
country is one of few countries where the establishments of protected areas are increasing. For
example, Ethiopia had only two protected areas (namely; Awash and Simien Mountains National
Park) before 40 years and today has more than 55 protected areas (including 21 national parks)
(Zelalem, 2007).

Figure 2. Comparison of land surface within protected areas of Ethiopia with other country.
4.2 The advocacy of participatory resource management strategies
Protected area management plans that not only address protection, but also incorporate
sustainable use and involve local communities tend to be more successful in the long term. Co-
management between government and communities can be a useful governance solution for
protected areas, also offering an opportunity to incorporate the traditional knowledge of local
people and their skills in monitoring and other management activities (FAO, 2014).
Generally, Participatory resource management (PRM) is an overall term for decentralized
management models: a genuine paradigm shift of management over natural resources from
government to local community (USAID, 2014). For instance, protected areas degradation due
to poor resource management continues to be a major challenge in Ethiopia due to fortress
approach management and conservation strategies. This fortress approaches perceives local

21 | P a g e
communities as 'enemies' of the protected areas and denying the local community participation
for long period of time. Thus, sustainable management practices of biodiversity are largely failed
to achieve conservation objectives of the Governments. Currently, Ethiopian government has
advocate participatory natural resource management to empower local communities and to halt
the loss of critical biodiversity (Mulugeta, 2008)
4.3 Overwhelming Policies and strategies (Government commitments)
Deforestation, soil erosion, and land degradation are serious problems in Ethiopia. To overcome
these problems, efforts have been made to launch afforestation and conservation programs
(Badege, 2001). The Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) has
established different developmental policy and strategy framework to rehabilitate and to achieve
green economy resilience (MEF, 2015). Above all, the commitment of government is more
overwhelming and effective to halt serious degradation of biodiversity. The government of the
country is signing national and international convention to improve its biodiversity (FAO, 2014)
Over the last two decades, the Ethiopian government has put in place a number of policies,
strategies and laws that are designed to support to avert the environmental problems (USAID,
2010). The government show the commitment by issuing and implementing of policy, law and
proclamation such as, forest utilization and conservation Proclamation 542/2007), Ethiopia
policy of environment (1997), National policy on Biodiversity conservation and research (1998),
conservation and utilization of wildlife Proclamation 541/2007), Ethiopia wildlife
establishment Proclamation 575/2008) EPA, 2012). Ministry of Agriculture, ministry of
environment and forestry, Ethiopia institutes of Biodiversity, Wildlife conservation Authority
and Environment Protection Authority now MEF are the responsible institutions in conservation
and management of the natural resources (FAO, 2015).
Table 3: International convention and national policies to protect its biodiversity
No Ratified policies, strategies and law Year
1 The Environment Policy of Ethiopia (April 1997)
2 The National Policy on Biodiversity Conservation and Research (1998)
3 The Ethiopian Water Resources Management Policy (1999)
4 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (2005)
5 Development, Conservation and Utilization of Wildlife: (2007)
Proclamation No 541/2007

22 | P a g e
6 Ethiopian Wildlife Development and Conservation Authority (2008)
Establishment: Proclamation No 575/2008
7 forest utilization and conservation (Proclamation 542/2007) 2007
8 the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 1994
9 the Convention on Biological Diversity (1994) 1994
10 United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (1994) 1994
11 the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants 2000
4. 4 Ecotourism and Tourism development policies
The government of Ethiopia also has recognized development and promotion of ecotourism and
provided consultancy services for a number of potential developers of ecotourism sites. Protected
areas are important destinations for a growing tourism like ecotourism given that it uses diverse
nature, landscapes and biodiversity as major attractions. In these protected areas, there might be
a potential threat to, and an opportunity for conservation of natural resources. If properly planned
and managed ecotourism may minimize the environmental impacts while significantly
contributes to the protected areas (Strasdas, 2002).
Ecotourism and overall tourism development is still in its infancy in Ethiopia, but it holds
significant potential for growth and government commitment via its overwhelming tourism
policies is hopeful. The countrys biodiversity is quite unique compared to neighboring
countries, some of which are famous safari destinations. Ethiopias protected area, which
includes national parks, game reserves, wildlife sanctuaries and controlled hunting grounds,
covers about 14% of the country. The protected areas offer ecotourism and leisure activities such
as wildlife viewing, trekking, mountaineering and bird watching (Henze 2007; Martin 2008).
Ethiopias wealth of varied attractions gives it a great potential for cultural and educational
tourism like photo safaris, hunting safaris, bird watching, water sports, desert trekking, mountain
camping, ecotourism, health tourism (cool climate and availability of hot springs), conference
tourism etc (Berhanu 2003).

23 | P a g e
5. Conclusion and Recommendations
5.1 Conclusion
With broad latitudinal and climate ranges, Ethiopia encompasses an extraordinary number of
ecological zones, which in turn host rare and endangered species and high rates of endemism and
overwhelming species diversity has been recorded. In combination with its importance as a
center of genetic and agricultural diversity, the conservation of Ethiopias biodiversity is an issue
of global importance. With the second-largest population in Africa, limited capacity to manage
natural resources, and widespread land degradation, however, Ethiopia also faces many serious
challenges to efforts to conserve its biodiversity and forests. The government of the country
concedes protected areas as overwhelming practices to sustain and conserve its natural resources
but, the management as well as conservation strategies have been couldnt achieve its dedicated
targets.
In the country, there are number of protected areas (National Parks). Along the different
ecosystems, many designated protected areas of land in Ethiopia including national parks,
wildlife reserves, priority forests, biosphere reserves and community conservation areas. The
main objectives of these protected areas are to protect natural resources of the country but
recently most of protected areas of Ethiopia are exposed to severe degradations due to the
innumerable setbacks such as weak enforcement, poor management, weak local community
participation in conservation and illegal encroachments.
5.2 Recommendations
Ethiopian government has enacted different overwhelming policies and legal frameworks
to safeguard its bountiful natural resources but, unfortunately they have failed to achieve
its dedicated objectives, due to the implementation constraints. To solve such constraints
of policies and strategies the government of the country should train its officials and
experts to build their capacity for successive implementation in the area of conservation
and management of natural resources.

Active involvement of stakeholders including the private sector and non-state actors in
the country resource management and decision making process is strongly requested but,
stakeholder involvement in biodiversity conservation is very weak in Ethiopia. Thus, the
concerned stakeholders should integrated together to transform the management of
protected areas in the country.

24 | P a g e
 The biodiversity like protected areas have the nature of open access thinking in local
community, unless the government enforce and protect them by formulating strong
institutions (legislation), the remnant of PAs could reach in verge of extinction and
degradation. Thus, the concerned governmental body should passing strong law and
working with local dwellers.
Currently, Ethiopia government has been appreciated for its overwhelming policies and
initiatives towards biodiversity conservation. But, the responsible institutional setup and
concerned stakeholders have no strong commitments and not well implemented or
integrated to achieve the conservation objectives. Thus, the government of the country
should follow strong consistently evaluation systems from top to down structure.
Almost all of protected areas designated in environs of indigenous communities. The
daily survival of indigenous people is depends on protected areas for their livelihoods.
Thus, in order to achieve the conservation objectives of protected areas or national parks,
the concerned body should concede the importance of their knowledge and involve them
in conservation and management strategies of natural resources.
Local people around the protected areas have to access to adequate education, healthcare and
clean water supply to create the sense of ownership over natural resources
the concerned governmental body should work together with different stakeholders and National
parks should integrated with tourism and recreation services to make local community beneficiary
from off-farm activities
References
IUCN (2005). Benefits beyond Boundaries.Proceedings of the Vth IUCN World Parks Congress. Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK: IUCN.
Ravenel, R. M., and K. H. Redford. (2005). Understanding IUCN Protected Area categories. Natural
Areas Journal
Coad, L., Campbell, A., Miles, L & Humphries, K. (2008). The costs and benefits of forest protected
areas for local livelihoods: A review of the current literature. The United Nations Environment
Program World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC).
Convention on Biological iversity 2008). Protected areas in todays World: their Values and
benefits for the welfare of the planet. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity

25 | P a g e
 Brockington, D & Igoe, J. (2006). Eviction for Conservation: A global overview. Institute for
Development Policy and Management, University of Manchester, UK, Department of
Anthropology, University Of Colorado, Denver.
World Bank (2010). Paluing protected areas. The International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development, Washington D.C.
International union for the nature conservation (IUCN) (2010), Why is Biodiversity in Crisis? Website
article accessed at: http://www.iucn.org/iyb/about/biodiversity
Millennium ecosystem assessment (MA) (2005), Ecosystems and Human Well- Being: Current State
and Trends, Volume 1. Findings of the Condition and Trends Working Group, edited by Rashid
Hassan, Robert Scholes, Neville Ash, The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Series.
United Nations Development ProgramGlobal Environment Facility (UNDP-GEF) (2005).
Sustainable evelopment of the Protected Area System of Ethiopia.
United States Agency for International evelopment /Ethiopia. FAA 118/119 Environmental
Analysis. http://www.encapafrica.org/bioformatrix.htm (2004).
International Union for Conservation of Nature (2007), IUCN Red List of Endangered Species: Canis
simensis. http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.
McKee, Jonathan (2007). Ethiopia Country Environmental Profile. Report prepared for the European
Commission.
Frankfurt Zoological Society (2007). ale Mountains National Park General Management Plan,
2007-2017.
Sandwith, T., Shine, C., Hamilton, L. and Sheppard, D. (2001) Transboundary Protected Areas for Peace
and Co-operation, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.
International union for nature conservation (IUCN) (2006). Reactive monitoring to Simien National
Park, Ethiopia.
FAO (2014). Protected areas, people and Food security, An FAO contribution to the World parks
congress, Sydney
United State Agency for international Development (USAID) (2008). Biodiversity conservation and
crisis
Saalismaa, N. (2000). Local people and protected areas: A case study from Miraflor,
Nicaragua. Masters Thesis in Environmental Protection, University of Helsinki
Department of Limnology and Environmental Protection

26 | P a g e
World Bank (2010). Paluing protected areas. The International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development, Washington D.C. 20433 U.S.A.
Convention on Biological Diversity (2008). Protected areas in todays World: their Values and benefits
for the welfare of the planet. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity.
Alers M, Bovarnick A, Boyle T, Mackinnon K, Sobrevila C, 2007. Reducing threats to protected areas:
Lessons from the field. A Joint UNDP and World Bank GEF Lessons Learned study
Anteneh B, Temesgen Y,2009. Extensive forest fire of 2007/2008 in the Bale Mountains National Park
of southeast Ethiopia: extent, causes and consequences.
ETFF (Ethiopian Tree Fund Foundation), 2007. Ethiopian Tree Fund Foundation: Promoting ETFF and
tree planting event in the Bale Mountains, Southeast Ethiopia.
Farm Africa, 2008. Bale Mountains Eco-Region Sustainable Development Plan Report on Phase I and II
Planning Workshops in Goba, Bale 15-17 September 2008
Frankfurt Zoological Society. Bale Mountains National Park: General Management Plan 2007-2017
Vial F, 2010. Conservation science for common ground: developing the necessary tools to manage
livestock grazing pressure in Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. PhD Thesis. University of
Glasgow.
Young J, 2012. Ethiopian protected areas: A Snapshot. A reference guide for future strategic planning
and project funding.
OFWE (Oromia Forest and Wildlife Enterprise), Farm Africa and SOS Sahel Ethiopia ,2014. Bale
Mountains Eco-region Reduction of Emission from Deforestation and Forest Degradation
(REDD+) Project- Ethiopia
Tafesse Kefyalew (2008). Integrated Assessment of ecosystem services and stakeholder analysis of
Abijata-Shalla Lakes National Park, Ethiopia. MSc Thesis in Environmental Sciences
UNESCO (2004) World Water Assessment Program: National water Development
Report for Ethiopia. Addis Ababa
ABEBE, Y. D. & WONDAFRASH, M. (2002) Site Action Plan for Abijata-Shalla Lakes
National Park EWNHS, Addis Ababa.
Ethiopian Panel on Climate Change (2015), First Assessment Report, Working Group II Biodiversity
and Ecosystems, Published by the Ethiopian Academy of Sciences
Nishizaki, N. 2004. Resisting imposed wildlife conservation: Arssi Oromo and the Senkelle
Swaynes Hartebeest sanctuary, Ethiopia. African Study Monographs

27 | P a g e
Nobuko Nishizaki 2014). Neoliberal conservation in Ethiopia, An analysis of current conflicts in and
around Protected Areas and their resolution
Christine Carey (2000). Squandering Paradise, the importance and Vulnerability of the world protected
areas
Delellegn , Y. 1996. Introduction. In Tilahun, S., Edwards, S. and Egziabher, T. B. G. (eds), Important
Bird Areas of Ethiopia A First Inventory. Addis Ababa: Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History
Society.
McKee, Jonathan 2007). Ethiopia Country Environmental Profile. Report prepared for theEuropean
Commission.
Bekele M, Tesfaye Y, Mohammed Z, Zewdie S, Tebikew Y, Brockhaus M and Kassa H. (2015). The
context of REDD+ in Ethiopia: Drivers, agents and institutions. Occasional Paper
Lea M. Scherl et al. (2004). Can Protected Areas Contribute to Poverty Reduction? Opportunities and
Limitations. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.
Marco Bassi (2003). Enhancing equity the relationship between protected areas and local communities
in the context of Global change. Horn of Africa and Kenya
M. G. Murray, 2002. Current issues in biodiversity conservation. WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT
WORKING PAPER Number 4
Charles Musyoki, 2012. Challenges and Opportunities for Conserving Some Threatened Species in
Kenya
Badege Bishaw (2001). Deforestation and land degradation on the Ethiopian highlands: strategy for
physical recovery. Paper presented at international conference on contemporary development
issues in Ethiopia (August 16-18)
Henze, B.P. (2007). Ecotourism in Ethiopia: Opportunities and ideas. Conference of IDR/AAU.
Retrieved from www.irrrob.org/ecotourism-in-ethiopia.html.
EPA (ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AUTHORITY), 2008. Ethiopia. Environment outlook:
environment for development. Addis Ababa: Bole Printing Enterprise.
USAID (2008). Ethiopia Biodiversity and Tropical Forests 118/119 Assessments
Negese Nako, 2014. Challenges of Protecting Protected Area in Ethiopia: The Case of Maze National
Park, in SNNPR in Gamo Gofa Zone

28 | P a g e
IUCN (International Union for Conservation for Nature). (1994) Guidelines for Protected Area
Management Categories. Cambridge,U.K., and Gland, Switzerland: IUCN IUCN Pakistan
Programme. (1994) Proceedings of Karakoram Workshop. IUCN Gland, Switzerland.

Phillips, A. (2003) Turning ideas on their heads: a new paradigm for protected areas. George Wright
Forum
Strasdas, W. (2002). Ecotourism Training Manual for Protected Area Managers .German Foundation for
International Development (DSE) Center For Food, Rural Development and The Environment
(ZEL) Feldafing And Zschortatu, Germany.
Amare, A., Hernandez, A., Mekonnen, A., Hylander, K. and Hayward, M.W. (In Preparation) Human-
Wildlife Conflict in and around Gibe Sheleko National Park, Southwestern Ethiopia.
Bruche, S., Gusset. M., Lippold, S., Barnett, R., Eulenberger, K., Junhold, J., Driscoll, A.C. and
Hofreiter, M. (2012) A Genetically Distinct Lion (Panthera leo) Population from Ethiopia.
European Journal of Wildlife Research
Zelalem, T. (2007) Community Attitudes towards Wildlife Conservation in Ethiopia. Proceedings of the
2007 George Wright Society Conference,

29 | P a g e