NON-CONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES

At the end of this lesson you shall be able to

State what is non-conventional machining process
List a few non-conventional machining processes
State the advantages of non-conventional machining processes
State the functions and uses of five non-conventional machining processes
Non-conventional machining processes
Removal of material which does not involve the chip shaving process can
be called as non-conventional or non-traditional machining processes.
Non-conventional machining processes include the following

Electro-discharge machining. (EDM)

Wire-cut EDM
Electrochemical machining (ECM)
Electrochemical grinding (ELG)
Ultrasonic machining etc.

ADVANTAGES OF NON-CONVENTIONAL MACHINING OVER CONVENTIONAL

MACHINING METHODS
Any electrically conductive material can be machined regardless of its hardness.
Machining can be done in the hardened state itself. Any complicated shape can be given in
the workpiece
The workpiece will not be subjected to distortion or stress, since the tool (electrode) never
comes in contact with the workpiece
Machining can be done on thin and fragile workpieces also.
These processes are burr-free.
Secondary finishing operations are generally eliminated. Broken taps and drills can be
removed easily without damaging expensive workpieces.

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Electrochemical machining (Fig 3)
Electrochemical machining (ECM) is
essentially a reverse metal plating process.
Removing metal by a chemical process is not
new. For many years it has been used by photo
engravers to prepare plates for printing and
engraving.
The process of ECM takes place in a
conducting fluid or electrolyte that is pumped
under pressure between the electrode and the
workpiece. As the workpiece material is depleted, it is washed away by the flow of the
electrolyte. The workpiece material is removed from the electrolyte by a filtration system.

Electrolytic grinding
In the process of ELG, an abrasive
wheel, much like a standard grinding wheel, is
used. The abrasive wheel bond is metal, thus
making it a conducting medium. The abrasive
grains in the grinding wheel are non-
conducting and aid in removing oxides from
the workpiece while helping to maintain the
gap between the wheel and the work.
ELG, like ECM, is a depleting process
and the workpiece material is carried away by
the circulating electrolyte.

Ultrasonic machining
Ultrasonic machining is similar to an abrasive
process like sand blasting. High frequency sound
is used as the motive force by which the abrasive
particles are propelled against the workpiece. A
little distortion is however possible in this process.

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The non-conventional machining processes are much slower, from the removal of metal point
of view, as compared to conventional machining processes.

ELECTRO-CHEMICAL MACHINING (ECM)

In ECM, the principle of electrolysis is used to remove metal from the workpiece. The
principle of electrolysis is based on Faraday's laws of electrolysis, which may be stated as:
The weight of substance produced during electrolysis is directly proportional to the
current, which passes, the length of time of the electrolysis process and the equivalent
weight of the material, which is deposited. ECM is just the reverse of electroplating (which
also uses the principle of electrolysis). In electroplating, two dissimilar metals are in contact
with electrolyte (an electrically conductive fluid) and anode loses metal to the cathode. In
ECM, work is made the anode and the tool is the cathode. Therefore, work loses metal but
before it can be plated on to the tool the dissolved metal is carried away in the flowing
electrolyte.
Description of Process:
Schematic view of ECM method is shown in Figure. In the D.C. supply circuit, the
workpiece is made the anode and the too! is made the cathode. The tool is hollow tabular
type to the work. As the power supply is switched on and the current starts flowing through
the circuit, electrons are removed from the surface atoms of the workpiece. These ions tend
to migrate to the hollow face, these are swept away by rapidly flowing electrolyte, out of the
gap between the tool and the workpiece. The tool is fed towards the workpiece
automatically at constant velocity to control the gap between the electrodes. Tool face has
the reverse shape of the desired workpiece. The sides of the tool are insulated to
concentrate the metal removal action at the bottom face of the tool.
Advantages
Like EDM, the ECM method has also been developed for machining new hard, and
tough materials (for rocket and aircraft industry) and also hard refractory materials. ECM has
the following outstanding advantages.
1. ECM is simple, fast and versatile method.
2. The metal removal is entirely by metallic ion exchange and so there are no cutting
forces and the workpiece is left in an undisturbed, stress free state. It is never subjected
to high temperatures or stresses. Also, due to the absence of cutting forces, very thin

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 sections can be machined. Again, there will be no residual stresses in the workpiece as a
result of the operation.
2. If proper electrolytes are used, there is no tool wear at all.
3. The process character does not depend at all upon the physical properties of the
metal (hardness, toughness, etc.)
5. Surface finish can be extremely good
Power Supply:
The electrical supply circuit in ECM is simpler as compared to EDM. ECM power
supplies are currently available in sizes up to 10,000 amperes. The range of voltage on most
machines is from 5 to 30 volts D.C. In ECM method, a constant voltage has to be
maintained. For this, voltage regulation circuits are available in the power-supply units to stop
the supply of power to the machining gap. In ECM, the current density is usually high. AT
low current densities, the metal removal rate is low. In order to have a metal removal of the
anode, a sufficient amount of current has to De given. It has been found that at low current
densities (5A/cm2), Oxygen is evolved at anode and all the energy is used for this purpose. In
order to have a high current efficiency, higher current densities, of the order of 200/Vcm 2, are
used.

Electrolyte: The electrolyte in ECM method serves two purposes.

1. It is essential for electrolytic process to work, and
2. It cools the cutting zone, which becomes hot due to the flow of high current. The
electrolytes vary from strong salt to strong acid solution, depending on the work material.
Neutral salts are used as electrolytes in preference to highly corrosive acids and alkalis. The
sodium and potassium salts are probably the most common. A 20% common salt (NaCI)
solution is appropriate for many materials. Some electrolytes are naturally corrosive and so
ECM equipment is made of stainless steel and plastics.
The electrolyte solution is pumped between the tool/workpiece gap at about 2.5
N/mm2 and 30 m/s. The electrolyte should never be allowed to boil. For this, the temperature
of the electrolyte in the tank is thermostatically controlled (35 deg.to 65 deg. C) by electric
heaters together with a heat exchanger or evaporative condenser. Unlike EDM, it is not
necessary for the work to be submerged in liquid solution.

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Tool:
As mentioned above, there is virtually no tool wear, so any material that is good
conductor of electricity can be used as tool material. Other requirements of good tool
material are :
1. It should have good thermal conductivity.
2. It should be strong enough to withstand the high hydrostatic pressures caused by
electrolyte flow.
3. It should be easily machined.
4. As the surface finish of the workpiece mainly depends upon the condition of the bottom
face of the tool, this portion of the too should be polished.
The tool may be made from titanium, copper, brass, or stainless steel. The outer
surface of tool is insulated by Vinyl, Teflon, epoxy, enamels or high temperature varnish. A
constant gap of about 0.01 mm is maintained between the tool face and work. For this, the
tool is fed towards the work at constant velocity with feed rate of about 0.5 mm to 25 mm per
minute. A hydraulic cylinder controls the movement of the tool slide.
Machined Surface:
The machining rate and surface finish are directly proportional to current density.
Surface finish values as low as 0.1-micron m Ra are possible with a tolerance of the order of
0.005 mm. The metal removal rates are high, up to 550 mm3/s.
Product Application:
ECM methods find wide application in rocket, aircraft and gas turbine industries. ECM
is increasingly being used in airframe component fabrication, die sinking and the
manufacture of general machine parts. The different operations like turning, drilling, milling,
shaping and planning etc. can be combined and done quickly by ECM method. Product
applications of ECM include producing simple to complex cavities (die sinking), embossed
surfaces, blind holes, through holes, irregular holes and complex external shapes; cutting
test blocks and sawing ingots to various desired lengths in steel mills; rough machining of
massive forgings; honey-combing aircraft panels; jet engine blade airfoils and cooling holes;
operations on rock boring bits, transformer cores, pump impellers, gears; extremely rapid
deburring operations and salvage operations on worn machine parts or on dies.
One very important advantage of ECM is that by merely changing electrolyte and
current density, we can shift from roughing to polishing. At very high current densities and
high electrolyte velocities, a very high polish can be obtained.
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CHEMICAL MILLING
 In chemical milling, also known as chemical machining (CHM), photochemical
machining, photo fabrication or photo etching, material is removed from selected areas of a
workpiece by controlled chemical dissolution with chemical reagents, which may be either
acidic or basic, depending on the material of the workpiece. The areas of the workpiece
which are not to be machined are masked. The workpiece is then either immersed in or
exposed to a spray of chemical reagent. The time of immersion or exposure depends upon
the amount of materials to be removed by chemical action.

Chemical milling
The simplest method of masking is with masking tape. The usual methods are:
scribed-and-peeled maskants and by photoresits.
In the first method, a maskant (paint like material) is applied to the entire surface of
the workpiece by dip, spray, brush or stencil. After the maskant hardens, it is removed from
those areas where metal removal, is desired, by scribing through the maskant with a knife
and peeling away the desired portions. This method is used when the workpiece is not flat, or
it is very large, and the number of pieces to be produced are small. Where economical,
templates may be used to assist in scribing.
Photoresists are an excellent of masking, especially for complex work. The various
steps in this method are:
1. A large scale drawing of the part (known as 'art work') is prepared. The scale of
drawing may be up to 20,100 or as much as 200 to 1.
2. The master drawing is photographed and reduced to final size on a process camera,
to get the master negative.
3. The metal workpiece is thoroughly cleaned and is then coated with an emulsion of
photosensitive resist. The coating may be applied by dipping, spraying, brushing,
roller coating or flow coating.
4. The coating is then dried and hardened by baking in an oven up to 120 deg. C.

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 5. The master photographic negative is placed over the dried photoresist coating and
exposed to ultraviolet radiation from a mercury lamp. The clear areas of the
master allow radiation to harden the resist. The black areas of the master protect the
resist from radiation and keep it unhardened in these areas. Each side of the
workpiece can be printed individually or the two sides can be exposed simultaneously
by using special mirror image master equipment.
6. The workpiece is then developed by immersing it into a
tank containing organic solvent bath solution. The
unexposed areas on the workpiece are dissolved away
in the developer while the exposed remain on the
workpiece.
7. The final step is to spray the workpiece with or immerse it
in the chemical reagent. The material is etched away
from the surface of the workpiece except that portion on
which the protected image is printed.
Chemical milling
The use of chemical milling in the making of a disk with tapered sides as shown in
Figure before. The disk is rotated in the chemical reagent while moving the axis of rotation
gradually upward. By varying the vertical speed, different curvatures can be obtained.
There are two variations of chemical milling:
Chemical blanking and contour machining. The difference between the two is that
while in chemical blanking, the material is etched entirely through a workpiece, in contour
machining the material is selectively etched from certain areas on the workpiece. Chemical
blanking is a method of cutting or stamping out parts from flat thin metal or foil sheets.
In practice, the following results are achieved by chemical milling:
1. Metal thickness of blanked parts: About 1.50 mm.
2. Depth of etch in contour machining: Approximately from3.8 mm to 12.7 mm. Of
course, heavy cuts have been made successfully (up to about 50 mm). However,
lighter cuts are more characteristic of this process.
3 Tolerance: About -i- or - 0.05 mm per 2.54 mm of depth.
4. Surface finish: Depending upon the material, characteristics of the chemical and
depth of cut, surface finishes can vary from 0.25 to 6.25 microns m Ra values.

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5. Metal removal: Approximately0.015to0.030 cm3 per minute.
Advantages:
i. The process is comparatively simple and there is no need- of highly skilled labour,
excepting for artwork and photography.
ii. The process does not induce any stresses in the metal.
iii. The process can be applied to any metal.
iv. Parts of any shape and minimum thickness can be machined.
v. Parts of large sizes can be machined.
Limitations:
i. The metal removal rate is slow.
ii. The material has to be fine grained, sound and homogeneous for best results. Any
imperfections on the surface in the form of tool marks, scratches etc. must be
removed before chemical milling, because the chemical reagent has the tendency to
etch surface imperfections at a faster rate. Also, the parts should be heat treated and
stress relieved before chemical milling. If there are any residual stresses in the part,
these will get relieved during chemical milling resulting in warping of the part.
iii. Weldments are usually not suitable for chemical milling because of non-uniform grain
structure near welds.
Product Applications:
The chemically milled parts find main application in aerospace, aviation, automotive,
electronic and instrument making industry.
Chemically blanked parts are used in the following products: tape recorders,
computers, cameras, television sets, electric motors, timers, telephone systems, electric
shavers and medical instruments etc. In aviation industry, chemical milling (contour
machining) is used to produce special surface configurations on aircraft wing and fuselage
sections. In aerospace industry, contour machining is used to produce contoured pockets on
surfaces of bulkheads, skin panels etc. Chemical contour machining is also used to produce
special geometries on the surfaces of parabolic radar reflectors, gyro housings and heat
exchangers etc.
Other uses of contour machining are: to produce decorative surfaces on various fiat or
contoured parts, for example, elevator doors, ashtrays, plaques, signs, panels, instrument
dials, metal tags or nameplates.

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 CHEMICAL BLANKING
Chemical blanking, chem-blanking, photoforming, photo fabrication or photoetching is
a variation of chemical milling. In this process, the metal is totally removed from certain areas
by chemical action. The process is used chiefly on their sheets and foils. Almost any metal
can be worked by thus process, however, it is not recommended for material thinner than 2
mm.
The workpiece is cleaned, degreased and pickled by acid or alkalies. The cleaned metal is
dried and photoresist material is applied to the workpiece by dippind, whirl coating or
spraying. It is then dried and cured. The technique of photography has been suitably
employed to produce etchant resistant

images in photoresist materials. This type of maskant is sensitive to light of a particular

frequency, usually ultraviolet light, and not to room light. This surface is now exposed to the
light through the negative, i.e. a photographic plate of the required design, just as in
developing pictures. After exposure, the image is developed. The unexposed portions are
dissolved out during the developing process developing process exposing the bare metal.
The treated metal is next put into a machine, which sprays it with a chemical etchant, or it
may be dipped into the solution. The etching solution may be hydrofluoric acid, (for titanium),
or one of several other chemicals. After 1 to 15 min, the
unwanted metal has been eaten away, and the finished part is ready for immediate rinsing to
remove
the etchant.
Printed circuit cards, other engraving operations and blanking of intricate designs can
be suitably made by chemical blanking by using photoresist maskants.
The advantages of this process can be summerized as follows: -
1. Very thin material (0.005) can be suitable etched.
2. High accuracy of the crude of 0.015 mm can be maintained.
3. High production rate can be met by using automatic photographic technique.

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Application of Chemical Machining
 Chemical machining has been applied successfully in a great number of usage where
the depth of material removal is critical to a few microns, and the tolerances are close. The
surface finish obtained in the process is in the range of 0.5 to 2 microns. Besides, it removes
metal from a portion or the entire surface of formed or irregularly shaped parts such as
forgings, castings extrusions or formed wrought stock. One of the major applications of
chemical machining is in the manufacture of burr-free, intricate stampings.

Advantages and Disadvantages of CHM

The advantages are that this process does not distort the workpiece, does not produce burrs,
and can easily be used on the most difficult- to-machine materials. However, the process is
slow, and thus it is not usually used to produce large quantities or to machine materials
thicker than 2 mm. Some small parts are made 10 to 100 at a time on a single plate, which
speeds up production.

ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM)

Ultrasonic machining is a kind of grinding method. Abrasive slurry is pumped between
tool and work, and the tool is given a high frequency, low amplitude oscillation, which, in turn,
transmits a high velocity to fine abrasive particles, which are driven against the workpiece. At
each stroke, minute chips of material are removed by fracture or erosion. The general
arrangement of ultrasonic machining is shown in Figure below. The equipment consists of a
transducer, a tool holder and the tool. The linear oscillatory motion of the tool is obtained by
magnetostrictive transducer, which converts electric energy into mechanical energy. The
transducer consists of a stack of nickel laminations that are
wound with a coil. When a high frequency current is
passed through the coil, changes in the electromagnetic
field produce longitudinal strains in the laminations. These
longitudinal strains are transmitted to the tool through a
tool holder. The tool oscillates linearly with
an amplitude of about 0.05 mm at ultrasonic frequencies of
from 15 to 25 kHz. Power supply is: Potential volts = 220;
current = 12A.

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machining
The tool whose shape is essentially re-produced in the workpiece is also subjected to the
impact-fracture action and should be made of a soft ductile material that is easily machined,
for example, unhardened steel, copper or brass. The tool is ordinarily 0.075 to 0.10 mm
smaller than the cavity it produces. The tool is brazed, soldered or fastened mechanically to
the transducer through a tool holder. For selecting tool holder material, factors to be
considered are : Conductivity, how well the material can be brazed and fatigue properties.
The material for tool holder can be : titanium alloys, Monel, Aluminium, stainless steel etc.
Important factor in tool fastening is that no relative motion and hence energy loss occurs. So,
soldering and brazing have proved more satisfactory than mechanical clamping. The tool
feed rate is about 0.1 mm/s maximum.
The abrasive used in USM can be aluminum oxide, boron carbide, or silicon carbide grains in
slurry which also carries away debris. The slurry can be made in water, which also acts as a
coolant. The usual combinations are: boron carbide in water and silicon carbide in paraffin.
Grain size of abrasive particles ranges from 200 to 1000.
This method involves brittle fracture and obviously works only on relatively brittle materials.
So, USM has been applied very successfully to hard, refractory, difficult to machine materials
which are quite brittle, for example, ceramics, borides, ferrites, carbides, glass, precious
stones, hardened steel, cermets and some super alloys etc. It is used chiefly for drilling
holes, engraving, cavity sinking (carbide wire drawing dies), slicing and broaching etc. Hole
diameter as small as 0.01 mm can be produced.
Tolerance and surface finish depend upon grit size. More practical values for tolerance
are + or - 0.001 mm/mm. Of course, tolerance of + or - 0.0005 mm/mm can be obtained.
Usual values for surface finish are 0.25 to 0.50 u m Ra. Metal removal is about 3 mm3/s.
The difference between conventional grinding and ultrasonic machining also known as
grinding is that whereas in the former, the motion of the grinding grit is tangential to the
surface of workpiece, in USM (USG), the motion of grinding grits is normal to the work
surface. Advantages of the process are: no thermal stresses, low tooling costs and the use of
semiskilled workers for precision work.

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ABRASIVE JET MACHINING (AJM)
 In abrasive jet machining method, the material is removed from the surface of a
workpiece, by impinging a focused jet of fine abrasive particles carried by a compressed gas
which imparts kinetic energy to the stream of fine abrasives. The stream leaves through a
nozzle at a velocity of the order of 300 m/s and strikes the surface of the workpiece,
producing impact loading on it. Severe plastic deformation or micro-cracks occur in the
vicinity of the impact. Due to repeated impacts, small chips of material get loosened and a
fresh surface gets exposed to the jet.
The carrier gas can be air, nitrogen or carbon dioxide, but never oxygen. The air must
be filtered to remove water, oil and other contaminants. Nozzle pressure can range between
0.20 N/mm2 and 0.85 N/mm2, but is usually about 0.5 N/mm2. Higher pressure results in
rapid nozzle wear, low pressure gives slow metal removal rates.
To resist abrasion and wear of nozzles, these are made of hard materials such as
tungsten carbide and synthetic sapphire. The useful life of sapphire nozzles is about 10 times
that of tungsten carbide nozzles. The sizes of the nozzles are usually:
Tungsten Carbide
Round : 0.0125 to 0.80 mm diameter
Rectangular : 0.075 mm x 0.50 mm to 0.175 mm x 3.75 mm
Square : 0.65 mm square
Sapphire nozzles are made only round :- 0.20 to 0.65 mm diameter.
The various abrasive materials used in AJM include: aluminium oxide, silicon carbide,
glass powder or beads, dolomite (calcium magnesium carbonate) and specially prepared
sodium bicarbonate. When sodium bicarbonate is used, it must be kept dry. The cutting
performance will depend upon: hardness, strength, particle size and particle shape of the
abrasive. Aluminium oxide is a general purpose abrasive and is used in sizes of 10, 25 and
50 microns. SIC is used for faster cutting on extremely hard materials. It is used in 25 and 50
microns sizes. Dolomite is used in 200 mesh size for light cleaning and etching. Sodium
bicarbonate is used for extra fine cleaning and glass beads (0.635 to 1.27 mm diameter) are
used for light polishing and fine deburring.
In general, larger sizes are used for rapid removal rate while smaller sizes are used
for good surface finish and precision.

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 The metal removal rate will depend upon the diameter of nozzle, composition of abrasive
gas mixture, hardness of abrasive particles and that of the work material, particle size,
velocity of jet and distance of workpiece from the jet. The typical metal removal rates vary
from 0.016 to 0.02 cm3/min.
Masks defining the machining area are sometimes used to prevent stray cutting.
Copper is a good all purpose masking material. Glass gives excellent definition but has
short life. Rubber has long life but gives poor definition.
Applications of AJM include:
Abrading, cutting, or cleaning (for example electrical contacts) and for machining
semi-conductors such as silicon, gallium or germanium, for making holes and slots in glass,
quartz, sapphire, mica and ceramics. Other applications are: cleaning hard surfaces,
deburring, scribing, grooving, polishing and radiusing. A dimensional tolerance of 0.05 mm
can be obtained. Surface finish obtained is in the range of 0.5 to 1.2 m CLA. Typical power
input is 0.25 kW. The method is used chiefly to cut materials that are sensitive to heat
damage and thin section of hard materials that chip easily and to cut indicate holes that
would be more difficult to produce by other methods. The other advantage is its low capital
cost.

The disadvantages of the method are:

low metal removal rate, possibility of stray
cutting, embedding of abrasive particles in
soft workpiece and dust control
requirements.

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 Schematic diagram of AJM
A schematic diagram of AJM is shown in Figure above. Dry and filtered gas (in this case air)
is raised to a high pressure in the compressor. The pressurised air flows to the vibrating
mixing chamber containing abrasive powder. The mixture of pressurised air and abrasive
powder then flows to the nozzle. It then impinges on the workpiece after shooting out of the
nozzle exit. The pressure regulator regulates the gas flow and its pressure. The feed rate
of abrasive powder is controlled by amplitude or vibrations of the mixing chamber. The
movement of the nozzle towards the workpiece or vice versa is controlled by a cam
mechanism or a pantograph mechanism.

LASER BEAM MACHINING

A Laser (Light Amplication by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is a device, which
produces a beam of light. Laser light can be very powerful source of power. In LBM,
exceedingly high electromagnetic energy densities (of the order of 10 5 kW/mm2) are focused
on the surface of the workpiece (in air or vacuum) to remove metal by melting and
evaporation.
There are many types of lasers used for
different purposes, e.g. solid state, gas, liquid and
semi-conductor. For machining and welding, high
power lasers are required and, in general, only the
solid state lasers can provide the required power
levels.
The most commonly used solid-state laser is the
ruby laser (crystalline aluminium oxide or sapphire).
These lasers are fabricated into rods about 150 mm
long and their ends are finished to close optical
tolerances. Figure shows a schematic view of LBM.

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 The ruby crystal is doped with a small amount of chromium oxide. The laser is
"pumped" by a flash of high intensity light (A xenon-filled flash lamp). The xenon lamp is
fired by discharging a large capacitor through it (electric power of 250 to 1000 watts may be
needed for this). The intense radiation from the-lamp excites fluorescent impurity atoms
(chromium atoms) to a higher energy level. When the atoms fall back to the original energy
level through a series of energy levels, an intense beam of visible light is emitted. When this
light is reflected back from the coated rod ends, more atoms are excited and stimulated to
return to their ground level. This chain reaction results in a stimulating avalanche of light,
some of which is transmitted through the reflecting coatings (80% reflective). This light is
highly coherent in time and space, that is, it has a very narrow frequency band, is highly in
phase, and is quite parallel. When this light is focused with ordinary lenses at spot on the
workpiece, high energy density is obtained which will melt and vaporize the metal. It is clear
that LBM is a pulsed operation. After discharge, the capacitor must be recharged. Power
supply is : Potential = 4.5 kV, current = 2A. The ruby laser works with maximum efficiency
when kept at a very low temperature. For this, liquid nitrogen at - 196 deg. C is employed. On
the other hand, the light flash works best when warm. For this, hot air is circulated over it.
The vacuum chamber between the ruby crystal and the flash lamp acts as an insulator and
enables the two temperatures (discussed above) to be maintained. The flash lamp operates
from 1 flash every 3 min to 12 flashes per minute. The laser beam energy is applied to the
workpiece in less than 0.002 s.

Product Applications: LBM is again a "micromachining" method which can be used for
drilling, scribing, cutting and shaping. Holes as small as 0.005 mm in diameter have been
produced. It has got the following drilling applications: -holes in rubber baby bottle nipples;
nozzles, in surgical and hypodermic needles; flow holes in oil or gas orifices etc. LBM is
finding increasing use in industrial and non-industrial fields.
As compared to EBM, LBM has higher energy density levels and it does not need
vacuum for its operation.

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 ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING
In electron beam machining (EBM), electrons emitted by a hot surface and
accelerated by a voltage of 10 to 50 kV are focused to a very small areas on the workpiece.
This stream of high energy electrons possess a very high energy density (of the order of 10M
kW/mm2) and when this narrow stream strikes the workpiece (by impact), the kinetic energy
of the electrons is converted to powerful heat energy which is quite sufficient to melt and
vaporize any material. Even though, the electrons can
penetrate metals to a depth of only a few atomic
layers the electron beam can melt metal to a depth of
25 mm or more. The electron beam which travels at
about half to three-fourth -the velocity of sound is
focused on the workpiece by electro-static or electro-
magnetic lenses. EBM is done in a high vacuum
chamber to eliminate the scattering of the electron
beam as it contacts the gas molecules on the
workpiece. Figure below shows the schematic view of
EBM.
Since a continuous beam loses considerable
heat by conduction through the workpiece, a pulsed
beam at a frequency of less than 100 cps is used in electron beam machining. This consists
of repeatedly striking the electron beam on the workpiece for a few milli-seconds and then
turning it off for a certain period of time.
Recent developments have made it possible to machine outside the vacuum chamber. In this
arrangement, the necessary vacuum is maintained within the electron gun proper by
removing gases as soon as they enter. The fully vacuum system is more costly, but it has the
advantage that no contaminating gases are present and the electron gun can be located at a
considerable distance from
the workpiece. The most commonly used electron-beam power are 1 to 25 kW, current
=0.001 A.

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 Product Applications: Electron beam machining is mainly used for
micromachining operations on thin materials. These operations include: drilling, perforating,
slotting, scribing and engraving. A micromachining technique is called "Electron-beam
lithography" is being used in the manufacture of field emission cathodes, integrated circuits
and computer memories.
Holes as small, as 0.03 mm (with surface finish of 0.4 to 0.6 microns m) can be drilled
with ease.
EBM is being used to drill holes for the following products :
Thousands of holes in turbine blades for transpiration cooling, holes in mixer plates,
combustion chamber rings, metering or flow ortifices. EBM is particularly useful for materials
with high melting points and low thermal conductivity.
Limitations
1. Holes produced in materials of thickness greater than about 0.13 mm, are tapered,
with a side wall taper of about 1 to 2 deg, the minimum diameter being at the exit of
the hole.
2. The method is quite cumbersome and the equipment is very costly.
3. The metal removal rate is very low.
4. At the spot where the electron beam strikes the material, a small amount or recasting
and metal spatter can occur. This has to be removed afterwards by abrasive cleaning.

PLASMA ARC MACHINING OR PLASMA JET MACHINING (PAM)

We know that all gases burning at high

temperatures are ionized gases. In plasma arc
machining, the gases are ionised by placing an arc
across the path of gas flow. The gas molecules get
dissociated causing large amounts of thermal energy
to be liberated. This generates temperatures of the
order of 16500 deg. C, which are then utilized in
removing metal by melting and vaporization. Figure
below shows the schematic view of PAM.

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 An arc is struck between tungsten (or tungsten alloy) cathode and the water cooled
copper (or copper alloy) anode. An inert gas such as argon is passed through a small
chamber in which the arc is maintained. As the gas flows out the nozzle, it is heated and gets
ionized by the arc and forms the moving plasma flame. The cathode is eroded by the high
spark temperature and must be adjustable.
Applications
Plasma torches have been used for cutting and gouging in hard materials such as stainless
steel. As compared to ordinary flame cutting torches, these can cut plain carbon steel four
times faster.

ION BEAM MACHINING (IBM)

In IBM method, the metal is removed by bombarding the work with accelerated ions.
These ions collide with the surface atoms of the workpiece and knock them out of the
surface. Thus the metal is removal occurs an atomic scale and hence the process is also
called: ion etching, ion milling or '0 polishing. Unlike other thermoelectric processes (EBM,
LBM, PAM and EDM) no large scale heating of the workpiece surface takes place during the
process.
The schematic arrangement of IBM is basically simple and is similar to EBM. At the
top end of the vacuum chamber is the ion beam generating apparatus, which consists of an
electron gun which discharges free electrons into the vacuum chamber filled with argon gas.
The gas gets ionized by the electrons. A stream of ions is thus generated and is directed on
to the target material, which is clamped to a table at the other end of the vacuum chamber.
The work table can be oscillated and rotated. This makes it possible to subject different
points on the work surface to the ion beam. It is not necessary to work in an absolute
vacuum. About 10-4 torr is suitable.
Depending upon the type of power used, there are two systems of IBM. One system
uses a d.c. source. It is simple and less expensive but can be used only for conductive
materials. The more universal system uses radio frequency equipment. It is more expensive
but can be used for any material.

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 The method is similar to chemical etching in the need for masking. However, no
undercutting takes place in this method. Also, powerful etchants that can propagate along
cracks and degrade the masking material, are not needed in this technique. Metal removal
rates will depend upon the workpiece material (for example for aluminium it is twice that for
tungsten). The MRR vary upto 2 to 10-4 mm/min. The accuracy of etching is very high.
Tolerances in the range of 5 * 10'4 mm are possible.
Regarding applications of IBM, the method is mainly used in micromachining of
electronic components, like computer memories, figuring optical surfaces and for the
precision fabrication of fine wire dies in refractory materials. Typical materials which can be
etched by IBM include glass, aluminium, quartz, crystals, silica, agates, porcelains, cermets,
mixtures of quartz and asbestos, and numerous metals and oxides including rare earth
metals. The method holds greatest promise in the field of electronics. It can be used to etch
multilayered structures (for example to form a terminal) without the risk of incompatibility.
This is an important advantage since multilayered I.C. circuits are becoming increasingly
common. The method has proved extremely valuable in etching surfaces of specimens prior
to studying their microstructure. The material microstructure is clearly revealed, since the
method does not alter the work surface. Also, the etched surface is equally well suited to
both optical and electron microscope. The method is also used for the deposition of thin film
of material, particularly in electronic industries. Typically, the material to be deposited is
made the anode in a low-
pressure argon or other rare gas atmosphere. Gaseous ions bombard the cathode,
sputtering its material on the substrate. Deposition of thin coatings on such products like
razor blades is also common.
The advantages of IBM are:
MRR are easily controlled, no residue, no undercutting as with CHM, no etchants are
required, in figure etching resolution is limited only by the resolution of the mask and the
method is almost universal.
The main drawbacks of the method are:
MRR are very slow, it is relatively expensive and thermal or radiation damage may
occur in some materials.

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