1

SINGLE PHASE MOTORS

Single-phase motors are manufactured frictional horsepower (or kilowatt) range to be obtained
on single-phase supply. Single-phase motors are small in size. Single-phase motors are relatively simple
in construction. However, they are not always easy to analyze. Because of the large demand, the market
is competitive and the designer used tricks to save production cost. These motors are used for many
types of equipment in homes, offices, shops and factories. They provide motive power for washing
machines, fans, refrigerators, lawn mowers, hand tools, record players, blenders, juice makers and so on.

Single-phase motors are manufactured in different types to meet the requirements of various
applications. Single-phase motors are classified on the basis of their construction and starting methods
employed. The different type of single-phase motors are
1. Induction motors
2. Synchronous motors and
3. Commutator motors.
Detailed classification of single-phase motors are listed below

SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

Single-phase induction motors are similar to those of three-phase induction motors except for the
fact that the stator has a single-phase winding instead of a three-phase winding. Single-phase induction
motors have a cage rotor and a single-phase distributed stator winding. When a single-phase ac supply is
connected to the stator winding a pulsating magnetic field is produced. Single-phase induction motor
inherently does not develop any starting torque and the motor will not start to rotate. Therefore, a single-
phase induction motor is inherently not self-starting and requires some special starting means. However,
if the rotor is given a spin or started by auxiliary means, it will continue to run. Performance
characteristics of single-phase induction motors are less satisfactory than three-phase induction motors.
However, single-phase induction motors have found wide range of applications where only single-phase
supply is available. Gradual improvements in design have made these motors quite satisfactory in
fractional horsepower ratings.

CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES
Single-phase induction motors have two main parts, the cage rotor and the other parts is a single-
phase distributed stator winding. A single-phase induction motor physically looks similar to that of a
three-phase induction motor except that its stator is provided with a single-phase winding instead of a
three-phase winding. The rotor construction is identical to that of a three-phase squirrel-cage type
induction motor. There is no physical connection between the rotor and the stator and there is uniform
air-gap between the stator and the rotor. Figure 1 shows the different parts of the single-phase induction
motor.
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Fig.1 : A capacitor-type single-phase induction motor and its different parts.

1. ROTOR
The rotor of a single phase induction motor is exactly similar to the squirrel-cage rotor of three
phase induction motor. It consists of a laminated core with skewed slots on periphery. The conductors
and end-rings are formed by forcing the molten material (copper or aluminum) into the slots. It has a
simple and rugged construction.

2. STATOR
The stator slots arte distributed uniformly and usually a single-phase double-layer winding is
employed. A simple single-phase winding would produce no rotating magnetic field and no starting
torque. It is, therefore, necessary to modify or split the stator winding into two parts, each displaced in
space on the stator to make the motor self-starting. The stator of a single phase motor carries two
windings, namely main winding (or running winding) and auxiliary winding (or starting winding). Both
windings are of the single layer concentric type. The main winding is distributed along the stator
periphery in about two-thirds of the total slots and the auxiliary winding is one-third of the total slots.
Split-phase single-phase induction motor have centrifugal switch mounted on the motor shaft and
connected in series with the auxiliary winding. In these motors, both the main and auxiliary windings are
in circuit at the time of starting and the purpose of centrifugal switch is to disconnected the auxiliary
winding when rotor attains 70 to 80 per cent of synchronous speed.

3. STATOR WINDING
Figure 2 illustrates both main and auxiliary windings for 4-pole, single-phase induction motor
with 24 stator slots. In this figure, 16 slots are utilized by the main winding and the auxiliary winding
is used in the remaining 8 slots. The main winding is traversed from SM to FM, it is seen that movement
of concentric coil is first clockwise, then anti-clockwise and so on. Same is true for auxiliary winding
SA to FA. The concentric coils in one coil-group are traversed outside to inside, in the adjacent coil
group from inside to outside and so on. It must be noted that the space angle between SM to SA is 900,
i.e. the magnitude axes of main and auxiliary windings are in space quadrature.

Fig.2 : Main and auxiliary windings of a 1- IM.

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PRINCIPLE OF WORKING
The operation of the single-phase induction motor can be explained and analyzed by the two
theorem
1. Double revolving field theory and
2. Cross field theorem
Both the theories are fairly complicated and neither has any advantage over the other in
numerical calculations. Almost similar results are obtained with both the theories. These two theories
explain why a torque is produced in the rotor once it is turning.

A. DOUBLE REVOLVING FIELD THEORY

The operation of the single-phase induction motor can be explained and analyzed by double
revolving field theory. The double revolving field theory is explained below:

I. Rotor at Standstill
Consider a single-phase induction motor having a single-phase winding on the stator as shown in
Fig.4(a). First consider that the rotor is stationary and the stator winding is connected to a single-phase
ac supply. A pulsating mmf, hence a pulsating flux s as shown in Fig.4(b), is established in the motor
along the axis of the stator winding. This pulsating stator flux induces current by transformer action in
the rotor circuit, which in turn produces a pulsating flux r acting along the same axis as the stator flux
s . By Lenzs law, these two fluxes tend to oppose each other. As the angle between these fluxes is
zero, no starting torque is developed.

Fig. 4(a) : Schematic diagram of a 1- IM Fig. 4(b) : Stator and rotor flux

II. Rotor at Running

Assume the rotor is running. This can be done either by spinning the rotor or by using auxiliary
circuits. The single-phase induction motor can develop torque when it is in the running condition, which
can be explained as follows. A pulsating magnetic field (mmf or flux) is equivalent to two rotating fields
of half the magnitude but rotating at the same synchronous speed in opposite directions. This can be
proved either graphically or analytically.

I. Graphically
Consider two vectors of equal magnitude OP, f moving forward in the anticlockwise direction
and b moving backward in the clockwise direction as shown in Fig.5. They rotate at the same speed in
opposite directions. Their vector sum OR alternates in magnitude between + 2OP and 2OP and always
lies along the same straight line. Moreover, OR is a sine function of time if the vectors rotate at the same
constant speed. Therefore, the pulsating field (represented by OR) produced by the current in the stator
winding may be regarded as the resultant of two rotating fields (represented by f and b) of the same
magnitude but rotating in opposite directions. The pulsating stator flux s , pulsating along the axis of
the stator winding, is equivalent to two rotating fluxes f and b as shown in Fig.5(b).
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Fig.5 : Pulsating field and rotating field of a single-phase induction motor.

The single-phase induction motor responds to each magnetic field separately and the net torque
in the motor is equal to the sum of the torques due to each of the two magnetic fields.

II. Mathematically or Analytically

For a sinusoidally distributed stator winding, the mmf along a position as shown in Fig.6 is
F() N i cos
where N is the effective number of terns of the stator winding.
Let, the stator current is
i I max cos t
Therefore, the mmf of the stator winding becomes
F(, t ) N I max sin t cos

N I max N I max
sin (t ) sin (t )
2 2
Ff Fb Fig.6 : Cross section of a single-phase IM.

N I max
where Ff sin (t ) represents a rotating mmf in the direction of , is called forward rotating
2
N I max
field, and Fb sin (t ) represents a rotating mmf in the opposite direction of , is called
2
backward rotating field.
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The stationary pulsating magnetic field can be resolved into two rotating magnetic fields, both of
equal magnitude and moving at synchronous speed in opposite directions. The theory based on such a
resolution of an alternating field into two counter rotating fields is called the double-revolving-field
theory of single-phase induction motor. Both of these rotating mmfs produce induction motor torque,
although in opposite directions. The resultant torque developed on the rotor is the summation of the
torques produced by the two rotating fields as shown in Fig.7.

Fig. 7 : Torque-speed characteristic of a 1- IM.

B. CROSS-FIELD THEORY
In cress field theory the flux is resolved into two componnts acting along and at right-angle to
the stator-winding axis as shown in Fig.8. The short-circuited rotor conductors are considered in two
groups, one group being linked with each of the component fluxes, each group is represented by a single
turn as shown in Fig.1. In Fig.1, ab and cd represent these two groups of rotor conductors.

I. Motor Stationary
When the motor is stationary and a voltage V applied to the stator winding an m.m.f. will be set
up in the horizontal or quadrature axis and this results in a quadrature flux q in this axis which is
linked with the turn ab. An e.m.f. Etaq is induced in this turn which sets up a current I 2 q . This current
sets up an opposing m.m.f. along the quadrature axis so that the quadrature flux is set up by the resultant
of these two m.m.f.s. As they are along the same axis there is no torque produced by them. The coil cd
has its axis at 90 to the quadrature flux and therefore has no e.m.f. induced in it and carries no current.
No torque is thus produced on either coil and the motor does not tend to start. Conditions are exactly
similar to those of a transformer on short circuit.

II. Motor Running

When the motor is running, under normal
conditions the stator resistance and leakage reactance drops
will be small and the back e.m.f. induced in the stator
winding will be approximately equal to the applied voltage.
With a constant applied voltage, therefore, this back e.m.f.
will be approximately constant and the quadrature flux q which is inducing it will also be constant and
independent of motor load or speed. With the motor running the coil cd is moving in the quadrature flux
and therefore has a rotational e.m.f. E raq set up in it; since the coil is short-circuited a current I 2 d will
flow in it, and this sets up an m.m.f. and consequent flux d acting in the vertical (direct) axis. The
interaction of the flux d with the current I 2 q in coil ab and also of the interaction of the flux q with
the current I 2 d in coil cd, produces torque and the motor continues to run.

Brief descriptions of this theorem has been given to explain why a single-phase induction motor
will continue to rotate in a direction in which the rotor is given some initial rotation. To make the motor
self-starting, some starting device or method will have to be employed. Single-phase induction motors
are named according to the starting methods employed.
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SLIP OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Assume that the rotor is rotating in the direction of the forward rotating field at a speed N r rpm
and the speed of the rotating field is N s rpm (synchronous speed). The slip with respect to the forward
field is
N Nr
sf s s
Ns
The rotor rotates opposite to the rotation of the backward field. Therefore, the slip with respect to
the backward field is
N ( N r ) N s N r 2 N s ( N s N r )
sr s 2s
Ns Ns Ns

ROTOR CIRCUITS
The rotor circuits for the forward and backward-rotating fluxes are shown in Fig.9.

(a) For forward-rotating flux wave. (b) For backward-rotating flux wave.
Fig. 9 : Rotor equivalent circuits.

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

The double revolving field theory can be used for the analysis to assess the qualitative and
quantitative performance of the single-phase induction motor.

I. Rotor at Standstill
Let us consider that the rotor is stationary and the stator winding is excited from a single-phase
supply. This is equivalent to a transformer with its secondary short-circuited. The equivalent circuit is
shown in Fig.10,

(a) (b)
Fig. 10 : Equivalent circuits of single-phase induction motor rotor at standstill.

The voltage induced in the stator winding (or air gap voltage) by the stationary pulsating air gap
flux wave produced by the combined effects of the stator and rotor current. The voltage induced in the
stator winding

E 4.44 f N
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According to the double revolving field theory, the equivalent circuit can be split into two
halves, as shown in Fig.10(b), representing the effects of forward and backward fields.

E f 4.44 f N f and E b 4.44 f N b

At standstill, as f r (these being the revolving air gap fluxes), E f E b E / 2 .

II. Rotor at Running

Now consider that the motor is running at some speed in the direction by the forward field has
frequency sf, where f is the stator frequency. As in the three-phase motor, the rotor mmf rotates at the
slip rpm with respect to the rotor but at synchronous rpm with respect to the stator. The resultant of the
forward stator mmf and the rotor mmf produces a forward air gap flux that induces the voltage E f . The
rotor circuit as reflected in the stator has impedance j 0.5 X 2 0.5 R 2 / s as shown in Fig.11(a).

Fig.11(a) : Equivalent circuits of 1- IM Fig.11(b) : Simplified equivalent circuits

Now consider the backward-rotating field, which induces current in the rotor circuit at a slip
frequency of ( 2 s )f. The corresponding rotor mmf rotates in the air gap at synchronous speed in the
backward direction. The resultant of the backward stator mmf and the rotor mmf produces a backward
air gap flux, which induces a voltage E b . The reflected rotor circuit has impedance
j 0.5 X 2 0.5 R 2 /(2 s) as shown in Fig.10(a). At small slip, the wave of the rotor current will show a
high-frequency component [at (2 s)f 2 f ] due to the backward field, superimposed on a low-
frequency component (at s f ) due to the forward field.

It is obvious from the equivalent circuit that in the running condition, Z f Z b , E f E b , and
therefore the forward air gap flux f will be grater than the backward air gap flux b .

To the calculations, we define the following impedances :

0.5 R 2
j 0.5 X m j 0.5 X 2
Zf R f j X f s
0.5 R 2
j 0.5 X m X 2
s
0.5 R 2
j 0.5 X m j 0.5 X 2
2s
Zb R b j X b
0.5 R 2
j 0.5 X m X 2
2s
The simplified equivalent circuit of a single-phase induction motor as shown in Fig.11(b).
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DETERMINATION OF EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT PARAMETERS

The parameters of the equivalent circuit of a single-phase induction motor can be determined
from the block-rotor and no-load tests. These tests are similar to those made on three-phase induction
motor. However, except for the capacitor-run motor, these tests are performed with auxiliary winding
kept open.

1. BLOCK ROTOR TEST

For blocked rotor test, the rotor is at rest (blocked). A low voltage is applied to the stator so that
rated current flows in the main winding. The voltage, current and power input are measured. Let,
Vsc , Isc , and Wsc denote the voltage, current and power respectively under these conditions. With the
rotor blocked, slip, s = 1, the impedance (0.5 X m ) in the equivalent circuit of Fig.11(a) is so large
compared with ( j 0.5 X 2 0.5 R 2 / s ) that it may be neglected from the equivalent circuit. Therefore, the
equivalent circuit of Fig.11(a) at s = 1 reduces to that shown in Fig.12(a).

Fig.12(a) : Simplified equivalent circuit of Fig.12(b) : Simplified equivalent circuit of

a 1- IM with blocked rotor. a 1- IM at no-load.

The equivalent impedance reference to stator is

V
Z eq sc
I sc
From Fig.12(a), the equivalent series resistance R eq of the motor is
Wsc
R eq R 1 0.5 R 2 0.5 R 2 R 1 R 2
I sc
2

Since the resistance of the stator winding R 1 is already measured, the effective rotor resistance
at line frequency is given by
W
R 2 R eq R 1 sc2 R 1
I sc
From Fig.12(a), the equivalent reactance X eq is given by
X eq X1 0.5 X 2 0.5 X 2 X1 X 2
Since, the leakage reactances X1 and X2 can not be separated out we make a simplifying assumption
that X1 X 2 .
X1 X 2 0.5 X eq 0.5 Z eq 2 R eq 2

Thus, from blocked-rotor test, the parameters R 2 , X1 , X2 can be found if R 1 is known.

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2. NO LOAD TEST
The motor is run without load at rated voltage and rated frequency. The voltage, current and
input power are measured. At no load, the slip s is very small closed to zero and R 2 / 2s is very large as
compared to 0.5 X m . The resistance 0.5R 2 /(2 s) [ 0.5R 2 /(2 0) 0.25R 2 ] associated with the
backward rotating field is so small as compared to 0.5 X m , that the backward magnetizing current is
negligible. Therefore, under no-load conditions, the equivalent circuit of Fig.11(a) simplifies to that
shown in Fig.12(b).

From Fig.12(b), the equivalent reactance at no load is

X 0 X1 0.5 X m 0.5 X 2

Since X m and X2 are already known from the blocked rotor test, the magnetizing reactance
X m can be calculated from the above equation. Let V0 , I 0 , and W0 denote the voltage, current and
power respectively in the no-load test. Then the no-load power factor is
W
cos 0
V0 I 0

V0
The no-load impedance, Z0
I0

The no-load reactance, X 0 Z 0 sin 0 Z 0 1 cos 2 0

PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS
The parameters calculation of a single-phase induction motor can be done with the help of the
simplified equivalent circuit diagram. The air gap powers due to the forward field and backward field
are
Pgf I1 R f and Pgb I1 R b
2 2

The total air gap power is the numerical sum of the air gap powers absorbed from the stator by
the two component air gap fields. The total air gap power is
Pg Pgf Pgb
The corresponding the forward field and backward torques are
Pgf Pgb
Tf and Tb
s s
I
2
The resultant torque, T Tf Tb 1 (R f R b )
s
The mechanical power developed, Pm T m T s (1 s) I12 (R f R b )(1 s) (Pgf Pgb )(1 s)

The output power, P0 Pm Prot

where Prot includes friction and windage losses, and it is assumed that core losses are also included in
the rotational losses.
The rotor copper loss produced by the forward field, P2f sPgf

and that produced by the backward field, P2 b (2 s) Pgb

The total rotor copper loss, P2 s Pgf (2 s) Pgb

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STARTING METHODS OF SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

A single-phase induction motors are known by various names. The names are descriptive of the
methods used to produce the phase difference between the currents in the main and auxiliary windings.
Some of the commonly used types of single-phase induction motors are listed as follows
1. Split-phase motors
2. Capacitor-start motors
3. Capacitor-run motors
4. Capacitor-start capacitor-run motors
5. Shaded-pole motors
6. Reluctance-start motor

1. SPLIT-PHASE (OR RESISTANCE-START) MOTORS

A schematic diagram of the split-phase induction motor is shown in Fig.13(a). Split-phase
induction motor has a single-cage rotor and stator has two windings a main winding and an auxiliary
winding. The main winding and the auxiliary winding are displaced 900 in space. A centrifugal switch is
connected in series with the auxiliary winding. The auxiliary winding has a higher resistance-to
reactance ratio than the main winding, so the two currents are out of phase. This is achieved by using
thinner wires of higher resistivity for the auxiliary winding as compared to the material used for the
main winding.

Fig.13(a) : Split-phase induction motor Fig.13(b) : Phasor diagram of split-phase motor

The ratio of resistance to reactance, of the auxiliary winding is more than the main winding, the
angle of lag of current Ia drawn by the auxiliary winding will be less than the main winding current, Im
as shown inFig.13(b). The angle between the currents Im and Ia is less than 900. The resultant flux
created by the two currents, which have a time-phase displacement and are flowing through two
windings having space-phase displacement, will be rotating in nature. This rotating field will produce
torque on the rotor which will cause the rotor to rotate. The rotor starts rotating, it will continue to rotate
and there would be no need of the auxiliary winding to remain connected across the supply. After the
motor has reached approximately 75 per cent of synchronous speed, the main winding can developed
nearly as much torque as the two windings. The auxiliary winding is cut out of the circuit once the motor
has picked up 70 to 80 per cent of synchronous speed with the help of a centrifugal switch.

Torque-speed characteristic
The torque-speed characteristic of split-phase induction motor is shown in Fig.13(c). This motor
has low starting torque. The starting torque of the motor is depended on the two currents and the phase
angle between them. The starting can be increased by inserting a series resistance in the auxiliary
winding. A well design split-phase motor will have a starting torque as much as the normal running
torque. The starting torque as high as 150 per cent of normal running torque is very common.
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Reversal of Direction of Rotation

The direction of rotation of split
phase motors can be reversed by reversing
the terminal connections of either the main
or auxiliary winding. For motors using
centrifugal switches, the reversal of
connection of the auxiliary winding should
be done when the rotor is at rest or at a slow
speed, since otherwise the reversal will not
be effective, as the centrifugal switch will be
open at normal speed.

Fig.13(c) : The torque-speed characteristic.

Applications
The applications of split-phase induction motors for the fans, blowers, centrifugal pumps and
refrigerators. Their economical power ratings are from about 10 to 200 watts.

2. CAPACITOR-START MOTORS
A schematic diagram of a capacitor-start motor is shown in Fig.14(a). Capacitor-start motor has a
cage rotor and stator has two windings a main winding and an auxiliary winding. The main winding and
the auxiliary winding are displaced 900 in space. A capacitor and a centrifugal switch are connected in
series with the auxiliary winding. The capacitor is connected in the auxiliary winding for high starting
torque. By choosing a correct value of the capacitor, it is possible to create phase-split angle of nearly
900 as shown in Fig.14(b). The number of turns in auxiliary winding in a capacitor motor than a
resistance split-phase motor. This leads to large number of ampere-turn and hence a large rotating flux
and starting torque. A typical capacitor value for a 0.5 hp motor is 300F.

(a) Circuit diagram (b) Phasor diagram (c) Torque-speed characteristic

Fig.14 : Capacitor-start induction motor.

Torque-speed characteristic
The torque-speed characteristic of capacitor-start motor is shown in Fig.14(c). The starting
torque of a capacitor-start motor is of the range of 3 to 4 times its full-load torque.

Reversal of Direction of Rotation

Reversal of direction of rotation can be obtained by changing the terminal connections of one of
the windings. The motor is first brought to rest for this proposes.

Applications
Capacitor-start induction motors are used for loads of higher inertia where frequent starts are
required. These motors are most suitable for pumps and compressors, and therefore they are widely used
in refrigerators and in air-conditioner compressors. They are also used for conveyors and machine tools.
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3. CAPACITOR-RUN MOTORS
A schematic diagram of a capacitor-run motor is shown in Fig.15(a). Capacitor-run motor has a
cage rotor and its stator has two windings namely the main winding and the auxiliary winding. The main
winding and the auxiliary winding are displaced 900 in space. A capacitor is connected in series with the
auxiliary winding. There is no centrifugal switch connected in the auxiliary winding. The auxiliary
winding along with the capacitor remains energized for both starting and running conditions. By using a
suitable capacitor in the auxiliary winding, it is possible to make a time-phase difference of practically
900 between the currents Im and Ia as shown in Fig.15(b). So that the motor becomes like as a two phase
motor.

The starting torque is higher than the resistance split-phase motor of the same rating. The
auxiliary winding together with the capacitor remain the circuit during all the period of motor operation,
the power factor of the motor is improved considerably. The power factor, torque and efficiency are
improved because the motor runs as a two-phase motor. The motor will run more quietly. The capacitor
value is of the order of 20-25 F and because it operates continuously, it is an ac paper oil type. The full
load efficiency of this type motor will be higher.

Fig.15(a) : Capacitor-run motor Fig.15(b) : Phasor diagram Fig.15(c) : Torque-speed characteristic

Torque-speed characteristic
The capacitor is a compromise between the best starting and running values and therefore
starting torque is sacrificed. The typical torque-speed characteristic is shown in Fig.15(c).

Applications
Capacitor-run motors are used for fans and blowers in heaters and air conditioners and to drive
refrigerator compressors. They are also used to drive office machinery.

4. CAPACITOR-START CAPACITOR-RUN MOTORS

A schematic diagram of a capacitor-start capacitor run motor is shown in Fig.16. Capacitor-start
capacitor run motor has a cage rotor and its stator has two windings namely the main winding and the
auxiliary winding. The two windings are displaced 900 in space. Two capacitors are connected, one for
starting and one for running, as shown in Fig.16. Theoretically, optimum starting and running
performance can be achieved by having two capacitors. The starting capacitor Cs is larger than in value
and is of the ac electrolytic type. The running capacitor Cr, permanently connected in series with the
starting winding is of small value and is of the paper oil type. Typical values of these capacitors for a 0.5
hp motor are Cs = 300 F, Cr = 40 F.

Figure 17 shows the phasors diagram of a capacitor-start capacitor run motor. At starting both
the capacitors are in the circuit and 900 as shown in Fig. 17(a). When the capacitor Cs is
disconnected becomes 900 as shown in Fig. 17(b).
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Fig.16 : Capacitor start capacitor-run motor. Fig.17 : Phasor diagrams of capacitor start and run motor.

Torque-speed characteristic
The typical torque-speed characteristic of
the capacitor-start capacitor run motor is shown in
Fig.18. The capacitor-start capacitor run motors are
quiet and smooth running. They have a higher
efficiency than motors that run on the main
windings along.

Applications Fig. 18 : Torque-speed characteristic

The capacitor-start capacitor run motors are used for loads of higher inertia requiring frequent
starts where the maximum pull out torque and efficiency required are higher. They are used in pumping
equipment, refrigeration, air compressor etc.

5. SHADED-POLE MOTORS
The shaded-pole motors have a salient pole construction. A shaded band consisting of a short-
circuited copper turn, known as a shading coil, is used on one portion of each pole, as shown in
Fig.19(a). The main single-phase winding is wound on the salient poles. The result is that the current
induced in the shading band causes the flux in the shaded portion of the pole to lag the flux in the
unshaded portion of the pole. Therefore the flux in the shaded portion reaches its maximum after the
flux in the unshaded portion reaches its maximum. This is equivalent to a progressive shaft of the flux
from the unshaded to the shaded portion of the pole. It is similar to a rotating field moving from the
unshaded to the shaded portion of the pole. As a result, the motor produces a starting torque.

Fig. 19(a) : Schematic diagram of a shaded-pole motor Fig. 19(b) : Torque-speed characteristic
 14

Torque-speed characteristic
The typical torque-speed characteristic is shown in Fig.19(b). The starting torque of the shaded
pole motor is very low.

Applications
Shaded-pole motors are the least expensive of the fractional horsepower motors and are enerally
built for low horsepower rating, up to about 1/20 hp. The losses are high and the efficiency is low. The
fewer factor is low. They are most suitable for small devices like relay, fans, of all kinds etc.

6. RELUCTANCE START MOTOR

A schematic diagram of a reluctance-start single-phase induction motor is shown in Fig.20(a). In
this motor, starting torque is achieved by creating non-uniform air-gap of the salient poles as shown in
Fig.20(a). Due to the variation of reluctance, the flux in the portion where there is grater air-gap will be
more in phase with the current. There will be a greater lag between the flux and current producing that
flux, where there is a lower reluctance, i.e. where the air-gap is smaller. Since both the fluxes are
produced by the same current, the flux across the large air-gap will lead the flux across the smaller air-
gap.

Fig.20(a) : Reluctance-start motor Fig. 20(b) Phasor relation

In a reluctance-start induction motor, the two portion of a pole have different amount of iron.
Hence the fluxes crested in these portions will lag the current by different angles, A being more in
phase with I than B. The two fluxes, A and B are displaced in time as shown in Fig.20(b). The
magnetic axis will shift across the poles from the longer air-gap region to the shorted air-gap region.
This will enable the rotor to start rotating in the same direction. Once started, the rotor will continue to
rotate like other type of single-phase induction motors. It is evident that the direction of rotation of such
motors is fixed by the construction and cannot be reversed.

Torque-speed characteristic
The typical torque-speed characteristic is shown in Fig.20(c). The starting torque of the shaded
pole motor is very low.

Fig. 20(c) : Torque-speed characteristic.

Applications
For most of the small power applications, the shaded-pole motors are preferred. Reluctance-start
motors have limited use in applications where the starting torque requirement is very low.
 15

STARTING TORQUE DEVELOPED IN SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Consider a single-phase induction motor, it has two stator windings as shown in Fig.21(a). The
cage rotor can be represent by an equivalent two-phase winding, represented by the coils a-b and c-d.
Assume that each of these coils has an effective number of turns N2, resistance R2, and reactance X2 (at
the stator frequency f). At starting, the currents, the currents flowing through the main winding and
auxiliary windings are I m and I a respectively with an angle 2 . These set up fluxes m and a in
the two axes which will also be displaced by the angle 2 in time and can be represented on the phasor
diagram as shown in Fig.21.(b).

The flux m sets up a transformer emf E 2 m 4.44 f N 2 m volts in the main-axis rotor circuit
and a similarly sets up E 2 a 4.44 f N 2 a volts in the quadrature or starting-axis circuit. These emfs
set up corresponding currents I 2 m E 2 m / R2 2 X 2 2 and I 2 a E 2 a / R2 2 X 2 2 each lagging their
respective emfs by the angle 2 gives cos 2 R2 / R2 2 X 2 2 R2 / Z 2 .

Fig.21(a) : Starting condition of stator winding Fig.21(b) : Phasor diagram

The flux m interacts with the current I 2a and the flux a interacts with I 2 m to produce
torque. Net starting torque of the motor is
Ts m I 2 a cos m , I 2 a a I 2 m cos a , I 2 m

Ts m I 2 a cos (90 0 2 ) a I 2 m cos (90 0 2 )
E2m m I
Since, 2m m I 2a a I 2m
E 2a a I 2a
Therefore, the torque is
Ts I 2 m a sin cos 2
E 2a I 2a Z 2
But, a
4.44 f N 2 4.44 f N 2

I 2 m I 2a ( Z 2 cos 2 ) sin
Starting torque, Ts I 2 m I 2a R 2 sin
4.44 f N 2
From the transformer theory, I 2 m is proportional to I m and I 2a is proportional to I a .
The starting torque of the single-phase induction motor is
Ts I m I a sin K I m I a sin
This equatin indicate that the starting torque depends on the magnitudes of currents in the main
and the auxiliary winding and the phase difference between these currents.
 16

DESIGN OF SPLIT-PHASE MOTORS

In split-phase motors, the main winding is designed to satisfy the running operation of the
motors, whereas the auxiliary winding is designed so that operating in conjunction with the main
winding, it produced the desired starting torque without excessive starting current. A convenient
approach is to assume a number of turns for the starting winding and calculate the value of the starting
winding resistance for the desired starting torque. If this does not yield the optimum design for starting
torque and current, a range of values for the starting winding turns can be tried until an optimum design
is obtained.

MAXIMUM STARTING TORQUE FOR RESISTOR-START MOTOR

If the member of turns (Na) for the starting winding is specified, the resistance in the auxiliary
winding can be determined so as to maximize the starting torque. For the standstill condition, the motor
can be represented by the circuit shown in Fig.22(a).
Let
Zm R m j X m impedance of the main winding
Za R a j X a impedance of the auxiliary winding

The phasor diagram for the standstill condition of the motor is shown in Fig.22(b). The phasor
I m (= OA) lags V by m . For a particular value of R a , I a = AC and I I m I a OC .The main
winding current I m remains fixed and I a will change if R a changes. If R a is infinitely large, current
I a is zero, and the input current I is the same as the current I m . If R a is zero, I a | V | / X a and I a will
lag V by 900 , as represented by the phasor AB in Fig.22(b). The locus of I a and the input current I is a
semicircle having diameter AB | V | / X a .

From Eq. (6), since I m is fixed,

Ts I a sin

length CK in Fig.25(b)

(a) Circuit diagram (b) Phasor diagram

Fig.22 : Split-phase induction motor at starting condition.

For maximum starting torque, the operating point is D, midway between A and E, for which
I a sin ( = DK/) is maximum. The phasor diagram for the maximum starting condition is drawn in
Fig.22(c).
 17

Fig.22(c) : Phasor diagram for the maximum starting torque condition

Obviously, AD = DE, AK/ = K/E, and

m
a
2
cos ( m / 2) 1 cos m
Therefore, cot a cot m
2 sin ( m / 2) sin m

R a 1 R m / Zm R m Zm
or
Xa X m / Zm Xm

Xa
or Ra ( R m Zm ) (8)
Xm
2
Na
Ra ( R m Zm ) (9)
Nm

For a particular value of turns N a for the starting winding, Eq.(8) or Eq.(9) gives the value of
R a for maximum starting torque.

The starting winding current is

V V
Ia
Za R a 2 Xa 2

( N

/ N m ) 2 ( R m Z m ) N a / N m 4 X m 2
2
a

R m Zm X m
V
Ia 1/ 2
(10)
(N a / N m ) 2 2 2

For a particular value of turns N a for the starting winding, Eq.(10) gives the starting winding
current. A range of values for N a can be tried and an optimum design can be achieved.
 18

MAXIMUM STARTING TORQUE FOR CAPACITOR-START MOTORS

For the starting condition, the capacitor-start motor can be represented by the circuit shown in
Fig.23(a). The phasor diagram for the standstill condition is shown in Fig.23(b). The main winding
current I m (= OA) lags V by m . The auxiliary winding current I a (= AC) leads V by a . The starting
current is I I m I a = OC. If X c is infinitely large, I a is zero and I I m OA. If X c X a , I a is a
maximum, is equal to | V | / R a , and is in phase with the supply voltage V as represented by the vertical
line AB in Fig.23(b). The locus of I a is the semicircle ACB having diameter AB | V | / R a .

(a) Circuit diagram (b) Phasor diagram

Fig.23 : Capacitor-start induction motor at starting condition.

Since I m is fixed,
Ts I a sin
length CK in Fig.23(b)

Length CK is maximum when it passes through the center of the circle as shown in Fig.23(b).
Note that the phasor diagram in Fig.23(b) is drawn for the maximum starting torque condition. For the
geometry of the diagram,
90 0 m
a
2

sin a 1 cos 2 a 1 cos (90 0 m ) 1 sin m )

1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2

Now, tan a

cos a 1 cos 2 a 1 cos (90 0
)
m 1 sin m )

Xc Xa 1 X m / Z m Z Xm
1/ 2 1/ 2
Rm
or m
Ra 1 X m / Z m Zm X m Zm X m

1 RaRm
or Xc Xa
C Zm X m

1
C (11)
RaRm
X a
Zm X m
For a given starting winding, the value of C, given by Eq.(11), when connected in series with the
starting winding will yield maximum starting torque.
 19

Maximum Starting Torque per Ampere of Starting Current

If maximizing the starting torque is the sole criterion, the value of C can be selected by using
Eq.(13). However, this may not be the best design for the motor. Maximizing the starting torque per
ampere of starting current is perhaps the most desirable criterion.
The phasor diagram for the starting condition is
shown in Fig.24. the starting current is represented by OC,
and the starting torque is represented by CK. The ratio
CK/OC (i.e. starting torque per ampere of the starting
current) is maximum when OC is tangential to the circle
ACBD, which is the locus of Ia and I . Note that the phasor
diagram of Fig.27 is drawn for the condition that OC is
tangent to the circle ACBD whose center is F.

Now, OCF 900

and OAF 180 0 m Fig.24 : Phasor diagram for maximum starting torque per
ampere of starting current in a capacitor-start IM.
OC 2 OF 2 AF 2 OA 2 AF 2 2 OA AF cos OAF AF 2 OA 2 2 OA AF cos m
V Rm 2 R
or I Im 2 I m I a cos m I m 2 Im Im 1 m
2 2 2

2 R a Zm Ra
Ra Rm
2
I
(12)
Im Ra
V V
Also, Im and Ia
Zm Za
The starting current,
V V Z Zm Z Zm
I Im Ia V a I m a
Za Zm Za Zm Za
Za Z m
2 2
I
(13)
Im Za
2

From Eqs. (12) and (13)

R a R m Z a Z m (R a R m ) 2 (X a X A ) 2
X A Xc Xa (14)
Ra Za Ra2 XA2
Equation (14) is a quadratic equation in X A . From it, the following result is obtain :
X m R a Z m R a (R a R m )
XA
Rm
If I a has to lead V, the net reactance in the starting winding X A has to be positive. Hence,
X m R a Z m R a (R a R m )
XA Xc Xa
Rm
1 X m R a Z m R a (R a R m )
Xc Xa
C Rm
1
C (15)
X m R a Z m R a (R a R m )
X a
R
m
The value of C from Eq.(17 will maximize the starting torque per ampere of starting current.
 20

STARTING SWITCHES
In split phase induction motor, the auxiliary winding is connected at the time of starting and
disconnected at the time of running. For this a switch is connected in auxiliary winding circuit. These
switches ate two types:

1. Centrifugal switch
2. Electromagnetic relay switch

1. CENTRIFUGAL SWITCH
Figure 25(a) illustrates the action of a centrifugal switch. With the rotor at standstill, the pressure
of the spring on the bakelite piece C keeps the contacts PP/ closed. The starting winding circuit which is
connected across the supply terminals through the centrifugal switch terminals PQ remains closed. The
auxiliary winding flux helps the motor to start. As the motor picks up speed, centrifugal force acts on the
parts a and b as shown in Fig.25(b). These two parts are pushed backwards. They in turn push against
the spring pressure, the cup-shaped bakelite piece C forward. The spring pressure is such that at about
75 per cent of the synchronous speed the centrifugal switch contacts points PP/ open, thereby cutting out
the auxiliary winding from the supply.

Fig.25 : Diagram of a centrifugal switch. Fig. 26 : Diagram of a electromagnetic relay.

2. ELECTROMAGNETIC OVER-CURRENT RELAY SWITCH

A single phase induction motor, takes heavy current from the line during starting when direct-on-
line started. Advantage is taken of the high starting current to operate an electromagnetic type over-
current relay which performers the same function as the centrifugal device. Connection diagram for such
an over-current relay is shown in Fig.26.

The electromagnetic relay has a coil which is connected in series with the main winding. The
auxiliary winding is connected across the supply through a normally open contact of the relay. Since
split-phase motors are usually started direct-on-line, the initial current inrush may be as high as five to
six times the rated current. During the starting period, when the main winding current is high, the
armature of the relay will be drawn upwards, thereby closing the relay contacts. The auxiliary winding
will, therefore, get connected across the supply thus helping the motor to start rotating. As the rotor
starts rotating, the line current gradually goes on decreasing. After the motor reaches proper speed, the
main winding current drop to a low value and causes the armature of the relay to fall downwards and
open the contacts, thereby cutting out the auxiliary winding from the supply. Such relays are located
outside the motor so that they can be easily serviced or replaced. As centrifugal switches are mounted
internally, their serving or replacement is not as similar as an externally mounted over-current relay.